Kindergarten Education: Theory, Research, and Practice Vol. 2, No. 2 - pp. 67-77

WEARING MANY OR HOW KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS ADORN THEIR HEADS

CANDACE KAYE

This article examines early childhood theoretical “hats” that are possible choices for a kindergarten teacher to wear in the United States. The “hats” represent ma- jor theoretical perspectives for early development and education. It is suggested that, through an examination of how these “hats” are translated into classroom practice, a vital and enriched kindergarten experience can become more of a real- ity. The discussion concludes with examples of how each theoretical can be- come visible in the practice of quality kindergarten teaching.

A s kindergarten teachers, we are the theoretical hats that we can never hatless in the classroom. We choose to wear as kindergarten even describe ourselves to others as teachers, as we engage in curriculum “wearing many hats.” The ideal of planning and in teaching. These hats this many-hatted condition is to represent (a) what we know and un- wear the hats one at a time. Howev- derstand about the development of er, the reality is that we are often children and (b) how we put this wearing the green eyeshade of the understanding and knowledge into accountant for all the paperwork, daily practice. I will describe some while at the same time adorning our- of the hats that I consider important selves with the scholarly mortar- and conclude the discussion by sug- board for our curricular, theory - to - gesting opportunities for making practice planning. In addition, we each hat visible in the practice of balance both of these foundational child-centered kindergarten teach- head dresses with a jester’s for ing. playfulness, a nurse’s hat for physi- To set the stage, I would like to cal emergencies, and a safari helmet introduce a suitcase containing hats for the great unknown adventures worn by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, that are part of our daily journey in- John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygot- to all the uncharted territories found sy, and Howard Gardner. This selec- in the classroom. tion process represents what Paolo This article will not discuss those Freire (1970) could be referring to hats. Rather, it focuses on some of when he spoke of education as “the

CANDANCE KAYE is a lecturer, Graduate Programs in Early Childhood Education, College of Edu- cation, California State University, Long Beach, CA. Candace Kaye practice of freedom” (p. 69). He speaks of a liberating practice of ed- ucation as the opportunity for au- thentic reflection, constant inquiry, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and reaffirmation within “the pro- The theoretical of Rous- cess of becoming” (p. 72). As kin- seau is the first hat in the suitcase to dergarten teachers, we daily decide be examined. In his book Emile on what theories to wear in our (1762), Rousseau pioneered the or- classrooms to adorn our thinking as ganized study of children by explor- we facilitate the learning of our stu- ing their need for an active involve- dents. Perhaps we would find a let- ment with the environment. Rous- ter from Freire (1996) in the suitcase seau advanced the idea that children such as the following that describes are inquiring human beings who are this process: able to develop and to learn through their interaction with the environ- Dear Teacher of Young Children, ment. As a result, he spoke of child- as a uniquely important time Never does an event, a fact, a deed, for development, describing both the a gesture of...love, a poem, a paint- characteristics of different ages and ing, a song, a book, have only one appropriate education of each. reason behind it. In fact, a deed, a gesture, a poem, a painting, a song, In his discussion of childhood, a book are always wrapped in thick Rousseau also pointed out what wrappers. They have been touched children were not: They were not by manifold ‘whys.’ Only some of the tabula rasa or “blank slate” chil- these are close enough to the event dren described by John Locke at or the creation to be visible to the about the same time in England, able ‘whys.’ And so I have always been only to receive messages from the more interested in understanding environment as passive beings. Ad- the process n and by which things ditionally, they were not the minia- come about than in the product in itself. (p. 16) ture adults of Renaissance thought, nor “things” to be abandoned, if not Your friend, of use economically, as they had Paolo Freire formerly been considered. (We shall see Rousseau’s view reflected in the It is my hope that the reading of theoretical work of John Dewey and this article will lead to a further un- Jean Piaget, who are also represent- derstanding of the “whys” underly- ed in our suitcase.) ing the teaching-learning process and a growing awareness of how our John Dewey theoretical “heady” adornments en- Dewey’s hat is important. It has rich practice in kindergarten class- two feathers in its brim - the begin- rooms. Let us now examine each hat nings of progressive education and in more detail. the child study movement in the

