Nationalism in Glinka‘s Operas Cory McKay Departments of Music and Computer Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W 1

It is with good reason that virtually any would often stand perfectly still while lis- Russian composer of the late nineteenth tening to them or try to pick up an instru- century would have cited Mikhail Ivano- ment and join in.1 He even conducted the vich Glinka as an important influence. It orchestra at times when he got older.2 As was essentially he who made nationalist Glinka himself stated, —During supper they Russian music possible by laying the usually played Russian folk-songs ar- groundwork for Russian composers who ranged for two flues, two clarinets, two wanted to express their own musical ideas horns, and two bassoons, and it was possi- on an equal footing with W estern compos- bly from these songs that I acquired my ers. He was the first Russian composer to love for our native Russian music.“3 write art music that was more than simply Glinka‘s interest in Russian music con- an imitation of W estern music or a pastiche tinued even when he was a young man of Russian folk tunes. Glinka took both of learning how to compose in Italy. He not these elements and built upon them in his only wrote a group of pieces based on Rus- operas in order to come up with a strong, sian themes while there, but also began to individual music that was truly his own plan a Russian opera. As he wrote to a and which inspired future Russian com- friend in St. Petersburg, —I fancy I have the posers to do the same. Glinka also used the ability to enrich our stage with a big work. music of his operas in directly political . . . In every way it will be absolutely na- ways, first to glorify the Tsar in particular tional. And not only the subject but the and then later the Russian nation in gen- music.“4 He wrote on a different occasion eral. that, —I want my fellow countrymen to feel The influence of W estern culture on thoroughly at home in my opera. I don‘t Russian aristocrats in the eighteenth cen- want foreigners to regard me as an impos- tury was immense, with the result that tor, a sort of crow in peacock‘s plumage!“5 W estern techniques and styles became cen- This shows how rooted Glinka was in Rus- tral in the music patronized by the elite. In sian music, that he would still be fasci- an attempt to overcome the hegemony of nated by it even while studying as a young Italian and French music, many Russian man in a place as musically rich and inspir- composers of the early nineteenth century ing as Italy. incorporated Russian folk songs into their work. Although Glinka went much further than this, as will be discussed later, he cer- tainly used this technique as well in his 1 Mkhail Zetlin, The Five: The Evolution of the Russian School of Music. trans. George Panin (W estport, Con- operas. necticut: Greenwood Press, 1959) 24. 2 James Stuart Campbell, —Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich.“ Although a child of an aristocratic The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd family, Glinka was exposed to Russian ed. 3 folk music very early in his life. He spent Alfred J. Swan, Russian Music and its Sources in Chant and Folk-Song. (London: John Baker Publishers, 1973) his early years living in the country, where 62. his uncle‘s serf orchestra would often play 4 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 43. Russian folk songs for his family. Glinka 5 Mkhail Zetlin, The Five: The Evolution of the Russian was so captivated by their music that he School of Music. trans. George Panin (W estport, Con- necticut: Greenwood Press, 1959) 32.

Example 1: Vanya‘s song (A Life for the Tsar, Act III)

Example 2: Lvov-Pratsch, Sobraniye russkikh narodnikh pesen, protyazhnaya no. 21

There are several examples of direct is reduced to a characteristic motif in the quotations from folk songs in Glinka‘s first denouement in Act IV,7 and Act III con- opera, A Life for the Tsar. Two examples tains a reference to the antiphonal singing of this are Susanin‘s first replique in Act I, of Orthodox choirs.8 The singing following which Glinka claimed to have taken from a the Overture is comprised of a solo voice real life coachman‘s song,6 and the melody echoed by a chorus coming in on the sec- of Vanya‘s song in Act 3 (example 1), ond phrase, a practice common in tradi- which has a strong resemblance to the folk tional Russian chorale singing.9 song seen in example 2, taken from Lvov- The bridal chorus in Act III (example Pratsch. The seven bar phrases of Vanya‘s 3), with its modal cadences, 5/4 rhythm, song also demonstrate how Glinka adapted virtual pentatonicism and unharmonized the common practice in Russian folk music cantilena in the second half, is perhaps the of alternating three and four bar phrases. best overall example of the folk influence. There are many other examples of the It is easy to see its similarity to authentic influence of traditional Russian music in Russian wedding songs such as those in this opera. The pizzicato accompaniment examples 4 and 5. to the chorus of rowers in Act I is an imita- tion of balalaika strumming, the famous song —Downstream on the Mother Volga“ 7 Ibid. 31. 8 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 46. 6 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Princeton: 9 David Brown, Mikhail Glinka: A Biographical and Criti- Princeton University Press, 1997) 31. cal Study. (London: Oxford University Press, 1974) 119.

