WELSH FOR ADULTS TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES, METHODOLOGIES AND RESOURCES: A COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH STUDY AND CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE WAY FORWARD
Dr Dr Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost (Cardiff University) With Dr Patrick Carlin (Cardiff University), Professor Sioned Davies (Cardiff University), Dr Tess Fitzpatrick, Anys Pyrs Jones (Cardiff University), Dr Rachel Heath- Davies (Cardiff University), Jennifer Marshall (Cardiff University), Steve Morris (Swansea University), Dr Adrian Price (Cardiff University), Dr Robert Vanderplank (Oxford University), Dr Catherine Walter (Oxford University) and Professor Alison Wray (Cardiff University).
May 2012
This research was sponsored by the Department for Education and Skills, the Welsh Government (formerly the Department for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills, the Welsh Assembly Government) [contract number C45-2009/10], and was conducted during the period between May 2010 and May 2012.
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The truth of the matter is that about 99 percent of teaching is making the students feel interested in the material. Then the other 1 percent has to do with your methods (Chomsky, 1988: 182).
Theoretical fashions can push language teaching towards extreme positions where important components are sidelined or dropped altogether [...] I began by claiming that our professional landscape has become very complex, offering a bewildering variety of features for our attention. I have suggested that there are, however, main roads through this complicated terrain. If we keep to these roads most of the time, we will be better placed to make useful side trips to benefit from the many interesting and instructive features that can be found along the way, without getting totally distracted and disoriented as we do so. In this way, we can perhaps not only travel hopefully, but also arrive (Swan, 2006: 53-4).
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CONTENTS
List of Terms, Abbreviations and Acronyms pp. 5-6
Glossary of Levels p. 7
Executive Summary p. 8
List of Charts, Figures and Tables pp. 9-17
Introduction pp. 18-20
Section One: Literature Review of International Research on Second Language Acquisition pp. 21-49
Section Two: Evaluation of Welsh for Adults Teaching Materials in the Light of Current Research pp. 50-75
Section Three: Description and Analysis of Fieldwork Results pp. 76-209
Section Four: Conclusions and Recommendations pp. 210-219
Section Five: References pp. 220-235
Section Six: Appendices pp. 236-323
Appendix One: List of Stakeholders p. 237
Appendix Two: List of WfA Language Varieties pp. 238-245
Appendix Three: List of WfA Materials pp. 246-255
Appendix Four: Fieldwork Questionnaires pp. 256-291
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Appendix Five: Drilling pp. 292-308
Appendix Six: CEFR p. 309
Appendix Seven: CEFR and ALTE pp. 310-311
Appendix Eight: TBL Tasks pp. 312-321
Appendix Nine: De-Suggestopedia Concert Texts pp. 322-323
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LIST OF TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ALTE Association of Language Testers in Europe
2LA Second Language Acquisition
CEFR Common European Framework Reference Levels
CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
CVGC Cardiff & Vale of Glamorgan Welsh for Adults Centre
CEG Cronfa Electroneg o Gymraeg
DfES Department for Education and Skills
EFSL English as a Foreign or Second Language (EFL/ESL)
ETALAGE European Task-Based Activities for Language Learning
GmC Glamorgan Welsh for Adults Centre
GwC Gwent Welsh for Adults Centre
L1 First Language
L2 Second Language
MFSL Modern Foreign Second Language
MLAT Modern Language Aptitude Test
MWC Mid-Wales Welsh for Adults Centre
NfER National Foundation for Educational Research
NIACE National Institute of Adult Continuing Education
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NWC North Wales Welsh for Adults Centre
OU Open University
PPP Presentation Practice Production
SSIW Say Something in Welsh
SWWC South-West Wales Welsh for Adults Centre
TBL Task-Based Learning
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
VAK Visual Auditory Kinesthetic
WfA Welsh for Adults
WJEC Welsh Joint Education Committee
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GLOSSARY OF LEVELS
National WfA Other Approximate CEFR Framework Equivalents Equivalents Mynediad Wlpan 1 / Mynediad A1 Dwys Sylfaen Wlpan 2 / Canol- A2 Wlpan / Sylfaen Dwys Canolradd Pellach B1 Uwch Uwch and Meistroli B2 / C1 Hyfedredd Cefndir, Siawns am C2 Sgwrs, Graenus, Gloywi
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This research was commissioned to examine the pertinent international research literature and current WfA materials and practices, as well as to conduct original research in the field, in order to give informed consideration to how teaching and learning in WfA might be improved.
WfA practitioners have a strong sense of the origins and subsequent development of the sector, as defined by certain dominant, early practitioners. The sense of historical continuity within WfA is a distinctive characteristic of the sector. That said, it is concluded that the current WfA approach is not dramatically out of step with current research and practice in the field of adult second language acquisition more generally. The current WfA approach is broadly structural with communicative features. As such, it can be described as a post- methods approach, in line with the mainstream of adult second language acquisition.
Overall, it is concluded that WfA teaching and learning materials and practices have some outstanding and many good features. The sector possesses a cohort of authors that has considerable knowledge, experience and understanding that is of immediate benefit. Also, the sector possesses a wide range of curricular materials that is of a high quality. WfA has solid foundations upon which to build.
In considering teaching and learning approaches and methodologies, the nature of teaching and learning resources, along with the possible future development of the WfA curriculum, the results of this research are clear in relation to certain specific areas. In particular, there is no absolute requirement for wholly distinct and separate sets of materials for intensive and non-intensive courses; and, any new national, course ought to accommodate three regional varieties of the Welsh language namely North, South-West and South-East varieties of Welsh; and, there is no basis in the international research for a dramatic shift away from the current WfA approach towards, for example, a communicative approach.
The results of this research indicate that there are certain areas where change and innovation ought to be beneficial. These areas include the following: grammar, drilling, vocabulary, instructional quantity, language variety and variation, technology, informal learning, learner differences and task-based learning. In each case, while these recommended changes or innovations arise from either the international research or the original research at the core of this project, such recommendations are set in the context of current practice in WfA.
Some of the recommendations have implications with regard to cost. In these cases estimated cost implications have been calculated and are presented for the purposes of informed discussion.
The recommendations are set out in Section Four of this report. They are set in the context of the research in Section Three of this report.
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LIST OF CHARTS, FIGURES AND TABLES
Chart 1 Learners’ responses to Question [Q] Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? Answer [A] Dedicated sessions in class time
Chart 2 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Dedicated workshops for learners
Chart 3 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
Chart 4 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A section at the back of the book
Chart 5 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A separate book, specially written for the course
Chart 6 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A separate published book, recommended to learners
Chart 7 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Learning materials online
Chart 8 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A ‘Ask- the-expert’ online
Chart 9 Learners’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A learner group online
Chart 10 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Dedicated sessions in class time
Chart 11 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
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Chart 12 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A section at the back of the book
Chart 13 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A separate book, specially written for the course
Chart 14 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A E- materials for learners
Chart 15 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A ‘Ask- the-expert’ online (for learners)
Chart 16 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A learner group online
Chart 17 Tutors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Dedicated workshops for learners
Chart 18 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Dedicated sessions in class time
Chart 19 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
Chart 20 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A section at the back of the book
Chart 21 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A separate book, specially written for the course
Chart 22 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A separate published book, recommended to learners (specify)
Chart 23 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A E- materials for learners
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Chart 24 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A ‘Ask- the-expert’ online (for learners)
Chart 25 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A A learner group online
Chart 26 Authors’ responses to Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? A Dedicated workshops for learners
Chart 27 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A A separate tutor handbook on grammar
Chart 28 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A The course books that the learners use
Chart 29 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A E-materials for tutors
Chart 30 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A Ask-the-expert online (for tutors)
Chart 31 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A A tutors' forum (discussion board)
Chart 32 Tutors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A Dedicated workshops for tutors
Chart 33 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A The course books that the learners use
Chart 34 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A A separate tutor handbook on grammar
Chart 35 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A A separate published book, recommended to tutors (specify).
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Chart 36 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A E-materials for tutors
Chart 37 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A ‘Ask-the-expert’ online (for tutors)
Chart 38 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A A tutors' forum (discussion board)
Chart 39 Authors’ responses to Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? A Dedicated workshops for tutors
Chart 40 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Repetition/pattern drill]
Chart 41 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Substitution drill]
Chart 42 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Question-and-answer drill]
Chart 43 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Transformation drill]
Chart 44 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Hidden drill]
Chart 45 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Drill to practise mutations]
Chart 46 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Drill to practise general grammar]
Chart 47 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Drill to practise verb and preposition endings]
Chart 48 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Translation drill]
Chart 49 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Drill to practise vocabulary]
Chart 50 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners) [Drill to practise plurals]
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Chart 51 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Repetition/pattern drill]
Chart 52 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Substitution drill]
Chart 53 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Question-and-answer drill]
Chart 54 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Transformation drill]
Chart 55 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Hidden drill]
Chart 56 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Drill to practise mutations]
Chart 57 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Drill to practise general grammar]
Chart 58 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Drill to practise verb and preposition endings]
Chart 59 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Translation drill]
Chart 60 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Drill to practise vocabulary]
Chart 61 Authors’ responses to Q Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards) [Drill to practise plurals]
Chart 62 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Repetition/pattern drill]
Chart 63 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Substitution drill]
Chart 64 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Question-and-answer drill]
Chart 65 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Transformation drill]
Chart 66 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Hidden drill]
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Chart 67 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Translation drill]
Chart 68 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Drill to practise mutations]
Chart 69 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Drill to practise general grammar]
Chart 70 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Drill to practise verb and preposition endings]
Chart 71 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Drill to practise plurals]
Chart 72 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)? [Drill to practise vocabulary]
Chart 73 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for canolradd onwards)? [Repetition/pattern drill]
Chart 74 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for canolradd onwards)? [Substitution drill]
Chart 75 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Question-and-answer drill]
Chart 76 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Transformation drill]
Chart 77 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Hidden drill]
Chart 78 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Translation drill]
Chart 79 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Drill to practise mutations]
Chart 80 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Drill to practise general grammar]
Chart 81 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Drill to practise verb and preposition endings]
Chart 82 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Drill to practise plurals]
Chart 83 Tutors’ responses to Q What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)? [Drill to practise vocabulary]
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Chart 84 Tutors’ responses to Q I follow specific guidelines on what and how to drill a given element of the language [Mynediad / Sylfaen]
Chart 85 Tutors’ responses to Q I follow specific guidelines on what and how to drill a given element of the language [Pellach / Canolradd]
Chart 86 Tutors’ responses to Q Before the drill begins, I explain the pattern [Mynediad / Sylfaen]
Chart 87 Tutors’ responses to Q Before the drill begins, I explain the pattern [Pellach / Canolradd]
Chart 88 Tutors’ responses to Q Before the drill begins, I translate the pattern [Mynediad / Sylfaen]
Chart 89 Tutors’ responses to Q Before the drill begins, I translate the pattern [Pellach / Canolradd]
Chart 90 Tutors’ responses to Q I advise learners not to write anything down till after the drill [Mynediad / Sylfaen]
Chart 91 Tutors’ responses to Q I advise learners not to write anything down till after the drill [Pellach / Canolradd]
Chart 92 Tutors’ responses to Q I allow learners to ask questions during the drilling [Mynediad / Sylfaen]
Chart 93 Tutors’ responses to Q I allow learners to ask questions during the drilling [Pellach / Canolradd]
Chart 94 Authors’ responses to Q Would paying more attention to vocabulary learning in WfA improve learners' levels of general proficiency?
Chart 95 Authors’ responses to Q It’s okay to teach learners to put English words into their Welsh, if the native speakers around them do it
Chart 96 Authors’ responses to Q It’s high time the same version of Welsh was taught in schools and in WfA
Chart 97 Learners’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Web-based tests]
Chart 98 Learners’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases]
Chart 99 Learners’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels]
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Chart 100 Learners’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Online version(s) of the course(s) I am registered on]
Chart 101 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Social networking]
Chart 102 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Mobile apps]
Chart 103 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Web-based tests]
Chart 104 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Ask-the-expert online (for learners)]
Chart 105 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Ask-the-expert online (for tutors)]
Chart 106 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Learner forum (discussion board)]
Chart 107 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Tutor forum (discussion board)]
Chart 108 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases]
Chart 109 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Welsh language computer games]
Chart 110 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Software and equipment for making digital recordings]
Chart 111 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels]
Chart 112 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [Online versions of every course, for those who have registered on them]
Chart 113 Tutors’ responses to Q What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA? [More availability of new technologies for learning and teaching in my workplace]
Chart 114 Authors’ responses to Q In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging? [Preferred learning style]
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Chart 115 Authors’ responses to Q In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging? [Amount of natural aptitude for language learning]
Chart 116 Authors’ responses to Q In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging? [General intelligence]
Chart 117 Authors’ responses to Q In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging? [Level of motivation and interest]
Figure 1 Key external factors relevant to WfA success
Figure 2 Key internal learner factors relevant to WfA success
Table 1 Ten observations that every 2LA theory needs to explain
Table 2 Fieldwork timetable and locations
Table 3 Centre interview summary
Table 4 Centre questionnaire summary
Table 5 Account of good planning for vocabulary learning
Table 6 Effect-size for different types of intervention (instructional quantity)
Table 7 The next course that learners would like to attend
Table 8 Effect-size for different types of intervention (computer-assisted instruction)
Table 9 Informal learning provision in the WfA Centres
Table 10 Informal learning grant per WfA Centre
Table 11 Effect-size for different types of intervention (reinforcement)
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INTRODUCTION
1 Background to the research
1.1 This research was commissioned by the Department for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills (DCELLS) [now Department for Education and Skills, and henceforth in this report ‘DfES’] of the Welsh Assembly Government (herein after referred to as the ‘Client’) in 2009 under that title of ‘research into improving the way in which the Welsh language is transferred to adults’ (Contract No C45-2009/10). The purpose of the work was for the findings of the research to inform the future development of the Welsh for Adults (WfA) curriculum and courses.
1.2 WfA is one of the largest adult learning programmes in Wales. Iaith Pawb, the Welsh Assembly Government’s Action Plan for a Bilingual Wales, commits DfES to develop a national co-ordinated and strategic approach to WfA. The importance of WfA is also emphasised in One Wales, and a number of strategic aims for the future development of WfA have been included in DfES’ draft Welsh-Medium Education Strategy. To date, DfES has funded a number of initiatives in support of the national WfA programme, including the establishment of 6 dedicated language centres, which are responsible for the planning and funding of the WfA programme in Wales.
1.3 In addition, The Learning Country: Vision into Action places a requirement on DfES to continue to develop national coordination for the Welsh for Adults programme through the language centres, by improved planning, quality assurance, tutor training, marketing, data collection, development of teaching and learning courses and advice to adult learners. In 2008, the National Federation for Educational Research (NfER) was commissioned to evaluate the existing WfA intensive courses. The findings of this research recommended that further research should be undertaken before commissioning new courses and supporting resources.
2 Aim of the research
2.1 In accordance with the brief set out by the Client, the aim of this research is to: Consider how the way in which the Welsh language is transferred to adults could be improved. The research was to include into the following main areas: i) teaching and learning approaches/methodologies, and ii) the nature of the teaching and learning resources needed to effectively transfer the Welsh language to adults. The research was to examine the various related restrictions and considerations that will influence the future development of the WfA curriculum, including, specifically: iii) the linguistic content of the WfA curriculum; iv) accreditation; v) funding; vi) practitioner training; and vii) cost of development.
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In short, the research was intended to directly inform the future development of the WfA curriculum. Thus, the final report will offer clear recommendations for the future, taking due account of recognised international research in the field of language acquisition (particularly in the context of minority languages), as well as full consideration of the particular needs arising in the context of teaching Welsh to adults. The final report will also include options for the timescale and financial investment necessary to develop a new course, or new courses.
3 Objectives
3.1 In accordance with the brief set out by the Client, the main areas to be explored noted above can be broken down into more detailed objectives as follows: i) Teaching and learning approaches/methodologies Undertake a comprehensive literature review of existing international research in relation to language acquisition. Undertake a critical review and analysis of the current teaching and learning approaches/methodologies used to deliver WfA courses, and offer recommendations as to how WfA provision could be improved in line with appropriate research. Consider what changes need to be made in the future to ensure that the courses can effectively respond to individual learner styles and expectations. Make recommendations on whether teaching approaches/methodologies should change as learners progress through the levels, e.g. should different teaching approaches/methodologies be adopted for Entry and Higher levels? Consider how informal learning can be weaved in to the courses, in order to promote the opportunities for learners to practise their Welsh language skills within the community. Make recommendations as to how much time learners need to successfully acquire the language, including consideration of the impact of varying intensity of courses on learners’ progress. Make recommendations as to how much vocabulary should be introduced in each session and which teaching methods are likely to result in optimum vocabulary acquisition. Consider to what extent the same teaching and learning approach could be used to teach intensive and non-intensive courses. Make recommendations as to what type of curriculum should be adopted in future. ii) The nature of the teaching and learning resources needed to effectively transfer the Welsh language to adults Offer recommendations whether it is practicable to utilize the same course materials for both intensive and non-intensive courses, or whether different sets of resources are needed for each type of course; Offer recommendations regarding whether a new national set of resources for intensive provision is required, or whether existing resources can be adapted; Consider the full range of resource formats, including printed, audio, visual, electronic/interactive, e-learning/blended learning, in order to offer recommendations regarding the format of the resources required to effectively transfer the Welsh language to adults.
19 iii - vii) Related restrictions and considerations Consider the following related restrictions and considerations within the WfA context, and use the information acquired to inform the recommendations, ensuring that they could be feasibly implemented within the existing frameworks: o the linguistic content of the WfA curriculum, including register, grammatical patterns, vocabulary, degree of emphasis to be given to each of the four key language skills; o to what extent should courses reflect the developing forms of modern Welsh as well as / instead of more traditional language patterns, if Welsh courses are to provide learners with the language skills needed to become a part of the Welsh-speaking community? o accreditation of courses, to include consideration of the implications of the Qualifications and Credit Framework, and the suite of five WfA examinations; o funding methodology and its implications/restrictions; o implications of recommendations on tutor training, and o the likely cost associated with implementing the recommendations.
4 About this report
4.1 This report, entitled ‘Draft Consultative Report on Improving the Way in which Welsh is Transferred to Adults’, is the fourth substantive output of the research project. The previous outputs comprise the following: i. Draft Consultative Report on the Literature Review of International Research on Second Language Acquisition [Output 1]; ii. Draft Consultative Report on the Evaluation of Welsh for Adults Teaching Materials in the Light of Current Research [Output 2]; iii. Preliminary Description of Fieldwork Results [Output 3]. Outputs 1 and 2 were made available for public consultation in February 2011. Output 3 is for the purposes of the research project Steering Group only. This report is intended for public consultation.
4.2 This report is directly informed by material from Outputs 1 to 3 and a series of briefing papers and notes prepared by various members of the research project team. In addition, it includes, in Section Three, the comprehensive description and analysis of the fieldwork results.
4.3 This report includes, in Section Four, a set of recommendations and conclusions. The reader must bear in mind that this is not the final report – it is draft consultative report. As such the recommendations and conclusions are not final but rather are for the purposes of consultation.
4.4 Consultation will be conducted via consultative workshops for invited stakeholders and also on-line. As with Outputs 1 and 2, this report will be made available on-line for public consultation. Precise guidance on how to engage with the on-line consultation is available on- line at:
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SECTION ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
1 Introduction
1.1 The purpose of the literature review component of the project is to establish the latest research evidence into the effective teaching and learning of second and foreign languages by adults, in order to inform future Welsh for Adults provision.
1.2 The literature review exercise has focussed on addressing a series of issues: Recent and current research in WfA; Conceptualising WfA; Pronunciation and fluency; Vocabulary learning; Grammar; Drilling, repetition and memorisation; Differences between learners in terms of aptitude, motivation and style; Methodologies.
1.3 Research literature is a source of information, rather than a basis for prescription. It does not always provide a clear link between the practicalities of teaching and learning and the findings of research into the cognitive basis of language learning.
1.4 One reason for this is the need, in controlled research, to minimise the effect of the very variables that characterise and, arguably, problematise learning in the classroom. As a result, much of the evidence about how individuals respond cognitively to specific challenges associated with language learning is derived from experiments and interventions that are not associated directly with a real language learning programme. Furthermore, typical ‘learners’ used in research are university undergraduates, who may not be sufficiently representative of the wider population of adult language learners, especially in WfA.
1.5 The same observation can be made more generally in relation to research into effective language teaching. That is, even direct interventions in language learning programmes are mostly carried out on university students. Possible reasons for caution in applying findings to other populations (including WfA) include potential differences in: motivation, reasons for learning, classroom dynamics, level of uniformity within the learner group, assessment parameters, and the linguistic knowledge of the tutor.
1.6 Much of the classroom-based research examines the effect of a particular intervention on learning, and compares an experimental group with a control group that did not have the intervention. Although there are rarely reasons to doubt that the intervention does have the claimed effect, it must be kept in mind that most targeted interventions will result in improved learning, as a consequence of the focussed effort put in. The key question for the practitioner considering applying a new method in the classroom is less whether it will work than whether it is the most effective and time-efficient type of intervention to adopt.
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1.7 Despite the reservations outlined above, the research literature does offer valuable pointers for WfA, as described below.
2 Recent and Current Research in WfA
2.1 Overview
2.1.1 Historically, most research into the field of WfA has been undertaken by lone researchers from a variety of disciplines (Welsh, education, linguistics, sociology) and until recently, outside of any coordinated strategy to link the research to the needs of the field and to ensure that it informs them. Predominantly, this work has been the result of higher degrees. Prosser (1985) produced the first bibliography of all work which had been undertaken in the field of WfA for the period 1961 – 1981 but this was not exclusively research and included many other resources relating to WfA. This bibliography was one of several publications during the 1980s from the ‘Canolfan Ymchwil Cymraeg i Oedolion’ based at the department of Welsh in Aberystwyth University which with the enthusiastic support of Professor Bobi Jones also attracted funding to send a researcher, Richard Crowe, to Israel to study the Ulpan in Israel. Crowe (1988a: 87) acknowledges that although the basic principles underpinning the Wlpan in Israel and Wales are very similar, they are different as regards the situations in which they operate. The Israel Ulpan assists the linguistic assimilation of those moving into the country from abroad. The Welsh Wlpan is part of a strategy to revive the Welsh language. Crowe argues that rather than helping to maintain the (linguistic) status quo as is the case in Israel, the Welsh Wlpan is more ‘on the offensive’ and exists in a context where very few learners actually have to learn the language for practical reasons as in Israel. His work calls for better understanding of Welsh learners’ motivations (p.87) and discusses the difficulties of integrating into Welsh speaking society (p.88) together with the need for educating Welsh speakers on how to communicate effectively in Welsh with learners. These are common preoccupations for researchers in WfA.
2.1.2 More recently – initially in 2002 and updated in 2010 – Jones, Newcombe and Morris (2010) produced a bibliography of research (in its broadest definition) in Welsh for Adults partially in response to a call by the now defunct Welsh for Adults Panel in its report ‘Y Ffordd Ymlaen’ (1992: 29) for a comprehensive list of research which could be used as means of identifying lacunae in areas being researched and as a tool for future WfA researchers. The updating of the 2002 bibliography was one of the objectives of the first WfA Research Strategy (2006 – 2009) produced by the WfA Working Group. The establishment of this working group administered and chaired by the lead Centre for Research in South West Wales but whose membership includes all the six WfA Centres as well as individual researchers involved in the field, has provided a welcome focus for research in WfA at a national level. It also means that researchers and potential researchers are aware of the priorities as set by professionals in WfA and the need for research to inform and feedback into the field as well as ensuring that curriculum, resources, procedures and policy are based on appropriate and relevant research. The current Welsh for Adults Research Strategy was endorsed in 2010 and lasts until 2013.
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2.2 Teaching methods
2.2.1 Newcombe and Newcombe (2001: 332) found in their evaluation of the Wlpan method of intensive language teaching that the learners ‘commended this method’. Davies (2000) and Rees (2000) discuss the teaching methods used in (mainly intensive) WfA classes. Davies in particular (2000: 25) alludes to more experimental methods such as accelerated learning, ‘Linkword’ and additional teaching resources such as radio, TV and on-line materials whilst acknowledging that they had so far had little impact on the WfA classroom.
2.2.2 Evas (1999: 336 – 338) argues that methods such as Suggestopedia could be very instrumental in overcoming the barriers faced by adult learners of Welsh. He states that it would be foolish to continue using only one teaching methodology and that one method doesn’t necessarily suit every learner. He is critical of the methods used in intensive classes at the time: ‘Ni ellir gorbwysleisio faint o rwystr yw methodoleg dysgu ar y ffordd i ddwyieithrwydd ehangach. Y mae gennym y pŵer i newid ac y mae anwybodaeth, drwgdybiaeth a neo-ffobia yn ein rhwystro rhag gwneud. Rhaid newid y rhain oll a bod yn fwy agored ein syniadaeth’ [It cannot be overemphasised how much of a barrier teaching methodolgy is to wider bilingualism. We have the power to change and ignorance, suspicion and neophobia prevent us from doing so. All of these must be changed and we must be more open in our thinking] (Evas, 1999: 337). He continues with a plea to be constantly looking for better teaching methods which are more successful than those presently employed. Talfryn (2001: 105) also comes to the conclusion that it is a mistake to keep rigidly to one teaching method and that there are many ways of learning a language. He notes the importance of the personality of the tutor and the ability to be able to create the ‘right chemistry’ in the classroom. If the ‘right chemistry’ is created in the classroom then the learners are much more likely to continue to come along and progress and he argues: ‘Os yw dull yn gymorth i greu’r ‘cemeg cywir’ yn yr ystafell ddosbarth, mae’n erfyn gwerthfawr. Os nad yw, dylid rhoi’r gorau i’w ddefnyddio’ [If a method is of assistance in creating the ‘right chemistry’ in the classroom, it’s a useful tool. If it isn’t, one should stop using it] (Talfryn, 2001: 106).
2.3 Integrating Learners / The Social Context
2.3.1 Crowe (1988a: 88) draws attention to the difficulties encountered by many adult learners of Welsh in being able to integrate with the Welsh-speaking community around them. Hughes (2003) looks at assimilating learners and the role of educators in the process. He sees both an educational and a social challenge here. WfA courses do not prepare learners sufficiently for the Welsh-speaking world and they are not offered strategies to deal with the negative attitudes they can sometimes encounter. He is also critical (Hughes, 2003: 73) of a lack of attention to correct pronunciation and inflexion and introducing learners to different registers of Welsh. Like Evas (although for different reasons) he makes a call for: ‘Ond nid ambell i newid yma a thraw sydd ei angen ar y cyrsiau cyfredol ond adolygiad trylwyr’ [But it’s not just an odd change here or there on the current courses that’s needed but a thorough review] (Evas, 1999: 337). This review should include learning a range of registers at the higher level courses and developing register sensitivity. Newcombe (2007) takes up the same point as Hughes regarding the social context of learners of Welsh. In Newcombe 2009 she devotes a whole volume to helping learners move ‘from the classroom into the community’. One of her main conclusions is the need for Welsh learners, if they are to succeed, to have regular interaction in Welsh in a setting in which they feel comfortable (2007: 109). C. Davies (2000: 171) also makes the point that if the language isn’t used, it will be lost. He notes the tendency of learners (particularly in more anglicised areas) to
23 maintain their contact with the language by remaining in a class instead of immersing themselves in Welsh-speaking life. Gruffudd and Morris (2011) observed similar trends.
2.3.2 Recognising that the challenges to integration will necessarily be different in a more Welsh-speaking area as compared to the more anglicised areas of Wales, Gruffudd and Morris (2011) in a sample of around a third of the learners in level 3 courses nationally, found that the presence of a dedicated ‘Canolfan Gymraeg’1 was an important factor in ensuring that learners in these areas had more opportunity to integrate with local Welsh speakers and become a part of that community. The model of a Canolfan Gymraeg was seen as an important component in recreating Welsh-speaking communities in these areas and thereby facilitating integration of adult learners of Welsh and they argue that many more of these should be established throughout the more anglicised areas of Wales (Gruffudd & Morris, 2011: 8). This would inevitably require intervention by WfA Centres and local Mentrau Iaith as well. Gruffudd and Morris also found that many adult learners in their sample used the language within their families (mainly with partners or children). Schemes such as ‘Voluntariat per a la llengua’ in Catalunya, having been given a Welsh ‘face’, and ‘Mêts Iaith’ in Y Felinheli could be emulated. This research, together with the next section, emphasises the close connection between the field of WfA and language policy in Wales – for example, it was found that traditional Welsh-speaking domains attracted very few of the sample and in order to attract learners to newer domains, language planning agencies would need to work together to realise this (as well as the WfA centres). The research contains many other recommendations to improve the integration of adults learners of Welsh (Gruffudd & Morris, 2011: 8-10).
2.4 WfA in the context of Language Policy / Planning
2.4.1 The inclusion of WfA within Iaith Pawb (2003: 43) demonstrated the mainstreaming of WfA into government language policy and planning. Jones (1992) was one of the first to view WfA as an important force for Reversing Language Shift in Wales. Morris (2000a) argued against the prevailing climate of ad hoc language evolution and emphasised the potential for WfA to contribute to language revitalisation in Wales. Morris (2000b: 253) stated that the drawing up of a comprehensive national strategy for WfA could be an important step towards fusing language policy with provision in the field and efforts towards the normalisation of the Welsh language. Morris (2003: 215) warns that failure to ‘…act and integrate these new speakers [of Welsh] will make implementation of meaningful language plans and policies in Wales increasingly difficult.’
2.5 Motivation / Success
2.5.1 Newcombe (2002, 2007), Morris (2000a, 2005) and Reynolds (2004) all deal with the motivation of adult learners of Welsh and reach the same conclusion, namely that although motivations can change as learners progress and experience success, the integrative motivation is strongest. Given the difficulties discussed in the previous section on ‘Integrating Learners / The Social Context’, the ‘mismatch’ between the integrative motivation and problems in actual integration presents a substantial challenge to WfA
1 The term ‘Canolfan Gymraeg’ is used specifically by Gruffudd and Morris to refer to centres such as Tŷ Tawe in Swansea or Canolfan Merthyr in Merthyr Tudful where WfA teaching occurs as well as other Welsh medium events and activities, together with the presence of a local Menter Iaith. 24 planners. The relationship between motivation, in particular the integrative motivation of adult Welsh learners and actual integration into a Welsh-speaking community is crucial to ensuring success in creating new Welsh speakers who will use the language. Morris (2005: 170 - 171) notes that ‘fluency’ as a definition of success is difficult even though many of the learners in his study defined ‘success’ as ‘being fluent’. He quotes NfER (2003: 62) which notes that neither learners or tutors have any concept of how many hours are needed to reach fluency and that fluency was defined according to general ability and confidence in having a conversation with a native speaker. Both NfER (2003: 62) and Morris (2005: 171) conclude that the number of contact hours in WfA is lower than that expected in other languages, for example Basque or ESOL. Morris (2005: 171) concludes: ‘Deëllir yn aml fod llwyddo yn gyfystyr â dod yn rhugl yn y Gymraeg heb allu dweud beth yn union yw rhuglder yn yr iaith’2.
2.5.2 Newcombe (2007: 110-111) also highlights lack of confidence and anxiety as key issues for many of the learners in her study. She also notes that ‘…there is frequently a disparity between expectations of progress and actual progress: many learners have failed to understand that even conscientious, intelligent adults need to make a substantial investment in practice outside class if fluency is to be achieved’ (Newcombe, 2007: 111).
2.5.3 Jilg, using Mackie (2001) as an approach to classification of categories of forces influencing learner dropout, comes to the conclusion that organisational forces (course content, pace, style, course information) are ‘probably the most significant in that they are the most amenable to intervention’ (Jilg, 2008: 57).
2.6 Error analysis
2.6.1 Price (1997) tested his theory about Welsh for Adults errors. It comprised a number of statistical hypotheses. These were as follows: (1) Welsh adult learners commit mainly local errors. (2) It is impossible to assign a cause to many of the errors. (3) Of the errors to which it is possible to assign a cause the majority are developmental. (4) There are more syntactic errors than lexical. (5) Women commit fewer errors than men. (6) The Welshness of the area where learners live does not affect the correctness of their written Welsh. The major hypothesis was that a longitudinal analysis of errors encompassing the Use of Welsh and Advanced Use of Welsh Written Tests would reveal a developmental pattern in the errors committed. 2.6.2 Approximately 135,000 words from WfA written examinations were analyzed, yielding some 14,000 lexical and grammatical errors. All the hypotheses were confirmed by these results. Ninety-six categories of error were created and the taxonomy was organized according to surface strategies as recommended by Dulay, Burt and Krashen. It was demonstrated that there was a general decrease in error frequency between Level 4 and Level 6, despite the hierarchy of written assignments. 2.6.3 A detailed discussion of the results, beginning at the level of surface strategy, showed that the decrease in error frequency was present in each one of the surface strategies although the rate of decrease varied. There is then a detailed discussion on each error category organized according to sub-samples (Use of Welsh, Advanced Level 1a, Advanced Level 1b, Advanced Level 2). Firstly, Omissions of Major Constituents are discussed, followed by
2 It is often understood that success is synonymous with becoming fluent in Welsh without being able to say what exactly fluency in the language is. 25
Omissions of Grammatical Morphemes. A new strategy is created to analyze the errors of Celtic languages, namely the Omission of Mutations, as they are syntactic errors but are neither major constituents nor grammatical morphemes. 2.6.4 The variation within the strategies of Double Marking and Simple Addition is discussed. It is noted that Welsh departs from the universal pattern of error analysis in that no evidence was found of Regularization Addition errors. Even so, examples were found of all three types of Misformations, namely Regularization, Archi-forms and Alternating Forms. The last strategy to be discussed was the least prominent, namely Misordering, which included confusion of the normal and abnormal sentence order. 2.6.5 In conclusion the rate of change in frequency of each error category is revealed. Fifty- seven categories decreased between Use of Welsh and Advanced Level. Here the learners seem to be successfully internalizing the rules of the language items involved, with overgeneralization and language transfer being abandoned. This seems to represent the last stage of acquisition. The intermediate stage appears to comprise the seven error categories which exhibit no statistically significant rate change between the two examinations. These categories may well go on to decrease at the Post-A Level stage or fossilize. Lastly, 32 categories increased in frequency. These appear to represent the initial stage of acquisition, in which new language items (especially literary forms) have been introduced and overgeneralization has increased in the attempt to acquire the new rules. In this way, clues are given to the linguistic difficulties which learners experience during the Advanced Level course of study. It was hoped that the insights provided would assist those engaged in the formulation of a curriculum or syllabus for Level 5 and 6 learners. Other practical applications of the research are discussed and suggestions for further research are made.