68 Wearing Many Hats

United States. Dewey examined the We can also nod our head in work of Friedrich Froebel who had agreement when wearing our Dewey hat as we read about his understand- ing of play, a needed center of kin- advanced the ideas of Rousseau’s dergarten curriculum planning. He early education in the development (Dewey, 1900) stated: of the first kindergarten in Germany in 1837. According to Wortham It [play] brings the child in contact (1992), “Froebel embraced the active with a great variety of material: nature of learning and saw play as wood, tin, leather, yarn, etc.; it sup- the educational method whereby the plies a motive for using these mate- child’s inner power could be re- rials in real ways instead of going leased” (p. 8). through exercises having no mean- Dewey believed in the same need ing except a remote symbolic one; it for firsthand experiences for young calls into play alertness of the senses children as Froebel had introduced and acuteness of observation; it de- with his kindergarten concept. mands clear-cut imagery of the ends However, as a progressive educator, to be accomplished, and requires in- Dewey, along with G. Stanley Hall genuity and invention in planning; and others, demonstrated the need it makes necessary concentrated at- to study how better to develop ap- tention and personal responsibility propriate child-centered curriculum in execution, while the results are in within a community-building envi- such tangible form that the child ronment, rather than in teacher- may be led to judge his own work initiated lessons with prescribed imi- and improve his standards. (p. 149) tation activities for the child as Froe- bel’s curriculum had advocated. In In this desire to continue explor- rejecting imitation as a prescription ing his democratic processes for for curriculum, Dewey (1900) stated: young children, Dewey established the Laboratory School at the Univer- From the psychological stand- sity of Chicago in 1896. Discussing point it may safely be said that Dewey’s purpose in establishing this when a teacher has to rely upon a school, Wortham (1992) noted: series of dictated directions, it is just because the child has no im- Dewey’s goal was to develop a age of his own of what is to be school that could become a coopera- done or why it is to be done. In- tive community while developing stead, therefore, of gaining power individual capacities at the same of control by conforming to direc- time. Life and its occupations tions, he is really losing it — should provide the basis for educa- made dependent upon an exter- tion, with the main test of success nal source. (p. 151) being the ability of individuals to

69 Candace Kaye

meet new social situations through guage usage as an intentional prac- thoughtful action. (p. 16) tice to influence behavior. Piaget and Vygotsky can be Dewey’s ideas are still actively viewed as complementing each oth- being pursued by those working in er, thus making it easier to wear both the Laboratory School, such as Vivi- hats at the same time. In relation to an Paley, author of books such as this notion, Glassman (1994) stated You Can’t Say You Can’t Play (1992). that within both theories: Paley explores the social and moral dilemmas of the kindergarten class-  There are two lines of devel- room and in this particular work de- opment - natural and social - fines the needed role of the teacher that interact continuously in to uproot the first weeds of exclusion the development of children’s in the classroom society. In finding thinking. Both are important. her solutions to the dilemmas, Pa- Both need to be considered to ley’s thinking continually returns to understand cognitive change. Dewey’s concern for the importance  Children are able to mentally of developing democratic group transform their experiences processes in early education. Such a through internal reflection. concern is expressed when Dewey  These major transformative (1916) wrote: “A democracy is more changes, in thinking, can be than a form of government; it is pri- identified by qualitative marily a mode of social living, of changes. conjoint communicated experience”  The course of these changes is (p. 101). influenced by the social mi- lieu. Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky It is possible for us to wear the The Separate Hats of Piaget and Vygot- hats of Piaget and Vygotsky at the sky same time, while also enjoying their As we have just seen there is a individual uniqueness, one at a time. great deal of mutuality between Pia- The mutuality of their theories con- get and Vygotsky’s theories related cerns the language of kindergarten to the early development of children, children. That is, both Piaget and including the idea that children are Vygotsky argued that in infancy, a biological organisms. There was also human’s language and thought mutual respect expressed by the the- begin their developmental processes orists for each other’s work. Berk independent of each other. By the and Winsler (1995) discuss this age of two, they have become more “meeting of the minds” (p. 108) and closely related. In their theories, remind us that Vygotsky gave credit Piaget and Vygotsky described two- to Piaget for giving him food for year-old thought as an increasingly thought on his theory of self-directed verbal expressive process and lan- speech. Similarly, Piaget, in re-