Example 3: Bridal chorus (A Life for the Tsar, Act III)

Example 4: Traditional Russian wedding song

Example 5: Traditional Russian wedding song

Example 6: Antonida‘s cavatina (A Life for the Tsar, Act I)

Example 7: Do Not Pine, Beloved (A Life for the Tsar, Act I)

The music of Russian towns was dis- keys.10 Two of the best examples of tinctly different from Russian village mu- Glinka‘s use of this urban Russian style are sic. It was an amalgam of W estern tech- Antonida‘s cavatina in Act I of A Life for niques and stylings with the indigenous the Tsar (example 6) and the first part of tradition, and thus offered Glinka an excel- —Do Not Pine, Beloved,“ also from Act I lent source of inspiration for his own fu- (example 7). sions of W estern and Russian music. This There is also a definite folk influence style russe had many traits in common with in Glinka‘s second opera, Ruslan and Pratsch‘s folk song arrangements, includ- Ludmila, although it is less pronounced ing the predominance of duple or com- than in A Life for the Tsar. Act I begins pound duple time, cadential terminations with the song of the Bard in the ancient by falling fourths or fifths and a very free interplay of relative major and minor 10 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 29.

Example 8: Chorus of rowers (A Life for the Tsar, Act I)

Example 9: Folk song contours (Brown)

Example 10: The two main themes of A Life for the Tsar

bilini style, with a piano and harp imitating rowers in Act I of A Life for the Tsar (ex- a gusli. The choral —Invocation to Lel“ also ample 8), for example. This may also be shows strong folk elements, with its 5/4 why he originally decided to begin the re- rhythm and melody set forth in simple oc- capitulation of the Overture in A minor.13 taves or consecutive sixths.11 In addition, there is also a certain me- There are also certain general charac- lodic contour that often appears in both teristics of folk music that tend to appear in Russian folk songs (example 9 (the brack- Glinka‘s music. A good example of this is eted notes are sometimes omitted)) and the practice of occasionally having the su- Glinka's music. Example 9 a is identical to pertonic assume the role of the dominant in the music in the opening of Ludmila‘s some Russian folk songs.12 Glinka used cavatina in Ruslan and Ludmila, and the this technique in the theme of the chorus of treble notes in example 9 b are the same as the opening notes of the Overture and the 11 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. opening chorus. These folk contours also (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 51. appear in both of the main themes of A Life 12 David Brown, Mikhail Glinka: A Biographical and Critical Study. (London: Oxford University Press, 1974) 118. 13 Ibid. 118. for the Tsar (example 10). Glinka also of- ences which viewed folk music as inferior ten used a plagalism that is conspicuous in peasant music that was beneath them. many heroic folk songs.14 The magnitude of Glinka's accom- Having said all of this, it is important plishment is demonstrated by the words of to stress that Russian folk music was only Odoyevsky, who wrote, —One must hear it a part of Glinka‘s operas and, although to be convinced of the feasibility of such a certainly an important part, not the domi- union, which until now has been consid- nant part. The influences on his operas ered an unrealizable dream.