3 How should teaching and learning in WfA be conceptualised?
3.1 In order to develop a conceptualisation of WfA, it is necessary first to consider three more general parameters relevant to how second language acquisition (2LA) is conceptualised. One is the extent of the role of innate processes that might determine aspects of language learning. The second is the set of cognitive processes, including those developing in response to education and training, that mediate the learning process. The third is the bundle of situational and individual factors that determine the specific outcomes of learning for the individual and a class.
3.2 Natural processes
3.2.1 There has been long debate about the extent to which a ‘universal grammar’ or ‘language learning device’ might explain the speed and effectiveness of first language acquisition, and this issue has for several decades also been addressed in the context of 2LA (e.g. White, 1989, 2007). Ortega’s (2007) observations about second language acquisition (SLA in her terminology) (Table 1) demonstrate the view that only part of the process is under the direct control of the learner or teacher.
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Central focus Specific Observations Knowledge and cognition A good deal of SLA happens incidentally Learners come to know more than what they have been exposed to in the input Interlanguage Learner’s output (speech) often follows predictable paths with predictable stages in the acquisition of a given structure Second language learning is variable in its outcome Second language learning is variable across linguistic subsystems First language There are limits on the effect of a learner’s first language on SLA Linguistic environment Exposure to input is necessary for SLA There are limits on the effects of frequency on SLA There are limits on the effects of output (learner production) on language acquisition Instruction There are limits on the effects of instruction on SLA
Table 1: Ten observations that every 2LA theory needs to explain (adapted from Ortega, 2007)
3.2.2 Researchers are divided, however, as to whether a specific innate ‘language’ module is required even to explain first language acquisition. Amongst those believing there is one, opinion varies as to whether it is still operational in adult 2LA and if so, how. For instance, the Full Access/Full Transfer model (e.g. Schwartz & Sprouse, 1996) proposes that L2 acquisition does not mimic L1 acquisition, because the knowledge of the L1 grammar is used as the starting point. However, any aspects of the L2 that are different from those in the L1 are reset using innate knowledge of how language is constrained—knowledge that remains available throughout the learner’s life.
3.2.3 Others emphasise the social and cognitive differences between children and adults. For example, Wray (2008b) challenges the assumption that it is appropriate or effective to assume that adults will learn like children, even if they theoretically could, because a range of social and situational factors are likely to intervene. Vanderplank (2008) proposes that the emphasis on infants’ acquisition of language as a potential model for adult 2LA is flawed, because children do not in fact fully master their first language until they have undergone certain developmental processes, supported by education and socialisation. Some of these experiences of the middle childhood period (5 to 9 years old), including the development of the ‘mind’s eye’ and de-contextualised memory, mark the child’s entry into adult cognition. This means that adults’ language learning is directly reflected in a significant aspect of the natural first language acquisition process (Vanderplank, 2008: 717).
3.3 Cognitive processes
3.3.1 In a nutshell, learning another language entails storing in memory a large amount of information in a manner that enables it to be accessed and used to express ideas in an effective and appropriate way. Researchers are interested in what sort of exposure to information about, and in, the second language (L2), and what sort of experience of production, is required to create the conditions for such learning, and whether the processes
27 entailed for adult classroom learners are different from those of naturalistically learning adults, or of children.
3.3.2 To learn something entails successfully encoding, storing and retrieving information in memory (Schacter, 2004: 643-4). Models of memory differentiate between short-term—or working—memory and two kinds of long-term memory—procedural or ‘implicit’, and declarative or ‘explicit’. In terms of linguistic knowledge, both episodic and semantic knowledge entail “knowing that” whereas procedural memory is “knowing how” (Nadel & Moscovitch, 1998: 436). Thus, our procedural memory deals with how to assemble the language into meanings, while the semantic sub-part of our declarative memory provides the information about what the word is for a given concept, and what to say in a particular situation (ibid).
3.3.3 During language learning, input is handled by short-term memory, and under certain conditions can be conveyed to implicit (procedural) or explicit (declarative) long-term memory. Neurophysiological research shows that explicit and implicit long-term memories are created and stored in different parts of the brain (Bailey & Kandel, 2004: 647). However, quite what this means for outcomes in L2 learning remains unclear.
3.3.4 A highly influential theory of L2 learning in the 1980s was Krashen’s (e.g. 1985). One of his claims was that explicit learning of an L2 could not result in implicit knowledge. Another was that “the only true cause of second-language acquisition” was being exposed to comprehensible input (Krashen, 1984: 61). Krashen’s theory has been widely criticised, however, for lacking precision and failing to reflect the observed evidence (e.g. Gregg, 1984; McLaughlin, 1985: 56).
3.3.5 Swain (1985) countered Krashen’s ‘comprehensible input hypothesis’ with the ‘comprehensible output hypothesis’. She argued that learners need to be pushed beyond taking the easiest route to communication, because “[s]imply getting one’s message across can and does occur with grammatically deviant forms and sociolinguistically inappropriate language” (Swain, 1985: 248). Teaching must create situations in which learners have to deliver their message “precisely, coherently and appropriately” (ibid).
3.3.6 Besides the possibility that certain innate aspects of language knowledge are permanently primed in first language acquisition, so that an L2 with different characteristics will always entail additional processing, it is claimed by some that the monolingual and bilingual brains are structurally or operationally different (see, for instance, Craik, Bialystok, & Freedman, 2010 on the capacity for bilingualism to delay Alzheimer's disease).
3.4 Individual and situational factors
3.4.1 There is a fundamental tension in classroom L2 teaching between the need to present a single, structured approach to learning to a group of people, and the research evidence that each person’s different existing knowledge, assumptions, aptitudes, motivations and circumstances could play a major role in determining their success as a learner. Researchers attempt to track and address the challenges inherent in this tension (e.g. Dörnyei, 2006 & 2010), essentially by asking three questions: i. What are the key determinants of variation between individuals? ii. What do these differences imply for an individual’s capacity to learn effectively using different approaches?
28 iii. How can classes be taught in a way that accommodates individual differences?
3.4.2 One recent approach to conceptualising language learning is the application of complexity theory (De Bot, 2008; Feryok, 2009; Kramsch, 2008; Larsen-Freeman, 2006; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008; Seedhouse, 2010; Steels, 2005; Weideman, 2009a, 2009b & 2010). In essence, viewing language learning as a complex system recognises the interrelatedness of many factors, so that an intervention in the classroom may have larger, smaller or different effects from those intended. While this conceptualisation inevitably problematises attempts to find simple answers to the question of how to teach and learn languages effectively, it assists us in recognising how broad-brush approaches must be accompanied by sensitive attention to the range of intended and unintended consequences of changes in policy and practice. It also reminds us not to see learners or teachers as static entities, and thus not to assume that what works at one stage in the learning process will necessarily work at every stage.
3.5 Conceptualising WfA
3.5.1 What follows is a brief account of how key aspects of the current conceptualisations of 2LA may be applied to the WfA context. Figures 1 and 2 present the main factors and how they can interact to influence the success of WfA.
3.5.2 Figure 1 indicates the main external factors that play a role in determining the efficacy of WfA. The outcomes are always filtered through the learner, which means that policy and community practices can have only indirect effects. The complex dynamic systems model described above hints at how the anticipated effect of changes in policy made at a national level might be undermined or weakened by a range of intervening factors, including the interpretation of, and attitude towards, the policy on the part of communities, materials writers and teachers.
3.5.3 The closed ‘box’ of the learner in Figure 1 is opened up in Figure 2, to reveal the many interacting factors that determine responses to the input from WfA provision. All of the factors identified there (and no doubt others) have been demonstrated through research to play a role in learning outcomes.
3.5.4 Conceptualisations of this type are of use in helping researchers, policy-makers, tutors and learners identify potentially useful interventions. For example, a learner’s previous (language) learning experiences (Figure 2) cannot be changed, but the learner’s assumptions about language(s), which can be partly determined by those experiences, could be. Dispelling certain false assumptions about how languages work (such as that they are fundamentally regular with superficial irregularities, or that they are impossible for adults to learn) could impact on the learner’s attitudes towards fluency in Welsh as an attainable target, resulting in more ambitious or more practical goals. Meanwhile, the learner’s attitudes towards Welsh could be negatively affected if they experience reticence from members of the Welsh L1 community when they try to engage in conversation (Figure 1). These experiences could be addressed through Welsh Government policy directed at influencing community priorities and language planning.
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Community priorities, Community expressed as WAG policies practice and needs
Teachers’ & course Other learning Teaching materials and designers’ beliefs opportunities teaching
LEARNER
OUTCOMES
Figure 1: Key external factors relevant to WfA success
LINGUISTIC PREVIOUS INTELLIGENCE, ASSUMPTIONS LEARNING MEMORY CAPACITY • L1 EXPERIENCES & COGNITIVE STYLE • Literacy • Language awareness LEARNING STRATEGIES
LEARNER AUTONOMY ATTITUDES & RESPON- MOTIVATION BELIEFS ABOUT TO TARGET SIBILITY LANGUAGE & PERSE- SELF AS LEARNER VERANCE PERSONALITY & L2 USER Openness Conscientiousness Agreeableness NEEDS & GOALS Neuroticism RE TARGET Extraversion
AGE
Figure 2: Key internal learner factors relevant to WfA success
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4 How important to WfA provision is attention to accurate pronunciation and fluency?
4.1 There are at least two reasons why accuracy in pronunciation might not be seen as a priority in WfA. One is that adult L2 learners rarely completely rid themselves of their foreign accent, irrespective of the effort put in—even though opinions vary on why this is the case (Bongaerts, Van Summeren, Planken, & Schils, 1997). The other is that, with most learners of Welsh being native speakers of English, it could be argued that Welsh with an English accent is sufficiently common to be easily understood (the plethora of accents of English notwithstanding). However, pronunciation is important in achieving three important communicative objectives: intelligibility, integration and efficiency.
4.2 Intelligibility
4.2.1 Low intelligibility places a heavy burden on listeners, with direct consequences for their willingness to engage in conversations with learners. It is not only the learner that can feel compromised in conversations. Listeners may feel uncomfortable and insecure about the evident risks of communication breakdown. Derwing and Munro (2009: 478-9) distinguish ‘intelligibility’ (the extent to which the speech is actually understood in terms of its content) from ‘accentedness’ (the distance of a speech sample from the local variety) and from ‘comprehensibility’ (how easy it is to process speech with that accent).
4.2.2 WfA learners are more likely to succeed in sustaining conversations with native speakers if their Welsh is easily intelligible, since it reduces the discomfort associated with the perceived risk of communication breakdown.
4.3 Integration
4.3.1 Three main theories exist, as to why adults so rarely eliminate their L1 accent on an L2 learned after childhood. One is that there is a biologically determined critical age for mastering a nativelike pronunciation on another language—implying that no-one can do so in adulthood. A small number of counter-examples, however, have led some to question this view. The second is that there are strong, but not insuperable, social and psychological determiners that create resistance to mastering a nativelike pronunciation—implying that specific conditions must obtain, for it to be possible. The third is that adults rationalise their learning because they lack the time, energy and opportunity needed for mastering precise pronunciation. They focus only on features that are a significant impediment to communication.
4.3.2 An experiment by Guiora et al (1972) showed that people’s L2 pronunciation was more nativelike after their inhibitions were reduced using small amounts of alcohol. Guiora et al’s research suggests that “adults are at least capable of pronouncing L2 better than they actually do” (Flege, 1987: 170), indicating that the teacher’s and learner’s pursuit of greater authenticity in pronunciation may not be a good investment of time unless the learners can also be helped to overcome their social or psychological inhibitions.
4.3.3 Schumann (1976: 213) points out that if learners experience unpleasant feelings in relation to the use of the L2, they are likely subconsciously to associate those feelings with L2 speakers, so that it becomes unattractive to spend time with them or be like them. This will not only undermine the attempt to become aligned with self-identification as an effective
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L2 speaker, but also tend to elicit defensive behaviours that create further distance and unease between learner and native speaker.
4.3.4 Integration is a two-way process, since both the learner and the L2 community need to accept the legitimacy of the learner’s membership. Almost all WfA learners are likely to experience a complex set of positive and negative attitudes towards integration with fluent (particularly native) Welsh speakers, which may influence their capacity to develop a nativelike pronunciation. One important component of their developing sense of how much they can and should integrate will be their experience of how native speakers respond to them, and this, in its own right will be somewhat dependent on the extent to which the learner is signalling integrative alignment through pronunciation. The challenge is to create a virtuous rather than a vicious circle, so that accurate pronunciation reinforces integration and vice versa. This is something that learners and communities can jointly promote.
4.4 Efficiency
4.4.1 If speakers are fluent, they will produce their language more efficiently, releasing processing capacity for dealing with content. Fluency arises through the combination of two abilities. One is the rapid retrieval from memory of the words and grammar, so as to produce linguistically coherent output. The other is the mobilisation of the speech mechanisms to assemble the sounds, in their appropriate combinations, for accurate delivery in connected speech. Native speakers’ delivery of fluent phrases involves a range of phonological features including assimilation, reduction, elision, etc. as well as features of stress and intonation (G. Brown, 1990). These features “[are] not just lazy, sloppy careless or slovenly language; rather [they] occur [...] in all levels of speech including the most formal manners of speaking” (J. D. Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006: 5).
4.4.2 Pronunciation practice can support development of the latter aspect of fluency, particularly if it is focussed on units larger than just the single word. There are convincing reasons to believe that learning the nativelike production of multiword strings improves the quality and fluency of learners’ output (Fitzpatrick & Wray, 2006; Segalowitz, 2010; Wray, 2002).
4.4.3 Some WfA courses already promote pronunciation fluency, through drilling, text memorisation and repetition and/or reading practice on CDs. These approaches support production fluency, but do not necessarily enhance the first-mentioned aspect of fluency, since the ideas expressed are not original to the learner at the time of production.
4.5 Implications for WfA
4.5.1 The three facets of pronunciation outlined above can be jointly addressed. Practising the fluent production of phrases and sentences supports increased intelligibility. It also furnishes learners with a set—albeit finite—of useful, fluently delivered things to say in real conversation, which increases efficiency by freeing up processing capacity (Fitzpatrick & Wray, 2006; Segalowitz, 2010; Wray, 2002). At the same time, it helps learners perceive themselves, and be perceived, as effective language users, which supports integration.
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5 To what extent, and how, should WfA provision target vocabulary learning?
5.1 The importance of vocabulary knowledge for WfA learners
5.1.1 Knowing a language entails command of a good sized vocabulary. The goal is the kind of deep and complex knowledge that enables one to not only understand others and say what one wants, but also exercise appropriate choices between different possible ways of saying the same thing. Hu and Nation (2000) estimate that 98% of the vocabulary in a text must be familiar, before a passage can be read with comprehension, without the need to stop and look words up. This suggests that vocabulary must be effectively learned, otherwise reading will remain a burdensome activity.
5.1.2 In the WfA context it can be argued that fast access to appropriate vocabulary is particularly important, since, when learners interact with Welsh speakers, dysfluency or word-finding delays are likely to trigger a switch to English. The reasons for this are pragmatic—it is uncomfortable for both parties to cope with these interferences in their communication. In contexts in which no other language is shared, there is no option but to continue the struggle. However, in the Welsh context, it can be bizarre and unnatural to ignore the capacity for both parties to communicate much more effectively using English.
5.1.3 While learners are still struggling to assemble enough facility with vocabulary, there can be a role for code-mixing—that is, filling gaps in vocabulary knowledge with English words, and then switching back to Welsh. More debate is needed on this question, because it is viewed by some as an unwelcome incursion into Welsh, even though (or perhaps because) many native speakers code-mix between themselves. Also in this context, attention needs to be paid to the use in Welsh of loanwords from English and specifically their pronunciation.
5.2 Understanding how vocabulary is learned
5.2.1 Research papers typically focus on one of two types of question: . What is the main mechanism whereby vocabulary is taken up? “Is it L2 input, enhanced input, interaction, communicative tasks, non-communicative ‘artificial’ exercises, list learning, or repetition?” (Laufer, 2009: 341). . What is the best focus of vocabulary-related activity? How many words are needed to operate in an L2? Which words should be targeted? Are some words harder to learn than others? How can words be reliably remembered? Should words be learned alone or in sets? How should words with multiple meanings be handled? (see Carter & McCarthy, 1988: 1-2).
5.2.2 In what follows, some key observations from current research are mentioned, as an indication of the most appropriate foci for future WfA developments.
5.3 Frequency as a determiner of prioritisation
5.3.1 L2 vocabulary acquisition research draws heavily on the observation that some words are more frequent in the language than others, and that they should be prioritised for learning. The claim is that major benefits accrue from furnishing learners with the words that they will most frequently encounter and need, these being the most useful to them (Nation & Newton,
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2009). Normally, frequency is determined on the basis of large general language corpora, but the corpus resources for Welsh are limited3.
5.4 The role of reading in vocabulary learning
5.4.1 Although extended reading is an important activity for learners, it has been shown to be a relatively poor way to increase vocabulary. Even graded readers are best viewed as a way of consolidating (including deepening) vocabulary already known, rather than as a source of new vocabulary (R. Brown, Waring, & Donkaewbua, 2008; Laufer, 2009; Nation & Wang Ming-tzu, 1999).
5.5 How to learn vocabulary
5.1 Nation and Newton (2009: 132) propose that “[t]he best language-focused vocabulary instruction involves looking at a word as part of a system rather than as part of a message” and this entails noticing spelling and sound patterns, underlying concepts in the meaning, how words are built, the range and type of collocations, and how the context provides clues to a word’s meaning. They also advocate studying words “isolated from context and as individual items” since research shows that this is the path to “quickly learning a large vocabulary” (Nation & Newton, 2009: 132-3). Since both spoken and written form require attention, Schmitt (2008: 347-9) recommends supporting vocabulary learning with both media. This concurs with research into short-term memory (the conduit for long-term learning), which acts on both phonological and visual information (Baddeley, 2003: 835)4.
5.6 The role of memorisation
5.6.1 Although both teachers and learners can be resistant to using memorisation as a learning tool (Nattinger, 1988: 65), it cannot be denied that “learners have to develop large vocabularies in order to become proficient in the skills of the target language” (Macaro, 2003: 63), and that, one way or another, vocabulary has to end up stored in the memory and retrieved from there. However, it need not be inferred that words are always and only stored separately in memory (Wray, 2002).
5.6.2 The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory entails physiological changes that can take several months to complete (Nader, Schafe, & LeDoux, 2000). Learning can be thought of as a process of layering, so that returning periodically to vocabulary will activate the representation and strengthen access (Hall & Ecke, 2003: 71).
3 One valuable resource is the corpus developed at Bangor by N. C. Ellis et al (2001), “a word frequency analysis of 1,079,032 words of written Welsh prose, based on 500 samples of approximately 2000 words each, selected from a representative range of text types …[including] novels and short stories, religious writing, children’s literature both factual and fiction, non-fiction materials in the fields of education, science, business, leisure activities, etc., public lectures, newspapers and magazines, both national and local, reminiscences, academic writing, and general administrative materials (letters, reports, minutes of meetings).” 4 Although written input is translated into phonological form in short term memory, there seems to be scope for the visual patterns of writing to contribute separately to the memory. 34
5.6.3 Oxford and Crookall (1990: 24) recommend the technique of ‘structured reviewing’, which “entails going back over L2 vocabulary at different intervals, first close together and then increasingly far apart” such as after 15 minutes, an hour, a day, a week, etc., “until the material becomes automatic”. They note, however, that many L2 textbooks “fail to make any overt suggestions to learners about this technique”, nor do they present and re-present vocabulary across chapters in a way that would facilitate it at a more natural level (ibid, pp. 24-5).
5.7 Incorporating vocabulary learning into teaching
5.7.1 Nation (1990: 3-4) offers four ways in which vocabulary can be part of teaching: . Taking vocabulary into account when preparing material (e.g. simplifying a text); . Dealing with words as they come up; . Teaching vocabulary in order to facilitate another activity, such as reading a particular passage; . Focussing directly on vocabulary through activities such as dictionary use, guessing, using word parts, learning lists of words.
5.7.2 Skilful support for language learning entails recognising that different approaches are needed for different kinds of item. Laufer (2009, p. 341) sees in the research literature an increased reconciliation of previously opposed positions—those advocating an indirect approach to learning; those preferring a direct, form-focussed approach; and those for and against the promotion of decontextualised vocabulary learning. The favoured position now, she suggests, “attach[es] less importance to the source of learning, and more to the quality of elaboration of word information, task involvement, and frequent rehearsals” (see also Hulstijn, 2001).
5.7.3 Oxford and Crookall (1990: 26) propose that “teachers should become familiar with a variety of vocabulary instruction tools and should train their students to use them”. The key responsibilities of a teacher (and of materials writers) are to provide exposure to new vocabulary in a way that enables the learner to see or infer the meaning, and opportunities to exercise vocabulary learning strategies that include repeated exposure and use (Nyikos & Fan, 2007: 272-3).
5.8 How learners can approach vocabulary learning
5.8.1 Different learners will find that different approaches to vocabulary learning work for them, and teachers need a way to accommodate this (Oxford & Crookall, 1990: 25). A key strategy for teachers may be helping learners help themselves: “instead of or in addition to giving a few fish to a person we can teach him fishing” (Bastanfar & Hashemi, 2010: 159). A strategic approach on the part of each learner towards vocabulary is beneficial in creating both the mechanism and also the personal responsibility in the learner necessary for coping with unknown vocabulary in the future (Nation & Newton, 2009: 134):
practice alone is not sufficient for vocabulary growth. Also required is the learner’s genuine personal interest in challenging tasks and activities that create the need for expansion of vocabulary, along with specific vocabulary learning techniques keyed to the person’s needs and learning style (Oxford & Crookall, 1990: 22).
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5.8.2 It should be noted, finally, that considerable research has been conducted into the questions of what it actually means to ‘know’ a word, and how to test learners’ vocabulary knowledge.
5.9 Implications for WfA
5.9.1 The information outlined above suggest the following as potential opportunities for future developments of WfA provision:
5.9.2 The development of a large corpus of contemporary spoken Welsh: Creating a new major Welsh language corpus (electronic database based upon contemporary use of the spoken language) would entail a significant investment, but it would have many benefits. Firstly, it would inform the development of teaching materials on the basis of observed frequencies of words and structures. Specifically, learners could be directed towards the words they are most likely to encounter, and supported in learning the meanings that are most frequent—not always the ones that teachers intuitively favour (McGee, 2006). Secondly, it would materially contribute to the debate about which kind(s) of Welsh should be taught, by providing a means to compare current beliefs about the nature of current Welsh with direct evidence of usage.
5.9.3 Graded readers with audio support: WfA learners would benefit from a set of graded readers that manage the introduction and consolidation of vocabulary, with due attention to the main varieties of Welsh. These readers should be on subjects likely to be of sustained interest to adult readers, such as murder-mysteries, historical fiction, socially-oriented Welsh history, etc. They should be targeted at the current level of knowledge or lower, so that they are easy to read fluently, without the need of a dictionary. Providing audio recordings read by native speakers will enable learners to benefit from visual-only, audio-only and a combination of input, while gaining opportunities to hear, and repeat if desired, nativelike fluent speech.
5.9.4 Specific attention to vocabulary learning through focus on form and memorisation: WfA materials and tutors can afford to be more proactive in helping learners pay attention to vocabulary and engage with committing it to memory. This does not need to be done via mindless list-learning, but research does recognise the role of rehearsal in storing lexical information. The introduction of techniques such as structured reviewing would enhance the retention of vocabulary though the periodic revisiting to consolidate knowledge.
5.9.5 Training for tutors and materials writers: Vocabulary learning has been one of the fastest growing areas of research into 2LA and there are many useful methods to which tutors and materials could be introduced for use in their classrooms. Tutors might also benefit from understanding more about the nature of vocabulary knowledge, including collocation, and how vocabulary is consolidated over time in memory.
5.9.6 Training for learners: Learners too could be introduced to information about the role that vocabulary plays in the successful learning of a language, how it can be learned most effectively and enjoyably, and how to cope with unknown words.
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6 To what extent, and how, should WfA provision target attention to grammar?
6.1 WfA has some particular challenges arising from the tendency for learners and tutors educated in the UK system to be under-informed about grammar, and to lack confidence in relation to the use of terminology. This can lead to something of an ‘anti-grammar’ culture in regard to asking questions in class. WfA tutors differentiate between the importance of ensuring learners know the grammar of Welsh, the processes by which they are exposed to the patterns of grammar, the extent to which the grammar is directly discussed in class using grammatical terminology, and the necessity or possibility for tutors to explain why a particular grammatical pattern takes the form it does5.
6.2 Is a specific focus on form required?
6.2.1 After an extensive review of the research literature on the teaching and learning of grammar in an L2, Macaro (2003: 60) concludes that purely communicative teaching is not effective in relation to grammar learning, and that it needs to be combined with focus on form, though “results are still ‘coming in mixed’”.
6.2.2 Specific focus on explicitly teaching grammar has waxed and waned over the years (N. Ellis, 1993). The reasons for not favouring grammar teaching have included the belief that there is no direct means of translating explicit (‘learned’) knowledge into the implicitly (‘acquired’) knowledge that was considered necessary for successful mastery of an L2 (Krashen, 1985). Krashen’s view of how languages are learned has been highly influential in language teaching. However, it has been widely and fundamentally challenged by research evidence (Ortega, 2009: 59-60).
6.2.3 Nassaji and Fotos (2004: 127-9) identify four research-based foundations for a return to form-focussed instruction: learners will not pick up forms they do not notice—and this may require drawing them to their attention; through teaching it is possible to exert influence on the order in which structures are learned; meaning-focussed communicative approaches have been found not to work as well as expected; and focussed grammar instruction has been found highly effective. In their 2011 book, Nassaji and Fotos affirm that teachers should focus on the form of the language (i.e. the grammar) within discourse, a text, a communicative context or task, rather than just teaching a grammatical point.
6.3 How learners engage with grammar
6.3.1 Oxford, Lee and Park (2007: 119) make two general observations about the teaching of grammar. One is that “no matter what teachers do in the L2 classroom, grammar learning might or might not occur for a particular student. At heart, learning depends on the student.” The second is that “no matter what type of grammar instruction, if any, is employed, certain learners might choose to learn grammar in a totally different way; their strategies might or might not be what the teacher wants, expects or recognizes” (ibid). Both observations remind us of the over-riding influence of the variable ‘individual differences’.
6.3.2 Despite the differences between individuals, many recognise that, when teaching adults, “there is a positive role for some kind of attention to form, that is, either through the explicit
5 This evidence was gathered through workshops at the 2010 WfA tutors’ conference in Cardiff, and will be further explored in the main fieldwork component. 37 teaching of grammar and explicit error correction, or at least through more indirect means such as input enhancement” (DeKeyser, 2003: 321).
6.4 The effect of focusing on grammatical form
6.4.1 Macaro (2003) cautions against the assumption that the purpose of teaching grammar is to improve accuracy. He argues that, to the contrary, the most effective focus on form may initially lead to more errors rather than fewer, because the learning that it generates entails “act[ing] on the instability of [the learner’s] interlanguage in order to shift the learner along to new hypotheses about models of the target language” (Macaro, 2003: 61). In other words, language learning is not about simply ingesting rules, but about creating a mental system. Teaching therefore entails perturbing the existing system so that it accommodates new information. The output during these changes will not necessarily be more accurate.
6.4.2 Furthermore, it should be noted that there are different degrees of awareness about grammar. The explicit ability to talk about grammatical structures is not in itself a requirement for using the language grammar accurately, either in one’s first language or in a second language. However, an ability to articulate questions and observations about grammar can support effective understanding of how structures in the language work, which can be of benefit to learners who find the patterns confusing.
6.5 Implications for WfA
6.5.1 In future WfA teaching and associated learning materials, attention could be paid to adopting the approaches to grammar teaching that current research finds most effective, as outlined above. This could include considering more precisely the extent of familiarity with grammatical terminology that would be useful for tutors to possess, on the one hand, and also more precisely the type of terminology that would be useful in relation to WfA learners.
6.5.2 Training for tutors would be valuable, to raise their awareness of grammatical patterns and provide them with a terminological vocabulary appropriate for effective teaching, bearing in mind the necessity of protecting the ethos of endeavouring to ensure that as much as possible of such explanation is in the Welsh language.
6.5.3 WfA course writers and designers might be encouraged to discuss specific techniques for presenting grammar with experienced materials writers for other languages.
7 What role should drilling, repetition and memorisation play in WfA teaching and learning?
7.1 Memorisation has already been mentioned in this report. Clearly, drilling may take many forms (see Appendix 5, for example) and this report pays greater attention to this area later (e.g. pp. 106-148) but here, the focus will be on the aspects of memorisation associated with repetition and drilling.
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7.2 Drilling in WfA
7.2.1 WfA is notable for its inclusion of drilling in some types of course. While tutors who use it seem convinced of its effectiveness, there has been considerable interest in whether it is a method that should be used in future. In fact, while drilling fell out of favour with the introduction of communicative approaches, there is increasing recognition now that it can have value.
7.2.2 Research confirms the capacity for repeated practice of nativelike wordstrings to enhance a learner’s facility with structures, fluency of production, and confidence in being able to speak effectively. However, drilling is almost certainly of little value if the material is not well understood, other than, perhaps, when purely focussed on fluent articulation in pronunciation. Meanwhile, repeating a sentence only five or six times is probably not enough to memorise it, so the benefits of being able to recall and re-examine the sentence at will are not achieved.
7.3 Attitudes towards repetition, recitation, memorisation and drilling as a mechanism for teaching and learning are often coloured by people’s memories of mindless repeating in school many decades ago. Although this approach to learning has now disappeared from mainstream schooling in the western industrialised countries it persists in other parts of the world, often in the absence of assured literacy or access to written texts (Wray, 2008a).
7.4 China is a particularly interesting case, having a longstanding tradition of text learning, which has been challenged and evaluated in recent years, as a result of direct juxtaposition with western practices.
7.4.1 Research (see Wray & Pegg, 2009 for a review) suggests that while, as a general rule, memorisation only works if you understand what you are learning, there is some scope for memorising first, so as to have scope to examine and understand aspects of the information later. This seems to apply not only to cramming information for exams but also language learning (Au & Entwistle, 1999; Cooper, 2004; Dahlin & Watkins, 2000; Ding, 2007; Kennedy, 2002; Ting & Qi, 2001; Zhanrong, 2002).
7.4.2 Ding (2007) reports the method by which three finalists in the national English speaking competition in China achieved their success. All had undertaken extensive memorisation activity at school, including English texts that they did not yet fully understand, but which they gradually came to understand as a result of their capacity to revisit them at will.
7.4.3 Particularly significant in Ding’s account of memorisation as a means to language proficiency is the observation of one of his informants, that “what had been memorized became our own language” (Ding, 2007: 275). That is, the boundary between what is memorised and prefabricated, and what is novel and specific to the interactional moment, is less clear cut than it may seem (Wray, 2008a). One way for learners to sound nativelike is to practise what native speakers say, verbatim and with the appropriate intonation. The inevitable objection, that prefabricated language cannot serve to express novel ideas, is only partly true, since prefabricated wordstrings (formulaic language) are in fact a standard component of everyone’s language, serving to encode efficiently the parts of the message that do not benefit from being constructed in a novel way (Wray, 2002 & 2008a).
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7.5 Recognising the inherent formulaicity of nativelike language, Nattinger (1988) proposes pattern practice drills as a means of teaching lexical (formulaic) phrases. The aim is to create familiarity with the pattern, then introduce variation in just those loci where new information is needed, so that the rules inferred reflect the subtle distributions of actual usage rather than an ‘idealised’ extrapolation that predicts things that no native speaker would say (Wray, 2002).
7.6 Implications for WfA
7.6.1 Little if any research has been done on the efficacy of drilling as undertaken in WfA classes. However, the views of tutors, and the broader research evidence demonstrating that repetition and memorisation can be effective in L2 learning, suggest that the practice has value. Other than for pure pronunciation practice, drilling needs to be undertaken with understanding and engagement on the part of tutors and learners, for it to be maximally beneficial.
8 How should WfA provision deal with the differences between learners in terms of aptitude, motivation and style?
8.1 The challenge of learner differences
8.1.1 More than 40 years ago, B.F.Skinner observed that; Failure to provide for differences among students is perhaps the greatest single source of inefficiency in education. …it is still standard practice for large groups of students to move forward at the same speed, cover much the same material, and reach the same standards for promotion from one grade to the next. The speed is appropriate to the average or mediocre student (Skinner, 1968: 242).
8.1.2 In the WfA context, tutors unquestionably know from experience how different learners can be, and the challenges this can create for teaching. However, their awareness of the potential to address these challenges may be rather low6. This section outlines the major dimensions of learner differences as they might manifest amongst WfA learners.
8.2 The nature of learner differences
8.2.1 Dörnyei and Skehan (2003) identify four variables in language learner differences: . foreign language aptitude; . learning (or cognitive) style; . learner strategies; and . motivation.
6 In the written questionnaire issued as part of the workshop at the 2010 WfA tutors’ conference, one third of respondents did not answer the question on how they accommodated learner differences, even though it was the first question on the sheet. However, it may well be that these tutors felt that it was very difficult to give an adequate and concise response to such a question under the given circumstances. 40
These four are not discrete, but rather are likely to influence each other. Dörnyei and Skehan place most faith in the research on aptitude and motivation, and are more sceptical about the usefulness of researching learning style and learner strategies, noting that even though there are interesting observations to be made, they are conceptually weak and difficult to pin down (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 622). They advocate that these aspects of learner variation be reanchored in cognitive research (e.g. observations of cognitive style) and associated with the notion of self-regulation in learning. Grenfell and Macaro (2007: 28) are less dismissive of the potential for learner strategies to inform our understanding of language learning, though they concur that the research must be fully contextualised within specific tasks, and be anchored in the cognitive responses of learners.