70 Wearing Many Hats sponding to Vygotsky’s critique on cussed in the following sections on his ideas of egocentric speech, placed Piaget and Vygotsky. The discussion value in Vygotsky’s study of thought of Vygotsky’s theory also includes and language. an elaboration of his stages of speech The two theorists differed in how development. the developmental process contin- Piaget’s hat. Piaget examined ues, particularly after the age of two. what occurs within the young child It is easy to argue about these differ- that leads to changes in cognitive ences, especially as we search to dis- processes. Piaget theorized that in- cover how children learn literacy. struction can refine and improve in- Their separate views of the roles of ner cognitive structures/schemas/ language in cognitive development concepts, if these processes have al- are explained by Berk and Winsler ready emerged within the individual (1995): child’s intellectual development. He also set forth the idea that children According to Vygotsky, lan- everywhere move through a series of guage, in the form of private four stages in this cognitive trans- speech, is the centerpiece of de- formation: sensorimotor, preopera- velopment - the pivotal means tional, concrete operational, and through which culturally adap- formal operational. tive cognitive strategies are Particularly during the preopera- transferred from the social to the tional stage, Piaget regarded play as psychological plane of function- the dominance of assimilation over ing. (p. 99) accommodation within a young child’s psychological adaptation to In contrast, Piaget viewed lan- the environment. The concept of guage as a secondary, emergent play as the dominance of assimila- phenomenon - as an outgrowth of tion over accommodation means that the sensorimotor activity in- through play, children are able to volved in infant’s and young integrate new thoughts into their ex- children’s independent explora- isting cognitive structure/sche- tion of the physical world. Pri- mas/concepts (assimilation) without vate speech was seen as a symp- altering previous mental structures tom of the preschooler’s imma- (accommodation). There are clear ture, egocentric, nonsocially implications here for teachers of adapted thought; it served no young children. For example, when positive, adaptive purpose in the Sam “makes” a block into a car, he is life of the young child. (p. 100) using the concrete object (block) to conform to his mental idea (car), ra- Other differences between the ther than changing his thinking to theories of Piaget and Vygotsky in- conform to the object and having this clude the foles of play and instruc- object stay a block of wood. It is a tion in the development of cognitive car for Sam. structures. These differences are dis-

71 Candace Kaye

Additionally, Piaget found that development can be influenced by play consolidates newly learned be- the social environment. According havior. That is, through play, chil- to Vygotsky, instruction, including dren can repeat new learning until it the instruction that the social envi- is consolidated into established men- ronment offers, can lead to the de- tal constructs. Such symbolic play of velopment of cognitive struc- kindergarten children has multiple tures/schemas/concepts. possibilities for facilitating Our use of developmental curric- ulum connects us with Vygotsky. significant learning experiences as His emphasis on the collaboration of children connect physical and mental the social environment, support activities of previous learnings with from expert partners, and the activi- new ideas within the child-centered ties of children leads us to familiarity environment. Thus, chil-dren are with his concept of the zone of prox- able to express flexibility, adaptabil- imal development (ZPD or some- ity, and creativity as they become times called, ZOPED). Vygotsky’s intellectually sophisticated through theory of ZPD is defined by Berk play. Piaget saw the process of play and Winsler (1995) as “the distance as a necessary part of intellectual de- between what an individual can ac- velopment for the young child - a complish during independent prob- process for the intellect to continue lem solving and what he or she can to adapt more sophisticated strate- accomplish with the help of an adult gies to its repertoire. In our class- or more competent member of the rooms, with our encouragement of culture” (p. 171). This approach to the manipulation of real objects, the learning means the environment daily use of symbols of language, the supports the concept that learning use of imagery in making meaning can lead development. As Dixon- for the world of the child, we are Krauss (1996) explains: wearing the quite playful of Piaget! Instruction within the zone of Vygosky’s hat. Vygotsky ([1934] proximal development begins 1986) states in Thought and Language with the Vygotskyian idea that that the cognitive transformation of the path of learning is from social children’s thought takes place at two interaction to internalized inde- important times: (a) at about two pendent functioning. It is an when children are able to communi- ongoing progression from other- cate linguistically and (b) when in- regulated to self-regulated per- struction occurs that helps children formance. Social interaction give meaning to their own thoughts. provides the context for guiding Vygotsky examined how the so- the child’s learning. During in- cial environment causes changes in struction, the teacher mediates or children’s thinking and theorizing augments the child’s ability to and how the pace of an individual’s perform various learning tasks by providing guidance and sup-