“18 W hat made were still predominantly Italian and French this accomplishment feasible was the fact and they correspondingly follow many of that the main characters in the opera are all the old formulae. Each act is comprised of peasants and therefore eligible within the set numbers such as solos, choruses, duets, conventions of the time to sing folkish mu- trios and dances that are linked by recita- sic. Even though the hero of the opera is a tives. Much of the melody is imitation Ital- peasant, his heroic action is taken for the ian, such as the parts of Sobinin and An- preservation of the Tsar. Glinka thus ac- tonida in A Life for the Tsar, which were complished the dual nationalist purposes of meant to be vocal showpieces.15 glorifying the Tsar and giving national mu- sical material a significance beyond what Indeed, there were many contem- had previously been accomplished. poraries of Glinka who incorporated far more folk material into their work than he One must go further than this, how- did. One of these men, Verstovsky, wrote a ever. Any measure of a composer‘s —Rus- scathing letter to Prince Odoyevsky shortly sianess“ based simply on its relative con- after the 1836 premiere of A Life for the tent of folk material is, while occasionally Tsar, complaining that composers such as useful, a very limited approach. Glinka‘s himself and Alexander Alyabyev who approach to composing was very different wrote authentically Russian music were from that of Verstovsky and other compos- being overlooked in favor of Glinka and ers like him. Rather than artificially incor- his European virtuosic technique.16 porating folk material in a conscious effort to make his music more —Russian,“ Glinka It is important to be very careful when simply used folk ideas in his music when it attempting to judge the —authentic national- felt natural and when it benefited his mu- ism“ of a piece of music by the quotient of sic. By facing W estern styles head on folk music that has been incorporated into rather than turning away from them, it. More significant than any statistical Glinka was validating Russian music on an measure of folk content is the understand- international level, something which no ing that Glinka used what national material previous Russian composers had been able he did to a greater effect than many of his to accomplish. Glinka‘s achievement was contemporaries. He incorporated national to make Russian music competitive. material into some of the most important dramatic moments of A Life for the Tsar, Rather than being a nationalist com- such as Susanin‘s Act IV scena.17 This poser because he incorporated Russian folk stood in contrast to composers such as idioms into his music, Glinka was a na- Fomin who relegated national material to tionalist composer simply because he was the decorative periphery in order to have Russian and because he was able to write their work performed for aristocratic audi- music with originality, technical virtuosity and seriousness. It is a W estern fallacy (as 14 Ibid. 116. well as a Russian one, perhaps, as demon- 15 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. strated by Verstovsky‘s letter) to measure (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 45. 16 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 41. 17 Ibid. 34. 18 Ibid. 31.