8.2.2 Every learner is different. It is not even possible to group learners according to similar features of style, aptitude or motivation, because “even people with outwardly similar I[ndividual] D[ifference] patterns can travel very different paths as a result of some difference in a personality constituent that is seemingly irrelevant or of secondary importance” (Dörnyei, 2010: 262). Dörnyei advocates modelling individual differences as part of a complex dynamic system. Dynamic systems theory conceptualises certain factors as ‘attractors’, which will tend to draw learners back into particular patterns. If attractors that support successful learning can be identified, then predictions can be made and tested, regarding effective approaches to learner support (Dörnyei, 2010: 263).
8.2.3 Coffield et al (2004a & b) were commissioned by the Learning and Skills Development Agency, supported by the Learning and Skills Council and the Department for Education and Skills (UK) to learning style inventories and models and their potential impact on post-16 pedagogy. Their research questions were as follows: to identify those models of learning styles that are influential and potentially influential; to assess the extent of the empirical evidence that supports the claims made for the models; to evaluate the pedagogical implications of the models; and to examine the empirical evidence that models of learning styles have an impact on students learning (2004a: 3). Their conclusions included the following assertions: that it was not possible to ascertain the proportion of variance in learner achievement outcomes is attributable to learning style (2004a: 16). Also, they make that following warning:
These central features of the research field – the isolated research groups, the lack of theoretical coherence and of a common conceptual framework, the proliferating models and dichotomies, the dangers of labelling, the influence of vested interests and the disproportionate claims of supporters – have created conflict, complexity and confusion (2004a: 55).
8.2.4 Only one model is sufficiently robust to meet the evaluative critieria of Coffield at al namely the Cognitive Style Index of Allinson and Hayes. This model, however, may be of limited application to educational contexts as: ‘it was designed to be used in organisational and business contexts, and is less relevant for use with students than by teachers and managers’ (Coffield et al, 2004a: 56).
8.2.5 Overall, Coffield found that there are: ‘limitations to psychometric measures of approaches to learning’ (2004a: 57) including: ‘apparently robust classifications of students’ orientations to learning derived from a questionnaire are shown to be unreliable when the same students are interviewed’ and that self-report inventories are in fact merely the: ‘learners’ impressions of how they learn, impressions which may be inaccurate [and] self-
41 deluding’ (2004a: 58). In their conclusions with regard to offering advice to practitioners they: ‘advise against pedagogical intervention based solely on any of the learning style instruments’ (Coffield et al, 2004a: 58) and that: ‘In the current state of research-based knowledge about learning styles, there are real dangers in commending detailed strategies to practitioners, because the theorieis and instruments are not equally useful and because there is no consensus about the recommendations for practice’ (Coffield et al 2004b: 118). They caution in particular against the ‘matching hypothesis’, whereby the learning styles of students are matched to the teaching style of tutors, because: ‘the evidence from the empirical studies is equivocal at best and deeply contradictory at worst’ (Coffield et al, 2004b: 121).
8.3 Aptitude
8.3.1 According to Ranta (2008: 151-2) “aptitude reflects strengths and weaknesses in a range of cognitive abilities that underlie the language development process and which interact with other factors such as motivation and opportunity”. She proposes that “accommodating the aptitude profiles of their learners is one way that teachers can provide instruction that will help their students be the best language learners they can be” (ibid).
8.3.2 The four key components of aptitude measured in the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) of Carroll and Sapon (1959) were: . the ability to remember and encode sounds; . a sense of how the grammar of a language works; . the ability to extrapolate patterns inductively from examples; and . a memory for associations. These features were shown to predict learner performance, but only in adults. It seems that the success of children is not so tied to aptitude (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 601).
8.3.3 The MLAT measures became unpopular during the 1970s because they implied that some learners might have an intrinsic advantage over others and because aptitude seemed irrelevant to learning via communicative methods (Skehan 2002: 72). Skehan proposes a reverse approach to aptitude research, whereby aptitude tests are sought that are able to predict performance on the key components of language learning (Skehan, 2002: 90).
8.4 Learning/cognitive styles
8.4.1 Where aptitude measures are on a scale of low to high, learning/cognitive styles simply indicate differences of approach, without any necessary advantage to one over another (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 602). ‘Cognitive style’ is “a predisposition to process information in a characteristic manner”; ‘learning style’ denotes only “a typical preference for approaching learning in general” (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 602). The former, being more grounded in experimental evidence, is considered the more reliable approach for researchers. Regarding the latter, Nel (2008: 56) observes that “[a]fter more than 30 years of research no consensus has been reached about the most effective instrument for measuring learning styles and no agreement about the most appropriate pedagogical interventions.”
8.4.2 A key contrast of long standing within cognitive style is field dependence/ independence. A learner who displays field independence breaks tasks down into their component parts, and likes to work alone on problems. Field-dependent learners work in a more holistic way, and interact well with others. Both styles can at times help, at other times hinder, language learning (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 602).
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8.5 Language learning strategies
8.5.1 Strategies can be differentiated from styles in that strategies are deliberate: “activities consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning” (Griffiths, 2008: 94). Learning strategies have been extensively examined (e.g. Cohen & Macaro, 2007), and there are some insightful detailed studies of how individuals approach language learning (e.g. Stevick, 1989). In education research, the notion of strategies has been replaced by that of ‘self-regulation’, which is a more dynamic conceptualisation and focussed on the process rather than the product. However, this change has not fully filtered through in L2 research (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 610-12).
8.5.2 Although commentators do not always do so, it is useful to distinguish strategies for managing communication when you happen to be a learner, from strategies for learning. Using general communicative strategies effectively as an L2 learner can be a two-edged sword, since they may lead to solutions that do not promote learning. This is because struggling with aspects of the L2 beyond one’s current comfortable competence is not necessarily the most effective solution at the time. Achieving the short-term goal of successful communication creates positive feedback on that strategic solution, and learners may come to rely on non-optimal solutions, from the point of view of L2 mastery (Swain, 1985: 248-9; Tarone, 2006: 749).
8.5.3 Strategies for learning include approaches to memorising forms—such as mnemonics for vocabulary and paradigm lists for verb forms—and deciding to practise every day, etc. Personal strategy preferences can be so convincing for the individual that teachers and materials writers inappropriately assume that what works for them will work for everyone (Stevick, 1989). There has been considerable discussion about the extent to which language teaching should be constrained to the assumption that each learner can only use his or her one or two preferred strategies. The alternative is to support learners in working out which strategies they tend to prefer, and to develop a larger portfolio—if strategies can in fact be learned at all.
8.5.4 Grenfell and Macaro (2007: 20) explore this question, and note the risks associated with turning lists of effective learner strategies into interventions in teaching, including the potential for them to conflict, e.g. “willingness to be active and communicative might inhibit monitoring” (Grenfell & Macaro, 2007: 13). Chamot (2008: 273) recommends that explicit approaches to strategy instruction be preferred, and that they be integrated into the main teaching, rather than taught separately.
8.5.5 One weakness of learner strategy research is that some strategies are less easy to observe than others, so that “[i]n almost all learning contexts, the only way to find out whether students are using learning strategies while engaged in a language task is to ask them” (Chamot, 2008: 267), something that relies not only on their honesty but also their capacity to recognise, understand and describe what they are doing.
8.6 Motivation
8.6.1 “In broad terms, motivation is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it” (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 614). Learners may be motivated in various ways, including instrumental goals such as passing exams, and a desire to integrate into the L2 community.
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Dörnyei & Skehan (2003: 616) note that there remains a lack of clarity about how the different aspects of motivation interact, and too little is known about unconscious motives, emotional influences, the interrelationship of internal self, the environment and wider sociocultural context, and the diachronic dimension. Macaro (2003: 114-5) reflects on the most intractable questions: What actually gives rise to motivation in language learning? Is it in fact a primary impetus for learning? Might motivation be the result rather than the cause of successful learning?
8.6.2 Examinations of motivation in the classroom are few (Ushioda, 2008: 29). Many studies ostensibly exploring motivation in learners, including several on WfA, have simply asked informants why they wanted to learn the language in the first place. However, motivation is not static, even from minute to minute, and the reasons for starting to learn will often not adequately reflect the determiners of a learner’s engagement in any given class or when faced with homework or an opportunity to use the language in the community (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 617).
8.7 Implications for WfA
8.7.1 Overall, the research into individual differences tends to problematise rather than offer solutions. This creates a challenge for practitioners: While more and more teachers are recognizing the importance of a variety of factors that affect learners, many still adhere to an older model that defines their job as providing information in a fixed fashion, regardless of learner differences (Rubin, 2008: 13).
8.7.2 Adherence to such a model may be less a matter of recalcitrance than the absence of any clear alternative. Nevertheless, there are practical ways to impact on some of the challenges associated with individual differences. They include broadening the range of approaches taken to introduce and consolidate learning, so as to appeal to more learners’ cognitive styles and aptitudes, and training learners in how to deploy a wider range of strategies. These kinds of measure have the capacity to improve motivation, as learners feel more confident that they can find their own way to learn (Macaro, 2003: 116). Ushioda (2008: 27) concurs: “it becomes impossible to consider pedagogical approaches to fostering motivation from within without considering approaches to fostering self-determination”.
8.7.3 In addition, learners need support in developing and sustaining their motivation to use Welsh in the community. Here, a more holistic policy approach might help, in promoting appropriate and effective uses of Welsh in a wider range of social contexts, and in helping native speakers understand the importance of their willingness to talk to learners (Newcombe, 2009). The WfA Centres already organise activities in partnership with community-based language organisations such as the ‘Mentrau Iaith’. Further developments in this area might be explored.
9 Which methodologies should WfA be using?
9.1 Methodologies in context
9.1.1 The research literature—particularly that part of it which most closely engages with the application of theory to the practical tasks of teaching and learning—distances itself from the
44 notion that any single methodology will offer all the answers. In his overview article, R. Ellis (2005) states that “the research and theory do not afford a uniform account of how instruction can best facilitate language learning” (R.Ellis, 2005: 210).
9.1.2 The reason is that language teaching and learning are too inherently complex and variable to be approached universally. Adamson (2004: 616) notes the “world-weary cynicism” with which teachers often view new ideas for the curriculum, thus revealing
their frustration that methods—even methods as widely conceived as task-based learning—fail to take into account the totality of learning contexts, which are embedded in macro-, meso- and micro-sociocultural conditions that defy the generalizations that lie behind the promotion of particular methods.
9.1.3 This section focusses on the opportunities and limitations for WfA of communicative language teaching, including task-based and content-based learning, since this “undoubtedly represents the most interesting development in language teaching that has occurred over the past twenty-five years” (Wesche & Skehan, 2002: 227).
9.2 Locating WfA in 70 years of developments in L2 teaching methodology
9.2.1 The tradition of drilling found in WfA derives from the audiolingual method of the 1960s, in that it encourages learners to repeat linguistic patterns found in the language used by native speakers. Dialogues are used to support an awareness of how the language might be used in practical contexts.
9.2.2 The phased introduction of grammatical forms in WfA reflects the structural method of the 1970s.
9.2.3 The functionally-organised content in some WfA materials, which enables learners to develop language associated with particular contexts and uses (e.g. inviting, complaining) is inspired by the communicative language teaching approach of the 1980s.
9.2.4 Other aspects of the communicative language teaching approach are less evident in WfA, including the incorporation into the learners’ activity of “conceptual planning and decision making” (Bygate, 2002: 36). That is, while many methods introduce authentic language, a significant aspect of authenticity is omitted unless the language produced by the learners is anchored in, and produced as a result of, their own ideas.
9.2.5 Task-based learning and content-based learning are two of the specific methods developed for solving this problem. In the former, language is a vehicle in the achievement of tasks where the goal is not a linguistic one. In the latter, academic content is taught through the L2. In both cases, the learner is distracted from primary attention on the language, and rather seeks to extract and express meaning with a broader value and purpose (Wesche & Skehan, 2002). The two methods can be combined in project work, perhaps over several weeks, in which a series of different kinds of demanding linguistic activities are required in order to achieve a final outcome—for instance, reading, summarising, searching the internet, discussing, planning, etc., so as to produce a poster or presentation.
9.2.6 Ouput Two highlights some examples of activities that require the filling of information gaps and of broader tasks that call for a wide range of content and language. However, WfA
45 tutors seem relatively uninformed about the scope and potential of developments within the communicative method7.
9.2.7 Content-focussed materials are found at the Hyfedredd level, in which Welsh history, literature, music and sport are explored through the medium of Welsh. This falls short, though, of the full potential of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), whereby learners would be signing up for a course in Welsh history, or in, say, music, that happens to be taught through Welsh.
9.2.8 However, content-focussed materials can be integrated at all levels, by adhering to the principle that adult learners will enjoy interesting, engaging and, where possible, humorous texts, and lively dialogues featuring useful, authentic language and accompanied by good recordings. From these sources, the key grammar points and vocabulary can be drawn.
9.3 Current thinking on communicative methods
9.3.1 While there is still a firm belief in the research literature that a communicative approach is vital to the effective learning of the skills associated with interaction—most particularly the ability to express one’s own thoughts and ideas and achieve non-linguistic goals using the L2—it is recognised that this approach alone is not sufficient.
9.3.2 Amongst the inherent problems are those associated with attempting to replicate real non-classroom-based interaction in a classroom. However authentic the language presented to learners as that used by non-learners, “their context is a different context, that of learning a foreign language” (Trappes-Lomax, 2004: 152-3). That is, the learning context creates a distance from the natural process of communication that undermines authenticity.
9.3.3 Meanwhile, “strong versions of [Communicative Language Teaching], which assumed that ‘talking to learn’ would be sufficient, have been disappointing. In spite of their success in developing highly functional L2 skills in learners, they have not led to matching accuracy in production. It is clear that merely engaging in language use is not enough; some degree of focus on form is needed. But it is also clear that this is best done within communicative activities, rather than independently” (Wesche & Skehan, 2002: 227).
9.4 Implications for WfA
9.4.1 WfA stood somewhat outside the developments in language teaching while focus on form was replaced by focus on communication. Now, aspects of the approach that WfA had continued to use are being recognised as a valuable part of the complex methodological package.
9.4.2 This does not mean, however, that nothing should change in WfA. On the contrary, WfA is in a strong position to benefit from a fresh look at what it does, why, and how to make it work better. Task-supported, rather than task-based, learning, could combine opportunities for the learner to experience the full communicative process, from conceptualisation to successful communication with others. Meanwhile, the latest
7 Evidence from the workshop at the 2010 WfA Tutors’ conference indicates that many tutors believed their teaching was supported by some ‘tasks’ in this sense, but the examples they gave were of linguistically-focussed activities. 46 developments in L2 methodology relating to effective and interesting ways to focus on form could ensure that accuracy is also prioritised.
10 Conclusions
10.1 R. Ellis (2005) offers nine principles as characterising the findings of research into how languages are best taught. He cautions that these generalisations should be viewed as “provisional specifications” and not as “prescriptions or proscriptions” since “SLA [research] is still in its infancy” (Ellis, 2005: 210).
10.1.1 The principles, as presented by Ellis, are: . Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence. . Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus primarily on meaning. . Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form. . Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge. . Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input. . Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output. . The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency. . Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners. . In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production (Ellis 2005: 210-221, section headings).
10.1.2 The current success of WfA teaching reflects its attention, to a greater or lesser extent, to these principles. Future developments of WfA could usefully ensure that each principle is examined for its potential further to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
10.2 Specific observations on the transferability of particular teaching approaches to Welsh will be provided in due course, once the fieldwork component of the project has furnished more precise details of current practice. The findings of the literature review suggest the following pointers for WfA:
10.3 Teaching
10.3.1 No single method has all the answers, and good teachers combine methods. This implies that teachers must have the freedom, confidence, materials, knowledge and skills to respond to what their learners need. However, WfA teachers will benefit from clearer guidance regarding the most effective methods, and an understanding of why, and under what circumstances, they are effective.
10.3.2 The entire language learning and teaching enterprise is highly complex and can be volatile. This means that a teacher’s intervention, aimed at improving some aspect of learning, could have other, unintended consequences, either beneficial or non-beneficial. It will help WfA teachers to recognise the dynamics by which different aspects of the complex picture can interact, so as to be vigilant for the range of effects of their teaching.
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10.3.3 Although it has many good points, the communicative method has been demonstrated not to be fully successful, because it cannot adequately support the development of accuracy and because it does not provide a principled approach to teaching pronunciation. WfA teaching should not, therefore, adopt the pure communicative method previously favoured in L2 teaching.
10.3.4 Learning is enhanced if the content is engaging, includes useful dialogues and texts, and is backed up by contextualised language work and content-focussed activities. WfA provision will benefit from stronger content, including more content-based audio material. 10.3.5 An effective approach to teaching adults incorporates focus on form and some measure of repetition with understanding, preferably in a meaningful context, so as to create automated retrieval and production routes.
10.3.6 Vocabulary learning needs to be deliberate, because incidental learning (e.g. through reading) is very slow and requires a great many encounters.
10.3.7 Attention needs to be paid to aspects of pronunciation beyond the initial learning of how to pronounce the Welsh letters, including practice in intonation and the features of continuous speech.
10.4 Learners
10.4.1 A significant and consistent research finding is that differences between learners (in particular, aptitude and motivation) are a major determinant of teaching/learning outcomes.
10.4.2 Learners cannot be easily categorised, as their preferred styles and (particularly) motivation can change from moment to moment. However, learners have scope to learn in more than one way, and can be supported to broaden their repertoire.
10.4.3 Hostility, reluctance or embarrassment from native speakers will easily discourage learners. Therefore, it will be helpful to encourage native speakers to become more involved in the development of learners as successful speakers of Welsh.
10.5 Materials
10.5.1 While research indicates the inadequacies of any single approach, materials tend, for practical reasons, to assume everyone can learn in the same way. Attention might be paid to providing alternative ways to learn the same things, and helping learners understand and accept their own preferences, skills and limitations and to work with them.
10.5.2 There are many opportunities afforded by new technologies. This extends well beyond simply providing an electronic version of a textbook and simple knowledge-testing games. Many adult learners have a range of gadgets that could be used to support their learning, including phones, MP3/4 players, PCs/laptops/tablets, apps capability, portable DVD players, in-car audio, etc. Interactive web-based learning, e-classrooms, chat-rooms for conversation, and so on, also offer potential future benefits. However, it must be recognised that not all WfA teaching and learning takes place in contexts where electronic and internet facilities are available.
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10.6 Community-based activity
10.6.1 Community-based activities play a significant role in creating the context and opportunities for effective learning. In particular, initiatives to promote native speakers’ confidence in speaking with learners could have a major effect on integration and thereby the sustained and increased use of Welsh in the community. Moreover, some would strongly argue that ‘the most fundamental problems of education are not pedagogical’ (Coffield, 2004b: 133) but rather are social and contextual and that informal, or situated, learning is critical in addressing this (e.g. Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Kimble & Hildreth, 2008; Lave 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger 1999).
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SECTION TWO: EVALUATION OF WELSH FOR ADULTS TEACHING MATERIALS IN THE LIGHT OF CURRENT RESEARCH
1 Introduction
1.1 The purpose of this section of the report is to present the research team’s evaluation of the main WfA teaching materials currently in use—with particular emphasis on those supported by Welsh Government funding—in the light of what the current international research literature on teaching languages to adults identifies as best practice. Most attention has been paid to the beginner to intermediate levels.
1.2 Our request for materials from the WfA centres and other organisations resulted in a total of 16 sets, listed in Appendix 3. All of them were examined to establish their aims and composition. This report indicates, as accurately as possible, what was observed through this examination. However, it was clear that additional information was needed. As a result, a list of questions has been developed for the fieldwork phase of the project, which variously seek to clarify details, check the actuality of suggestions in the materials (e.g. about the amount of time dedicated to certain activities), and establish whether learners and tutors concur with certain intentions on the part of the writers (e.g. about how certain features are introduced and used).
2 How to interpret this section of the report
2.1 This report assembles a wide range of relevant research evidence, and interprets it for the WfA context. However, there are reasons to be cautious about the transferability of some kinds of evidence.
2.2 Although considerable research has been undertaken in recent decades into the learning of languages after childhood, relatively little has been done on post-school and post-university learners. The dynamics of lifelong learning can be very different from those in institutional learning settings, and mature adults may learn differently from teenagers.
2.3 The majority of the research does not address directly the questions most relevant to teaching and materials design, but rather focuses on the underlying cognitive processes of learning.
2.4 Although there is some potential for transferring cognitive research to classroom practice, innovations at the practical end of learning and teaching are not always based on the cognitive research, and often have not been all that rigorously tested.
2.5 The theoretical and the applied research have been dominated by the issues associated with teaching English as a Foreign and Second Language (EFSL). While there has been increasing cross-fertilisation of knowledge between EFSL and Modern Foreign and Second Language (MFSL) teaching, the links have not be uniformly made, and many key findings will not have been tried out on Welsh.
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2.6 There is a danger in such a report that the overall impression becomes one of shortfalls. Although, certainly, a number of opportunities for potential improvement are identified, the following must be kept in mind:
2.7 There is no evidence that any WfA course currently offered is unsuccessful, and there is ample evidence of good practice. Therefore, in line with Macaro’s (2003: 253) more general invitation to practitioners, the purpose of this report is to build on success, and, particularly, to encourage existing materials writers for WfA to develop their talents further, through greater awareness of what else has been found successful, and why.
2.8 Future materials development must balance the evidence from research against the particular priorities of Welsh language learning, the needs of WfA students, and what is practical and desirable in the Welsh context. The recommendations implicit or explicit here can be seen as a catalyst for the productive development of a new generation of materials appropriate for Welsh, rather than as any attempt to shoe-horn an already creative and energetic community of writers into a mode of working more suited to the international English language context.
2.9 It would be a mistake to infer that the body of research based on EFSL or MFSL materials design has yet resulted in a ‘perfect’ course:
Second language learning is neither cumulative nor neat and tidy. And it is in that messy, non-linear, but semi-permanent process of learning the subject, and in the myriad situations in which a second language is engaged, that the complexity of second language learning resides (Macaro, 2010: 4).
2.10 For this reason, modern practices tend to be eclectic in relation to methods, aiming to pick out the best of several and combine them (e.g. structural, communicative)—something that must be done with care, lest the potential for each method to have its intended impact be undermined.
2.11 All the mainstream courses reviewed here (that is, all but De-Suggestopedia, Llanllawen and Say Something in Welsh) reflect this combined method approach. Furthermore, the desiderata of best practice are sometimes contradictory. There may be good research evidence to support both explaining grammatical structures and not doing so; or both allowing learners to fall back on L1 in the classroom and discouraging them from doing so. This often simply demonstrates that more than one thing can work, or, more often, that different things may be most effective at different times. Indeed, it seems evident that a great many different teaching methods will work fairly well if the tutor is good and the learners are committed (Sharwood-Smith, 1981).
2.12 One research-based framework that could be used to inform principled decisions about a methodologically eclectic WfA course is Nation’s (2007) four strands approach. Nation recommends that equal time over a course be given to four kinds of activity: . meaning-focussed input (where learners listen or read without explicit focus on grammar or pronunciation), . meaning-focussed output (where learners use the language to communicate, again without explicit focus on grammar or pronunciation), . language-focussed learning (where attention is paid explicitly to grammar and pronunciation) and
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. fluency development (where learners practise being able to understand and produce the language quickly and smoothly): this may involve, for example, drilling, memorising or working to improve reading speed.
3 An evaluation of WfA materials
3.1 The WfA materials are evaluated in relation to six key observations from the literature regarding the most effective teaching approaches and materials:
. Task-supported learning . Attention to individual differences and learning styles . Attention to grammar . Effective approaches to learning vocabulary . The four skills: speaking (including pronunciation), listening, writing and reading . Technology and presentation
3.2 A further section briefly reports on issues related to teaching the Welsh language in particular. The order of presentation of these sections serves the development of the discussion, since the research literature advocates the use of task-supported approaches in pursuance of several aspects of learning, and individual differences need to be taken into account when considering the best way to teach the specific skills and knowledge types.
4 Task-based learning and task-supported learning
4.1 Following research and practice over several years in relation to task-based learning (TBL) as a methodology, most researchers now accept that there is a place for ‘tasks’ in language teaching, and task-supported learning has been widely adopted. The main difference between TBL and task-supported learning is that TBL organises the syllabus around the complexity of the tasks, while task-supported learning is likely to organise it around the language features. ‘Task’ in the context of TBL and task-supported learning has a specific meaning, and many typical classroom activities are not tasks in this sense. TBL tasks engage the learners, in pairs or groups, in meaning-focussed production and comprehension of the L2, for the purpose of achieving a non-linguistic goal. ‘Tasks’ are designed either to require or strongly promote particular language features, or to encourage language use without constraints, in pursuit of the goal (e.g. Ellis, 2003). They require the use of the target language either as a rehearsal for real-world language use, or to perform language functions that would be performed in authentic situations.
4.2 Tasks are said by some researchers to enhance learning by making learners focus on what they want to say, rather than what they can say, and consequently notice, and become motivated to address, the shortfall between the two. Design features of tasks can push the learner towards accuracy, towards fluency (being able to speak smoothly without hesitation or repetition) or towards complexity (the use of language features that are at the ‘cutting edge’ of the learner’s new language); all tasks involve trade-offs between these three features (e.g. Bygate, 2001).
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4.3 The TBL research and teaching literature offers a wide range of examples of tasks that could be adapted for the WfA context (see for example McDonough & Shaw, 2003). There are some good examples of tasks across the WfA materials, though their inclusion does not seem systematic. Not surprisingly, tasks are most common after the Mynediad and Sylfaen levels, since they require learners to produce and understand language sufficiently well to achieve an outcome. For instance, the Canolradd materials for WJEC, as also the GwC files intended to supplement the WJEC course, include many tasks that entail eliciting real information from other learners. However, the topics (e.g. holidays, your family, extended family, food, eating out, housework, shopping, TV & radio, interests, the summer), might benefit from a wider range and depth of interest.
4.4 In SWWC Cwrs Mynediad Dwys, the Open University (OU) course, and elsewhere, it is often revision exercises that qualify as ‘tasks’ in the task-supported learning sense, including group games and asking classmates for information or opinions. Whether during revision or not, tasks can, as appropriate, be designed to target particular aspects of language that the learner needs to practise.
4.5 The OU course is particularly challenged in relation to meeting the criteria for tasks, because learners work so much alone. Typical exercises do have a meaning focus and outcomes that involve developing useful real-world skills (e.g. filling in a commercial order form and writing a cheque (Croeso 1, practice book: 58), giving directions (Croeso 2: 192)). However, the home-study focus of the OU course naturally limits the opportunity for extending the range of language use, negotiating meaning, etc. to only those points where learners meet with each other and/or a tutor.
4.6 Across the board in the WfA materials there are many ‘activities’ that would not qualify as tasks, as defined by communicative linguistics, because they have a primary linguistic purpose. Applying the four key defining criteria—undertaken in pairs or groups, requiring production and/or comprehension of the L2, focus on meaning, and having a clear outcome— many existing activities could relatively easily be made more task-like. For instance, I. Tasks aimed at gathering information from others (e.g. WJEC; GwC) involve two or more people using Welsh and have a clear outcome. The activity could be enhanced by challenging learners (even relative beginners) to come up with a report at the end of the activity, such as a simple table tallying the responses from other classmates. The task will be more interesting if each learner is given something different to find out. II. Beyond beginner level, information-gathering tasks will be most productive if they can develop themes beyond simply asking a question and getting an answer, to involve more negotiation of ideas and meanings. Simply adding the question ‘why’ could make a major difference to the quality of Welsh produced in such tasks. III. The ‘jigsaw’ activity in Llanllawen and CVGC Meistroli involves pairs of learners reassembling the cut-up pieces of the script into order. It is meaning-focussed, requires comprehension of the text, and has a clear outcome. But it can be done in silence. To encourage more use of spoken Welsh, the pieces could be distributed into three piles, one each for the two players and one ‘hidden’ pile. Players could ask each other if they have particular pieces and negotiate on when to release pieces from the hidden pile. IV. Bringing in photographs from home (e.g. CVGC Uwch course) could be used as part of a task, as it has good potential to invite a range of original language. However,
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there needs to be a clear outcome, such as deciding which photos to use on a website or in a display, or awarding prizes for the best photos. V. Writing short paragraphs and reading them aloud to the class could lead to a task. If all the paragraphs are on the same topic, they could generate both questions and comments, and lead to a group conclusion about their collective view or experiences. VI. Using family trees to develop learners’ ability to talk about relationships (e.g. GwC, Sylfaen file; WJEC Sylfaen) is another potentially useful idea. A valuable opportunity for follow-on tasks lies in asking pairs to work towards drawing each other’s family tree, present it to others and receive questions about it—again, ‘why’ questions (e.g. ‘why did your grandmother move from Wales?’) create opportunities for extending the use of language, though it remains important to have an outcome associated with each supplementary activity—perhaps a display about the group’s family connections with Wales.
4.7 A variety of task types will enable the learning opportunity to be fully exploited. Tasks may require more time to explain than other activities, precisely because they are less pedestrian and more creative for the learner, but for the same reason they are likely to maintain engagement, interest and motivation in adult learners, because the relevance of the language in use is more evident.
4.8 Tasks are difficult, but not impossible, to do with beginners. There is no reason not to pre-teach useful expressions, including ways to get out of linguistic trouble (e.g. Llanllawen, intensive courses, WJEC), and to do versions of the same task more than once—provided new outcomes are possible.
5 Attention to individual differences and learning styles
5.1 Individual differences between learners are a major factor determining language learning outcomes (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 589), and research has increasingly focussed on gaining a better understanding of the dynamics of these differences and how they can be handled. Yet, although learner differences are widely acknowledged by teachers and course writers, teaching materials are almost always based on the assumption that learners are all the same or, at least, that treating them all the same will not be detrimental (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 593). Part of the justification for this view is that learners are capable of adapting to more than one approach to learning. However, the main reasons for taking this position are practical and commercial. A single coursebook for all learners can be produced and distributed in large quantities. In competitive markets, the larger the scale of the operation, the greater the potential for investing in a high quality, attractive product.
5.2 As a result, there has been something of a mismatch between the actual learner variation in real classrooms, and the homogeneity implied by most course books (a mismatch which it has been the teacher’s lot to cope with, as best she or he can) (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003: 594).
5.3 It should come as little surprise that the current WfA materials do not address or accommodate individual learner differences in any greater measure than most other EFSL and MFSL textbooks. While bearing in mind that tutors as well as teaching materials have a function in this regard, the key opportunities may include:
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5.4 Provide different types of material, to accommodate different preferred approaches, aptitudes and motivations. A course can offer variety in how it presents and practises new information, so that, at different points in the course, learners are able to benefit from a good match to their particular interests, abilities or preferred approach. Overall, the WfA materials indicate that writers are aware of the different ways in which individuals learn, and there are activities that require a kinaesthetic, visual, auditory approach, etc., a variety of topics including TV and radio, nature, attention to functional activities such as buying a Welsh card in a shop, and soap opera stories to follow. However, these approaches tend not to all be available for learning each new item—that is, learners do not have much choice about how to engage with new information, meaning that, in effect, everyone needs to be able to engage effectively with all the different approaches, if they are to cope with the course. Tutors may find they are developing supplementary materials to meet the needs of the individuals in their own group—if, for instance, no one is responding well to one particular kind of activity. This sort of local response is very valid, and could be supported by the sharing of such supplementary material in an online database. There is a limit to how much choice it is possible to give to learners in the classroom, but practice books might benefit from including options for several different exercises, all aimed at consolidating the same learning point.
5.5 Educate learners to broaden their repertoire of comfortable styles. Although this is an implicit strategy in most of the WfA materials, the marker of a deliberate policy would be exercises that specifically develop new skills. For example, the OU raises learners’ awareness of the process of study (Course guide: 26ff) and there is a range of exercise types. The suggested “ways of noting vocabulary” (ibid.: 22) leave the individual to decide which strategies to try. Some implicit help with choosing how to do things is contained in the guidance about organising one’s time, when and how to refer to the answers at the back of the book, and how to use the tutor support.
5.6 Undertake activities intended to reduce the effects of learner differences. The clearest case in WfA is the attempt in De-Suggestopedia to minimise inhibitions, stress, negative emotions, and pre-existing beliefs and assumptions about language learning—which can certainly be one basis of differences between learners: “The Suggestopedic teacher has to gradually, and unobtrusively, get the students to change their self perception and adopt a more positive mental attitude”.8 De-Suggestopedia may not be suitable as a general approach for WfA as a whole as a range of researchers have pointed out that its particular approach does not suit all learners and some researchers question the scientific basis upon which De- Suggestopedia is based, many pointing to Scovel’s assertion (1979: 258 & 265) that it is ‘pseudo-scientific’ (e.g. Johnson, 2001: 190; Richards & Rodgers, 2001: 106). Krashen’s sympathetic review of Suggestopedia as a method theoretically appropriate to his own view of language acquisition (1982: 142-6) ought to be tempered by the results of the research of Bushman and Madsen (1976), pointing out some limitations to the method, as Krashen acknowledges (Krashen, 1982: 158-160). Indeed, Lozanov (the initiator of this approach to language learning) presents De-Suggestopedia as a placebo (e.g. 1978: 267) but asserts that the placebo effect is in any case real. Despite doubts regarding the precise scientific basis of the approach, there is scope for learners to experience short inputs using De-Suggestopedia, or for other methods to develop activities that achieve the effect of minimising inhibitions etc. While some practitioners of De-Suggestopedia might argue that the approach cannot be cherry-picked and can only be effective if adopted as a piece, other SLA researchers have
8http://www.popethcymraeg.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=bl og&id=12&Itemid=21&lang=en 55 argued that discrete aspects of the approach can be effectively ulitised (e.g. Bancroft, 1978 & 1996; Richards & Rodgers, 2001; Scovel, 1979; Stevick, 1980). In any case, there is some variation, some would say ambiguity, amongst De-Suggestopedia practitioners regarding various aspects of the techniques associated with the approach (Richards & Rogers, 2001: 142). For example, some assert that the defining feature the approach is the length of ‘the story’, or ‘concert text’, and the size of the linguistic input, comprising between 800 and 1,000 words (Popeth Cymraeg, 2011: 1), yet examples of De-Suggestopedia materials that are in contrast to this may be found (Appendix 9; Kussler & Bodenstein, 1985; Richards & Rogers, 2001: 147; see also Van Der Merwe, 2005 for concert texts in the context of technology-based programmes). Llanllawen has in common with De-Suggestopedia the attempt to modify, rather than simply accommodate, individual differences in levels of motivation, by creating a powerfully active atmosphere of fun and engagement. Even here, though, learners will respond differently, as some are keen to move faster through the ‘games’ than others9. Some sub-types of learner can be particularly challenging for the tutor and the class, particularly if there is a strong lead from the method and materials about how the teaching should be delivered. The next sections consider a few examples.