72 Wearing Many Hats

port primarily through social the source of all higher mental func- dialogue. (p. 15) tioning. For our kindergarten chil- dren, the magical year of first grade Vygotsky also examined and is when this emergence of inner elaborated the development of speech becomes inner language and speech, which is so important for the product exemplifies success in teachers of young children. The first developing concepts for learning in stage of speech - social or external - school. In other words, Vygotsky does not occur until about three. He saw this self-regulatory inner lan- described this as speech to control guage as first a self-talk or private behavior of others and to express speech in the preschool years, devel- thoughts and emotions. Those of us who have been around twos can at- oping into inner speech or internal- test to this...particularly the powerful ized thinking at about the age of word, NO! seven. We can see this in the kin- Vygotsky described the next dergarten classroom when a child is stage as the development of egocen- processing a difficult task and is tric speech, prominent in young verbally sequencing the process. For children’s development between the example, in the block area, our Sam ages of three and seven. The devel- is saying, “I will build a road for my opment within these four years is the car to get on the freeway. I want to bridge, Vygotsky says, between so- put the street next to the freeway. cial and inner speech that begins at I’m going to make it so my car about seven years of age. This im- doesn’t get in an accident. I want to portant span of four years includes put a light...”. By the time Sam both the preschool and kindergarten leaves us for first grade, this speech years. According to Vygotsky, this will be less inaudible as he internal- time serves children’s acquisition of izes the process. control of their own behavior through expressive language. Those Erik Erikson of us involved with the intricacies of I like to wear Erikson’s hat, be- providing appropriate classroom ex- cause he provides a general frame- perience for all our children, with all work in the kindergarten classroom their levels of language understand- for interpreting major changes that ing represented, must keep this children are experiencing, particular- sense of Vygotsky and speech on ly within the social environment. and in our heads. Concerned with a healthy personali- According to Vygotsky ([1934] ty, Erikson described human devel- 1986), the inner, soundless speech opment in terms of how children beginning at age seven—that stream adapt to the social environment, spe- of self-talk or stream of conscious- cifically eight conflicts that need to ness that directs our thinking and be resolved throughout the life cycle behavior for the rest of our lives—is of each human being. The first of

73 Candace Kaye these kindergarten-age crisis resolu- lives, leading to the powerful feeling tions is that of autonomy vs. guilt. of “Here I come, First Grade!” According to Erikson, with language ability, physical movement, and ac- Howard Gardner tive imagination, children are able to Gardner’s (1983) hat could have discover their sense of self, have a seven points representing his origi- greater sense of initiative, and thus nal idea of multiple intelligences (or become more responsible for their MI) - linguistic, musical, logical- behavior. It is at this stage that they mathematical, spatial, bodily- appear at our kindergarten door. kinesthetic, interpersonal, and in- Consequently, it is our awesome trapersonal. In these multiple intel- task, should we accept it, to continue ligences, Gardner describes the dif- to develop this sense of self and re- ferent ways that intelligence can ex- sponsibility. We often call this “be- ing responsible for your own behav- press itself. Each of these modes has ior.” the result, as Bruner (1986) says of The other Erikson phase that we “minds which become specialized to see in the kindergarten year is the deal in verbal or mathematical or child’s need to demonstrate compe- spatial forms of word making, sup- tence. We, as their teachers and ported by symbolic means provided guides, offer our children multiple by cultures which themselves spe- opportunities for success in mean- cialize in their preference for differ- ingful activities. We constantly reas- ent kinds of worlds” (p. 103). These sure them in our supportive envi- multiple intelligences are represent- ronment that they can take risks ed in our kindergarten classroom by when solving problems and gaining our learning centers. Gardner (1995) mastery. They want to be some reflects this approach when he states: ONE, as viewed by peers and de- fined by exploration of the child’s I have always believed that the culture - both the one at school and heart of the MI perspective- in the one at home. Erikson calls this theory and practice - inheres in crisis resolution: industry vs. inferi- taking human differences seri- ority. In other words, children are ously. At the theoretical level, industrious about this exploration, one acknowledges that all indi- and, with our help as teachers, they viduals cannot be profitably ar- will not come to the end of this first rayed on a single intellectual di- year of formal schooling with a feel- mension. At the practical level, ing of inferiority. Instead, through one acknowledges that any uni- this inner drive of industry, they will form educational approach is develop a sense of self-worth be- likely to serve only a minority of cause of all the exciting social con- children. (p. 209) nections, proving indeed some one Here are some examples of activi- ties based on the seven modes that

74 Wearing Many Hats we naturally plan to help children  Approach concepts and sub- construct meaning of their world. jects in a variety of ways.  Personalize education.  the linguistic mode - the lan- guage experiences in group A Synthesis of the Theoretical Hats time, the library, the storytell- As we contemplate how best to ing; teach young children and prepare  the musical mode - the songs, them for lifelong success, let us brief- the available variety of musi- ly review our theoretical and peda- cal instruments; gogical options as represented by the contents of our suitcase:

 the logical-mathematical  Rousseau and Dewey gave us mode - the number games, the hats for child-centered active counting, the cause - effect ac- learning. tivities, the problem-solving;  Erikson helped us understand  the spatial mode - the puzzles, the social development of the blocks; children  the bodily-kinesthetic mode -  Piaget and Vygotsky chal- the physical games, the crea- lenged us to understand how tive movement; children learn.  the interpersonal mode - the  Gardner encouraged us to dramatic play, the group time; continue to look at the multi-  the intrapersonal mode - soli- ple ways of knowing. tary exploration, reflection times. Many more hats could be consid- ered. Indeed, our heads would Gardner continues to revisit his probably become a trifle tender if we theory of multiple intelligences in wore all of them at one time. In- order to inform us of his most cur- stead, we can mix and match, pick- rent thinking. For example, he has ing what best suits the needs of our added a naturalist intelligence to the students and our own style. original seven points, so we can now see our science center as being in- Practical Use for the Hats formed by the MI’s. In 1994, he pro- So how can we put the theories posed that the three most positive behind these creative and important ways we can use his theory are to: hats to practical use in our class- rooms for the lifelong benefit of the  Cultivate capabilities that are children we teach? Let us take a valued in the community and brief overview. a larger society than school - music, art, for example The Hat of Rousseau in the Classroom.

75 Candace Kaye

1. The teacher is a reflective practi- strong self-concept. An im- tioner. portant part of the kindergarten 2. The environment is an interactive year is the development of self- and exploratory space. worth. 3. The young child is viewed as having specific developmental The Hat of Gardner in the Class- needs that are different from room.

those of an adult or older child. 1. There is more than one way to learn. 2. We need to take into considera- tion the many ways of construct- ing meaning when considering classroom planning - the multiple The Hat of Dewey in the Class- intelligences. room. 1. “Learning to do by doing” is our WEAR THESE HATS PROUDLY! motto. 2. The child and the curriculum are These Hats - this chosen ward- equally important. robe of theoretical hats - they spar- 3. Responding to the works of Paley kle; they are comfortable - a fit of in the social world of our class- theory and practice - and flexible in room allows us to be reflective their ability to change and to relate practitioners in the building of a to each other. As I do, you will con- democratic environment. tinue to have personal experiences, study, and reflection to enhance the The Hat of Piaget and Vygotsky use of the theories of Rousseau, in the Classroom. Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, 1. Our knowledge of how young and Gardner in your daily practice. children learn can help enhance An additional inclusion in the the importance of opportunities wardrobe will be your selection of a for social construction. cultural hat. The chosen adornment 2. Learning and development are represents your own journey of interconnected. study and reflection concerning the issues and gifts of culture that are an The Hat of Erikson in the Class- integral part of daily experience with room. the diversity of children in the kin- 1. The social development of chil- dergarten classroom. For example, dren at kindergarten age is cru- building the supportive structure be- cial. tween home and school for each 2. What children bring to school child is just one of our cultural obli- from their homes must be a part gations and privileges as kindergar- of the knowledge and under- ten teachers. standing of the teacher, so he or All of these hats are valuable to she can help the child develop a teachers. Wearing them enables us

76 Wearing Many Hats to enrich the education of young children a taste for questioning, a children, thus fulfilling the dream passion for knowledge, a healthy that Freire (1996) expressed when he curiosity, a joy of creating, and wrote: the pleasure of risk without which there can be no creation. They (the community) dreamed (p. 140) of an open, democratic education, one that would instill in their REFERENCES

Berk, L. E. & Winsler, A. Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on (1995). Scaffolding children’s learn- multiple intelligences: Myths ing: Vygotsky and early childhood and messages. Phi Delta Kappan, education. Washington, DC: 77 (3), 200-207. NAEYC.

Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, pos- sible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: Dewey, J. (1900). Froebel’s educa- The theory of multiple intelligences. tional principles. Elementary New York: Basic Books. School Record. 1, 143-151. Glassman, M. (1994). All things Dewey, J. (1916/1975). Democracy be- and education. New York: Free ing equal: The two roads of Pia- Press. get and Vygotsky. Development Review, 14, 186-214. Erikson, E. (1963). Childhood and so- ciety. New York: Norton. Paley, V. (1992). You can’t say you can’t play. Cambridge, MA: Har- Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (1996). Con- vard University Press. struc- tivism: Theory, perspectives, and Piaget, J. (1937/1954). The con- practice. New York: Teachers struc- College Press. tion of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continu- Piaget, J. (1945/1962). Play, um Press. dreams, and imitation in childhood. New Freire, P. (1996). Pedagogy of hope. York: Norton. New York: Continuum Press.

77 Candace Kaye

Piaget, J. ([1962] 1979). Comments on Vygotsky’s critical remarks. Archives of Psychology, 47, 237-49.

Rousseau, J. J. (1911). Emile or On education (Barbara Foxley, Trans.). London: Dent. (orig-inally pub- lished, 1762).

Vygotsky, L. ([1934] 1986). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wortham, S. (1992). Childhood 1892- 1992. Wheaton, MD: ACEI.

78