Example 11: Opening theme (A Life for the Tsar, Act I) the —Russianness“ of music by the extent to composers to move beyond not only W est- which it incorporates folk elements. The ern influences, but their own musical heri- implication of this attitude is that Russian tage as well. It showed that they could music must be exotic in order for it to be write music in entirely new ways if they authentic, an essentially demeaning per- wished, an achievement that was necessary spective. To say that a composer can only if they ever wished to be considered the truly be Russian if he or she artificially creative equals of W estern composers. incorporates peasant music into his or her A good example of this originality can music is to deny the creativeness and be found in some of Glinka's modulations, originality that are the marks of great com- which go to keys that would not have been posers. It is quite possible that Glinka con- expected in either the W estern or Russian sciously perceived this, given that he stated traditions of the time.20 This can be seen in that one of the most favorable aspects of the opening theme of Act I (example 11) of Pushkin‘s Ruslan and Ludmila was that it A Life for the Tsar, where the oboe theme was not particularly Russian.19 Glinka was of the Overture‘s introduction starts in G ready to move on to finding his own origi- minor, end up in F in the fifth and sixth nal voice that was Russian because he was bars, and cadences on the flattened leading a Russian, not because he was trying to be note. a Russian. Glinka also created an entirely new The originality of Glinka's Ruslan and kind of recitative that later came to be used Ludmila is what truly makes it such an im- by other Russian composers. Although portant nationalist work. Its originality recitatives did appear in Russian melodra- showed that it was possible for Russians mas and oratorios before Glinka‘s time, A Life for the Tsar was the first Russian op- 19 David Brown, Mikhail Glinka: A Biographical and Critical Study. (London: Oxford University Press, 1974) 198. 20 Ibid. 115. era to be set entirely to music without any tive achievement.25 Glinka‘s eclecticism spoken dialogue.21 As Neverov put it, itself, which began in A Life for the Tsar Glinka had created and fully bloomed in Ruslan and Ludmila, inspired many later Russian composers to a completely individual type of recitative incorporate diverse styles and ideas into ... His recitatives are like neither German their own music. nor Italian ones; they combine the expres- siveness and dramatic flexibility of the Glinka‘s music was truly nationalist former with the melodiousness of the lat- because he served as a model for future ter, and in them it seems that you hear the intonation of Russian speech.22 Russian composers who wished to find their own, unique voices and move beyond Glinka was also one of the first com- the limitations of a strictly W estern ap- posers to use the whole tone scale. He used proach to music or the compulsory link to it in a much more conspicuous way than Russian folk songs. His work was the Schubert, by transforming it into a Leitmo- foundation upon which much of the music tiv to represent Chernomor and the super- of the Group of Five was built. He antici- natural in Ruslan and Ludmila.23 Further- pated the use of subject matter from history more, Glinka used this scale in such a way or folklore, the use of derivatives of na- as to give it symbolic nationalist meaning, tional folk music, the eclecticism and, most if it is accepted that Chernomor represents importantly, the inventiveness that became the East and Ruslan represents the W est in central to the music written by the Russian this opera. The music accompanying the composers who followed him and looked battle between these two characters is gov- to his music for guidance. There were vir- erned by the whole tone scale while Cher- tually no Russian composers of the later th nomor has the upper hand, but then as 19 century, from either the Balakirev or Ruslan begins to win the music becomes the Tchaikovsky camps, who did not see 26 much more tonal.24 Glinka not only used Glinka as their forerunner. the whole tone scale in a technically pio- Having established the national na- neering way, he also used it to signify the ture of Glinka‘s operas from a purely mu- Russian conquest of the East. sical perspective, it is now possible to ex- The musical maturity of Ruslan and plore them further in terms of their content Ludmila is demonstrated by the fact that and political significance. As it happens, Glinka was not afraid to take material from not only are the subjects of both operas wherever he wished, whether it be Russian distinctly Russian, but they also both have folk music, old modal scales, what he per- a significant amount of content that is di- ceived to be Eastern music, W estern tonal- rectly political. This is in keeping with the ity or material from his own imagination. idea of Russians such as Neverov that Rus- Not only were many of the ideas in Ruslan sian music should not only be decoratively 27 and Ludmila new, they were built upon a nationalist, but ideologically as well. foundation of both Russian and W estern A Life for the Tsar is based on the leg- influences. The very act of successfully end of a peasant named Ivan Susanin. Our combining these arguably incompatible historical knowledge of his life is unfortu- systems was something which had little nately fairly limited. It is known that a precedent and was itself an important crea- concession was granted to Susanin‘s son-