5.7 Learners who need to write everything down. One common difference between adult learners is the extent of their need to write information down at the time it is delivered to them. In most western classroom learning situations, writing things down would be the norm. But some versions of the Wlpan course have tended to dissuade learners from writing during the drilling sessions. Although there are pedagogical justifications for this approach, imposing a rule about not writing things down can be argued to compromise the preferences and (self-perceived) needs of certain types of learners. Overall, cognitive research into learning indicates that combining aural and visual information is a more secure route for most people than just one or the other (Schmitt, 2008).
5.8 Learners who ask a lot of questions. Several of the WfA coursebooks contain versions of the ‘Hitch-hiker’s Guide’ for learners, which gives a clear signal that asking questions about grammar in class is not desirable. Yet asking questions is essential for some types of learner. Aside from the time taken up, a risk with allowing a lot of questions, particularly at the lower levels, is that they increase the amount of L1 used in the class. In this regard, books that contain explanations in the L1 (e.g. WJEC; OU) can help satisfy the learner’s needs. Those that marginalise L1, such as CVGC Mynediad and Sylfaen, may impel learners to seek clarification in L1 in the class, knowing that they will struggle to find answers in the textbook in their own time. Course books could help learners and tutors by introducing suitable phrases for asking questions about the language in Welsh rather than English.
5.9 Different needs and purposes for learning. Learners choose to study Welsh for different reasons, and their reasons may also change subsequently. A generic course is only ever likely to furnish something of a scattergun approach to different needs and interests, rather than being a means for learners to tailor-make their learning. However, there are small ways to make a difference. The WJEC course makes a number of gestures towards different learner needs, from its invitation to Mynediad learners to supplement a vocabulary list with a small number of additional words of relevance to them personally (e.g. p.17), to supplementary material for parents and for people in the workplace. The new ‘Welsh for the family’ course (WJEC Mynediad) is an example of a fully-tailored course for a particular group of learners. Llanllawen accommodates somewhat the needs of parents and grandparents by shifting the
9 Based on comments from a focus group with Llanllawen learners. 56 focus of the stories, in book 2, to the experiences and language of the child characters in their school environment. Elsewhere, introductory ‘taster’ courses focus on particular interest groups. For instance, CVGC has devised a short course based around rugby. However, this approach is not sustained, and learners subsequently have to slot into the mainstream introductory course, where the same structures are introduced again, without the interest theme. In fact across the mainstream beginners’ courses there is little apparent scope for accommodating different purposes of learning, or individual preferences and interests in relation to how the language might be used. After beginner level, a wider range of social situations is covered (e.g. WJEC Cwrs Canolradd).
5.10 Learners who don’t understand the learning point. Learners can be easily undermined if they fail to understand when everyone else seems to. Tutors need autonomy to modify their current or a future lesson plan—and this is easier to achieve in some courses than others. Materials that build in opportunities to point a particular learner at an alternative explanation that they can read up in their own time may help a tutor who is torn between the needs of one part of the class and another. Some materials make it difficult for learners to help themselves, e.g. where there is no summary of grammatical patterns at the back, and where little L1 explanation is given. Several courses (e.g. WJEC) build in regular revision units so there are opportunities for recycling key learning points. OU learners are additionally referred to ‘Teach Yourself Welsh’ as a resource for checking grammatical points. In Llanllawen and De-Suggestopedia, the notion of ‘understanding’ is arguably different, since the emphasis is on working with parallel Welsh and English texts, using the English to extract meaning from the Welsh, so as to facilitate the development of implicit knowledge of the patterns. Nevertheless, learners presumably could fail to notice pattern features and feel unsure about how they would extrapolate to new examples.
5.11 Learners who fall behind. Even the most enthusiastic and committed learners may have to miss classes, or may be unable to complete their homework, because of work commitments, holidays, illness or family demands, and it is important for teaching materials to be appropriately designed to enable catching up. Where materials are not intrinsically geared to home study, other solutions may be available. For instance, at CVGC, the e- materials from the (Mynediad/Sylfaen and Canolradd) blended courses are made available to class-based learners who miss lessons. Until recently, learners at CVGC who, anticipating a forthcoming absence, wished to pre-learn a lesson, were compromised by the practice of providing the next lesson materials only in the class. However, Newcombe (2009: 35-6) reports that “in response to research findings on how adults learn”, the Centre tutors now make it possible for learners to see course materials in advance. In regard to supporting learners to get back on track, much can be learned from the design of the OU course, which intrinsically supports learning outside of the classroom environment.
6 Attention to grammar
6.1 The current research literature recognises the importance of explicit attention to the grammar when teaching adults, rather than assuming that it will be naturally assimilated in the course of encountering L2 input. The favoured approach is focus on form, where the learner’s attention is drawn to a structure in the context of another activity, such as reading for meaning or undertaking a ‘task’.
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6.2 Presentation of grammar
6.2.1 While researchers seem to concur that it is not appropriate for grammar to have the dominant role in language teaching materials for adults (De Keyser, 1998), there is clear evidence that the explicit teaching of grammatical rules is beneficial for learners over the age of around L2 (Norris & Ortega, 2000). The best MFSL textbooks tend to separate out the structural aspects and make grammar a useful tool rather than an end in itself.
6.2.2. Overall, the WfA materials cover a lot of grammatical ground and provide excellent summaries (e.g. at the back of the book). The pattern is often practised before it is explained, which encourages inference from observation. The University-based WfA courses developed at CVGC, MWC, NWC and SWWC include pre-explanation repetition and substitution pattern drilling as integral up to at least intermediate level.
6.2.3 Materials used alongside drilling do not necessarily provide a written explanation of the pattern, though the NWC materials provide a gloss of the key vocabulary used in the drills. In the CVGC courses, there are short, simple sections headed “dych chi’n cofio”, designed for recapping points at the end of the class, though these might not be adequate for a learner who had not already picked up on the pattern and its use.
6.2.4 The most recently developed Canolradd course at CVGC introduces a grammar explanation before the drill and broadens the range of drilling activities to include question and answer, transformation (from Unit 8) and translation. NWC’s materials appear to replace drilling with pattern lists, dialogues and reading passages by intermediate level.
6.2.4 The purpose of drilling is to give learners the means to use grammatical forms automatically when they need them, and this ability (one facet of fluency) is an important aspect of second language learning. There are arguments for devising drill-like activities that are more motivating and communicative than straightforward drills. For example, in a class survey where each learner is asking all the other learners his or her chosen question with the aim of reporting the result to the class, each learner is effectively drilling the question form by saying it to every other class member, but is doing so with a genuine communicative purpose and intrinsic interest (see Segalowitz & Gatbonton, 2005, for a discussion of the advantages of this approach. See also Pearson, 1998, for a practical introduction to ‘communicative drilling’).
6.2.5 A risk with drilling without explanation is that the practice of a pattern is undertaken without a clear appreciation of the meaning. In addition, building practice around logical patterns rather than authentic examples can risk them being unidiomatic. Two courses that do couple form and meaning tightly are De-Suggestopedia and Llanllawen. Grammatical forms are introduced within the context of the script, with the intention that exposure in this way to native-like forms will make them familiar, and sound right, from the start. The patterns are also explained and further practised with exercises.
6.2.6 Particularly good examples of focus on form are found in the SWWC course. While the WJEC and OU materials do address the grammar head-on, and the provision is more than adequate, it is largely ‘forms-based’—students examine and practise a new structure within the context of structure-focussed activities, rather than as a means to expressing desired meanings. The Llanllawen materials are also focussed on forms, with strong emphasis on
58 mastering the text for its own sake, even though the larger goal is the deployment of text fragments, and alternatives derived from them, in real interaction. GwC’s Mynediad file (which supplements WJEC) offers practice in constructing sentences, but often it is group- work, and it is not clear how individuals receive feedback on what they are getting right and wrong.
6.2.7 A danger with grammar practice is that too little repetition or time is available, to consolidate the learning before moving on. To help counter this, the OU study guide (p.8) suggests writing the answers to practice exercises in a separate notebook, so the exercises can be done more than once.
6.2.8 The WJEC materials have regular checklists, with the instruction “Ticiwch beth dych chi’n gallu wneud”, Tick what you can do (e.g. Sylfaen: 50), though this leaves the learners to decide what to do (if anything) if they cannot tick an item. The OU also provides checklists at the end of each unit, with the instruction, “If you are unsure about anything listed here, go back and review the relevant session and your own notes before moving on” (e.g. Croeso book 1: 197).
6.2.9 Not all course materials provide appendices summarising the key grammatical features covered. SWWC (Mynediad Dwys), Llanllawen (all 4 books), Popeth Cymraeg (Mynediad 1 and 2), NWC (Wlpan) and MWC are amongst those that do, but CVGC and WJEC do not.
6.3 An ‘anti-grammar’ culture
6.3.1 In EFSL and MFSL teaching worldwide there is typically an expectation that grammar will be given direct attention, and that both learners and tutors are familiar with basic terminology. In the WfA materials, however, there are indications of an avoidance culture. The ‘Hitch-hiker’s Guide’ and equivalent initial pointers for learners, which are found in several courses including WJEC, NWC and MWC, advise: “how to annoy your tutor: ask about grammar”. MWC’s Mynediad Dwys also recommends “try not to ask about grammar” (p.8).
6.3.2 The preface to Llanllawen states, “Grammar takes second place, and can be referred to only to meet the needs of inquisitive learners”. Grammatical concepts are presented in non- technical ways—e.g. ’n/yn is referred to as ‘glue’ (Llanllawen, book 1: 132)—and learners are encouraged not to attend to grammatical accuracy if it will prevent them speaking: “There are no ‘glue police’ or ‘mutation police’” (p.132). Learners are advised that if they say dw i’n caru ti instead of dw i’n dy garu di, “Don’t spoil the moment—keep going—you will have been understood” (book 4: 19).
6.3.3 Bangor describes its approach as follows: The course is structured but not presented in a grammatical way. Assume that the tutor knows nothing about grammar: he/she won’t expect you to. Anyway, you’ve come to learn to speak Welsh, not to talk about it. The tutor guidelines reflect the same impression that the grammar is a ‘can of worms’: Mae strwythur gramadegol pendant i’r cwrs ... Mae’r rhan fwyaf o unedau’n canolbwyntio ar un patrwm penodol, gan gyflwyno cyfres o frawddegau defnyddiol sy’n cynnwys y patrwm hwnnw ... Wedi dweud hynny, nid cyflwyno ‘gramadeg’ fel y cyfryw yw’r nod a rhaid ceisio osgoi defnyddio termau gramadegol fel ‘berf’ ‘arddodiad’ ac ati wrth ddysgu (NWC Cwrs Wlpan: Cyflwyniad – Canllawiau: 1).
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The course has a definite grammatical structure … Most of the units concentrate on one definite pattern and introduce a series of useful sentences which contain these patterns … Having said that, the aim is not to present ‘grammar’ in the strictest sense, and grammatical terms like ‘verb’, ‘adjective’ etc. must be avoided when teaching (Cwrs Wlpan y Gogledd: Cyflwyniad – Canllawiau: 1).
6.3.4 The WJEC 2005 Cwrs Mynediad tutors’ handbook states: Mae adran ar ramadeg ar ddiwedd pob uned. Does dim rhaid tynnu sylw at hyn yn y dosbarth, gan fod llawer o bobl yn ansicr wrth drafod gramadeg. Gellir tynnu sylw at rai pwyntiau wrth fynd ymlaen, ond ni ddylid treulio amser yn y dosbarth yn trafod gramadeg (t.iii, mewn du yn y fersiwn wreiddiol). There is a grammar section at the end of every unit. There is no need to draw attention to this in class, since lots of people are unsure/insecure about discussing grammar. Attention may be drawn to some points as you go along, but time should not be spent in class discussing grammar (p.iii, original bold).
6.3.5 Phylip Brake (MWC), in his guidance for tutors, advises that “Er bod rhai o’r taflenni’n eithaf gramadegol eu natur, ni ddylid gorbwysleisio’r elfen honno” (Although some of our handouts are quite grammatical in nature, this element should not be overemphasised) (Canllawiau i Diwtoriaid ar gyfer MWC Cwrs Sylfaenol, 2010: 2, original bold). Also, “ni ddylid esbonio’r nod mewn termau gramadegol, e.e. gwell dweud, ‘We’re going to discuss things which have happened,’ yn hytrach na ‘We’re going to do the present perfect’” (the aim/objective [of the lesson] should not be explained in grammatical terms, e.g. “it’s better to say, We’re going to discuss things which have happened, instead of We’re going to do the present perfect.” (ibid: 4).
6.3.6 In contrast, the SWWC courses engage much more directly with grammar. The course content description (p.7) speaks of learning grammar in a matter-of-fact manner. The grammar appendix explains why it’s important to learn which words are feminine—it determines the mutations--and learners are encouraged to “Have a go! Nothing can be learned without mistakes” (Mynediad: 374).
6.3.7 It is important to tease apart at least four different aspects of how grammar figures, or does not figure, in WfA materials. (1) All courses introduce learners to Welsh grammar, by means of examples of native-like grammatical sentences. (2) All courses provide some measure of pattern-description, to help learners prepare themselves for generating grammatical sentences they have not seen before. In most cases, this includes dedicated appendices or other sections presenting full grammatical patterns. (3) Approaches within WfA vary in the extent to which grammar is talked about for its own sake and questions about grammar are encouraged in class. (4) When grammar is discussed, there may be an attempt to avoid using technical terminology that it is believed learners will not understand or will find intimidating.
6.3.8 Thus, there is no direct contradiction between sustaining an ‘anti-grammar culture’ and teaching grammar, because the former relates only to aspect (4) and, perhaps (3). It probably reflects aspects of UK education policy in the past, which did not introduce grammatical terminology during the study of English. Within the UK, low expectations about grammatical knowledge are widespread—see, for example, the views of teachers in Mitchell and Martin’s (1997) study of secondary school French. It seems likely that the communicated aversion to
60 grammar in the WfA materials is driven not only by the low confidence of tutors, but also by the low baseline knowledge, and associated beliefs and assumptions, of many learners.
6.3.9 In addition, the WfA tendency to avoid direct grammar discussion may be inherited somewhat from the preference not to analyse grammar in the original Wlpan developed by Chris Rees in the 1970s: Nid oedd gramadeg ffurfiol yn cael ei ddysgu ond gofalwyd bod pob Cam neu Uned, yn y driliau, yn cyflwyno eitemau gramadegol newydd a bod holl brif batrymau brawddegol ac amrywiadau gramadegol yr iaith yn cael eu trosglwyddo o fewn 60 cam y cwrs (Rees, 2000: 35). Formal grammar was not taught but it was ensured that every Step or Unit, in the drills, presented new grammatical items and that all of the language’s main sentence patterns and grammatical variations were conveyed within the course’s 60 steps (Rees, 2000: 35). Yr oedd y pwyslais ar ailadrodd, defnyddio’r frawddeg nid y gair unigol yn sylfaen y dysgu, cadw’r tempo, osgoi dadansoddi, peidio â chaniatáu cwestiynau, na chywiro nac enwau yn ystod y drilio ac wrth gwrs, dim Saesneg (ibid: 36, ychwanegwyd y pwyslais). The emphasis was on repetition, using the sentence not the individual word as the basis of learning, keeping the tempo, avoiding analysis, not allowing questions, correction or names during the drilling, and of course, no English (ibid: 36, emphasis added)
Rees was keen not to undermine the development of fluency by correcting learners too much (Newcombe, 2009: 36). It was an approach also reflecting the then popular belief that adult learners could infer L2 grammar purely through exposure, as children do—an assumption somewhat borne out by the success of the early Hebrew Ulpan method. The idea that after childhood, learners can infer L2 grammar purely through exposure has been falsified, for example by the studies of the Canadian immersion programmes, where after six years of daily classroom exposure, learners understood the L2 very well, but were not at all accurate in their use of grammatical forms (e.g. Swain, 1985; Genesee, 1987).
7 Effective approaches to learning vocabulary
7.1 Although it is impossible to use a language communicatively without a sizeable vocabulary, “vocabulary learning as a separate and structured activity is remarkably lacking from foreign-language courses” (Macaro, 2003: 63). Intensive research into vocabulary acquisition over the past three decades provides considerable detail about what ‘knowing a word’ means and the limitations of incidental vocabulary learning through reading. Teachers often have an aversion to focussing on vocabulary learning for its own sake (Nation, 1990: 1), and unless the teaching materials provide very clear guidance and support, opportunities for building up word knowledge may not be exploited, with the result that learners encounter words for the third or fourth time without yet even recognising them, let alone easily decoding their meaning.
7.2 Introducing vocabulary in course materials is not a simple matter. Considerations include: I. enough vocabulary for the learner to be able to say interesting things, while not being overwhelmed with more vocabulary than can be effectively managed
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II. how much attention to draw to it III. how to convey its meaning IV. how often to recycle it V. how to develop depth of meaning, and supply evidence of its use.
7.3 Introduction of vocabulary
7.3.1 The approach to vocabulary introduction is noticeably different across WfA courses. At the two extremes lie the massive exposure to new words in the De-Suggestopedia scripts— over 1200 words in Act 1 alone—and the minimal use of vocabulary in Say Something in Welsh, which within a 12.5 hour introductory course provides extensive practice of the present tense, the wnes past, wedi, the future (bydd, mynd i), newydd and ar fin, for all persons other than 3rd plural, including questions and yes/no answers, using a total vocabulary of less than 130 words excluding different forms of the same verb, fewer than 20 of them nouns.
7.3.2 The more mainstream courses take a traditional approach to balancing the introduction of new words and new structures. A comparison of the word-introduction rate would not be all that helpful, both because simply introducing a word is such a small part of whether or not it is learned, or even remembered, and because courses are divided into units of different types and sizes.
7.4 Support and guidance for learning vocabulary
7.4.1 The WJEC and OU courses provide lists of vocabulary, but without an obvious strategy, or much indication of how learners should handle them. In particular, it is not clear whether the lists are based on criteria of frequency, coverage and/or usefulness, as with the best course materials for other languages. In the WJEC course, the glossary lists in the chapters do not capture all of the vocabulary used in the associated texts (e.g. Canolradd, unit 19). Although there are good reasons to highlight particular vocabulary as particularly important to target, it is not clear how learners can understand a passage containing vocabulary that is not glossed—research shows that effective reading comprehension requires 95-98% knowledge of the vocabulary. The WJEC materials provide, in every fifth unit, a usefully large list of vocabulary, some from the preceding chapters, but some of it is new, meaning that the learner has not had an opportunity to see it in context.
7.4.2 The ‘Hitch-hiker’s Guides’ at the start of some coursebooks draw attention to the fact that learning is a process of remembering, forgetting, reminding and remembering (e.g. NWC’s Mynediad: 7), which is of some help to learners who might otherwise be disorientated by the non-linear experience of memorisation. GwC materials, supplementing the WJEC ones, offer vocabulary lists and flashcards, though it is not clear what the learners should infer about how much of this vocabulary could or should be memorised. The OU provides general guidance on noting vocabulary (course guide: 22) but nothing on how to learn it. No mention seems to be made of memorisation. Vocabulary lists are provided for each unit, including a re-listing of words from previous chapters. Although this is immensely helpful for learners, it could be argued that it makes it too easy for them to avoid learning the vocabulary, and even signals that it is not necessary to.
7.4.3 There is no mention of memorisation as advice for learners in CVGC’s textbook material, and little if any in the guidelines for tutors. In the Canolradd guidelines, tutors are
62 prompted to conduct two five minute vocabulary revision sessions in the first five units, though no indication is given of what they might entail. In the Uwch and Meistroli guidelines, tutors are encouraged to create flashcards to help learners with vocabulary, with exercises entailing choosing the correct lexical item from a list of 6 to be inserted into a sentence.
7.4.4 The SWWC course does particularly well in supporting vocabulary learning. The book comes with a CD of the vocabulary, a good number of vocabulary revision activities, and some guidelines on learning vocabulary, including a 10-point guide, based on Paul Meara’s research, to vocabulary acquisition (see pp.386-8).
7.4.5 The Llanllawen approach is very different, in that learners do put considerable time into memorising vocabulary in its sentential context in the stories. Subsequent activities help the learners recognise the forms of the individual words. There is less evident encouragement to learners to study the supplementary vocabulary provided in the chapters. As noted above, De- Suggestopedia introduces large quantities of vocabulary. One can infer from the approach that there are no specially-targeted vocabulary lists and no tests, and even with the content of a class being pre-taught, clearly so much vocabulary could not be given direct attention. In the text, some material is in bold, but it’s not clear what or why.
7.4.6 There is a full vocabulary list at the back of some books (e.g. MWC; SWWC), though not all. Popeth Cymraeg Mynediad provides thematic lists (entertainment, buildings, the countryside, etc.) including verbs under some topics, but omitting some high frequency vocabulary, such as come, speak, eat, etc. NWC and SWWC provide two-way vocabulary lists and include formulaic strings, and SWWC’s list gives pronunciation information (for around one third of items), and singular and plural imperative forms. MWC Sylfaenol (2010) has a Welsh-English gives verb stems where they deviate from root stems. MWC is unusual in also providing plural forms. A general limitation of the materials is the lack of attention to developing depth of knowledge—that is, appreciating the more subtle meanings and distributions of words.
8 Formulaic language
8.1 It is increasingly recognised that one significant aspect of vocabulary is idiomatic multiword strings, also known as formulaic language (Wray, 2002, 2008a & 2008b). Particularly valuable for WfA learners will be routine expressions for interaction (greetings, requests, expressions of regret, warnings, etc.), and idiomatic turns of phrase. However, a broader coverage of formulaic expressions than just those associated with simple conversations and discourse organisation will help ensure that learners can differentiate formulations that are grammatical and meaningful but happen not to be what a native speaker would say, from those that are also native-like. Although in the short term it is not necessarily detrimental to mainstream communication if learners are unidiomatic, it does serve to mark out even very proficient learners as learners, which can influence how they are treated. In addition, the introduction of unidiomatic expressions in the fluent learner population can contribute over time to changes in the language (Wray & Grace, 2007).
8.2 Typically, WfA courses introduce early on a set of useful formulaic phrases to support basic interaction, and bring in more, in greater or lesser measure, subsequently, with the SWWC, NWC and WJEC courses particularly good at targeting them. The coverage of the
63 broader sweep of idiomatic expressions is more contingent on the nature of the texts used. Llanllawen aims to capture idiomaticity and inculcate it through memorisation in the learners. The same is presumably the case for De-Suggestopedia. But in some other courses, the absence of extensive texts for reading, particularly early on, could constrain the learners’ opportunities to home in on the subset of grammatical sentences that also ‘sounds right’ to native speakers.
9 The four skills: speaking, listening, writing and reading
9.1 Research has furnished considerable depth and detail to our understanding of what is entailed in mastering speaking, listening, reading and writing (see for example the state of the art articles by Grabe, 2004; McCarthy & O’Keefe, 2004; Silva & Brice, 2004; Vandergift, 2004). While each aspect of knowledge is somewhat discrete, teachers know that effective mastery of the four skills entails a capacity seamlessly to integrate information across the boundaries between them. A learner’s productive capacity, through speaking and writing, is naturally limited by what he or she knows, with shortfalls being made up by means of guessing, circumlocuting or over-extending what is known. Meanwhile, there is no limit on content in the case of listening and reading, and the effectiveness of engaging in these activities is better understood not as contingent on the precise nature of the learners’ receptive language knowledge, but rather on their capacity to handle and work constructively with what is unknown.
9.2 Speaking
9.2.1 Although there are many aspects to speaking, we will consider here only general communicative activity, and pronunciation and fluency, to avoid overlap with other aspects of the discussion (e.g. in relation to accuracy of grammar, effective retrieval of vocabulary).
9.2.2 Oral communication: WfA materials are characterised by prioritising speaking from the very start, and presenting a variety that is neither formal nor literary. The challenge of how you speak before you know how to say much is directly addressed in Llanllawen, which includes a set of phrases to use “when you don’t know what to say” (Book 1:.3), “ways of avoiding yes and no” (Book 1: 6) and “a response for every occasion” (Book 1: 7-9). While all the class-based courses aim to elicit spoken responses, the OU has to take a different approach, since so much of the study is potentially solitary. Opportunities are provided for using the language in on-line tutorials, and some of the material is ‘conversational’ in content, though, in the self-study context, it must fall short of being genuinely ‘communicative’. The ACEN Cyn-fynediad i Rieni course is highly functional in purpose, though it is not clear from the materials themselves how learners engage with them. WJEC, from Sylfaen onwards, includes dialogues that are first read and then modified and, from Canolradd, activities such as talking about a topic for five minutes.
9.2.3 Pronunciation: Intelligibility, integration and efficiency are all reasons for developing pronunciation skills. All the WfA textbooks reviewed in this project include some initial basic input on pronunciation. However, it is focussed on grapheme-phoneme correspondences (e.g. how to pronounce the letters written as
64 pronunciation as fundamentally about mapping the written form to speech, rather than creating accuracy within speech. Presumably, a listening-only course would, at the point of introducing the written form, need to provide guidance on spelling.
9.2.4 Not all WfA courses follow on explicitly with regular pronunciation practice throughout. The OU does, and the coverage in NWC’s Meistroli course is particularly good. Popeth Cymraeg Mynediad supplies a CD covering words, phrases and dialogues, and the Llanllawen texts are also on CD. The SWWC Mynediad and Sylfaen courses provide pronunciation models as well as guidance on sentence stress on CD.
9.2.5 Although the WfA teaching materials overall contain little about the finer points of pronunciation, such as how to combine sounds, make them sound more native-like, or produce words and sentences authentically, this does not mean tutors are not developing pronunciation accuracy in class. Listening and repeating activities, including drilling, provide an opportunity for learners to pay attention to the phonetic realisations of the sounds within the sentence and also to the intonation. Tutors are supported, in some instances, by useful advice. The 2010 tutor guidelines for Ceredigion Sylfaenol dedicate 3 pages to Ceredigion pronunciation, with transcriptions in the phonetic alphabet, with the instruction that it is important to “dysgu’r ynganiad sydd agosaf at yr hyn a ddefnyddir yn lleol” [teach the pronunciation which most closely matches the local variant] (p.7). Particular words from the units are identified as being useful for focussing on differences between similar sounds (p. 15). The WJEC’s tutor guidelines for ‘Cymraeg i’r Teulu’ discuss traditional versus contemporary pronunciations, especially in relation to parents whose children will learn contemporary pronunciation in school. SWWC tutors are given guidance on helping learners recognise local variations in pronunciation.
9.2.6 Accurate native-like pronunciation requires an excellent model, and pre-recorded CDs are one means to guarantee its provision. With a sizeable number of tutors being non-native speakers, the non-native accent may otherwise gain currency as part of a legitimate taught variety, much as has been observed with locally-taught English worldwide. More significantly still, tutors need training in phonetics and phonology, fully to support the development of learners’ pronunciation, and will benefit from guidance and ideas in the tutor handbooks.
9.2.7 Fluency: In much of the teaching and research literature, fluency is conceptualised as a desirable feature of novel output, but this conflates two different skills: . the capacity to produce a consistent string of meaningful and communicatively appropriate phrases and sentences, at a reasonable rate and without too much pausing, self-correction, false-starting or repetition, and entailing the capacity to express novel utterances, thereby requiring some facility with the lexis and grammar of the language (Macaro et al., 2010: 64). Models of how fluency is developed out of the piece-by- piece assembly of language are reviewed by Schmidt (1992) and Towell and Hawkins set out one model in detail (1994); and, . the smooth and authentic production of multiword strings as connected speech (Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006a), independently of whether they are novel creations. In this sense, delivery of fluent phrases involves a range of phonological features including assimilation, reduction, elision, stress and intonation (Brown, 1990). These features are ‘not just lazy, sloppy, careless or slovenly language; rather [they] occur [...] in all levels of speech including the most formal manners of speaking’ (Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006b: 5).
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9.2.8 Language teaching can benefit from keeping these two features separate, so that fluency can be practised well before the learner is fluently retrieving the vocabulary and grammar required to say something novel. Indeed, it may be ambitious to expect that all learners will fully achieve the first feature, since even within the native speaker population, there is considerable variation in how fluently ideas are expressed.
9.2.9 The early support of fluency is well-exemplified in SSIW, which ventures into the domain of novel production by encouraging fast responses in the oral translation of ‘novel’ strings within a tightly controlled structural paradigm using a small vocabulary. Here, as also in Llanllawen and De-Suggestopedia, part of the rationale is that achieving fluency in some partly or entirely prefabricated wordstrings has potential onward value when the expression of novel ideas is required, since they provide a reusable sentence framework for real communicative contexts.
9.2.10 The WJEC and all intensive courses include a lot of pair-work that should encourage the development of fluency in producing novel ideas. For the OU course, opportunities for fluency practice are inevitably compromised by the home-study situation, though local study groups facilitate it. The SWWC course includes fluency practice as part of the revision for each unit and the OU course CD has six tracks dedicated simply to listening and repeating sentences.
9.2.11 More generally, any courses that encourage the repeated rehearsal of dialogues will support the second-listed type of fluency, as will drilling. As for the first type, an important aspect of developing fluency in real communicative contexts is practising with fluent speakers, in conversations that are as authentic as possible. Although the WfA materials advise learners to seek opportunities to practise speaking with Welsh speakers, little if any systematic guidance is given for how to engage such speakers in conversation, or how to manage conversations proactively so that they remain within the bounds of the learner’s abilities (Wray & Fitzpatrick, 2010). The OU materials suggest ways of working with other students (p.27) rather than with native speakers. The CVGC Mynediad, Uwch and Meistroli Courses all include an Agored Cymru assessment unit in which native speakers are invited to class to answer learners’ questions.
9.2.12 Llanllawen advises that learners need to “use everyday phrases as often as they can” (Preface) if they are to prevent native speakers switching to English. SWWC is more overt in its guidance. It states: Use it or lose it: Practise the Welsh you have learned. Take any opportunity you can to speak to people in Welsh – to your classmates and outside the classroom. Some of the tasks in the ‘Defnyddio’ch Cymraeg’ – ‘Use your Welsh’ boxes in the worksheets should give you a chance to do this. Have a go! Be willing to make mistakes. Being fluent in a language doesn’t mean being perfect. First language speakers of any language make mistakes all the time … Most of all, take responsibility for your learning. Learning anything requires the right effort. The more you put in, outside the class, the more you will get out of the course. Self- motivation is vital. If you think you can do it, you will (Cwrs Mynediad Dwys, 2009, p.8).
9.2.13 All six WfA Centres also have extensive informal learning programmes aimed at encouraging the use of Welsh outside the classroom (including reading clubs, social evenings, walking groups, choirs, scrabble, etc.), though most provide opportunities to
66 practise with other learners rather than native speakers. Llanllawen has its own club for informal learning, with social evenings and, where possible, drawing in native speakers. CVGC has a workplace mentoring scheme that pairs up learners and native speakers.
10 Listening
10.1 Listening skills include the capacity to recognise words and morphology in continuous speech, to decode quickly and thus keep up with the input, and to relate what is heard to the context in which it is said, thus operationalising pragmatics10. All of this has to happen in real time with minimal opportunity for repetition, unless the input is a recording. Learners therefore need as many opportunities as possible to work constructively with aural input. New structures and functions can be introduced within meaningful and authentic aural input, and a range of different activities based on aural input can facilitate listening practice.
10.2 Listening texts, like reading texts, need to be graded, to avoid exceeding the learners’ current knowledge. And also as with reading, learners will benefit from hearing material that is below their current proficiency level when trying to speed up their decoding. Courses can take an eclectic approach, varying the topic, style and length of listening passages. Adult learners enjoy the opportunity to personalize, so listening tasks most usefully lead to the possibility for some open-ended rather than ‘drilled’ exchanges, and bespoke content. As proficiency develops, learners need to be taught how to maximise their performance when listening to conversation, the radio, TV programmes, audio books, etc.
10.3 Listening work features in all the WfA courses reviewed, but evidence of strategic uses of it is patchy. Since listening is time-consuming, class-based activities are sometimes rather curtailed (e.g. 20 minutes for a listening comprehension activity in WJEC Canolradd). However, supplying CDs to the learners is common, so that they can work on listening comprehension at home, and also, in several courses, follow a specially-written soap opera story. Good support for listening skills is provided in the SWWC course, which uses different activities to help learners listen for different things, provides tips for listening, and tests listening skills every 6th unit. NWC also uses graded listening activities for its soap opera, and CVGC uses songs that illustrate targeted patterns. In the WJEC Mynediad course, CDs provide listening tasks from unit 5. Early tasks relate to spotting and circling words, but by Canolradd, the tasks more closely resemble the comprehension tests found in the WJEC exam. Some of the material is authentic, e.g. clips from S4C, at normal conversational speed, with background noise, false starts, etc.
11 Writing
11.1 The particular priorities of English language teaching worldwide have fuelled considerable research interest in the development of L2 written skills. Mastery of written English opens the door to education, publication and global electronic communication. Languages such as Welsh can benefit from the generic aspects of this research, though writing is arguably overall less important to WfA learners, other than in the workplace. This
10 Pragmatics is the application of context and world-knowledge to the interpretation of a text, thus entailing understanding the implications, plausibility, etc. of what is said. 67 project does not extend far enough into the provision of advanced skills to examine the complete picture of how writing is developed in WfA. However, some observations can be made about the role given to writing in the earlier stages of learning.
11.2 Writing is the standard means by which literate people support their memory in learning situations. It is therefore of some significance that in classrooms strongly influenced by the Wlpan tradition, WfA learners are discouraged from writing at certain points (e.g. during the drilling sessions)11. Over time, many Wlpan courses seem to have relaxed their position. Writing is the means of recording not only input, but also performance output. It appears to be standard practice across the mainstream WfA courses for learners to undertake written exercises for homework.
