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Taming Tiger Country: Colonization and Environment in the Russian Far East

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Taming Tiger Country: Colonization and Environment in the Russian Far East Taming Tiger Country: Colonization and Environment in the Russian Far East, 1860-1940 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Mark Sokolsky Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2016 Dissertation Committee: Nicholas B. Breyfogle (Advisor) John Brooke Alice Conklin David Hoffmann Copyrighted by Mark Sokolsky 2016 Abstract This dissertation examines the relationship between colonization and environmental change in the Russian province of Primor’e between roughly 1860 and 1940. In doing so, it explores the ecological dimensions of Russia’s expansion across Asia and contributes a new perspective to the environmental history of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. It contends that imperial competition over space and resources was the driving factor behind the environmental changes that occurred in Primor’e after 1860, yet also underlay the emergence of nature protection in the territory. From the outset of Russian colonization, Primor’e’s environment—both as an idea and a material reality—was contested, highly politicized, and intertwined with ethnic and social divisions. This contestation over space, resources, and nature had far-reaching consequences for the territory and its nonhuman environment. Beginning in the late 1850s, the tsarist state sought to acquire Primor’e and colonize it with Russian and European settlers (including Ukrainians, Balts, Finns, and others) in order to take advantage of temporary Chinese weakness and to defend its eastern territories against other imperial powers. A territory that the Qing Empire had long preserved as a lightly-populated borderland, Russian authorities attempted to seize, demarcate, populate, and cultivate. Moreover, tsarist and (after 1922) Soviet authorities encouraged migrants to utilize Primor’e’s natural resources in order to lay claim to the ii territory (along with its flora and fauna), and to provide a supply source for the Russian Far East. However, Primor’e’s unique environment complicated Russian settlement efforts, particularly the transplanting of Russian-style agriculture and stock-breeding. Rather than producing a bounteous agricultural colony, settlers came to rely on hunting, fishing, wage-labor, and close economic relationships with migrants from China and Korea. Together, these groups precipitated significant environmental changes in Primor’e, including deforestation, a decline in many animal populations, erosion, and more frequent and violent flooding. The ecological effects of settlement in Primor’e almost immediately prompted widespread concern among officials, scholars, and other educated elites. These figures interpreted ecological change as symptoms of broader threats to Russian colonization, including the supposedly “barbaric” and “backward” character of East Asian migrants and Russian and Ukrainian colonists. Environmental questions played a key role in defining and deepening ethnic and social distinctions in the territory, and resource policies emerged as attempts to exclude or control the use of nature by the “uncivilized.” Elites responded to ecological changes with a kind of “green” civilizing mission: the belief that managing and protecting nature in a “rational” way was in the interests of Russian colonization. Tsarist and later Soviet leaders sought to make forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and the management of land mammals more “rational” through the application of planning, European science, modern technologies, and state oversight. In doing so, they laid the groundwork for several very successful conservation initiatives in iii the twentieth century. “Rational” use, however, was oriented toward asserting Russian/Soviet power in the Far East and bore the legacies of Primor’e’s ethnic and social divisions. The result, beginning in the tsarist period and continuing into the Soviet era, was an unprecedented degree of nature protection alongside environmental exploitation, a combination rooted primarily in local conditions and historical experience. iv Acknowledgments I am very grateful to the many people who made this dissertation possible. First and foremost, I am would like to thank my advisor, Nicholas Breyfogle, for his support, patience, and assistance with this project (among many other things). His advice, feedback, and encouragement—as well as readings, re-readings, editing, and re-editing— have been a tremendous help. I am also indebted to Professors John Brooke, Alice Conklin, and David Hoffmann for their insightful comments and questions at various stages of my research, which have pushed me to explore in a variety of different directions. I would like to acknowledge the Social Sciences and Research Council of Canada; the OSU Office of International Affairs; the Sonkin, Berman, Wasserman, and Wildman families; the College of Arts and Sciences, the Ella Wiswell Scholarship; and the Department of History at OSU for their financial support of this project. Thanks also to the very helpful and knowledgable staff at the Russian state archives and libraries in Vladivostok, Moscow, and St. Petersburg; the sotrudniki at the Society for the Study of the Amur Province, who supplied me with many essential materials (as well as equally essential tea and snacks); to Patricia Polansky and Matt Romaniello at the University of Hawai’i; and to Amir Khisamutdinov. I would also like to thank the staff of the Lazovskii Zapovednik, particularly Dr. Linda Kerley and her family, who gave me a first- v hand look at tiger country, and the Grigorenko/Pomelov/Tsyganok family, whose friendship and amazing hospitality made all the difference during my time in Vladivostok. Last but not least, I owe my greatest thanks to my friends and family, particularly my wife Alice, for their support, patience, and encouragement during these (many) years of research and writing. vi Vita 2006……………………………………...B.A. Sc. Arts & Sciences, McMaster University 2008...………………M.A. Russian and Eastern European Studies, University of Toronto 2009 to present…………………………………....... Ph.D. Studies, Ohio State University Publications “Fishing for Empire: Settlement and Conflict in the Russian Far East,” Arcadia: Online Explorations in Environmental History (Autumn 2015). “Between Predation and Protection: Forests and Forestry in Late-Tsarist Primor’e” Sibirica: Journal of Siberian Studies, 13.2 (Summer 2014): 28-61. “Commemoration, History, and Power: The Romanov Tercentenary.” Milestones, a feature of Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective (Online). May, 2013. “(Re)Writing Russian History: The Soviet Colossus in Retrospect,” International Journal 67.2 (Spring 2012): 497-506. “Russian America? Perry McDonough Collins's Voyage on the Amur.” Review of Perry McDonough Collins’s, Siberian Journey: Down the Amur to the Pacific, 1856-1857. H- HistGeog, H-Net Reviews. May, 2012. Fields of Study Major Field: History vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v Vita .................................................................................................................................... vii Publications ....................................................................................................................... vii Fields of Study .................................................................................................................. vii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Historiography and arguments ...................................................................................... 14 Sources and scope ......................................................................................................... 40 Chapter outline .............................................................................................................. 56 Chapter 1: “Even here we will make Russia”: Imperial Ambitions and Settlement in Primor’e ............................................................................................................................ 63 viii I. Before Russia ............................................................................................................. 67 II. Making the land Russian: Why? ............................................................................... 81 III. Making the land Russian: How? ........................................................................... 106 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 125 Chapter 2: Environment, adaptation, and ecological change .......................................... 127 I. A Land of Rain and Fog: Environmental Obstacles to Settlement .......................... 131 II. Compromises and cooperation ..............................................................................
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