25 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. 21 Ibid. 121. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 50. 22 Ibid. 121. 26 James Stuart Campbell, —Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich.“ 23 Mary S. W oodside, —Leitmotiv in Russia: Glinka‘s Use The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd of the W hole-Tone Scale,“ 19th Century Music 14 (Sum- ed. mer 1990): 68. 27 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Prince- 24 Ibid. 73. ton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 43. in-law, Bogdan Sobinin, by Tsar Mikhail era in Russian Zhukovsky sincerely ap- Fyodorovich in 1619. This concession proved of my intention and suggested the granted dispensation from certain taxes and subject of Ivan Susanin.“32 It was obligations, and was renewed to Sobinin‘s Zhukovsky who wrote the text to the epi- heirs. The dispensation was originally logue to the opera and who had his protégé given to Sobinin by the Tsar in recognition and the secretary of the Tsarovich, Baron of Susanin who, —suffering at the hands of Yegor Fyodorovich Rozen, write the rest said Polish and Lithuanian persons im- of the libretto.33 measurable torments on Our account, did It is thus hardly surprising that the doc- not tell said Polish and Lithuanian persons trines Official Nationalism are to be found where W e were at the time, and said Polish throughout the text of the opera, with its and Lithuanian persons did torture him to consistent emphasis on the importance of death.“28 Simply put, Susanin was exe- zealous submission to dynastic authority. cuted for refusing to reveal the where- Although it could perhaps be argued that abouts of the newly elected sixteen-year- Glinka was not entirely responsible for old Tsar Mikhail Fyodorovich to a Polish this, a close examination reveals that the search party. music of the opera works hand in hand The legend of Susanin became a with the text in its support of Official Na- fixture in the wave of patriotism that swept tionalism. An excellent example of this Russia following the defeat of the seem- appears in the epilogue of the opera, which ingly invincible Napoleon in the W ar of portrays Mikhail Romanov‘s triumphant 1812. Inevitable parallels were drawn be- entrance into Moscow after routing the tween peasant partisans in that war and Poles. It is built upon a choral hymn-march Susanin.29 This made it the perfect tool for performed by massed forces and contains the promotion of a new kind of Official the following quatrain by Zhukovsky (ex- Nationalism that was gaining strength in ample 12): Russia at the time. Tsar Nicholas I wanted Glory, glory to thee our Russian Caesar, to associate love of country not with love Our sovereign given us by God! of its inhabitants but with the love of the May thy royal line be immortal! dynastic state. Count Sergey Semyonovich May the Russian people prosper through it!34 Uvarov, the minister of —popular enlight- The theme to this hymn-march, called enment,“ circulated a directive in 1833 the Slav‘sya theme, plays a central role in stating that —our common obligation con- A Life for the Tsar. It is musically fore- sists in this, that the education of the peo- shadowed not only in the opening peasant ple be conducted, according to the Su- chorus in Act I, but whenever the topic of preme intention of our August Monarch, in dynastic legitimacy is broached. Examples the joint spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy, of this include the beginning of Act I when and nationality.“30 Susanin dreams of —A Tsar! A lawful Tsar!“ and when Susanin and his house- Glinka could not help but have been hold fall to their knees in Act III upon influenced by this Official Nationalism. He hearing that Mikhail was elected Tsar and was very close to Vasiliy Andreyevich exclaim —Lord! Love our Tsar! Make him Zhukovsky, the tutor to the royal heir, offi- glorious!“35 A reference to the theme also cial state censor and one of the chief pro- 31 appears in Act III when Susanin answers ponents of the Official Nationalism. As the Poles‘ demand to be taken to the Tsar Glinka recalled in his memoirs, —W hen I by singing: declared my ambition to undertake an op-