11.3 The development of written skills for their own sake, e.g. composition, letter writing, etc., is not a main feature of WfA courses until they home in on preparing for exams. Thus, even the WJEC materials largely restrict writing tasks to filling in the blanks in sentences at the Mynediad stage, and in Sylfaen only short passages are required. Writing is both time- consuming and a rather solitary activity to undertake in class, so some courses make suggestions about developing skills at home. For instance, learners on SWWC’s Sylfaen course are invited to keep a diary. NWC courses from Pellach onwards locate the main writing tasks in the homework assignments.
12 Reading
12.1 Three aspects of reading need to be differentiated. The written word can any or all of the following: I. a medium for learning (e.g. examples of vocabulary and grammar presented in writing, as opposed to in spoken form—the focus is on the form of the item) II. a source of exemplification and practice (e.g. a reading passage illustrates the use of the targeted vocabulary and structures—the focus is on the meaning of the text, but in the service of learning the language) III. a source of learning in its own right (e.g. a magazine article that will introduce the learner to new vocabulary and possibly new grammatical forms as a by-product of reading—the focus is on the content of the text, as it provides new information on its topic, with language learning only occurring incidentally, as it does when reading one’s L1).
12.2 The first category is universal in WfA, other than during initial drilling exercises, and in the aural-only Say Something in Welsh course (though scripts can be downloaded from the website12). An underlying assumption, evidently, is that WfA learners are literate—not something that can be taken for granted in many other EFSL and MFSL contexts. The second category is also well-exemplified in the WfA materials. Indeed, extended reading passages for this purpose, at the post-beginner levels, will be increasingly less distinguishable from those in the third category, as an ever-broader range of words and structures can be included
11 Welsh may have inherited from the Hebrew Ulpan some of the latter’s caution about introducing literacy skills on account of two facts about the latter language: it has a different alphabet, and it does not represent the vowels in writing, which makes literacy something of a challenge for beginners. 12 http://www.saysomethinginwelsh.com/home/ 68 in a specially-written passage. However, specific provision of category three reading is sparse until Uwch and Meistroli levels.
12.3 It is very beneficial to learners to have the opportunity to read materials that are at or very slightly below their current proficiency level, in order to automatise their ability to understand the language and to make recall of vocabulary and structures more rapid and fluent (Elley & Mangubhai, 1981a & b). Although the research indicates that reading is not, on its own, an effective way to increase vocabulary breadth., extensive reading does develop conceptual richness and vocabulary depth (that is, a more sophisticated appreciation of a word’s range and nuances of meaning, and how it is used), as learners encounter words and expressions in different contexts. See Day and Bamford (1998) for a review of the research evidence.
12.4 Amongst the beginner materials examined, none indicates any direct use of extensive reading, even though it is possible, with care, to institute this practice from an elementary stage. Reading material tends to be short passages tied to comprehension—these are certainly beneficial, but do not fulfil the same function as wider reading. Higher courses naturally do include more authentic reading, such as articles from the paper and extracts from novels in Meistroli courses (e.g. Bangor), but overall, more still could be done to promote it.
13 Technology and presentation
13.1 Modern technology profoundly alters both the opportunities for presenting language learning materials and the expectations of learners. The range of media employed and the quality of presentation within them need to come some way towards meeting the exacting standards of the more commercial products that learners use in study and in their wider day to day life.
13.2 Multimedia opportunities currently in use: At present, a WfA learner might engage with technological support in the following ways:
I. CDs, videos or DVDs containing general learning support materials (e.g. Popeth Cymraeg Mynediad; OU; WJEC), drilling exercises (e.g. CVGC’s blended learning courses), material for memorisation (Llanllawen), etc. II. An electronically-based assessment of their current level. For instance, the BBC ‘How’s your Welsh?’ site13 determines level on the basis of the answers to a set of multiple choice questions, terminating the test when a question is incorrectly answered. III. Relatively simple pre-programmed practice or learning activities done on the computer, whereby the learner enters an answer and can then compare it to the pre- entered correct answer supplied in the program (e.g. revision units of CVGC’s blended course; BBC ‘Welsh at Home’14). IV. Interactive exercises, whereby learners receive specific feedback on their own responses, usually simple pre-programmed information, such as scores based on correct and incorrect selections in multiple choice tests, or accepted versus rejected answers in a crossword puzzle (e.g. CVGC’s blended learning).
13 http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/learnwelsh/level_test/ 14 http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/welshathome/ 69
V. Web-provision of learning materials for download (e.g. the audio-lessons of SSIW15). VI. Web-based resource sharing, and the display of learners’ work (e.g. the Llanllawen website16). VII. Teleclasses and Skype-based interaction in real time with other learners and/or tutors (e.g. OU). VIII. Apps, blogs, podcasts, electronic language labs, flash cards, mobile-learning, Moodle and Blackboard interfaces, Bluetooth, Facebook and Twitter—all in current use at various centres across Wales. The Cwrs Mynediad app is also available via iTunes17
13.3 Blended learning
13.3.1 Blended learning is an approach to teaching that combines face to face study with electronic, web-based resources. It has been developed at CVGC and currently covers Mynediad/Sylfaen and Canolradd. This blended approach transfers some of the primary teaching to the electronic medium, with some of the primary input through 30-minute videos. Standard class-based learners have also experimentally been given access to the blended materials, to help with catching up if they miss classes.
13.3.2 In the drilling input, a tutor models the language, then asks a class member (heard but not seen in the video) to repeat, and finally invites the learner to repeat. Each new item is repeated five times, with images used to prompt the sentence. Learners are instructed (‘Introduction’ audio file, Unit 1, Mynediad/Sylfaen) to use the video lesson first, so that the new language patterns are introduced before any other activity. The (newer) Canolradd course integrates video lessons with written information and audio explanations.
13.3.3 Worksheets for each unit provide examples of the language presented in the videos, vocabulary lists, exercises, and checklists of the learning outcomes. In the Mynediad/Sylfaen course, these worksheets are different from the textbook materials used in classes, though those for the Canolradd course are just electronic copies of the printed course materials.
13.3.4 Sound files are provided, in which the unit’s vocabulary and phrases, plus example sentences, are read aloud for learners to listen and repeat. There is also a Voice Board, where learners can upload recordings of themselves, and receive audio/text replies from tutors and co-students. Voice Board activities include recording answers to questions (Unit 6, Mynediad/Sylfaen).
13.3.5 At Mynediad/Sylfaen level, a soap opera audio file is also included in every unit, along with transcripts, to facilitate extra (non-compulsory) practice. Crosswords, quizzes, tests and practice questions are provided at both Mynediad/Sylfaen and Canolradd levels, with feedback in the form of access to the correct answer.
13.3.6 Another provider within CVGC, Coleg Glan Hafren, has also recently developed blended-learning courses at all levels. The online component comprises 25% of the course and consists of 30 units of online resources for each level, including writing, reading and listening activities, designed to supplement WJEC materials.
15 http://www.saysomethingin.com/welsh/viewtopic.php?f=17&t=279 16 http://www.clwbllanllawen.org.uk/Learners%20Resources.htm 17 http://itunes.apple.com/gb/app/cwrs-mynediad-welsh-for-beginners/id395148889?mt=8 70
13.4 New opportunities
13.4.1 Technological development, and the fashions that go with it, move so fast that it would be impractical to expect mainstream provision in WfA to be fully up to date. It seems that there are individuals in the WfA teaching community who are able to respond quickly to new opportunities, and in future ways might be found for them to share their developments with other learner and teacher groups. The WfA Gweithgor Cenedlaethol on informal learning for Welsh is already addressing aspects of additional provision through technology, and existing resource sites18 could be upgraded. By this means or others, future WfA provision might include: I. Augmentation of S4C’s/Acen’s provision of film and television broadcasts with Welsh subtitles, as a support for reading and listening skills development (Vanderplank, 1990; Williams & Thorne, 2000). II. More widespread use of podcasts supplying updated listening content (as with the SSIW weekly practice sessions) (Vanderplank, 2010). III. Greater use of mobile learning, apps and learning through social networking sites. IV. More sophisticated online practice activities giving instant feedback/correction, including web-based software for pronunciation practice that uses sound/word recognition software—compare the English language support site developed by Heinle19
13.4.2 Technological advances in WfA materials presentation will inevitably be constrained by financial and practical issues at the production end. In addition, attention needs to be paid to constraints on access at the learner end—for not everyone yet has broadband, a mobile phone signal or the skills required for using electronic devices and software. Furthermore, Vanderplank (2010) found that MFSL teachers were generally reluctant to use anything but the most basic technology and that much of the sophisticated equipment acquired for teaching was being underused or underexploited. Since there can be little doubt that the expectation of multimedia learning support will only grow, tutors need to be trained in using it effectively.
13.4.3 Technology does not hold all the answers. Many will continue to argue that there is no real substitute for attending a real-time physical class, and that books remain a significant and cost-effective ‘technology’ for study. Nevertheless, there are opportunities for making WfA attractive to potential learners for whom electronic devices and multimedia material are commonplace. Raising the cognitive load of learning, varying the nature of input, and providing both visual and auditory information, have all been shown to increase learning in most people, and such variety should also help accommodate learners with different cognitive styles.
13.5 Materials presentation
13.5.1 Regarding the presentation of printed materials, the standards set by EFSL and MFSL products worldwide are high, reflecting the investment of major publishers in markets where there are lucrative sales returns. By comparison, the graphics, layout, indices, appendices, reference tables, etc. of WfA materials are overall disappointing. The most visually attractive are the WJEC and OU books, reflecting the largest markets and most substantial commissioning and production investment. Some of the less well-resourced courses
18 E.g. http://cymraegioedolion.org/resources/?lang=en 19 http://elt.heinle.com/namerica/en_us/technology/OnlineSpeakingLabs1.htm 71 nevertheless demonstrate a desire to ensure materials are attractive and easy to use (e.g. the brightly coloured Llanllawen books and CVGC Mynediad, Sylfaen and Canolradd courses). In some others, minimal resourcing has prevented the use of specialist skills in text and image presentation, and they rely on poorly reproduced black and white text and drawings.
13.5.2 There are potential traps even with the more attractive materials: . Glossy pages can be difficult to write on. . Overcrowded pages leave no space to make notes (e.g. WJEC). . Easily available images, such as clipart (heavily used in materials from CVGC, MWC, Llanllawen and Popeth Cymraeg, for instance), are now too recognisable to be quite the positive design feature they first were. . Images of celebrities date the materials quickly (e.g. WJEC). . Generically, adult learner materials seem prone to blur the line between a beginner text and a text for children, using fonts, layouts and illustrations that strongly resemble those of primary school materials (e.g. Llanllawen). . Pictures arguably need to earn the space they take, by contributing to the learning, rather than just breaking the page up (e.g. SWWC uses pictures particularly strategically, MWC Sylfaenol perhaps less so).
13.6 Teaching the Welsh language
13.6.1 Seven issues are briefly considered here, regarding challenges and opportunities particularly relevant to the Welsh language: I. False beginners - WfA beginners’ classes attract two main types of learner—true beginners, usually educated outside of Wales and thus with no previous learning experience of Welsh; and ‘false beginners’, usually educated in Wales and having acquired, through schooling or community exposure, some knowledge of Welsh, whether recently or many years before. The situation is complicated further by the fact that some beginners who have not previously studied Welsh have nevertheless lived in Wales long enough to know how to pronounce words, and be familiar with place names and personal names that are, for the recent incomer to Wales, a considerable additional hurdle in the early stages. Finally, the attempt to attract new learners through taster courses can mean that the full beginner course repeats input they have only just had. These differences between learners are not easy to manage, but attention is usefully paid to the potential tensions in a class, evident within only a few hours, of having learners who expected to be of the same standard but in fact are not; II. Accommodating previous competencies- One of the reasons why previous learners join beginners’ classes can be that they underestimate their existing knowledge, or feel they want a new, full grounding from base one. It may be possible to help false beginners recognise the extent and value of their existing knowledge, and either teach them separately, or—more practically perhaps—help them develop strategies for coping with their knowledge, so they do not undermine the confidence of the true beginners. There is another group of previous learners, who can be difficult to accommodate in WfA—school leavers who learned a reasonable amount of Welsh, and who would like to continue it, but find that the variety and coverage of WfA does not match their existing knowledge. Dedicated courses would be welcome, to address their needs and interests, and to help bridge their transition (especially in relation to language variety) into mainstream WfA classes;
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III. Language distance - The current WfA materials take little notice of the linguistic distance between Welsh and English and the implications of it for how learners respond to the language. Unlike other languages that learners may have previously studied (e.g. French, German and Spanish), Welsh offers relatively few cognates, and Welsh words on the page can be very difficult to recognise and decode. To compensate for the ineffectiveness of strategies that work for more closely related languages (such as guessing on the basis of similarity to an English word), materials might help learners interrogate words on the page for their morphological structure, so that existing Welsh knowledge is used to support new learning—see Jones (1994) for one excellent resource. Meanwhile, explicit comparisons between Welsh and English may be useful where there are strong similarities, as, particularly, as a result of borrowing, e.g. gwerthu allan (sell out); lan i ti (up to you); IV. Which variety? - Decisions have to be taken, in any given course, about which local variety and register (literary, conversational, etc.) to target. Table 1 lists the target varieties to which different existing courses (appear to) aspire, and how they are represented in the materials. The extent to which each course reflects its local variety is an indication of the perceived need for local linguistic provision; V. Intensive teaching - Over the years, the definition of WfA ‘intensive’ provision has changed. Full-time and/or residential teaching is barely available now, beyond weekend and short summer courses (though CVGC offers a two-month full time summer course). Courses customarily referred to as ‘intensive’ may now amount to only three or four hours per week, contrasting with non-intensive courses at two hours per week or less. The issue could be more to do with the appropriateness of the term ‘intensive’ than of the provision itself. In the international language teaching context, ‘intensive’ teaching entails more exposure, and two potential parameters are recognised: the number of hours per week and the frequency of classes, with research suggesting that the latter is the more important; VI. Availability of courses - In recognition of differences between learners in their preferred approach to study, ideally learners would have access to all the types of provision described in this report, and choice about which courses they followed. In practice this is usually not possible, and learners are often obliged to accept whichever course type is provided in their location at a convenient time. Blended learning, at present, is also only available to a few learners; VII. Opportunities for interaction with native speakers - The difficulties that learners can experience in trying to use their Welsh with native speakers are often cited as a matter of concern and regret. Learners may find they are navigating a confusing path in their study, as they pay attention to learning how to undertake various exchanges and transactions in Welsh that they never have chance to undertake without a switch to English. The social aspects of language use are complex and it would be inappropriate simply to dismiss the response of native speakers as motivated by deliberate unhelpfulness to learners. Newcombe (2009: 62) points out that native speakers can also have difficulty in persuading strangers to speak Welsh to them, suggesting that many Welsh speakers may simply not be accustomed to talking to any strangers in Welsh. Nevertheless, there are clearly reasons to encourage native speakers to develop confidence and interest in engaging with learners, and Newcombe makes many useful suggestions in this regard. Informal learning programmes, already offered by all the WfA Centres, play a valuable role in creating opportunities for native-learner interaction.
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14 Conclusions
14.1 The purpose of this section of the report has been to present the research team’s evaluation of the extent to which existing WfA materials are consistent with latest research into the best ways of teaching languages to adults. The overall finding is that the materials reflect a range of present and past trends in teaching methodology, none in danger of being un- or counter-productive, but some likely to benefit from some revision in the light of new research. Specifically: I. Task-supported learning - There are greater opportunities for ‘task’-supported learning in the WfA courses than are currently exploited. Learning activities in WfA often have a direct language-learning focus, whereas the non-linguistic, communicative focus of ‘tasks’ would provide an additional and qualitatively different learning experience. II. Attention to individual differences and learning styles - Individual differences are too numerous, subtle and changeable to be accommodated by formula either in the classroom or in pre-written materials. Future WfA materials can best address these challenges by providing variation in the approach to learning (including, where possible, more than one approach for the same learning point) and e-learning support, and by recognising the range of interests and learning purposes likely to be represented in a class. It might be desirable to develop a set of parallel interest themes through the course, which enable learners to select a pathway of texts and exercises matching their preferences and needs. A rich and varied bank of print and electronic materials for at-home work, to accommodate different interests and learning purposes would be of value to learners and tutors, and could be assembled in part from materials already developed by tutors to supplement the main texts they use. III. Attention to grammar - The research literature supports a positive approach to teaching grammar, in which attention is drawn to patterns in texts (focus on form) and learners are encouraged rather than discouraged from being curious about patterns. On the other hand, WfA teaching has the challenge of low levels of existing knowledge of, and confidence with, grammar—particularly terminology—in both learners and tutors. A first step may therefore be developing the grammatical knowledge and confidence of tutors. IV. Effective approaches to learning vocabulary - WfA materials do not yet exploit all of the opportunities for supporting learners in developing a broad and deep vocabulary. Dedicated time is required for learning vocabulary, yet the payoffs are very clear, since new information will be more easily understood when located in already familiar material. Basic vocabulary learning is also fun, and learners can track their progress more easily than with some other aspects of learning. Developing depth of knowledge is more challenging, but learners can be supported by exposure to different texts and also discussions about the meaning and uses of words. The same approaches can be taken to familiarising learners with idiomatic language, and, in due course, a corpus of Welsh spoken and written language will greatly facilitate the foregrounding of appropriate examples of formulaic language. V. The four skills: speaking, listening, writing and reading - The relative emphasis placed on the four skills, and when and how they should be introduced, is a matter for policy makers and teachers, on the basis of learners’ needs and aims, and the wider agenda for Welsh language competency within and beyond Wales. Given the general predominance of spoken language in the earlier stages of WfA teaching, speaking and listening are likely to continue to have precedence. However, since adult learners usually support their learning through what they read in the textbooks and elsewhere
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and what they write down, at least those aspects of these skills cannot be ignored. Even for WfA learners with a primary interest in spoken interaction, exposure to extensive reading and listening will develop conceptual richness and automaticity of form-meaning links. For this reason, it would be very beneficial to commission a series of graded short readers in Welsh to support extensive reading. The texts should be pitched at or below learners’ current level of proficiency, so they can read for pleasure. VI. Combining methods - Research shows that single methods tend to have disadvantages as well as advantages, and the trend now is towards combining approaches. This has to be done with care, however, since it can be detrimental to a method to use it out of context, for too little time, or too irregularly. Nation’s (2007) four strands approach is useful as a point of reference for delivering a balanced curriculum of activities appropriate for developing the different aspects of language knowledge and skills. VII. Technology and presentation - A timely and carefully targeted investment in the technological aspect of WfA provision could equip it for a significantly different type of future. Potential foci could include interactive auditory analysis, to improve pronunciation, comparable to the Online Speaking Lab of Heinle/Cengage; greater use of podcasts and MP3/4; DVD materials; online conversation forums; computer learning games giving targeted feedback. Meanwhile, the presentation quality of written materials could be substantially improved using even basic desk-top publishing software. Resources and expertise might be shared across Centres, to maximise the use of skilled staff and state of the art software and equipment.
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SECTION THREE: DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF FIELDWORK RESULTS
1 Introduction
1.1 The fieldwork was conducted across the six WfA Centres, including Centre providers and partners over a period of five months (February 2011 – June 2011) in the following order:
Date WfA Centre February 2011 Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan [CVGC]
March 2011 Gwent [GwC]
April / May 2011 Glamorgan [GmC]
May 2011 North Wales [NWC]
June 2011 Mid-Wales [MWC]
June 2011 South-West Wales [SWWC]
Table 2 Fieldwork timetable and locations 1.2 With a view to better understanding the experiences, values, priorities and needs of WfA directors, materials writers, tutors, learners as well as course providers, the fieldwork undertaken consisted of face-to-face interviews, focus groups, in situ learner questionnaires, post-fieldwork tutor and materials writer questionnaires20 as well as class observations (see Appendix 4 for copies of the various questionnaires). The specific questions for interview and focus group schedules were drawn up during Phase II and III of the Project Workplan and were designed to allow for both structure and comparability across and within the stakeholder groups mentioned above whilst permitting a degree of flexibility for respondents to probe further into the issues raised by the schedule questions as well as for the interviewer to seek clarification in those cases where respondents elaborated on schedule themes. Consent for digital recording was sought in advance of director, tutor, materials writer and learner interviews. In order to maximise interview response in the case of directors, tutors and materials writers, a brief preparatory note on themes to be developed during interview was sent to respondents prior to interview. Class observation was sought with prior agreement of both tutors and learners.
20 All known Centre materials writers were invited to complete written questionnaires. 76
1.3 The following gives a numerical summary of respondent interviews and questionnaires across the Centres21:
Tutor Learner Materials WfA Director Tutor Focus Learner Focus Writers Centre Interview Interview Group Interview Group Interview (no) (no) CVGC 1 11 1 9 1 (4)
GwC 1 2 4 (23) 25 2 (9) GmC 1 6 1 3 1 (4) NWC 1 7 3 3 4 8 (24) MWC 1 5 1 (6) 1 6 2 (8) SWWC 1 4 1 5 2 (9)
Table 3 Centre Interview Summary
Materials Writer Learner WfA Centre Tutor Questionnaire Questionnaire Questionnaire CVGC 11 4 66 GwC 6 1 58 GmC 1 2 35 NWC 10 4 31 MWC 3 1 32
SWWC 4 - 34
Table 4 Centre Questionnaire Summary
1.4 The capture of substantial, nuanced and diverse interpretations of, and within, the WfA sector as well as their linkages to other sectors of public policy, has been grouped for convenience into the following themes:
21 The sample size is relatively modest when set in context. The most recent and precise data that have been collated on a national basis is that provided by Old Bell 3(2011), although there are caveats with regard to how robust these data are (Old Bell 3, 2011: 95-96). However, on that basis it can be reasonably estimated that there are around 650-700 WfA practitioners, contracted either on a fulltime, fractional or sessional basis, in any given year and around 17,000-18,000 WfA learners (e.g. Old Bell 3, 2011: 64 & 54). 77
Grammar;
Drilling;
Vocabulary;
Instructional Quantity;
Language Variety and Variation;
Technology;
Informal Learning;
Learner Differences; and,
Task-Based Learning. 1.5 The experiences, values and opinions expressed by the WfA community in this draft report are composite by dint of multiple data capture, unless otherwise specified, and are thus considered qualitatively representative of a range of views expressed during interview and questionnaire response. Where applicable, thematic and/or geographical variance within the views expressed are highlighted.
2 Grammar
2.1 Most materials writers and tutors believe that knowledge of grammar is necessary in order to achieve consolidated language acquisition. Variance, however, among WfA practitioners is highlighted when positions are offered on how such consolidation is to be achieved. Although there are significantly different positions around how a mix of exposition, reinforcement and practice of patterns leads to acquisition of grammar, most WfA practitioners believe that stimulus and reinforcement of patterns through a range of activities should have primacy over explanation.
2.2 Among those in WfA who favour stimulus and reinforcement over explanation, it is clear that a period of self-reflection and clarification is ongoing and this may best be expressed by reference to a post-methods approach which shifts emphasis onto flexibility within methods as well as showing greater willingness to adapt to learners’ needs. Significant self-reflection on the repercussions of such a shift for the sector exists, with a preponderance in South Wales. Centre Director 1, for example, is of the opinion that tutors’ interpretation of the learning and teaching experience will lie somewhere along the communicative-structuralist paradigm but that the time has come for an acceptance of the merits of both and attempts should be made so that they can be more readily combined. This director believes that tutors should not be shoehorned into a particular ‘camp’ but rather adhere to their belief systems whilst becoming more familiar with other approaches.
2.3 This emphasis on pattern introduction and reinforcement is shared by others in the WfA community who stress that an overburdening focus on grammar and an emphasis on grammar terminology may increase negative learner perceptions of the learning process. There is therefore a majority belief among WfA practitioners that analogy through learning rather than
78 analysis of language is key. Practically, this means that an emphasis is put on ensuring that patterns are learned and practised through a range of activities earlier on in the learning process. The role of drills in the acquisition of patterns, the levels at which they should be deployed during the learner’s progression as well as how they should be used, is the subject of much discussion within a wider debate on the desirability of flexibility in methods, and indeed, approaches. There is significant agreement, however, that more formal grammar learning will occur from Uwch level onwards. In those instances where grammar explanation does occur at Mynediad or Sylfaen, there is a general belief that these should be relevant to autonomous speech creation, kept to a minimum for class management purposes and kept simple.
2.4 Some materials writers and tutors, however, do not share the same belief that grammar is acquired inductively through an audiolingual approach. One materials writer (Author 13) believes that, although learners must at some point master the ability to use constructions with dexterity, deductive grammar knowledge can be ‘blitzed’ at specific times during learner progression. For this practitioner, wishing for learners to achieve correctness approximates to a fetish and asks whether pursuing correctness is currently the most expedient option within WfA if there is no socioeconomic imperative for learners to reach this level, especially when written competency – compared with equivalent written competency in English – is achieved by a minority of first language speakers only. On this view, the sector as a whole should focus on other levels of criteria for success, for example on levels of understanding rather than levels of production. In this materials writer’s opinion, the evolution of the audiolingual method within WfA has lead to a tutor-centred rather than a learner-centred approach.
2.5 Other methods are employed by other providers to ensure that learners adequately master grammatical patterns. For example, one course uses a text-based story as the core learning material but dedicates 45 minutes to 1 hour from a story segment of 6 hours, focusing mainly on tense (pelmanism within miming) and morphophonology (noting asterisks and triangles in the text where mutations occur).
2.6 Tutors’ ability to present and respond to grammar points is problematic and is a constant point of reference in interviews with directors, materials writers, tutors themselves as well as among some learners. The classroom practice of telling learners not to ask grammar questions, effectively “slapping them down” according to one tutor, continues to occur but with lesser frequency than in previous years. Experienced tutors have explained this due to uncertainty among less experienced tutors regarding their ability to provide an accurate and satisfactory response. Centre Directors 1, 2 and 3 believe that the lack of competency to deal with grammar is a particular concern in relation to part-time teachers. This would seem to highlight a problem which needs to be addressed, as most WfA practitioners believe that tutors should have a knowledge of grammar ranging from adequate to detailed knowledge, although senior tutors and materials writers are not often sure of the extent of grammar knowledge of tutors using their materials. Reasons behind tutor mastery of grammar, moreover, show variance. A body of practitioners exists that believes that tutors need to be equipped with a rigorous knowledge of grammar since, in order to create autonomous language, learners search for patterns using grammar. Others are of the opinion that grammar knowledge is desirable but not necessary, as this is primarily for the tutor’s own confidence rather than for knowledge transference to learners. In interview, a number of tutors who have learned Welsh reported feeling embarrassed at not being able to give adequate grammatical and vocabulary answers whilst feeling they should be able to do this.
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2.7 Levels of uncertainty are apparent amongst tutors with regard to explaining grammar to learners. While tutors express confidence, this is very often quite conditional. For example, tutor responses regarding the question ‘Sut byddech chi’n disgrifio lefel eich gwybodaeth o ramadeg y Gymraeg, gan gynnwys y derminoleg i’w disgrifio hi?’ / ‘How would you describe your level of knowledge of Welsh grammar, including the terminology to describe it?’ the following range of responses were given:
Dw i ddim bob tro yn sicr beth sy’n ramadegol gywir / I am not always certain what is grammatically correct (1 tutor); Dw i’n gwybod beth sy’n gywir ond allwn i ddim esbonio pam / I know what’s correct but I can’t explain why (None); Mae fy ngwybodaeth o ramadeg braidd yn rhy wallus i fod yn ddiogel / My knowledge of grammar is somewhat too faulty to be secure (1 tutor); Galla i ddod i ben gyda phob un o’r cwestiynau sylfaenol ond dim byd rhy dechnegol / I can cope with all the basic questions but nothing too technical (12 tutors); Rwy’n hyderus y bydda i’n gwybod popeth y gallai dysgwr ei ofyn imi / I’m confident that I wll know everything a learner could ask me (20 tutors).
But of the 20 who agreed with the last statement, 7 of them place conditions on this confidence. Some of their comments are significant. For example, Tutors 20 and 23 note that they try and foresee the questions that the learners are likely to ask and prepare carefully on this basis.
2.8 Grammar training for tutors is operational across all Centres although provision is organised at the level of the individual Centre or occasionally across neighbouring Centres, with examples being given of good practice. There is some variance among directors as to how grammar training could be improved. Centre Director 3 expressed substantial reservation about tutors not being able to give satisfactory explanations to learners and that this needs to be acknowledged as well as addressed, whereas Centre Director 4 felt that the Centre’s response should remain reactive rather than proactive. Centre Directors 1 and 2 were in agreement on the need for enhanced grammar training, but differed on whether the delivery of this should occur nationally or locally.
2.9 The results of the research show that many tutors acquire their grammatical knowledge during the course of teaching in the WfA sector. But, only a small minority claim that WfA training has played any role in this acquisition. For example, in response to the question ‘Sut dysgoch chi’r ramadeg sydd gyda chi?’ / ‘How did you learn your grammar?’ tutors responded as follows:
Astudiais i’r Gymraeg yn yr ysgol/brifysgol / I studied Welsh in school/university (20 tutors); Drwy ddefnyddio llyfrau neu’r rhyngrwyd gan amlaf / Through mostly using books or the Web (10 tutors); Dw i’n deall y ramadeg drwy astudio ieithoedd eraill / I understand grammar through studying other languages (5 tutors); Drwy ennill Cymhwyster Cenedlaethol Tiwtoriaid Cymraeg i Oedolion / Through gaining the WfA National Qualification (4 tutors); Drwy sesiynau hyfforddiant tra’n gweithio fel tiwtor / Through training sessions while working as a tutor (3 tutors).
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Significantly, tutors in addition volunteered that they learned their grammar through asking fellow tutors (4) and as they taught their own WfA classes (7). Tutor 4 asserted that: ‘Fel y rhanfwyaf o diwtoriaid, dysgais fy ngramadeg wrth baratoi ar gyfer gwersi CiO’ / Like the majority of tutors, I learned my grammar while preparing WfA lessons.’ Tutor 5 similarly noted that: ‘Mae ymwybyddiaeth o reolau gramadegol yn cynyddu’n raddol wrth addysgu’ / ‘Awareness of grammatical rules gradually increases whilst teaching.’ Moreover, tutor 34 was concerned that they still had gaps in their knowledge of grammar and that more time ought to be dedicated to grammar on the WfA National Qualification.
2.10 Among learners in interview, there is a majority position stating a preference for a mixed approach combining grammar study and communication activities and tasks. However, there is general consensus that when grammar is focused on, it should not be terminology- based, as learners generally report not being familiar with grammar terminology. In-house feedback in two Centres reveals that learners wish to have more grammar provision, and in the case of one of these centres, feedback has led to adaption of course material to meet this. Chiming with recent research from Bangor University, a degree of dissatisfaction was recorded from learners who felt that, upon registration, the methods used in courses undertaken were not adequately explained.
2.11 With regard to changing WfA classroom practice, the fieldwork results in relation to learners show a preference for attention to grammar in the classroom (Chart 1), with an average score of 71.05, as opposed to bespoke separate sessions on grammar (Chart 2) which has a lower average score of 61.17.
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 71.05
Chart 1 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated sessions in class time
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 61.17
Chart 2 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated workshops for learners
2.12 Learners were also favourably disposed to material on grammar being available in the course book, per unit or in a specific section of the course book (Charts 3 and 4) with average scores of 79.11 and 73.36 respectively.
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 79.11
Chart 3 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 73.36
Chart 4 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A section at the back of the book
2.13 The results of the fieldwork show that learners were less favourably disposed to a bespoke grammar book for learners, whether general or course specific (Charts 5 and 6), with average scores of 63.44 and 55.59 respectively.
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 63.44
Chart 5 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate book, specially written for the course
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 55.59
Chart 6 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate published book, recommended to learners
2.14 A significant cohort of learners appear to be opposed to on-line resources (Charts 7, 8 and 9), chiming with other data on learner attitudes to technology noted elsewhere in this report. The overall average scores become progressively less positive, from 62.09 (learning materials for grammar on-line) to 55.58 (ask a grammar expert on-line) and then 43.86 (learner group for discussing grammar on-line), and there is a substantial minority of learners that sit at the lowest score on each of these charts. However, there are some high quality technologies for grammar available in other the 2LA sector more generally. Good examples are the Apps developed by Cambridge University Press as follows: the English Grammar in Use Activities App for iPhone as demonstrated here
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 62.09
Chart 7 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Learning materials online
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 55.58
Chart 8 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], ‘Ask-the- expert’ online
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 43.86
Chart 9 Learners: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A learner group online
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 49.39
Chart 10 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated sessions in class time
2.15 There are some contrasts between that which learners favour and those methods of facilitating greater attention to grammar that are favoured by tutors. On the whole, tutors are
86 not in favour of dedicated sessions in class time (Chart 10). The average score for this was negative at 49.39.
2.16 The option most highly favoured by tutors was that of grammar sections situated in pertinent chapters in the course book (Chart 11). This option returned an average score of 79.03 amongst tutors.
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 79.03
Chart 11 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
2.17 Other options including a separate section at the back of the course book (Chart 12) and a separate bespoke grammar book for the course (Chart 13) were favoured by tutors but not as highly. In these cases the average score was 67.71 and 61.90 respectively.
2.18 One ought to note that many tutors did not respond in the questionnaire to the question ‘Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i ddysgwyr (nodwch) / A separate published book, recommended to learners (specify)’. For those who responded (20 out of a possible total of 35) an average score of 57.38 can be calculated, indicating that tutors are favourably disposed to this option but not strongly so. Tutors made several suggestions with regard to possible suitable existing grammar books: Peter Wynn Thomas' "Gramadeg y Gymraeg"; Gareth King’s "Gramadeg Cymraeg Cyfoes"; The BBC's booklet by Ann Jones "Learn Welsh Grammar Guide"; Gomer's "Taith y Treigladau". However, some of these texts are not suitable for learners. Thomas’ “Gramadeg y Gymraeg” would be particularly intimidating to all but the most intrepid of learners.
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 67.71
Chart 12 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A section at the back of the book
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 61.90
Chart 13 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate book, specially written for the course
2.19 In contrast to learners, tutors are very favourably disposed to the use of technology for the presentation of grammar. The are especially well disposed to the use of e-materials with a
88 average score of 76.06 (Chart 14) and also the development of an on-line ‘ask-the-expert’ with an average score of 69.29 (Chart 15). Howver, tutors expressed significantly lower levels of support for online learner group with an average score of 55.12 (Chart 16).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 76.06
Chart 14 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], E-materials for learners
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 69.29
Chart 15 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], ‘Ask-the- expert’ online (for learners)
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 55.12
Chart 16 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A learner group online
2.20 Tutors expressed modest support for dedicated workshops on grammar for learners with an average score of 59.81 (Chart 17).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 59.81
Chart 17 Tutors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated workshops for learners
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2.21 Authors are roughly in line with tutors regarding the presentation of grammar to learners. They are strongly opposed to dedicated sessions in class time with an average score of 36.64 (Chart 18). But they are in favour of sections in relevant chapters of course books with an average score of 66.33 (Chart 19) or dedicated section at back of course book with an average score of 69.96 (Chart 20).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 36.64
Chart 18 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated sessions in class time
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 66.33
Chart 19 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 69.96
Chart 20 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A section at the back of the book
2.22 They are less favourably disposed to separate book for the course with an average score of 55.66 (Chart 21) but are quite strongly in favour of a separate bespoke grammar book for
92 learners with an average score of 75.18 (Chart 22). This is in contrast to learners and, to a lesser extent, tutors.
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 55.66
Chart 21 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate book, specially written for the course
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 75.18
Chart 22 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate published book, recommended to learners (specify)
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2.23 Authors made several suggestions regarding existing books that might be recommended to learners. These included the following:
the BBC's little book, although it's incomplete; the Welsh Government's "Cymorth Cyflym"; D. Geraint Lewis' countless books; Heini Gruffudd's "Cymraeg Da/Welsh Rules", "Gramadeg Cymraeg Cyfoes", The BBC's grammar; Peter Wynn Thomas' "Gramadeg y Gymraeg"; Morgan D. Jones' "A Guide to Correct Welsh"; Non ap Emlyn's "Chwiliadur Iaith"; the "Catchphrase" books.
Significantly, several authors noted that they weren’t aware of any existing, ideal book and that they would very much like a book which would meet with learners’ requirements to become available.
2.24 Authors, along with tutors and in contrast to learners, were in favour of the use of e- resources for the presentation of grammar to learners with this option earning an average score of 74.20 (Chart 23).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 74.20
Chart 23 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], E-materials for learners
2.25 However, authors were not so much in favour of there being an online ‘ask-the expert’ resource. This option had an average score of 58.91 (Chart 24). Also, authors were flatly opposed to an online learners’ forum in relation to grammar with an average score of 34.02 (Chart 25).
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 58.91
Chart 24 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], ‘Ask-the- expert’ online (for learners)
SCORE
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 34.02
Chart 25 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A learner group online
2.26 Authors were quite divided with regard to providing dedicated workshops on grammar for learners. This option had an overall average score of 50.36 (Chart 26). Clearly, from the data some authors were very strongly in favour whilst others were equally strongly opposed.
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 50.36
Chart 26 Authors: Q Were learners to say that they would like to obtain more specific knowledge of grammar, where in your opinion ought this be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated workshops for learners
2.27 We turn now to the grammar needs of tutors, as opposed to the needs of learners. Tutors themselves were overhwhelmingly in favour of a having a bespoke grammar handbook for tutors. This option had an impressively high average score at 85.04 (Chart 27).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 85.04
Chart 27 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate tutor handbook on grammar
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 50.52
Chart 28 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], The course books that the learners use
2.28 In contrast, tutors were quite divided with regard to using the same course books that learners would use for the purpose of meeting their own grammar needs. This option had an average score of 50.52 with some tutors strongly in favour but others very much opposed to it (Chart 28).
2.29 Tutors were very favourably disposed towards there being a bespoke grammar book for tutors, as opposed to handbook, though many tutors (9 out of a possible total of 35) did not respond to the question ‘Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i diwtoriaid (nodwch) / A separate published book, recommended to tutors (specify).’ The average score was 70.74 (26 out of a possible total of 35). Tutors also made suggestions with regard to existing grammar books that could be useful. These included the following:
For Mynediad/Sylfaen levels: BBC Learn Welsh "Grammar Guide" 2004; for Canolradd/Uwch levels: Phyl Brake's "Cymraeg Graenus" 1998; Peter Wynn Thomas' "Gramadeg y Gymraeg", Heini Gruffudd's "Welsh Rules"; Phyl Brake's "Cymraeg Cywir", David Thorne's "Gramadeg Cymraeg"; Gareth King's "Modern Welsh Grammar"; "Cyflwyno'r Iaith Lenyddol".
It is worth noting that some tutors commented that they didn’t feel that there is any grammar book available which provides the information tutors need to deal with in order to respond effectively to learners' questions.
2.30 The results of the research show that there is a high level of support amongst tutors for the development of e-resources for the purpose of providing grammar support to tutors. This option gained an average score of 76.48 (Chart 29). Tutors were also in favour of the
97 provision of an on-line ask-the-expert resource for tutors only with an average score of 74.95 (Chart 30).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 76.48
Chart 29 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], E-materials for tutors
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 74.95
Chart 30 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Ask-the-expert online (for tutors)
98
2.31 There was significantly much less support for an online tutors’ forum for the purpose of discussing grammar with an average score of 56.99 (Chart 31). On the other hand, there was substantial support for dedicated workshops on grammar for tutors. This option had an average score of 73.08 (Chart 32).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 56.99
Chart 31 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A tutors' forum (discussion board)
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 73.08
Chart 32 Tutors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you
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think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated workshops for tutors
2.32 Authors views on the nature of grammar support that ought to be provided to tutors were roughly in line with those expressed by the tutors themselves. For example, authors were quite opposed to using same course book for meeting the grammar needs of both learners and tutors. This option had a negative average score of 39.41 (Chart 33). Instead, authors were very favourably disposed to providing a separate handbook for tutors, with an average score of 71.32 for this particular option (Chart 34). They were similarly in favour of there being a separate book for tutors, with this option gaining an average score of 72.78 (Chart 35).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 39.41
Chart 33 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], The course books that the learners use
100
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 71.32
Chart 34 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate tutor handbook on grammar
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 72.78
Chart 35 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A separate published book, recommended to tutors (specify).
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2.34 Authors made several suggestions with regard to existing grammar books that could be useful. These included the following:
"Gramadeg y Gymraeg"; "Cyflwyno'r Iaith Lenyddol"; "Y Golygiadur"; "Elfennau Gramadeg Cymraeg"; "A Guide to Correct Welsh", "Gramadeg Cymraeg Cyfoes".
Several authors commented that they were not aware of any current book that is specific to the needs of tutors, but that such a book ought to be available.
2.35 Authors expressed favourable views regarding the development of on-line material on grammar for tutors (Chart 36) and on-line ask-the-expert support for tutors (Chart 37). The former gained an average score of 75.05 amongst authors and the latter an average score of 67.36. They were also in favour of an on-line tutors’ forum for the purpose of discussing grammar. This option had an average score of 64.59 (Chart 38).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 75.05
Chart 36 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], E-materials for tutors
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SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 67.36
Chart 37 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], ‘Ask-the-expert’ online (for tutors)
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 64.59
Chart 38 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], A tutors' forum (discussion board)
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2.36 In addition, authors were in favour of providing dedicated workshops on grammar for tutors. This option had an overall average score of 70.62 (Chart 39).
SCORE
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 70.62
Chart 39 Authors: Q Were tutors to say that they needed to be able to have a more secure grasp of grammar in order to feel confident while discussing it, where do you think this ought be available? [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Dedicated workshops for tutors
2.37 Some WfA authors note that WfA materials already include sections on grammar and that, in some cases at least, they have begun to make more effort to draw the attention of learners to grammatical explanation. For example:
Mae’r cyrsiau ar lefelau Mynediad, Sylfaen a Chanolradd yn strwythuredig iawn, gyda phatrwm amlwg yn cael ei gyflwyno fesul cam ym mhob uned [...] Mae adrannau yn y gwerslyfrau sy’n crynhoi’r patrwm ar ffurf ramadegol draddodiadol, ond mae hyn er gwybodaeth i’r dysgwyr os bydd yn dymuno cyfeirio ato yn hytrach nag fel sylfaen i’r dysgu. Prin iawn yw’r termau gramadegol astrus a ddefnyddir / The Mynediad, Sylfaen and Canolradd level courses are very structured, with an obvious pattern being presented at each step of every unit [...] There are sections in the course books which summarise the pattern in traditional grammatical form, but this is for the information of learners only if they wish to refer to it rather than being the basis of the teaching. Very few technical grammatical terms are used (Author 8). Rydyn ni’n esbonio gramadeg yn fwy amlwg bellach o achos adborth y dysgwyr / We explain the grammar more explicitly now because of learners’ feedback (Author 7).
With regard to the point at which grammatical explanation ought to be provided, most authors concur with Author 8 in response to the question ‘Pa rai yw’r ffyrdd gorau i ofalu bod dysgwyr yn meistroli patrymau gramadegol y Gymraeg yn ddigonol?’ which is - Esbonio > Drilio > Ymarfer / Explanation > Drill > Practice.
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2.38 It is clear form the research that using terminology that is accessible to learners is one key to the effective presentation of grammar and that this understanding is widely shared by WfA authors. Hence, ensuring that learners grasp the patterns being presented to them requires that both learners and tutors have an understanding of basic grammatical terms while not necessarily being thoroughly knowledgeable about grammar. However, the precise nature of the sort of knowledge that ought to be understood by tutors and learners is not defined and shared by WfA authors equally. For example:
Mae’n gwneud synnwyr fod dysgwyr – a thiwtoriaid – yn gyfarwydd â chysyniadau gramadegol sylfaenol fel berf, enw, arddodiad, goddrych, gwrthrych ac adferfol o leiaf [...] Os am fod yn gwbl ddwyieithog ac yn fedrus yn y pedair sgìl iaith, rhaid wrth wybodaeth am ramadeg. / It makes sense that learners – and tutors – are familiar with basic grammatical concepts such as verb, noun, preposition, subject, object and adverbial at least [...] If one aims to be totally bilingual and capable in the four language skills, then knowledge about grammar is essential (Author 12). Byddwn i’n defnyddio’r gair “patrwm” yn hytrach na “gramadeg”. Mae gramadeg yn awgrymu dealltwriaeth o’r rheolau. Mae’n bwysig eich bod chi’n gallu atgynhyrchu ac adnabod y patrwm priodol / I would use the word “pattern” rather than “grammar”. Grammar suggests understanding of the rules. It is important that you can replicate and recognise the appropriate pattern (Author 6). Mae’n bosibl esbonio patrymau heb ddefnyddio geiriau gramadegol o gwbl. Dylai tiwtoriaid osgoi termau gramadegol neu fydd y rhai heb ramadeg yn meddwl bod nhw ddim yn gallu dysgu’r iaith / It is possible to explain patterns without using grammatical words at all. Tutors ought to avoid using grammatical terms otherwise those learners without grammar will think that they cannot learn the language (Author 5). Credaf ei bod yn gymorth bod pobl yn deall strwythurau’r iaith a sut i roi patrymau at ei gilydd a’u defnyddio’n hwylus – ond nid yw hyn yn cyfateb yn union i “ramadeg”. Mae’n bwysig deall sut mae iaith yn gweithio ond does dim angen jargon gramadegol iawn i wneud hyn / I believe that it helps that people understand the structures of the language and how to put patterns together readily – but that isn’t the same thing exactly as “grammar”. It’s important to understand how language works but grammatical jargon isn’t necessary in order to do that (Author 3).
2.39 The research suggests that WfA authors are of the view that it is important for tutors to be familiar with grammatical terminology but that it is not necessary for this terminology to be used with learners, or to be understood by them. However, whether tutors having a grasp of grammatical terminology is essential or is simply desirable is matter of contention amongst the authors. For example in response to the question ‘Pa mor bwysig ydy hi i ddysgwyr a thiwtoriaid fod yn gyfarwydd â therminoleg ramadegol (e.e. ‘arddodiad’, ‘treiglo’r gwrthrych’)?’ / How important is it for learners and tutors to be familiar with grammatically terminology (e.g. ‘preposition’, ‘mutate the subject’)?’ authors were quite divided in relation to learners as to whether this was ‘Dymunol / Desirable’ (4 authors), ‘Ddim yn angenrheidiol / Not necessary’ (3 authors), or ‘Ddim yn bwysig / Not important’ (5 authors). No authors felt that it was ‘Hanfodol / Necessary’ that learners be familiar with grammatical terminology. With regard to tutors, WfA authors were sharply divided between two positions. They felt that it was either ‘Hanfodol / Necessary’ (6 authors) or ‘Dymunol / Desirable’ (6 authors) that tutors be familiar with grammatical terminology.
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2.40 Morevoer, authors expressed very mixed views as to whether their own WfA courses used appropriate grammatical terminology. For example, in response to the question ‘I ba raddau mae eich deunyddiau yn defnyddio terminoleg ramadegol?’ / To what extent do your materials use grammatical terminology?’ Some state that they don’t at all while others say that they do so to a considerable degree. Others again say that they are making greater use of grammatical terminology in response to learners’ feedback. For example:
Rwy’n defnyddio Cymraeg clir/Saesneg plaen wrth esbonio rheolau gramadeg y Gymraeg / I use clear Welsh/plain English when explaining the rules of Welsh grammar (Author 12). Fawr ddim / Hardly at all (Author 11). Ychydig iawn / Very little (Author 10). Dyn nhw ddim. Os oes angen rhywbeth dw i’n dweud “action”, “eitem”, “person”, “disgrifio”, “placing word – sef a word that places you on/in/under/with ac ati” / They don’t. If something is needed I say “action” “item” “person”, “describing”, “placing word – namely a word that places you on/in/under/with atc” (Author 5). Ychydig (canllaw yn y cefn, ac ambell i gyfeiriad yma ac acw) / Little (guideline in the back, and the occasional reference here and there) (Author 4). Ychydig iawn wir / Very little indeed (Author 2). Dim llawer / Not a lot (Author 1). Yn ddamcaniaethol, dim llawer e.e. canllawiau; yn ymarferol, eithaf tipyn e.e. y cwrs ei hun / Theoretically, not a lot e.g. guidelines; practically, quite a bit e.g. the course itself (Author 9). Mae defnydd io rhai termau yn y blociau geirfa, fel berfenw, enw, ansoddair ac ati. Ond dyn ni’n fwriadol yn osgoi terminoleg gramadegol er mwyn cadw’r cwrs yn hygyrch i bobl sydd ddim yn ieithgwn / There’s use of some terms in the vocabulary blocks, like verb-noun, noun, adjective etc. But we deliberatively avoid grammatical terminology in order to keep the course accessible to people who aren’t grammar nerds (Author 6). Ceisir osgoi terminoleg gramadegol [...] ond defnyddir: berf, ansoddair, enw o’r cychwyn. Defnyddir goddrych wrth gyflwyno pwyslais. Defnyddir arddodiaid o bryd i’w gilydd. Defnyddir hefyd amserau berfau: presennol, gorffennol, dyfodol. Byddaf yn osgoi amodol ac amherffaith cymaint â phosibl / One tries to avoid using grammatical terminology [...] but the following are used from the off: verb, adjective, noun. Object is used when presenting emphasis. Preposition is used occasionally. The tenses of the verbs are also used: present, past, future. I try to avoid the conditional and the imperfect as much as possible (Author 3). I raddau helaeth / To a great degree (Author 8). Mwy nawr o ganlyniad i adborth y dysgwyr. Ond dim llawer / More as a result of feedback from learners. But not a lot (Author 7).
2.41 Developing a more coherent and shared sense of the grammar with which tutors ought to be familiar, on the one hand, and which ought to be taught to learners, on the other hand, along with the terminology to be used could be usefully informed by Swan’s essay on ‘pedagogic language rules’ (1994). His advice with regard to terminology seems particularly pertinent to WfA, for example:
On the other hand, a pedagogic grammarian or a teacher giving learners a rule can usually assume very little conceptual sophistication on the part of his/her readers or listeners. He or she must try to get things across using the simplest possible
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grammatical notions. Terminology will be chosen for its familiarity rather than for its precision. It will sometimes be necessary to provide students with new concepts in order to get a point across, but one must aim for minimum intervention
2.42 The development of a more coherent and shared sense of grammar could be greatly facilitated by the commissioning of a grammar reference specific to WfA tutors and also of grammar reference and practice books or handbooks for WfA learners. This work could be usefully informed by those Welsh texts with which WfA practitioners are already familiar but also by a variety of bestselling, popular texts from TEFL. For example: Practice books – ‘Basic Grammar in Use with Answers’ Raymond Murphy [for beginners and elementary learners]; ‘Essential Grammar in Use with Answers’ Raymond Murphy [for elementary and post elementary]; ‘English Grammar in Use with Answers’ Raymond Murphy [for intermediate levels]; ‘How English Works: a Grammar Practice Book’ Michael Swan, Catherine Walter [for intermediate levels]; ‘Advanced Grammar in Use: With Answers’ Martin Hewings [for the advanced level]. Reference books – ‘A Practical English Grammar’ Thomson and Martinet; ‘Practical English Usage’ Michael Swan.
Recommendations:
[ONE] To commission a bespoke handbook on grammar for learners including mnemonic devices as commonly used in TEFL texts, such as acrostics; [TWO] To commission a bespoke book on grammar for tutors including guidance on the appropriate terminology to use with learners; [THREE] To provide more training on grammar to tutors including on the WfA National Qualificaiton and also via local workshops; [FOUR] To commission a grammar App for WfA similar to Cambridge University’s English Grammar in Use Tests and Activities Apps or University College London’s Interactive Grammar of English [iGE] Apps.
3 Drilling
3.1 Given the evolution of the WfA sector, being heavily influenced by the Bilingual Method championed by Carl Dodson at The University of Wales College, Aberystwyth during the 1960s, it is axiomatic that drilling continues to form a large part of WfA teaching. Dodson’s method, located within audiolingualism, centred on learning structural sequences consisting of presentation, practice and production. Across all Centres, this is reflected in an approach which employs stimulus, response and reinforcement under tutor supervision, particularly at the Mynediad and Sylfaen level where pattern formation introduction and initial reinforcement is most acute, with possible divergence coming to the fore between and within Centres regarding the appropriateness of drilling at Canolradd level. According to this method, a specific and contextualised pattern will be introduced step by step in each unit. Repetition will then occur at a group, pair and individual level, the mix of which will depend on the tutor. After practising the pattern in a structured manner through repetition, it is then reinforced through an array of oral, listening and writing activities as well as constant revision.
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3.2 That said, it ought to be borne in mind that drilling may mean different things to different people, including the various respondents featured in this fieldwork. It was also clear during interviews that the WfA teaching principles referred to above are now being rethought and have undergone some development in the light of a greater awareness of, and response to, the differentiated needs of learners. The procedures employed during drilling (e.g. the combination of the four core skills) as well as the stages at which drills should be deployed during the learning process are now a topic of considerable debate, since drilling procedures often vary within Centres, depending on the individual tutor and the degree of prescriptiveness of, and adherence to, centre guidelines for tutors. Despite the move to acknowledge learner differentiation, though, there remains a body of WfA opinion which prizes the ability of an experienced tutor to employ both extension and variety within drilling activities, leading to learning and acceptable pattern acquisition.There is also significant awareness among practitioners of the possible dangers inherent in drilling if it is not used creatively or in constant combination with other activities.
3.3 Allied to this last point regarding the possibility that drilling can develop into a mechanistic and monotonous practice as well as favouring those with better memory recall capacity, a minority opinion exists which believes that language learning does not necessarily need to follow a cycle of tutor presentation followed by learner practice and production. On this view, mainly within WfA desuggestopedia practitioners, learners are being asked to reproduce blocks of language too early in the language process, possibly due to constraints in time and resources and that this can lead to frustration among both tutors and learners.
3.4 There is considerable evidence of support for drilling amongst WfA practitioners and learners alike. The results of the research show clearly that a majority of WfA authors remain strongly in favour of drilling and have firm opinions on what drilling is. For example, Author 4 describes drilling as: Ffordd o ymarfer iaith, a’r tiwtor yn rheoli’r dosbarth (gyda’i gilydd neu fesul grwpiau / unigolion) [A way of practising language, with the tutor managing the class (altogether or as groups or individuals)]. Repetition, while boring according to Author 5, defines the drill: I gyflwyno patrwm rhaid i’r dysgwyr ei glywed sawl gwaith, wedyn ail- adrodd sawl gwaith fel dosbarth a fel unigolyn gyda’r tiwtor yn dweud y patrwm ar ôl pob un. I ddechrau byddwch chi’n teimlo’n lletchwith ac yn meddwl bod nhw’n diflasu ond gydag amser bydd drilio am amser hir yn dod yn naturiol. Mae’n bwysig ail-ddweud y frawddeg llawer o weithiau. [In order to present the pattern the learners have to hear it several times, than repeat it several times as a class and as individuals with the tutor saying the pattern after each drill. You’ll feel awkward to begin with and think that the drills are boring but with time drilling for a long period will come naturally. It’s important to repeat the sentence many times]. Repetition is understood to lead inevitably to memorisation, as Author 7 describes: Ailadrodd patrwm nes ei fod yn awtomatig helpu i gofio patrymau iaith. [(Drilling is) repeating the pattern until it automatically aids the memorisation of the language patterns]. Author 10 asserts that it provides the essential foundations for communication:
Mae defnyddio iaith newydd yn llwyddiannus yn dibynnu ar y gallu i ynganu’n ddealladwy, i gofio patrymau a geirfa, ac i addasu’r patrymau er mwyn cyflawni diben y cyfathrebu. Mae dril yn rhoi model clir i ddysgwyr ac yn rhoi cyfle iddyn nhw ailadrodd a disodli patrymau a geirfa’n gyson gan obeithio y bydd hyn yn sefydlu’r adnoddau ieithyddol angenrheidiol yn gadarn yn y cof ac yn rhoi’r sgiliau a’r hyder i’r dysgwr ddefnyddio’r iaith mewn sgwrs. [Using a new language successfully depends on the ability to pronounce in an understandable manner, to recall patterns and
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vocabulary, to adjust patterns in order to attain communicative aims. The drill gives learners a clear model and this will establish the necessary linguistic resources firmly in the memory and give learners the skills and confidence to use the language in a conversation] (Author 10).
3.5 The results also indicate substantial general support for drilling amongst tutors. For example, Tutor 1: Mae drilio yn helpu i ymarfer ynganu ac i saernïo patrwm newydd ar y cof. [Drilling helps with practising pronounciation and it fixes a new pattern in the memory], and Tutor 12: Mae dysgwyr yn mwynhau drilio. Mae’n nhw’n hoffi gwneud bach o waith yn y dosbarth; er ei fod yn bosibl cael hwyl yr un pryd, mae amser drilio yn teimlo fel “cig” y dosbarth. [Learners enjoy drilling. They like doing a bit of work in the classroom; even though it’s possible to have fun at the same time, drilling feels like the ‘meat’ of the class]. Learners too were substantially supportive of drilling at all levels. For example, Learner 20 [Uwch] : ‘I like drilling sessions as it aids pronounciation and recalling sentence structures’; Learner 78 [Canolradd]: I like it, as it allows you to practice pronunciation and listen to others [...], and Learner 63 [Canolradd]: ‘Very useful as it helps me to remember by repetition’; Learner 180 [Mynediad]: ‘Repetition is very helpful, the more I hear it the better I remember it!’; Learner 87 [Sylfaen]: ‘Repetition helps to reinforce and to build confidence’.
3.6 The results of the fieldwork suggest that there is, very broadly speaking, general agreement that drilling is most valuable, and therefore most prevalent, at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels and that there is less emphasis on drilling from Canolradd level onwards. According to Author 10 drilling from Canolradd onwards is very useful but learners at this level can be drilled more quickly and using more complex drills:
Does dim gwahaniaeth sylfaenol rhwng y ddau lefel, ond gan fod y dysgwr yn fwy cyfarwydd â theithi’r iaith erbyn hyn, gall y driliau symud ymlaen yn gynt a gellir cynnwys mwy o elfennau o fewn pob cam [There’s no basic difference between the two levels (Mynediad and Sylfaen / Canolradd and higher), but since the learners will be more familiar with the features of the language by then, drilling may move along more quickly and contain more elements within each step] (Author 10).
However, there are some important differences between authors and tutors with regard to the purpose and the extent to which drilling is useful from Canolradd level onwards, of which more later.
3.7 Views amongst authors with regard to drilling in general show only a little variation. Authors are very supportive of most types of drilling at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels (Charts 40 to 47). The outliers are, in almost every case, De-suggestopedia authors.
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 80.67
Chart 40 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Repetition/pattern drill
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 81.26
Chart 41 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Substitution drill
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 81.69
Chart 42 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Question-and-answer drill
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 76.65
Chart 43 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Transformation drill
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 82.80
Chart 44 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Hidden drill
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 69.24
Chart 45 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise mutations
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 76.42
Chart 46 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise general grammar
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.05
Chart 47 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise verb and preposition endings
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3.8 Authors noted other puposes to drilling at the various levels, from Mynediad onwards, including to practise positive and negative answers, to develop the area's natural accent, to develop listening skills as well as speaking skills, to practise pronunciation and intonation.
3.9 The only exception to this support amongst authors for drilling at this level (Mynediad and Sylfaen) was with regard to translation drilling (Chart 48). Authors are very divided on this drill and this is reflected in the very modest average score of 59.24 for the translation drill. This appears to be explained by Author 10:
Dw i’n teimlo bod eisiau cyfyngu ar ddriliau cyfieithu. Rhaid sicrhau bod y dysgwyr yn deall yr hyn mae’n nhw’n ei ddweud, ond unwaith mae hynny wedi’i sefydlu, rhaid canolbwyntio ar fodelu yn hytrach nag egluro a defnyddio driliau ailadrodd a disodli yn hytrach na driliau cyfieithu. Fel arall, bydd y dysgwr yn ceisio meddwl mewn dwy iaith ar yr un pryd [I feel that the translation drill needs to be restricted. It has to be ensured that learners understand what they are saying, but once that has been established you have to concentrate upon modelling rather than on explanation and using repetition and substitution drills rather than translation drills. Otherwise, the learner will try to think in two languages at the same time] (Author 10).
There would appear to be some confusion here with regard to explanation and translation. Explanation, in the mother tongue of learners (especially beginners), if required, is regarded as necessary according to the research in this area (e.g. Butzkamm and Caldwell, 2009). Also, it may well be significant that the translation drill does not often appear amongst the types of drill identified in other SLA contexts. For example, one TEFL practitioner lists the following main types of drilling – substitution; mutation; transformation; application relationships; collocation relationships; implication relationships; consequence, hypnonmy and antonym; and, synonymy. The translation drill is missing. Of course, in such classes where there is no common language between the learners then it simply isn’t possible to do translation drilling.
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SCORE 120
100
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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 59.24
Chart 48 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Translation drill
3.10 Also, the results indicate that there is some significant resistance amongst authors with regard to vocabulary drilling at these levels (Mynediad and Sylfaen). Some authors are very strongly opposed to this type of drill, which gained an average score of 61.26 (Chart 49).
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 61.26
Chart 49 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise vocabulary
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3.11 Similar resistance may be discerned amongst authors with regard to drilling in order to practise plural forms (Chart 50), with a modest average score of 64.11:
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 64.11
Chart 50 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (for beginners)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise plurals
3.12 Levels of support amongst authors for drilling from Canolradd level onwards are broadly similar to the support expressed at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels. In short, authors are very supportive of repetition, substitution, question-and-answer, transformation, hidden, mutation, general grammar, verb and preposition ending drill types (Charts 51 to 58). This contrasts somewhat with the research results regarding tutors, of which more later.
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 75.56
Chart 51 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Repetition/pattern drill
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 83.59
Chart 52 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Substitution drill
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 85.83
Chart 53 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Question-and-answer drill
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.29
Chart 54 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Transformation drill
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SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.47
Chart 55 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Hidden drill
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 74.24
Chart 56 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise mutations
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 78.66
Chart 57 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise general grammar
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 80.61
Chart 58 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise verb and preposition endings
3.13 Authors remained very divided in relation to the translation drill at this level (Canolradd onwards) giving it a relatively low average score of 53.86 (Chart 59).
120
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 53.86
Chart 59 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Translation drill
3.14 Similarly, authors remained quite divided with regard to vocabulary drilling at this level (Canolradd onwards), giving it a relatively low average score of 64.09 (Chart 60).
SCORE 120
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0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 64.09
Chart 60 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise vocabulary
3.15 Also, there was some opposition amongst authors to drilling to practise plural forms at these levels, with a modest average score of 63.63 (Chart 61).
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg 63.63
Chart 61 Authors: Q ‘Give your opinion as to how valuable the different types of drilling below are (canolradd onwards)’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise plurals
3.16 Amongst tutors there are strong levels of support for various types of drilling of learners at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels namely repetition / pattern, substitution, question-and- answer, transformation and hidden drill types (Charts 62 to 66). Each of these have average scores well in excess of 70:
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 83.67
Chart 62 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Repetition/pattern drill
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 81.64
Chart 63 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Substitution drill
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.94
Chart 64 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Question-and-answer drill
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 74.12
Chart 65 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Transformation drill
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 79.97
Chart 66 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Hidden drill
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3.17 As with WfA authors, the results of the fieldwork indicate some significant levels of resistance amongst tutors to the use of translation drilling (Chart 67). This may be related to reluctance of some tutors to make use of English in class. The clustering on the graph suggests that there may well be a geographical pattern to tutor attitudes but the structure of the survey sample does not allow for statistically meaningful geographical patterns to be robustly inferred.
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 60.38
Chart 67 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Translation drill
3.17 The results of the fieldwork show that every drill at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels is regarded by WfA practitioners as an exercise in pronunciation but that other functions of drilling were perceived as highly valuable. Tutors were asked the extent to which they valued drilling for the pusposes of practicing mutations, general grammar, verb and preposition endings and each of these scored highly (Charts 68 to 70):
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.17
Chart 68 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise mutations
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.22
Chart 69 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise general grammar
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 78.54
Chart 70 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise verb and preposition endings
3.18 Tutors also noted a variety of other purposes to drilling including the following:
Drill to establish the pattern, aim, rhythm / Drill for pronunciation and intonation / Drill to practise pronunciation and the rhythm of the language, and to raise learners' confidence / Drill to practise a new pattern / Drill to present a new pattern; Drill to correct a common mistake; Drill to ensure correct pronunciation / Drill to improve pronunciation; Drill to develop the ability to respond quickly / Drill to practise pronunciation / Drill to develop confidence; Drill so that learners hear their own voices strongly; Drill to learn a story (Llanllawen) / Drill to learn chunks (Llanllawen).
3.19 The results suggest that a significant minority of tutors do not rate drilling for the purpose of practising plural forms (Chart 71), as reflected in the relatively modest average score of 64.05:
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 64.05
Chart 71 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise plurals
3.20 Also, drilling in order to practise vocabulary was seen by a significant minority of tutors as problematic (Chart 72):
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 70.51
Chart 72 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (for beginners)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise vocabulary
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3.21 This result ought to be read in conjunction with one tutor’s comment regarding the acquisition of vocabulary and its relationship to drilling, as they perceived it:
O un wers i’r llall y teimlad yw nad ydy dysgwyr yn dod ar draws digon o eirfa i adeiladu digon o hyder i gamu i’r uned nesa’. Gormod o unedau yn canolbwynto ar batrymau yn hytrach na geirfa. / From one lesson to the other the feeling is that learners do not come across enough vocabulary in order to build enough confidence to move on to the next unit. Too many units concentrate on patterns instead of vocabulary’ (Tutor 34).
3.22 From Canolradd level onwards the results demonstrate that tutors in general are of the view that drilling, while still valuable, is significantly less important at this point (Charts 73 to 77). In addition, a small minority of tutors appear to be quite opposed to any drilling at this level. The following tutors’ comments reflect the different views in this regard:
Erbyn y lefel yma, mi ddylai fod gan y dysgwyr afael da iawn ar batrymau’r iaith ond mae ychydig o ddril yn dda i atgoffa a chadarnhau’r patrymau. Mae’n parhau i fod yn ffordd dda i ddysgu geirfa newydd / By this level, the learners ought to have a good grasp of the language patterns but a little drilling is good so as to remind the learners and reinforce the pattern. It continues to be a good way of learning new vocabulary (Tutor 6);
Dw i ddim yn drilio ar lefel canolradd. Mae’r dysgwyr wedi gwneud 2 flynedd o ddrilio, dylen nhw fod yn ddigon da i ymdopi heb ddrilio ar y lefel yma / I don’t drill at Canolradd level. The learners have done 2 years of drilling, they ought to be good enough to cope without drilling at this level (Tutor 13);
Mae’n bwysig bod pob tiwtor yn drilio dosbarthiadau Mynediad, Sylfaen a Chanolradd / It’s important the every tutor drills Mynediad, Sylfaen and Canolradd classes (Tutor 15);
Dydy’r dysgwyr ar lefel canolradd ddim mor barod i ddrilio patrymau ac mae’n anodd iawn i’w hysbrydoli nhw wrth ddrilio. Mae’n well ganddynt ddisodli, cyfieithu, trawsnewid ayyb / Learners at Canolradd level ar not as prepared to drill patterns and it’s very hard to inspire them while drilling. They prefer to substitute, translate, transform etc (Tutor 29);
[Dylai fod] yr un peth [h.y. yr un maint o ddrilio] i’r ddau lefel [Mynediad/Sylfaen & Pellach/Canolradd], fwy neu lai. Mae dysgwyr ar lefel Canolradd yn hoffi adolygu’r patrymau trwy ddrilio, yn fy mhrofiad i / [There ought to be] the same [amount of drilling] at the two levels [Mynediad/Sylfaen & Pellach/Canolradd], more or less. Learners at Canolradd like to revise the patterns through drilling, in my experience (Tutor 35).