28 Ibid. 27. 32 Ibid. 27. 29 Ibid. 28. 33 Ibid. 28. 30 Ibid. 26. 34 Ibid. 36. 31 Ibid. 27. 35 Ibid. 36.

Example 12: Hymn-March (A Life for the Tsar, Epilogue)

Our Tsar‘s home is a high and holy place, The opera was extremely well received Surrounded with God‘s staunch strength! and the crowd cheered very enthusiasti- Beneath it is the power of all of Russia, And on the walls, dressed all in white, cally for all but a few of the scenes. The W inged angels stand guard!36 Tsar‘s influence was so great that the audi- ence remained entirely silent after the Pol- The extent to which A Life for the Tsar ish scenes for fear that they would offend pleased the Tsar is demonstrated by the him by applauding his historic enemies.40 fact that it became the mandatory season- The pressure on Glinka to produce some- opener for the Tsar-owned Russian Impe- thing acceptable to the Tsar, and therefore rial Theaters.37 The Tsar was so impressed something promoting Official Nationalism, with the premiere of the opera that he gave must have been immense. Glinka's will- Glinka a 4000-ruble diamond and topaz ingness to please the Tsar is demonstrated ring.38 The Slav‘sya theme was to become by the fact that he changed the name of the virtually a second national anthem in Niko- opera to A Life for the Tsar from its origi- layan and Alexandrine Russia.39 nal title of Ivan Susanin after the Tsar at- tended one of the rehearsals and indicated his pleasure in the work and its dedication to him. The Tsar also approved of Glinka‘s 36 Ibid. 38. pursuit of a distinctively Russian style of 37 Ibid. 38. music. Upon giving Glinka the position of 38 Mkhail Zetlin, The Five: The Evolution of the Russian School of Music. trans. George Panin (W estport, Con- necticut: Greenwood Press, 1959) 33. 39 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Prince- 40 Richard Anthony Leonard. A History of Russian Music. ton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 36. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968) 44. Kapellmeister of the Imperial Chapel, the than simply denouncing and banning the Tsar told him —do not turn them into Ital- opera outright, as they did many other mu- ians!“41 sical works whose glorification of the Tsars are not nearly as pronounced as in Part of the reason for this opera‘s suc- this opera. Part of this may be due to a re- cess was that Glinka realized the true ex- luctance to denounce Glinka outright be- tent of Official Russian nationalism. W hen cause of his essential role in the develop- Verstovsky complained about the presence ment of Russian nationalist music, but ar- of stylistically religious elements in A Life guably an even greater contributor to their for the Tsar (—You don‘t go to the theater decision was the sheer power of Glinka‘s to pray to God“42), he was missing the key music as a tool of political propaganda. point of how even religious overtones had become an important part of Official Na- Another directly political aspect of A tionalism. Even the lower number of folk Life for the Tsar is its vilification of Rus- or folk-like songs in this opera relative to sia‘s traditional enemies, the Poles. Glinka works by composers such as Verstovsky did this intentionally in his music and, if could conceivably be partially accounted anything, this effect is amplified in the So- for by the notion that Glinka was more in- viet version of the libretto. Glinka stated in terested in nationalism as a glorification of his memoirs that the root conception of the the Tsar than nationalism as a movement drama in A Life for the Tsar is the opposi- linked to the people of Russia. tion of Russian music and Polish music. The Poles are represented by stereotypical The Official Nationalism in this opera genres such as the polonaise, mazurka and was so blatant that it was considered an krakowiak, and they express themselves embarrassment by the newly liberalized only collectively in impersonal choral dec- intelligentsia of the 1860‘s. Even Vladimir lamation.44 In contrast to this, the Russian- Stasov, a disciple of Glinka‘s, complained style music in the opera is often highly that: lyrical and personal. The interplay between No one has ever done a greater dishonour Russian and Polish music is most evident to our people than Glinka, who by means in Act III when Russian duple and Polish of his great music displayed as a Russian triple rhythms are briefly superimposed hero for all time that base groveler (example 13) as the Poles seize Susanin Susanin, with his canine loyalty, his henlike stupidity and his readiness to sacri- and he cries out —God, save the Tsar!“ This fice his life for a little boy whom, it seems, is an excellent example of how Glinka he has never seen.43 wrote music in ways that directly promoted Russian political nationalism. This opera was so successful at Ruslan and Ludmila is almost univer- glorifying the dynastic power of the Tsars sally regarded as being much less political that the libretto had to be rewritten during than A Life for the Tsar. W hile this is the Soviet era and the opera restored to its likely true, one must be very careful not to original name of Ivan Susanin. The new simply dismiss Ruslan and Ludmila as a text, written by Sergey Gorodetsky, re- simple fairy tale devoid of political con- placed devotion to the Romanov dynasty tent. A close examination of the opera re- with abstract commitment to national lib- veals a potential symbolism which points eration. W hat is interesting here is that the very convincingly to the theme of a strong Soviets chose to rewrite the libretto rather and ultimately victorious Russia pitted against foreign competitors. The music of 41 Mkhail Zetlin, The Five: The Evolution of the Russian this opera is a good deal more sophisti- School of Music. trans. George Panin (W estport, Con- necticut: Greenwood Press, 1959) 35. cated than the music of A Life for the Tsar, 42 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 42. 43 Ibid. 38. 44 Ibid. 29.

Example 13: Superimposed Russian and Polish Rhythms (A Life for the Tsar, Act III)