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 69.44
Chart 73 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Repetition/pattern drill
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 74.10
Chart 74 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Substitution drill
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SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 73.93
Chart 75 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Question-and-answer drill
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 67.97
Chart 76 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Transformation drill
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SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 74.03
Chart 77 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Hidden drill
3.23 Attitudes towards the different types of drilling are consistently favourable but the translation drill is, once again, exceptional. Amongst tutors there is a very substantial minority indeed against the use of the translation drill from Canolradd onwards (Chart 78). The distribution of the results suggests that perhaps there is some geographical patterning but the structure of the survey sample does not allow for statistically meaningful geographical patterns to be robustly inferred:
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 57.76
Chart 78 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Translation drill
3.24 Tutors are supportive of drilling for various purposes from Canolradd level onwards, including to practise mutations, general grammar, verb and preposition endings (Charts 79 to 81), but at generally lower level of support than for learners in Mynediad and Sylfaen classes.
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 71.87
Chart 79 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise mutations
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 74.47
Chart 80 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise general grammar
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 70.12
Chart 81 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise verb and preposition endings
3.25 Tutors noted other purposes for drilling at Canolradd level onwards including the following: for pronunciation and intonation / to practise a new pattern / to present a new pattern / to correct a common mistake / to develop the ability to respond quickly / to try to get rid of common elementary mistakes / to learn dramas (Lleisiau'r Llan) / to learn chunks.
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3.26 A significant minority of tutors do not rate drilling for plural forms at this level also (Chart 82), as reflected in the modest average score of 61.40:
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 61.40
Chart 82 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise plurals
3.27 Using drilling for the purpose of practising vocabulary was not regarded favourably by a significant minority of tutors (Chart 83), as reflected in the modest average score of 62.70:
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 62.70
Chart 83 Tutors: Q ‘What is your opinion of drilling in WfA (Canolradd onwards)?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’], Drill to practise vocabulary
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3.28 That WfA practitioners were concerned with regard to the extent to which there was a research basis for drilling was apparent in the results of the fieldwork. The review of the international research literature indicated that attention to drilling fell from the research agenda with the advent of communicative approaches. At the same time drilling became a less popular feature of many language courses yet WfA remained quite resistant to this shift towards communicative approaches. More recently it appears that a degree of uncertainty has developed amongst some WfA practitioners as to the efficacy of drilling, sensing perhaps that its apparent disappearance from mainstream SLA is indicative of professional consensus beyond WfA as to the overall inadequacy of drilling as a pedagogic technique.
3.29 A minority of WfA practitioners appear to have lost confidence in drilling because it appears to be wholly out of step with the mainstream. For example a number of authors and tutors offered the following comments with regard to whether drilling is effective:
Sai’n gwybod! Dyma’r ffordd rwyf wedi cael fy hyfforddi, siŵr o fod ond wn i ddim ai dyma’r ffordd orau o ddysgu iaith – onid yw wedi seilio ar ymchwil hen ffasiwn erbyn hyn (enghraifft arall o Gymru yn yr Oesoedd Canol o hyd?!). [...] Ydy pobl yn mynd i dderbyn ‘drilio’ y dyddiau hyn yn y byd sydd ohoni? / I don’t know! This is the way I’ve been trained, but I don’t know if that’s the best way to learn a language – isn’t it based upon research that is old-fashioned by now (another example of Wales still in the Middle Ages?!). [...] Are people going to accept ‘drilling’ these days in the world as it is? (Author 9);
Gallu bod yn eithriadol o ddiflas a ddim yn cydfynd gyda’r ffordd mae’r ymennydd yn gweithio. Nid cŵn Pavlov mohonom. / It can be exceptionally miserable and it doesn’t conform with the way in which the brain works. We are not Pavlovian dogs. (Author 11);
Credaf fod drilio yn hanfodol ar gyfer dechreuwyr – yn bennaf i fagu sgiliau ynganu (pwysicach nag ymarfer patrymau gramadegol – pwrpas arall i ddrilio). [...] Ond mae’r ffaith fod ein cyrsiau i ryw raddau wedi seilio’n llwyr ar “ddrilio patrymau” yn adlewyrchu methodoleg hen ffasiwn. / I believe that drilling is essential for beginners – mainly to develop pronunciation skills (more important than practising grammatical patterns – another purpose to drilling). [...] But the fact that our courses to some degree are wholly based upon “drilling patterns” reflects an old-fashioned methodology (Tutor 10).
3.30 These concerns are significant yet largely groundless. The efficacy of drilling, and its limitations, is based upon robust research. Drilling was a key feature of the Minimal Language Acquisition Programme designed by Fries and Lado, based upon their early research in this area (1957 and 1958). Work conducted during the 1960s (e.g. Mace, 1962; Pimsleur, 1967) and 1970s (e.g. Pimsleur and Quinn, 1971) demonstrated that spaced repetition was a valuable technique with regard to memorisation. Several algorithms (the Leitner system, neural networks, and SuperMemo) were devised in order to identify the optimum scheduling of repetition but no consensus appears to have emerged on this matter. That said, Pimsleur devised a scheme of spaced repetition, which he described as graduated- interval recall, that was the basis for the popular Pimsleur Method and the Pimsleur Language Programmes. Drilling has remained a significant feaure of the Streamline Departures courses first published by Oxford University in 1979
136 to be widely used in TEFL (Appendix 5). In this case TEFL practice may well be rather different to TEFL scholarship. Also, WfA practice may not be as different to mainstream TEFL practice as some appear to fear.
3.31 For those who contend that repetition is counter to the manner in which language is naturally acquired, Cook argues that similar to exercises in structural language teaching: ‘repetition permeates the child’s language environment [...] there is repetition at every linguistic and discoursal level: of phonemes, of syllables, of grammatical structures, of events within a story, and of elements of stories within a given genre [...]. In very general terms, the dominant focus of repetition moves through the levels of language, as the child grows older: from rhythym, to sound, to grammar, to meaning’ (Cook, 2000: 28). Moreover, such repetitive sequences do not only attend to form but also ‘semantic reference and pragmatic force’ (Cook, 2000: 31). Also, this report has already allued to the importance of naturally occurring formulaic language, understood as fixed phrases (e.g. ‘break even’), collocations (e.g. blazing row’), situationally-bound preferred formulae (e.g. ‘sorry to keep you waiting’) and frames (e.g. ‘If I were you...’).
3.32 With the advent of large electronic corpora it has been possible to identify extensive inventorties of such formulaic language in English and this has had an impact on TEFL (e.g. Wray, 2000). A number of TEFL practitioners have pointed out that a range of such formulaic sequences, identified by scientifically informed prioritisation, can be usefully incorporated to the curriculum (Lewis, 1993; Swan, 2006; Willis, 1990). Given the place of drilling in WfA, it would be quite straightforward to adapt appropriate formulaic language to the WfA curriculum. What WfA lacks is an appropriate electronic corpus through which specifically Welsh formulaic language might be robustly identified. The Cronfa Electroneg o Gymraeg (CEG) at Bangor University
3.33 Semantic satiation and overgeneralisation both appear to be issues with drilling in WfA. With regard to the former, a significant problem with drilling was identified by James (1962) as the audio-lingual method was becoming popular. This research showed that repetition can have the effect of reducing language to meaninglessness, a psychological phenomenon described as semantic satiation. James also showed that individuals are susceptible to different degrees to semantic satiation. More recent research (e.g. Balota et al, 2007; Gupta & Cohen, 2002) confirms both the potential effectiveness of repetition and spaced retrieval with regard to memorisation and also the effect of semantic satiation.
3.34 WfA authors are certainly aware of some of the challenges posed by drilling, and some of their concerns are relevant to the potential dangers posed by semantic satiation and overgeneralisation whether or not there is awareness of these phenomena amongst WfA practitioners. Certainly, they ascribe some of the difficulties with drilling to other issues including differences between learners. For example, in response to the question what disadvantages or dangers there were with drilling, authors comments included the following:
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Dwi ddim yn hoff o ailadrodd yn y dull ‘siantio’ – mae’n ddiflas ac yn ddigalon, a ddim yn cymryd gwahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr i ystyriaeth / I don’t like the ‘chanting’ technique – it’s miserable and heartless, and doesn’t take learner differences into account (Author 1);
Gorddrilio. Rhai dysgwyr yn teimlo dan bwysau. Drilio mecanyddol yn unig / Over- drilling. Some learners feel under pressure. Mechanical drilling only (Author 3).
Mae rhai dysgwyr yn anhoffi drilio yn ei hanfod. Bydd rhai myfyrwyr yn nerfus neu ddim yn dymuno perfformio o flaen y dosbarth cyfan. Mewn dril, nid yw dysgwr yn gallu gweithio ar ei gyflymdra naturiol. Mae tuedd gan rai tiwtoriaid ddrilio am amser hir, yn enwedig driliau gwrando ac ailadrodd. Dylid gofalu bod swmp amser y wers yn cael ei roi i waith parau / grwpiau, gan mai yn ystod y gwaith hwn bydd dysgwyr yn dysgu defnyddio patrwm, nid wrth wrando ac ailadrodd. Mewn dosbarth mawr, gall fod yn anodd i bawb weld a chlywed y tiwtor. Yn yr un modd, anodd wedyn i’r tiwtor fonitro pawb wrth ddrilio. Bydd rhai tiwtoriaid yn drilio un patrwm ar ôl y llall; nid yw hyn yn caniatáu i’r patrwm cyntaf ymsefydlu’n drwyadl yng nghof y dysgwr. Rhaid cael gweithgaredd(au) ymarfer o ryw fath i hynny ddigwydd / Some learners basically don’t like drilling. Some students will be nervous and won’t want to perform in fornt of the whole class. In a drill, the learner isn’t able to work at their natural speed. Some tutors have a tendency to drill for a long time, especially listening and repetition drills. One ought to take care that the majority of classtime is for work in pairs / groups, as it’s during this work that learners learn to use patterns, not by listening and repeating. In a large class, it might be hard for everyone to see and hear the tutor. In the same way, it’s hard then for the tutor to monitor everyone as they drill. Some tutors will drill pattern after pattern; this doesn’t allow for the first pattern to become wholly established in the learner’s memory. It’s necessary to have practice task(s) of some sort for that to happen (Author 4);
Oes (1) Drilio’n rhy hir (2) Drilio’n ddiflas, yn ddifflach ac yn undonog (3) Dilyn ‘rheolau’ drilio’n rhy gaeth (4) Peidio esbonio technegau drilio’n ddigon eglur i diwtoriaid newydd / Yes (1) Drilling too long (2) Dull drilling, boring and monotonous (3) Following the drilling ‘rules’ too strictly (4) Not explaining the techniques of drilling clearly enough to new tutors (Author 8);
Mae drilio traddodiadol yn dibynnu ar y cof. Mae cof rhai dysgwyr yn well na’i gilydd. Mae angen i’r tiwtor fod yn ymwybodol o hyn ac yn barod i fod yn hyblyg. Mae’n dra phwysig cynnal gweithgarwch cyfathrebu ar ddiwedd y dril, ac a dweud y gwir, gellir ystyried y gweithgarwch cyfathrebol yn fath o ddril cudd / Traditional drilling depends on the memory. The memory of some learners is better than others. The tutor must be aware of this and be prepared to be flexible. It’s very important to hold communicative activities at the end of the drill, and, to be honest, one could consider the communicative activity to be a type of hidden drill (Author 12);
Mae perygl i ddril fynd yn ailadroddllyd ac i ambell dysgwr deimlo dan bwysau. Rhaid sicrhau digon o amrywiaeth yn y dril, yn hytrach na dibynnu ar un dull yn unig a rhaid bod yn sensitif i deimladau unigolion wrth ei gyflwyno, gan gynnwys mwy o waith ddrilio côr na drilio unigol a rhannu’n barau’n gyson yn ystod y dril er mwyn cael cyfle i gynorthwyo unrhyw rai sy’n cael trafferth / There is a danger that a drill can become repetitive andthat some learners feel under pressure. Sufficent variety
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must be ensured in the drill, instead of depending on one way alone and it’s necessary to be sensitive to the feelings of individuals when presenting the drill, including more choral drilling than individual drilling and setting in pairs consistently during the drill in order to have the opportunity to help any learners that are having difficulties (Author 10);
Gall drilio fod yn undonog / Drilling can be monotonous (Author 6).
3.35 There would appear to be evidence of semantic satiation emerging in the context of some WfA practice in the results of the research. For example, a significant minority of learners, most commonly at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels, note that boredom arises during the course of drilling. Typical learner comments include the following:
It [drilling] works as long as it’s interesting! (Learner 168 [Mynediad]). [Drilling is] fun and effective if used imaginatively. We are lucky as our teacher is very creative (Learner 187 [Mynediad]). I find it harder to remember through repetition (Learner 112 [Sylfaen]). [Drilling is] helpful when not taken to excess – it gets dull and you switch off (Learner 136 [Sylfaen]). Sometimes it [drilling] can get very boring (Learner 103 [Sylfaen]). [Drilling] could be boring if overused (Learner 91 [Sylfaen]).
These, and other similar such comments, are suggestive of the symptoms associated with semantic satiation. In the fieldwork data, these sorts of learners also assert that they would like more variety and imagination in the use of drilling in the classroom.
3.36 When asked for their opinion of the use of drilling in the class, a significant minority of learners commented that they want to also write or to have visual stimuli or aids in relation to drilling exercises. For example:
I like it as long as both aural and written forms of “teaching” it are used (Learner 236 [Mynediad]). I sometimes find that the removal of all visual input can make things difficult (Learner 252 [Mynediad]). It only helps if I have seen the material written down first, otherwise it can be very confusing (Learner 199 [Mynediad]). This can be helpful but I do respond better if I have a visual aid. Sometimes it is hard to hear and repeat accurately (Learner 201 [Mynediad]). It helps – but I feel I need to see the words in order to learn them – otherwise I forget them. I need to know the spelling of words and how the sentences are constructed (Learner 203 [Mynediad]). Beneficial as long as the pattern has been fully explained first (Learner 166 [Mynediad]). Quite good as long as it is immediately followed by the written spelling etc – I am a visual learner as well as auditory! (Learner 174 [Mynediad]). I don’t find it particularly helpful, as I pick things up more easily through seeing them written and using them in sentences (Learner 97 [Sylfaen]). I would like to see it written down first (Learner 163 [Sylfaen]). I [...] remember more by writing (Learner 112 [Sylfaen]).
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This may suggest two things. The first is that some differences between learners are not being accommodated by some classroom practices in drilling and secondly that learners such as these would benefit from variation in approaches to drilling.
3.37 In addition to semantic satiation, a second significant problem was identified by Dakin (1973) namely overgeneralisation. According to Dakin the problem arising from some approaches to drilling was that they actually cause learners to make mistakes. Simply put, learners may produce errors that result from extending general rules to items not covered by those rules. Dakin showed that drilling in the absence of any grammatical explanation leads to overgeneralisation. There would appear to be some suggestion in the results of the research that this might be an issue in WfA. The following comment by one tutor, for example, could be interpreted in this way: ‘Ar lefel Canolradd rhaid ceisio ‘dadwneud’ arferion drwg sy wedi’u hen sefydlu’n aml (e.e. dwi’n eisiau)’ / ‘At Canolradd level I try and undo bad habits that are often long established (e.g. dwi’n eisiau)’ (Tutor 5).
3.38 The results of the fieldwork show that author expectations and tutor practices vary considerably across the WfA sector. Specifially, there are significant differences between author guidelines in relation to WfA teaching material and tutor implementation according to those guidelines.
3.39 When asked whether their materials included guidance on how to drill, all authors stated that they did, with the exception of one. In addition several of the authors offered further explanation of this guidance. For example:
Y mae’r canllawiau i’r Cwrs Wlpan a luniais yng Nghaerdydd yn cyflwyno syniadau manwl ar ddrilio pob patrwm / The guidelines to the Cwrs Wlpan I designed in Cardiff present detailed ideas on drilling each pattern (Author 3);
Ddim yn benodol ond mae sôn yn y casgliad ar gyfer ‘Mynediad’/ Not specifically but there is reference to it in the collection for ‘Mynediad’ (Author 5);
Ydyn, i ddechreuwyr / Yes, for beginners (Author 9);
Ydyn, yn fanwl iawn / Yes, in considerable detail (Author 6);
Mae dull enghreifftiol o gyflwyno un uned, sy’n cynnwys y driliau fesul cam, wedi’i cynnwys yn y canllawiau, ond dydy’r cwrs ei hun ddim yn gosod cynnwys y driliau’n gaeth. Rhaid i’r tiwtor greu ei ddriliau ei hun ar sail y crynodeb o’r cynnwys ieithyddol sy yn uned / There is a sample technique for presenting one unit, which includes drilling step-by-step, included in the guidlines, but the course itself doesn’t set out the content of the drilling very strictly. The tutor has to create their own drills on the basis of the summary of the linguistic content of the unit (Author 10);
Dril yn bwysig ac yn amlwg yn Llanllawen / drill is important and obvious in Llanllawen (Author 2).
3.40 When asked whether they expected tutors to allow learners to see the drill before starting, explain the drill before starting, translate the drill before starting, allow learners to write during the drill, or allow learners to ask questions during the drill, authors provided the following, varied responses:
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Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr weld y driliau cyn cychwyn / Allow the learners to see the drills before starting Ydw / Yes [3 authors] Nac Ydw / No [2 authors] Y Tiwtor Gaiff Benderfynu / The tutor decides [5 authors]
Esbonio’r driliau cyn cychwyn / Explain the drill before starting Ydw / Yes [5 authors] Nac Ydw / No [2 authors] Y Tiwtor Gaiff Benderfynu / The tutor decides [3 authors]
Cyfieithu’r driliau cyn cychwyn / Translate the drill before starting Ydw / Yes [0 authors] Nac Ydw / No [6 authors] Y Tiwtor Gaiff Benderfynu / The tutor decides [4 authors]
Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr ysgrifennu yn ystod y dril / Allow the learners to write during the drill Ydw / Yes [0 authors] Nac Ydw / No [7 authors] Y Tiwtor Gaiff Benderfynu / The tutor decides [3 authors]
Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr ofyn cwestiynau yn ystod y dril / Allow the learners to ask questions during the drill Ydw / Yes [5 authors] Nac Ydw / No [2 authors] Y Tiwtor Gaiff Benderfynu / The tutor decides [3 authors]
3.41 The authors also offered the following comments on these matters, providing some insight into their responses:
Amhosibl yw gwahardd [ysgrifennu yn ystod y dril] mewn dosbarth i oedolion. [Rwyf yn caniatáu i’r dysgwyr ofyn cwestiwn yn ystod y dril] ond gan eu hannog i beidio â thorri ar draws y llif oni bai ei bod yn gwbl angenrheidiol / It’s impossible to prohibit [writing during the drill] in a class of adults. [I allow the learners to ask questions during drilling] but I encourage them to not interrupt the flow unless that it is totally necessary (Author 3);
Mae’r tiwtor, fel arfer, yn nabod ei ddysgwyr ac yn gwybod beth sy’n gweithio. Yn bersonnol dw i ddim yn hoffi dysgwyr yn ysgrifennu yn ystod y dril ond oedolion ydyn nhw ac mae rhai’n teimlo’n well gydag ysgrifennu. Dw i’n rhoi cyngor iddyn nhw ond, yn y diwedd, os dyn nhw’n mynnu ysgrifennu dw i’n gadael iddyn nhw / The tutor, usually, knows the learners and knows what works. Personally, I don’t like learners writing during the drill but they are adults and some feel better with writing. I advise them but, in the end, if they insist upon writing I let them do so (Author 5);
Dylai esbonio a chyfieithu ddigwydd ar ôl drilio’r bloc. Dylai ysgrifennu a gofyn cwestiynau ddigywdd ar ôl y sesiwn drilio / Explanation and translation ought to
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happen after drilling the block. Writing and asking questions ought to happen after the drilling session (Author 6).
3.42 With regard to the tutors themselves, the fieldwork results show considerable variation with regard to the extent to which tutors follow guidelines on drilling. Note that two tutors did not respond to the questions in this area.This variation could be looked upon as a positive feature of WfA practice in so far as tutors are responding to classroom dymanics based upon their own experience. However, it could also be viewed negatively if one takes the view that tutors are not drilling appropriately. Inappropriate forms of drilling lead to semantic satiation.
3.43 Looking at these results more specifically, levels of compliance amongst tutors are not 100% at any level and they decrease markedly between Mynediad and Sylfaen levels on the one hand and Pellach / Canolradd on the other (Charts 84 and 85). At Mynediad and Sylfaen levels the average score was 78.11 whereas at Pellach / Canolradd levels the average dropped significantly to 65.81.
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 78.11
Chart 84 Tutors (Mynediad / Sylfaen): ‘I follow specific guidelines on what and how to drill a given element of the language’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 65.81
Chart 85 Tutors (Pellach / Canolradd): ‘I follow specific guidelines on what and how to drill a given element of the language’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
3.44 With regard to tutors explaining the drill before starting at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels, there would appear to be a clear clustering effect here, perhaps suggesting a geographical patterning (Chart 86). However, the structure of sample does not allow for statistically meaningful test in relation to possible geographical patterns.
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 71.73
Chart 86 Tutors (Mynediad / Sylfaen): ‘Before the drill begins, I explain the pattern’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
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3.45 However, this apparent pattern disappears at the level of Pellach / Canolradd (Chart 87). Moreover, this result suggests that tutors are much divided across the WfA sector as a whole with regard to explaining the pattern before starting drilling. A very substantial minority of tutors clearly never explain the pattern before commencing the drill in classes at this level. It ought to be noted that other research, as previously discussed, indicates that explanation is necessary prior to drilling in order to avoid semantic satiation.
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 63.72
Chart 87 Tutors (Pellach / Canolradd): Before the drill begins, I explain the pattern, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
3.46 With regard to translating the drill beforehand, there are quite contrasting results across the levels. The results suggest that this is much more likely to be done by tutors at Mynediad and Sylfaen level (Chart 88) than at Pellach / Canolradd (Chart 89). There is something of an apparent split amongst tutors at Mynediad and Sylfaen level. It is possible that in this case some respondents have interpreted ‘translation’ here to imply ‘explanation’ and that this ‘split’ therefore may reflect resistance to mere translation along with the use of English in the class as opposed to the actual explanation of the pattern to be drilled. Of course, explanation – a necessity – may have to be done in English, rather than in Welsh. This is going to be especially likely at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels. Again, other research, as discussed previously, indicates that use of the learners’ mother tongue in order to facilitate explanation and understanding is very useful and is not, of necessity, to be wholly avoided.
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg:62.85
Chart 88 Tutors (Mynediad / Sylfaen): ‘Before the drill begins, I translate the pattern’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 38.27
Chart 89 Tutors (Pellach / Canolradd): ‘Before the drill begins, I translate the pattern’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
3.47 With regard to allowing learners to write during the drill, once again there is a substantial split amongst tutors at both Mynediad and Sylfaen levels (Chart 90) and also Pellach / Canolradd (Chart 91), with comparatively few tutors in the middle ground. Those
145 tutors who allow the learners to write perhaps may be regarded as pragmatists, reflecting learners’ habits and needs, including different learning strategies and styles.
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 61.73
Chart 90 Tutors (Mynediad / Sylfaen): ‘I advise learners not to write anything down till after the drill’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 55.90
Chart 91 Tutors (Pellach / Canolradd): ‘I advise learners not to write anything down till after the drill’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
3.48 With regard to allowing the learners to ask questions during drilling, there is considerable variation amongst tutors according to the fieldwork, with no discernible trend whatsoever (Charts 92 and 93). Allowing questions may, perhaps, depend on the personality
146 of the learners, the type of drill, the type of course, the ethos of the WfA Centre, or even individual tutor experience. That said, the results suggest that very many tutors are disinclined to allow questions to be asked during drilling, especially at Pellach / Canolradd levels (Chart 93).
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 47.57
Chart 92 Tutors (Mynediad / Sylfaen): ‘I allow learners to ask questions during the drilling’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 46.47
Chart 93 Tutors (Pellach / Canolradd): ‘I allow learners to ask questions during the drilling’, [scale 0-100, degree to which is done – 0 ‘never’ to 100 ‘always’]
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3.49 Tutors offered a range of other comments on drilling, including some criticism of WfA training on drilling and on the potential usefulness of sharing good practice in this area more widely. For example:
Hoffwn gael cyngor ynglyn â pha fathau o ddrilio a faint o amser i neilltuo ar eu cyfer ar y gwahanol lefelau / I’d like to get some advice on the different types of drilling and how much time to spend on each at the different levels (Tutor 23);
Defnyddiol i gael gwybodaeth newydd a syniadau ffres gan y canolfannau eraill / It would be useful to have new information and fresh ideas from the other centres (Tutor 30);
Tiwtoriaid di-brofiad yn cael mwy o gyfle i arsylwi tiwtoriaid profiadol. Mae angen mawr i ddosbarthu’r taflenni gwaith cyn drilio.Tasai’r tiwtoriaid newydd yn cael eu hyfforddi i ddrilio’n iawn, ni fyddai hyn yn angen / Inexperienced tutors to have more of an opportunity to observe more experienced tutors. There’s a great need to distribute worksheets before drilling. Were new tutors trained to drill properly, this wouldn’t be needed (Tutor 33);
Dim ond un ffordd o ddrilio sydd wedi cael ei chyflwyno ar y Cymhwyster / The WfA National Qualification only presents one way of drilling (Tutor 30).
3.50 WfA must guard against the sort of complacency articulated by Author 5 in response to the question ‘Oes unrhyw anfanteision neu beryglon yn sgil drilio?’ / ‘Are there any disadvantages or dangers arising from drilling?’ – ‘Dw i ddim yn gallu meddwl am ddim’ / ‘I can’t think of any’. Importantly, most authors and some tutors are aware that while drilling is important it has limitations. For example, Author 4 notes that: ‘Nid yw drilio’n rhoi cyfle i’r myfyrwyr chwarae/arbofi gyda’r patrwm. Rhaid hefyd gael deialog i ddangos sut mae’r iaith yn cael ei defnyddio gan siaradwyr naturiol’ / ‘Drilling doesn’t give learners the opportunity to play/experiment with the pattern. It’s also necessary to have a dialogue to show how the language is used by natural speakers’. Also, Author 12 notes: ‘Ni ddylid drilio hyd syrffed – dim ond i sicrhau fod y dysgwyr yn deall cyn symud ymlaen i wneud gweithgarwch cyfathrebol sy’n seiliedig ar y dril’ / ‘One ought not to drill to excess – only to ensure that the learners understand before moving ahead to do a communicative activity that is based upon the drill’. There is a scientific basis to using drilling, but there are also problems associated with it. If drilling is to be useful the learner has to understand the linguistic content of what is being drilled. Also, the grammar of the pattern has to be explained to the learner so as to avoid overgeneralisation. Repetition must be managed so as to avoid semantic satiation. The drill must give rise to opportunities to use naturalistic language so that structural learning can be subsequently transferred to real interaction beyond the classroom.
Recommendations:
[ONE] Training for authors and tutors ought to include a clear and self-confident statement on what drilling is, its scientific basis, its use in SLA in other 2L contexts including TEFL, the full range of types of drills including examples drawn from WfA practice and other SLA practice; [TWO] To explore possibilities regarding the development of a WfA electronic lexical database based on contemporary spoken Welsh in order to robustly identify formulaic
148 language in Welsh, and to prioritise those formulaic sequences that ought to be incorporated in the WfA curriculum; [THREE] Course material and teaching practice ought to be structured so as to help avoid semantic satiation (via varied presentation of drilling) and overgeneralisation (via grammatical explanation); [FOUR] Course material ought to include guidance with regard to presenting drilling (the timing, numbers of repetition, varation of types of drill) in order to avoid semantic satiation and overgeneralisation; [FIVE] Training for tutors ought to include guidance on avoiding semantic satiation (including attention to differences between learners) and overgeneralisation; [SIX] Author guidelines to tutors ought to be informed by research on drilling and good practice in drilling beyond WfA; [SEVEN] Tutors ought to be trained in full range of drills including drawing upon good practice in drilling beyond WfA; [EIGHT] The sharp divergence of opinion between authors and tutors with regard to the purpose of drilling from Canolradd onwards ought to be addressed by WfA practitioners. Research and practice from other SLA contexts shows that drilling is potentially useful at all levels but for different purposes; [NINE] WfA practitioners ought to consider whether the translation drill is useful; [TEN] WfA practitioners ought to consider whether drilling is the most useful means of introducing vocabulary [see also the sub-section on vocabulary in this Section of the Report].
4 Vocabulary
4.1 Vocabulary acquisition methods form a significant part of the WfA curriculum. Among examples of these are: the widespread use of flashcards; word repetition and reinforcement during class and combined in subsequent classes with whiteboard pelmanism exercises; games which recycle lexical items (of the traditional variety as well as technology-assisted); vocabulary lists based upon word families (situational; positive/negative pairs; etymological root groupings; irregular singular-plural pairs) as well as informal vocabulary tests etc. Nevertheless, a significant number of practitioners admit to not having a clear idea of the amount of vocabulary that should be imparted, which methods should be used to achieve this or whether different learning levels require different approaches. There would seem to be a majority opinion that, as a sector, the acquisition of vocabulary has been neglected and that this needs to be redressed.
4.2 The results of the research show that a clear majority of WfA authors are in favour of paying more attention to vocabulary (Chart 94).
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SCORE
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 69.38
Chart 94 Authors: Q ‘Would paying more attention to vocabulary learning in WfA improve learners' levels of general proficiency?’, [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’]
Several authors offered comments which allow considerable insight to their reasoning regarding support for paying more attention to vocabulary. Some of these are worth quoting extensively, for example:
Efallai fod hyn yn codi nes lawr; credaf y byddai corpysys iaith cyflawn (llafar, ysgrifenedig, cyffredinol, a gwahanol gategorïau) yn gam anferth ymlaen i faes CiO. Wedyn, gellid pennu geirfa benodol at wahanol safonau, ystyried faint o eirfa mae ei angen i ddod yn siaradwr ‘hyfedr’/‘cyflawn’ (gan gymharu ag ymchwil ym meysydd dysgu ieithoedd eraill), a llunio maes llafur priodol, graddoledig a realistig ar gyfer amrediad o gyrsiau CiO. Ar hyn o bryd, ry’n ni’n gweithredu mewn ffordd braidd yn fympwyol a di-drefn o gymharu â maes TEFL (o leiaf), yn fy marn i (heb ddymuno dibrisio ymdrechion rhai o ymarferwyr maes CiO, wrth gwrs; rwy’n gweld yn amhosib inni fynd ati’n wyddonol, trefnus a rhesymegol heb gael corpws safonol). Rhaid codi ymwybyddiaeth tiwtoriaid a dysgwyr fel ei gilydd am bwysigrwydd a rôl geirfa eang, briodol a chadarn, a llunio deunyddiau amrywiol i hwyluso dysgu ac ymarfer geirfa / Maybe this will arise later; I believe that comprehensive language corpora (oral, written, general, and different categories) would be a huge step forward for WfA. Then, one could identify specific vocabulary at different standards, consider how much vocabulary is needed to get speakers ‘fluent’/’complete’ (compared with research in other language learning fields), a design an appropriate field of study, graded and realistic for a range of WfA courses. At present, we’re operating in a rather ad hoc manner and dis-organised compared with TEFL (at least), in my opinion (without wishing to undervalue the efforts of some WfA practitioners, of course; I see that it’s impossible for us to go at it in a scientific, organised and rational manner without a quality corpus). Awareness must be raised among tutors and learners alike of the importance of the role of an extensive, appropriate and robust vocabulary, and
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design varied materials in order to facilitate learning and practising vocabulary (Author 4);
Teimlir, oherwydd diffyg amser mewn dosbarth, na neilltuir digon o amser i ddysgu gerifa. Mewn deunyddiau newydd (Canllaw i’r Cwrs Uwch, Cwrs Pontio Uwch), rhoddir cwestiwn yn y gwaith cartref, sydd yn sicrhau bod y dysgwyr yn cyfeirio’n ôl at yr eirfa yn yr uned. Mae angen pwysleisio bod angen dysgu gerifa o’r cychwyn cyntaf. Fallai bod angen trefn o brofi’n fwy trylwyr mewn dosbarthiadau. Yn bersonol, byddaf yn paratoi cardiau fflach gyda’r holl eiriau sy’n codi’n naturiol yn y dosbarth a defnyddir y rhain pan fydd cyfnodau segur gan unigolyn neu bâr ac weithiau ar ddechrau neu ar ddiwedd gwers / It’s felt, because of a lack of time in the classroom, that not enough time is set aside for teaching vocabulary. In new material (Guidelines to the Cwrs Uwch, Cwrs Pontio Uwch), a question is placed in the homework, which ensures that learners refer back to the vocabulary in the unit. It’s necessary to emphasise that vocabulary needs to be learned from the off. Maybe what is needed is a scheme for more tests in classes. Personally, I prepare flashcards with all the vocabulary that arises naturallyin the class and these are used when individuals or a pair have quiet periods sometimes at the start or end of a lesson (Author 3).
4.3 Allied to the uncertainty above regarding the place of vocabulary within WfA curricula, there is general agreement, and self-criticism, that there is much to do in order to match vocabulary learning strategies with current provision, which seems overwhelmingly dependent on individual tutors’ strategies. Several WfA practitioners stated that inadequate vocabulary, or insufficient vocabulary practice in the learner experience, is one of the major factors which hinders their development, their expression and general language development. In this respect, vocabulary selection for language courses and the development of core frequency word lists is seen by another materials writer and senior tutor as a way of helping to standardise learner vocabulary output as well as sharpen tutor focus. According to some WfA practitioners, the weakness is not in the vocabulary lists themselves but rather in a lack of consistency in how the sector approaches vocabulary teaching, despite the fact that one Centre’s material contains a vocabulary acquisition strategy for learners containing specific tips for success. It is suggested that tutors are not in the habit of recycling vocabulary and that this lack of vocabulary redeployment is mirrored in other courses where a word may appear once only and then disappear.
4.4 A clear gap in the current materials is allued to by WfA authors who point out that, on the whole, they do not provide guidance on the acquisition of vocabulary in their courses to either tutors or learners. For example, in response to the question ‘Yn eich deunyddiau, pa arweiniad rydych chi’n ei roi i ddysgywr a/neu diwtoriaid am ddysgu geirfa [...]’ / ‘In your materials, what guidance do you give to learners and/or tutors on learning vocabulary [...]?’ authors offered the following comments:
Dim byd penodol yn y llyfr canolradd – i raddau mae’n dibynnu ar y dosbarth a’r tiwtor / Nothing specific in the canolradd book – to some extent it depends on the class and the tutor (Author 1);
Dw i ddim wedi sôn am ddysgu gerifa / I haven’t referred to learning vocabulary (Author 5);
Nid oes arweiniad yn y deunyddiau / There is no guidance in the materials (Author 6);
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Dim arweiniad ar hyn o bryd / There’s no guidance at present (Author 7);
Yn ein deunyddiau – dim / In our materials – none (Author 9).