so it is certainly not unreasonable to sus- He is a strong and ultimately triumphant pect that the subject might be more sophis- hero whose Aria is made up almost entirely ticated and subtle as well. Despite the hap- of Russian melodies. Farlaf, as a weak and hazard way that the libretto was eventually treacherous knight who sings his Rondo in written, Glinka had originally wanted to exactly the style of Italian opera buffa, can work on the opera with Pushkin himself, so be seen as a parody of the W est. Ratmir, he obviously had lofty literary goals for the with his harem and Persian influenced project. Aria, represents the Middle East. The mys- terious and exotic Chernomor, finally, can It can reasonably be argued that Ruslan be seen as a symbol for the East. is meant to represent Russia in this opera. Ruslan defeats Chernomor and brings were a dismal failure, V. F. Odoyevsky him home to be assimilated as the court argues that these first showings were at- fool. This is consistent with Russia‘s prac- tended primarily by aristocrats accustomed tice at the time of incorporating the elite of to less adventurous music and looking only conquered countries into itself. This inter- for light entertainment. Odoyevsky claims pretation becomes particularly convincing that the opera was in truth successful after when it is considered that the Caucasus these first few nights, when the audience was conquered in just this manner during was attended by a wider range of people45 Glinka‘s lifetime. Ruslan, and therefore who were more prepared to accept the Russia, is triumphant over not only his ri- originally Russian nature of the opera and val suitors, but over Chernomor as well. less inclined to be disappointed by the lack of any sycophantic glorification of the It can perhaps be argued that Glinka Tsar. This is supported by the fact that has moved beyond Official Nationalism in Ruslan and Ludmila was performed on this opera to a more generalized national- thirty-eight nights during the season of ism that glorifies Russians and Russia in 1842/1843 alone,46 which is hardly a poor general rather than the Tsar specifically. showing. Just as his music had evolved from his first opera to become more creative and origi- In any case, there is no doubt that nal, perhaps his nationalism broadened as Glinka‘s operas were eventually accepted well. Of course, it makes perfect sense that as masterpieces by the Russian nation. Glinka would have couched this general- They served as the primary inspiration for ized nationalism in symbolism in order to not only the Group of Five, but a whole avoid offending the Tsar or his censors. generation and beyond of Russian compos- ers. The scope of the nationalism in It is well known that A Life for the Glinka‘s music was very broad indeed, Tsar was very well received in Russia and ranging from the purely musical realm to that Ruslan and Ludmila was initially a direct political propaganda. He blatantly failure. Of course, with the perspective glorified the Tsar by promoting Official offered by time, Ruslan and Ludmila is Nationalism in A Life for the Tsar and he now generally acknowledged as a signifi- promoted a generalized Russian national- cantly superior work. This is in large part ism through symbolism in Ruslan and because A Life for the Tsar was a much Ludmila. He incorporated Russian folk more conservative work, both musically music and derivatives of folk music into and politically, and was thus more palat- his operas and experimented with new able to the essentially conservative aristo- ideas such as the modified recitative and cratic elite that patronized the opera the use of the whole tone scale as a leitmo- houses. Ruslan and Ludmila had departed tiv to represent the supernatural. Glinka‘s too far musically from its W estern origins most important contribution to the Russian to be acceptable to the same audience that nationalist cause, however, was his origi- had loved A Life for the Tsar and its firm nality and ability as a composer, which roots in the Italian operatic tradition. The allowed him and those Russian composers blatant Official Nationalism of A Life for who succeeded him to write music that was the Tsar also made it very attractive to seen not only as great Russian music by courtiers who were all too happy to jump Russians but simply as great music by the at any chance to show their loyalty to their entire W estern world. Tsar.

In actual fact, Ruslan and Ludmila was significantly more successful in its first season than many people realize. Although 45 A. Rosanov, Glinka: His Life and Times. (Neptune City, there is no doubt that its first few nights NJ: Paganiniana Publications Inc., 1988) 45. 46 Ibid. 45. BIBLIOGRAPHY Rosanov, A. M. I. Glinka: His Life and Times. Neptune City, NJ: Paganiniana Publications Brown, David. Mikhail Glinka: A Biographi- Inc., 1988. cal and Critical Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1974. Swan, Alfred J. Russian Music and its Sources in Chant and Folk-Song. London: John Bujic, Bojan. —Anti-Polish Propaganda and Baker Publishers, 1973. Russian Opera: The Revised Version of Glinka‘s Ivan Susanin.“ European History Taruskin, Richard. Defining Russia Musically. Quarterly 15 2 (April 1985): 175-186. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997. Campbell, James Stuart. —Glinka, Mikhail Iv- W oodside, Mary S. —Leitmotiv in Russia: novich.“ The New Grove Dictionary of Mu- Glinka‘s Use of the W hole-Tone Scale.“ 19th sic and Musicians. 2nd ed. Century Music 14 (Summer 1990): 67-74. Leonard, Richard Anthony. A History of Rus- Zetlin, Mikhail. The Five: The Evolution of the sian Music. New York: The Macmillan Russian School of Music. Trans. George Company, 1968. Panin. W estport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1959. Orlova, Alexandra. Glinka‘s Life in Music. London: U.M.I. Research Press, 1988.