4.5 In the context of this lack of guidance, there is wide variation in learners’ experience of how tutors approach vocabulary acquisition strategies. This ranges from tutors who place little emphasis on lexical items either in class or at home, with learners feeling that material writers assume that the vocabulary will have been acquired from one unit to the next, to other courses where large vocabulary lists are introduced. There is variance within learner opinion as to the attention which should be dedicated to vocabulary. A wealth of self-reported learner vocabulary strategies has been collected. These include preparing vocabulary for specific conversational situations (Learner 270 and 272), making their own lists (Learner 275 and 288), reading (Learner 276; 282; 283; 284 and 286), radio / TV (Learner 282; 283 and 285), and diary-keeping (Learner 293). Other learners simply depend on the limited vocabulary presented in class (Learner 273; 274; 276; 277; 280 and 281). Some don’t do anything at all about vocabulary learning (Learner 271; 278; 279 and 289). While other learners also note that there is no expectation or encouragement to them to do anything about it (Learner 276 and 287).
4.6 Some of these strategies are likely to be very useful. Preparation of conversational situations within and beyond the classroom is a case in point. Material is more memorable if cognitive effort is required to learn it (Tyler et al., 1979). Words need to be used, rather than just heard and repeated, or they will be forgotten again (De La Fuente, 2006). In language learning, relevant cognitively effortful activities include negotiating the meaning of new words with another speaker (De La Fuente, 2006; Ellis & He, 1999; Kim, 2008; Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Smith, 2004). Activities of this kind may be most effective when the interlocutors are equals, as compared with teacher-learner exchanges (Ellis & He, 1999: 299). Of course, this kind of learning also takes longer than just encountering words, which could explain why it is more effective (Keating, 2008). Folse (2006) found that the need to repeatedly retrieve an item was the best predictor of how well it was learned. In this context, Informal Learning situations or ‘Siarad Rhydd’ periods in the classroom are potentially very useful sites for vocabulary acquisition.
4.7 However, research by Laufer (2005) shows that memory for vocabulary decays quickly unless it is refreshed. Learning can be thought of as a process of layering. “For known, but still relatively unfamiliar forms, existing lexical representations will be activated and subsequently reconfigured and / or strengthened” (Hall & Ecke, 2003: 71). One effective technique for vocabulary learning is ‘Structured Reviewing’, which “entails going back over L2 vocabulary at different intervals, first close together and then increasingly far apart” such as after 15 minutes, an hour, a day, a week, etc “until the material becomes automatic” (Oxford & Crookall, 1990: 24). Oxford and Crookall note that although this approach builds on what is known about memory, “L2 textbooks typically fail to make any overt suggestions to learners about this technique”, nor do they even present and re-present vocabulary across chapters in a way that would facilitate it at a more natural level (Oxford & Crookall, 1990: 24-5). Research also suggests that learning vocabulary by returning to it is more effective if the time interval between visits is longer than if it is very short (Bahrick, 2000). This in turn suggests that WfA authors can help learners acquire vocabulary by building in to course material opportunities to re-visit vocabulary at certain intervals. Tutors could also manage classroom activities so as to periodically re-visit vocabulary.
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4.8 Tutor engagement with learners’ self-devised strategies would seem to be low, placing the onus entirely on the learners. For example Tutors 46 and 38 assert that how learners acquire vocabulary depends on the individual learner and how they prefer to learn. Several tutors point to the vocabulary at the close of WJEC units, recommending that learners ought to learn this (Tutor 42 and 44). Many tutors not sure as to how to teach vocabulary or think that it’s very difficult to motivate learners to learn vocabulary (Tutor 37 and 41) or that it’s entirely up to the individual tutor to decide how much attention to pay to vocabulary (Tutor 48). Other tutors are more engaged, setting vocabulary ‘tests’, which they prefer to describe as games or puzzles, including quizzes, flashcards, hangman (Tutor 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46 and 47). Some are very clear that they set traditional vocabulary tests (Tutor 40, 46, 50 and 51). Some see reading as the best way for learners to acquire vocabulary (Tutor 38; 41; 47 and 51). Overall there is a recognition on the part of many WfA practitioners that learners are not systematically encouraged to acquire vocabulary (e.g. Centre Director 1; Tutor 41) and some tutors would like training on the teaching and learning of vocabulary (e.g. Tutor 40), including on how to train learners on how to learn vocabulary (Tiwtor 49).
4.9 International research in MFSL notes a general lack of attention to vocabulary learning on courses (Oxford & Crookall, 1990) , as Macaro remarks; ‘vocabulary learning as a separate and structured activity is remarkably lacking from foreign-language courses’ (Macaro, 2003: 63). This regarded as a challenge as researchers in general concur that vocabulary must, in part at least, be acquired in a systematic manner: although learners certainly acquire word knowledge incidentally while engaged in various language learning activities, more direct and systematic study of vocabulary is also required (Read, 2004: 146). International research also asserts that the learner is ultimately responsible for engaging with vocabulary as there is insufficient time in class (Nation, 2008). Some learners recognise this. For example:‘I think vocabulary learning is down to learners. There are other aspects to language learning and it’s those aspects that we’re learning in class – time in class is better spent declining verbs and learning mutations rather than dry vocabulary. We’ve got vocabulary lists in the course – so we learners should just get on and learn it’ (Learner 290). Many learners state that they would like greater guidance on how to learn vocabulary (e.g. Learner 279; 291; 293; 289; 295; 299 and 276).
4.10 However, WfA practitioners do have a role to play. Nation (2008) lays out four components of the tutor’s responsibilities in relation to vocabulary learning: planning classes to ensure vocabulary is encountered appropriately and in an effective way; training learners in strategies for learning; testing learners “to see where learners are in their vocabulary development in order to plan future teaching and to motivate learning” (Nation, 2008: 4); and teaching, which he describes as “surprisingly… the least important of a teacher’s jobs” (Nation, 2008: 5). Thus, according to Nation an effective course ought to enable the acquisition of vocabulary in a number of ways (Table 5).
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STRAND & Description Example activities PURPOSE Meaning-focussed . focused on understanding and . extensive reading input enjoying the material . listening to stories . no more than one unknown . listening to lectures Learn new vocabulary word in every 50 running words . taking part in and enrich and establish conversation previously met . reading for study vocabulary through purposes listening and reading Meaning-focussed . push[es] the learners to make . giving prepared talks output use of vocabulary at the . discussing and writing boundaries of their knowledge about what has been Enrich and establish . should not overload them with read knowledge of the need to use largely . taking part in vocabulary through unfamiliar vocabulary conversation speaking and writing . ranking, problem- solving, role play, retelling and split information activities Language-focussed . develops explicit knowledge of . intensive reading learning particular words . getting feedback on . draws attention to aspects of the speaking and writing Learners deliberately meaning, form and use of words . learning & practising learn new words and . gives practice in the four strategies study more about vocabulary strategies: guessing . doing vocabulary previously met words; from context, learning using exercises teachers give deliberate word cards, using word parts, & attention to vocabulary dictionary use and strategies Fluency development . no unknown vocabulary . speed reading . message-focussed listening, . extensive reading of Learners get more speaking, reading and writing easy material proficient at using the . aim: get better at performing . 4/3/2 activity vocabulary that they these skills . linked skills activities already know . use very familiar material . ten-minute writing
Table 5 Account of good planning for vocabulary learning (adapted from Nation, 2008: 1-6).
4.11 In Table 5 the reference to ‘4/3/2 activity’ means - Working in pairs, learners mentally prepare a short speech. Learner A presents her talk in 4 minutes, then changes to a new partner and presents the same talk in 3 minutes, then changes to a new partner and presents it in 2 minutes. Then the process is repeated for Learner B. The repetition and pressure to speed up reduces dysfluencies, while the new partners ensure it is a fresh communication each time (Nation, 2008: 56). While linked skills activities means - discussion leads to reading which leads to writing, repeated listening and repeated reading (Nation, 2008: 2).
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4.12 Nation and Newton (2009: 135ff) recommend different techniques for supporting vocabulary learning for different learner stages. In particular, they favour direct methods, such as pre-teaching before words are met in context, and the use of vocabulary cards, targeted on frequent vocabulary. Tutors and materials writers must ensure, though, that, progressively, learners are trained in the use of strategies—e.g. working out meanings from context and from word parts, and using mnemonics—so that they can cope with the low- frequency vocabulary they will encounter and need to understand. Nation and Newton identify various class activities as ways to support learning, the deepening of knowledge, and revision, including reporting on words encountered between classes, sentence dictation, true/false statements, collocation activities, etc.
4.13 Reading is important for vocabulary because it exposes the learner to a large range of authentic input. However, since it is time-consuming to do in class, learners are often left to do reading tasks in their own time. Laufer’s (2009) survey of key research into vocabulary acquisition after the beginner stage indicates that reading does not always furnish extensive gains in vocabulary in its own right. Meanwhile, Hu & Nation (2000) estimate that 98% of the vocabulary in a text must be familiar before a passage can be read with comprehension without the need to stop and look words up. The combined impact of these observations is that reading is unlikely to be an enjoyable or successful activity unless the text is matched to the learner’s existing vocabulary knowledge, or the new vocabulary is studied in advance. Nation and Wang Ming-tzu (1999) recommend using graded readers that are carefully managed to introduce and consolidate vocabulary fully. Because memory for words decays unless they are encountered several times in quick succession (Brown et al., 2008: 156), such readers must regularly re-use vocabulary from previous levels (to cover 95% of the new text).
4.14 Strategic weakness in WfA with regard to vocabulary is knowing how much vocabulary a learner needs to be able to use at different stages of the learning process, an essential feature of planning for vocabulary teaching and learning in language courses (Nation, 2001). Much of this task has been accomplished for all major state languages with numerous, often electronic, corpora (Morris, 2011: 27-8). For English, the ‘relatively small number of high frequency words’ that should be targeted is 2-3,000 word families (Nation and Newton, 2009: 133). The term word family means ‘a base word and all its derived and inflected forms that can be understood by a learner without having to learn each from separately’ (Bauer and Nation, 1993: 253). Morris notes that there is a ‘relatively rich’ set of vocabulary resources for WfA (Morris, 2011: 28), including dictionaries for learners, vocabulary lists. However, he is right to note that these resources have been produced on the basis of WfA practitioners’ perceptions of need, which may be instinctively appropriate, but lack a thorough scientific foundation (Morris, 2011: 31).
4.15 In the absence of a suitable WfA corpus based on the vocabulary of contemporary forms of spoken Welsh, Morris and Meara developed a ‘compromise methodology’ (Morris, 2011: 32) that enabled them to identify in a more scientific manner a core vocabulary [geirfa graidd] for WfA at A1 and A2 levels and organised into 25 themes: parts of the body; illnesses; clothes; the home [rooms / furniture – but excluding kitchen]; the home [activities / machines – but excluding kitchen]; the kitchen / cooking; eating and drinking; transport / travel [excluding holidays]; jobs; world of work; going out [i.e. theatre, cinema, pub]; sports and hobbies; animals; family; town centre [including shopping]; in the country; holidays; communications [phone, email, Internet, post etc]; the weather; describing people; school; world of children; learning a language; buildings; 20 useful verbs. The final A1 list contains
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616 items and the A2 list 515 items in standard form, noting variations and useful collocations.
4.16 Morris notes that these lists have been available to WfA authors since 2010 and the expectation is that they would be used in the design of courses and that learners would be expected to be familiar with this core vocabulary. Indeed Morris notes (2011: 40-1) that GmC has used this vocabulary to develop ‘flash card videos on iTunes’
4.17 Specialised corpora are available in large languages e.g. the Michigan Corpus of Spoken English
This is a word frequency analysis of 1,079,032 words of written Welsh prose, based on 500 samples of approximately 2000 words each, selected from a representative range of text types to illustrate modern (mainly post 1970) Welsh prose writing. It was conceived as providing a Welsh parallel to the Kucera and Francis analysis for American English, and the LOB corpus for British English (Ellis, et al, 2001).
The sample comprises ‘materials from the fields of novels and short stories, religious writing, children’s literature both factual and fiction, non-fiction materials in the fields of education, science, business, leisure activities, etc., public lectures, newspapers and magazines, both national and local, reminiscences, academic writing, and general administrative materials (letters, reports, minutes of meetings)’ (Ellis, et al, 2001) and most, but not all, of the material is post 1970. In English, the majority of the most frequent vocabulary is consistent across texts and styles but with the Welsh language the distance between written and spoken forms is much greater. As a result, it may very well be the case that there is much less consistency in this regard in Welsh. What would benefit WfA most would be a corpus of contemporary spoken Welsh, including dialectical variations. This would allow high frequency word families, collocations and other lexical items to be identified, thereby informing the development of WfA course material in a scientific manner.
Recommendations:
[ONE] Guidance to tutors and learners ought to note that memorisation is crucial to the acquisition of vocabulary and that refreshing the memory at spaced intervals is necessary and therefore course materials ought to incorporate the technique of ‘structured reviewing’ –
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‘going back over L2 vocabulary at different intervals, first close together and then increasingly far apart’ (Oxford & Crookhall, 1990: 24); [TWO] WfA tutors ought to be given specific training in structured reviewing; [THREE]A WfA corpus of spoken, contemporary Welsh ought to be commissioned as a matter of priority so as to scientifically identify the most frequent words in Welsh, frequent word families and collocations so as to inform future curricular development. In the meantime the geirfa graidd ought to be made use of; [FOUR] To identify / commission graded readers for learners, based upon patterns and vocabulary pertinent to the different levels of the course. These readers ought to give due attention to the main regional varieties of Welsh; [FIVE] The graded readers ought to be used to extend the practice of pre-learning vocabulary, a technique identified by international research as an effective means of acquiring vocabulary (e.g. Brown, Waring & Donkaewbua, 2008: 153; Zahar, Cobb & Spada, 2001: 558). This could be achieved through reading clubs, for example; [SIX] IT resources such as GmC iTunes flashcards ought to be more widely developed as these are useful devices encoding vocabulary in the short-term memory, combining phonological and visual information.
5 Instructional Quantity
5.1 All six directors are in agreement that constant and extended contact with language must form the basis of intensive teaching. This is echoed by a wide range of materials writers, senior tutors and tutors. There is a core group of senior WfA practitioners across the Centres who consider 9-15 hours per week, factoring in varying frequency and intensity combinations, as a baseline minimum needed for successful learning, although there are different opinions regarding the mix of frequency, intensity, activity blending, technology and informal learning considerations within which intensive teaching either occurs now or could develop in the future. The vast majority of these practitioners, however, interpret such a baseline as unrealistic given current socio-economic trends. Subsequently more realistic combinations ranging from 4 to 8 hours per week are offered.
5.2 Issues arising from the administration, design and implementation of intensive teaching can be summarised as follows:-
the current national definition of intensive teaching may be engendering false expectations among learners and even tutors language acquisition on non-intensive courses occurs at a slower and less efficient rate than those at more intensive levels, with learner momentum and ease of revision noted as key factors favouring more intensive models concerns exist around 120 hours not being enough to complete a level. Consequently, consolidation periods and materials are needed between, for example, Canolradd and Uwch to build up a range of diverse and complementary learning. Author 4 refers to this phenomenon as ‘hothousing’22 whereby learners reach a level too quickly having
22 This is alluded to in Baker et al (2011: 50). 157
been unable to process patterns or vocabulary, leading to drop-out at this point or much earlier. In interviews, hothousing has been linked to the accreditation system.23
5.3 In light of the above, respondents discussed how current WfA provision could be deepened and expanded to offer new intensive learning paths. Centre Directors 4, 5 and 6 made reference to the possibilities afforded by the sabbatical schemes sponsored by the Welsh Government, with Centre Directors 4 and 5 citing similar expanded release from work schemes in New Brunswick and the Basque Country. Tutors are, in the main, keen to see workforce release schemes being developed as a viable learning path, whilst showing sensitivity to the socioeconomic difficulties that this issue raises. Centre Director 4 refers to the current inability of the WfA sector to tap into the workplace, and although Centre Directors 4, 5 and 6 recognise the political and financial difficulties inherent in a gradual widening of the sabbatical schemes into other public sector areas, an increased advisory and pedagogical link between WfA and the workplace is presented as a desired policy objective. Efforts have also been made to tap into other workplace opportunities, with Centre Director 4 initiating contacts between local Job Centres and WfA officers to discuss language reskilling.
5.4 The debate around the repercussions of socio-economic trends is also apparent in the rescheduling of courses, currently defined as intensive, and the subsequent impact upon materials input and learner outcomes. An example of this is the blocking together of twice weekly 2 hour courses, following learner demand, into a weekly four hour block. This has raised a question among WfA practitioners about how learner demand, pedagogical considerations such as frequency and lengthening of revision times and financial constraints all impact upon learner outcomes.
5.5 Among other intensive learning paths which one director would like to see developed are those which combine intensive, informal as well as blended learning, with another director noting that building more flexibility into sabbatical schemes could lead to current and envisaged paths cross-fertilising. Centre Director 6 stated that the geographical area of the South-West reflects many different social realities of Wales and that although blended learning has been developed mostly in the Cardiff and Vale WfA Centre, the concept of blended learning could become an extremely useful asset in areas of Wales that are more rural.
5.6 Among tutors, there would seem to be different interpretations of what intensive teaching constitutes, although the vast majority feel that once a week is not enough to achieve fluency, with the emphasis on frequency being foregrounded. Most were of the opinion that a truly intensive course empowers tutors to deepen learning whereas non-intensive courses entail a certain scaling down to the language essentials since revision forms a larger part of this provision. Other tutors feel that a certain degree of ‘pick and mix’ across intensive and non- intensive materials is desirable and acceptable. There are, however, tutors who are of the opinion that some learners have innate difficulties with intensive learning, reaching “saturation” point much earlier than others, and therefore a focus on non-intensive must not be lost in scenarios whereby new intensive learning drivers were introduced.
23 Research by Baker et al (2011: 51-3) suggests that integrativemotives are much more important to understanding why adults set out to learn Welsh as a second language than are instrumental motives, such as gaining credits or passing exams. 158
5.7 In response to whether intensive teaching requires specific materials based on intensive teaching, most directors adopted a more global interpretation, bringing together non-intensive as well as intensive teaching. Centre Director 4 was uncertain or unconvinced as to whether such a need existed. However, two other directors (5 and 6) stated that advantages could accrue to the sector if the same materials were applied to both intensive and non-intensive courses. Among these were increased mobility across courses, more targeted learner placement for summer courses, greater benefits as regards efficiency and stability for tutors who often use more than one course, as well as the perceived accelerated learning which learners receive through intensive materials.
5.8 Data from learners reveals that they have, on the whole, chosen paces of learning which suit their lifestyles, with many acknowledging that more frequent learning would be more beneficial but simply not feasible. A majority of learners who follow intensive courses, or would like to do so, speak positively about their learning experience as well as the accelerated learning benefits they feel accrue, with a minority feeling that intensive learning has not helped them. Chiming again with the findings in Baker et al (2011) on learner expectations, a learner following a 3x3 intensive course stated that learners could be helped if they were made more aware of the pace of the course and how this could best be managed.
5.9 The distinction drawn between ‘intensive’ and ‘non-intensive’ in WfA is not meaningful with regard to international research on language teaching and learning. The WfA threshold for ‘intensive’ of 3 hours per week or more is not indicative of any significant pedagogic boundary. Rather, the key issues at work here are frequency of contact and total contact hours. Research shows, beyond any reasonable doubt, that both of these issues have a substantial impact upon students’ learning. For example, Hattie’s study of effect-size demonstrated that instructional quantity (the term he uses to describe both frequency and amount of contact) was the fourth most important factor with an effect-size of 0.84 (Table 6). In short, higher levels of instructional quantity have more positive impacts upon learner performance.
Factor or Influence Effect-Size Reinforcement (feedback) 1.13 Students’ prior cognitive 1.04 ability Instructional quality 1.00 Instructional quantity 0.84 Student disposition to learn 0.61 (motivation) Teacher style 0.42 Individualisation 0.14
Table 6 Effect-size for different types of intervention [instructional quantity] (adapted from Hattie, 1999, p. 8)
5.10 While higher levels of instructional quantity are more effective and therefore desirable, learners in WfA express real difficulties with regard to committing more time to their learning. Finding time for a fixed class is one issue. Instructional quantity could be boosted by more flexible platforms offered via directed learning (e.g. homework, reinforcement
159 units), informal learning and IT. The inclusion of informal learning activities would entail the application of assessment to this area so as to ascertain the extent of learner progress towards the learning outcomes built into specific informal learning activities. This could be achieved by means other than examinations such as via a portfolio, tutor assessment.
5.11 Higher levels of instructional quantity are more effective and therefore desirable. DfES has previously sought to encourage WfA Centres to expand intensive provision and to recruit more learners to it. WfA Centres suggest that there are both human resource and cost implications with more intensive provision (Old Bell 3, 2011: 57). At present there is no particular incentive to WfA Centres to prioritise intensive provision as it is currently defined. In the period reviewed by Old Bell 3 learner registrations on intensive courses remained fairly static with modest increases in NWC, MWC and GmC being offset by declines in SWWC, CVGC and GwC (Old Bell 3, 2011: 58). Overall, learners on intensive courses were in a minority (around 25%) and at no single WfA Centre did they comprise more than 40% of registered learners.
5.12 The current definitions of intensive and non-intensive ought to be replaced by the notion of instructional quantity, incorporating both frequency of contact and total contact time. WfA Centres could be incentivised to prioritise courses with higher levels of instructional quantity were DfES to formulate and implement a sliding scale whereby higher levels of instructional quantity draw down higher levels of funding.
5.13 This would mean that courses could have a core structure to which other material would be added according to the overall instructional quantity aimed at. According to Cambridge ESOL up to 1,200 guided learning hours are required for learners to achieve CEFR level C2, which is defined as ‘mastery, or proficiency’ (see Appendices 6 and 7). There would appear to be something of a mismatch with regard to WfA as the implicit understanding of the current structure of courses is that learners will achieve this level within around 600 hours. Research conducted on this in 2003 concluded that WfA was considerably different to at least one of its most obvious comparators:
The learning of Basque has been divided into 12 levels to achieve a competence similar to a native speaker. About 140 hours is equivalent to one level, so a learner should reach Level 12 in 1,500-1,800 hours. This can be contrasted with the 600 class teaching hours required for the new WJEC Advanced level use of Welsh Examination, although introduction of the Level 5 Competence level for Welsh would add to that total (NfER, 2003: 76).
5.14 This ought to be read in relation to a concern expressed by one author that WfA learners are being pushed through the system too quickly:
Testun gofid mawr imi yw’r perygl bod Canolfannau CiO yn cael eu gorfodi fwyfwy i wthio dysgwyr drwy’r system yn rhy gyflym – ‘hothousing’ yw fy nherm am hyn. Y canlyniad yw bod myfyrwyr yn methu â phrosesu’r holl fewnbwn, a naill ai yn cyrraedd safonau uwch heb gymhathu’r eirfa na’r patrymau, neu fel arall (ac yn fwy tebygol), yn rhoi’r gorau i ddysgu Cymraeg ar lefel Mynediad/Sylfaen. Os digwydd hynny, byddant yn debygol o feio’u hunain gan deimlo’n fethiant, a’r tebygrwydd y dont yn ôl i ddysgu yn dra isel. Bai ar y system yw hynny, nid ar y dysgwr / A matter of great concern to me is the danger tht WfA Centres are being increasingly forced to push learners through the system too quickly – ‘hothousing’ is my term for this. The
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result is that students cannot process the whole input, and either they reach the higher levels without embedding the vocabulary or the patterns, or on the other hand (and more likely), they give up learning Welsh at Mynediad/Sylfaen level. If that happens, they’ll be likely to blame themselves and feel a failure, and the likelihood that they return to learning Welsh is very low indeed. That is a fault of the system, not of the students (Author 4).
5.15 This disparity between the time allowed to reach equivalent levels in WfA as compared with the internationally recognised norm ought to be addressed. Consideration could be given to addressing this through adopting a more structured approach to informal learning, IT-based activities and guided learning in specific relation to the WfA curriculum and course material.
5.16 A key consideration of this research is whether separate materials are needed for intensive and non-intensive courses. Previous research found evidence that WfA practitioners were mixing and matching different course materials in the classroom, whether intensive or non-intensive, disregarding the fact that some material had been designed specifically for intensive use and other for non-intensive use (NfER, 2009).
5.17 The results of this research indicate that most WfA tutors see no particular need for distinct courses for intensive and non-intensive courses. While evidence was found of the use of WJEC materials on intensive courses (e.g. Tutor 40), some tutors were unsure that WJEC courses could be taught intensively (e.g. Tutor 37) and other tutors were not certain the current intensive courses would be suitable for non-intensive provision (e.g. Tutor 42). Tutors also noted that intensive courses required more resources than once-a-week courses and more homework. In particular, more variety was necessary so as to ensure that learners would be repeating material or be bored with material that appeared too similar (e.g. Tutor 41).
5.18 Authors are a little more circumspect. Several assert that they have no firm view on whether different, specific sets of courses are required for intensive courses as opposed to non-intensive (e.g. Author 1 and 3). Others see no pedagogical reasons for such differentiation. For example:
O ran ystyriaethau addysgiadol, annhebygol y byddai cwrs 3-4 awr yr wythnos yn galw am fethodoleg wahanol i gyrsiau 2 awr yr wythnos (byddai’n braf cael tystiolaeth ymchwil i gadarnhau neu wrthbrofi hynny, wrth reswm). Yn y pen draw, yr un eirfa, patrymau a sgiliau fydd eu hangen ar ddysgwr, p’un ai bydd yn mynychu cwrs dwys ai peidio (oni bai fod cyrsiau dwys yn targedu/denu cynulleidfa benodol wahanol i gyrsiau prif ffrwd eraill). Er enghraifft, pe cynigid cyrsiau dwys mewn gweithleoedd, fe allai fod gofynion gwahanol gan y dysgwyr hyn o ran yr iaith y byddant am ei defnyddio, neu os byddant yn perthyn i grŵp demograffig/oedran amlwg wahanol i ddysgwyr cyrsiau prif-ffrwd, gellid dadlau bod angen ymdrîn â phynciau penodol berthnasol iddynt, neu fformat dysgu gwahanol e.e. pwyslais ar ddysgu ar y we ac ati / Regarding educational considerations, it’s unlikely that a 3-4 hour a week course would call for a different methodology to 2 hours per week courses (it would be good to have solid research evidence to confirm or deny that, of course). In the long run, the same vocabulary, patterns and skills will be needed by learners, whether they are attending an intensive course or otherwise (other than that intensive courses are targeting/attracting a specific, different audience to that of other mainstream courses). For example, were intensive courses offered in workplaces, there could be different language requirements for those learners, or were they a part
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of an obviously different demographic/age group to the learners on mainstream courses then one could argue that specific, relevant subjects need to be treated with them, or a different teaching format e.g. emphasis on teaching on-line etc (Author 4).
5.19 Others confirm that currently they do not use different materials for intensive courses (e.g. Author 5). Where authors see the need for different material is in relation to prevention attrition of memorisation between classes on non-intensive courses and to ensure variety in the nature of WfA materials. For example:
Ar gyrsiau dwys, mae’r cof yn cael ei atgyfnerthu’n weddol reolaidd. Ar gyrsiau darnynol, mae’r dysgwr yn anghofio o leia 40% o’r wybodaeth rhwng un dosbarth a’r llall. Mae’n rhaid cynnwys hyn fel ffactor pan gynhyrchir deunyddiau dysgu / On intensive courses, the memory is reinforced fairly regularly. On non-intensive courses, the learners forget at least 40% of the information between one class and the next (Author 6);
Dwi ddim yn teimlo bod angen i’r deunyddiau gael eu teilwra’n benodol ar gyfer addysgu dwys, gan mai’r un fyddai’r dulliau addysgu mewn cwrs darnynol. Wedi dweud hynny, mae’n bwysig sicrhau amrywiaeth o ddeunyddiau ar gyfer maes CiO, ond gan sicrhau cysondeb o ran patrymau a ffurfiau / I don’t feel that material need to be specifically tailored for intensive teaching, since the same teaching techniques would pertain to non-intensive courses. Having said that, it’s important to ensure a variety of materials for WfA, while ensuring consistency regarding patterns and forms (Author 10).
5.20 One can conclude that there is no substantive case for the separate development of two different sets of courses for intensive and non-intensive courses. Indeed, there is considerable evidence for enthusiastic support at the prospect of a new course amongst tutors (e.g. Tutor 36, 43, 44 and 46) and authors, as articulated by Author 4: ‘byddai’n sicr yn hynod ddymunol cyllido adnoddau newydd i ddisodli’r rhai presennol, a fydd yn cyrraedd diwedd ei hoes mewn rhai blynyddoedd’ / ‘it would certainly be extremely valuable were new resources funded in order to replace the current resources, which will be reaching the end of their sell- by date in a few years’.
Recommendations:
[ONE] To abandon current definitions of ‘intensive’ and ‘non-intensive’ and replace them with a sliding scale of ‘instructional quantity’, incorporating both frequency of contact and total contact time; [TWO]To consider sliding scale of financial incentive for courses with higher levels of instructional quantity; [THREE]That a single set of course materials be developed and that this be structured so as to enable varying levels of instructional quantity. This will entail a core course with additional materials and activities as appropriate. This will include informal learning and e- learning activities; [FOUR] That the disparity between WfA and the international benchmark regarding learner achievement per CEFR level and expected study hours be accounted for. That said, it must be borne in mind that that the total guided learning hours at A1 may very well be an under- estimate for the WfA context. The CEFR / ALTE figure is based upon the acquisition of larger
162 languages. Given the social context of minoritised languages, such as Welsh, the number of hours required at this level in the WfA context is likely to be higher.
6 Language Variety and Variation
6.1 Aspects of the fieldwork were concerned with issues pertaining to language variety and variation and in particular which varieties of Welsh ought to be taught and where; and, what types of linguistic variation ought to be accommodated and how.
6.2 Regarding language variety, a wide range of varieties exist in the Welsh language and local and regional dialects are highly prized by Welsh-speakers (e.g. Thomas, 1973; Thomas & Thomas, 1989). Also, unlike many larger languages, no simple, single version of standard Welsh is recognised.
6.3 The NfER team that previously conducted research in WfA gave some careful consideration to the matter of language variety in WfA courses. In their report it is concluded that ‘Northern and Southern versions of the course should be created in order to reflect the main regional variations of Welsh’ (NfER, 2009: 71).
6.4 The data from the fieldwork in this project indicate that current WfA provision comprises, in essence, 3 principal varieties of Welsh (see Appendix 2) – Conversational Southern Welsh based upon Cymraeg Byw and largely used in South-East Wales, Conversational North- Walian Welsh, and, Conversational Southern Welsh that includes local dialectical and colloquial forms from South-West Wales.
6.5 In general the results of the fieldwork indicate that there is a considerable appetite amongst authors for a course format that would allow for these 3 principal varieties of Welsh, namely North, South-West and South-East to be easily accommodated. Learners, to the extent that they are aware of variety, are overwhelmingly content with the status quo.
6.6 The main reason for the desireability of reflecting in WfA materials 2 principal varieties in Southern Welsh is that there is a clear sociolinguistic divide between South-West and South-East Wales. Very many WfA practitioners recognise that the notion of local dialects or local colloquial forms of Welsh in South-East Wales is very problematic (e.g. Author 4 and 6; Tutor 49). In contrast, South-West Wales is identified in the research as an area that is rich in local varieties of Welsh and that there were strong views among many respondents that this ought to be reflected in WfA curriculum and pedagogy (e.g. Author 12).
6.7 International comparators in minority languages show that accommodation of variety is norm. Our research in this area looked at language variation in adult language materials and methodologies in the Basque Country, the Catalan-speaking territories and the Republic of Ireland. This included study of relevant published research in various languages (including Basque, Catalan, English, Irish and Spanish) and contact with researchers and practitioners in the field (see Appendix 1). Despite the fact that national standard forms of Basque and Irish have been created there is considerable use of regional dialects in the Basque Country and Ireland. In the latter, the standard form of Irish in written form is gradually introduced to
163 adult learners at CEFR levels B1 and B2. At level C1 all written material is in standard Irish. There is less research on variety in Catalan context it is clear that different varieties are presented in Valenica, Catalonia and Roussillon. It is not possible to state with any certainty whether there is much use of local varieties within the region of Catalonia (Catalan Autonomous Community).
6.8 With regard to local, as opposed to regional, varieties, the results of the research showed that there was a significant correlation between geographical location and Centre response to the importance of language variety, its oral and written forms as well as its location within the learning process. Practitioner responses can be thus divided into two broad bodies of opinion comprising firstly centres located in South-East Wales region and secondly the North Wales, Mid and South-West region. Nuanced variation within these two bodies of opinion does, however, exist and are discussed below. On interview analysis, learner responses to variety are not geographically significant and initial questionnaire data suggests that learners are neutral in prioritising local as opposed to standard written forms.
6.9 A commitment to reflecting local varieties of Welsh is prevalent across the North Wales, Mid and South-West region Centres, perhaps unsurprisingly, since the majority of Welsh speakers reside in the geographical areas they provide for. There is a consensus of opinion among North Wales, Mid and South-West region directors, material writers and tutors that local varieties are prized to a higher degree than in the South-East Wales region. Within this generalised clustering of opinion, however, divergence exists as regards how intra-regional variation impacts upon oral forms used in class teaching as well as in materials.
6.10 Senior WfA practitioners in North Wales emphasise the role that northern oral Welsh plays in social integration, although the opinion was also expressed that a wider discussion around integration, standardisation and the vitality of Welsh is now needed, despite acceptance that such a debate may not necessarily be popular among WfA practitioners. This divergence can be seen as nuanced positioning within a general body of opinion in North Wales which believes that local dialects should correspond to materials used in class. For example, Tutor 48 in North Wales stated that the most appropriate version of Welsh imparted to learners should be a combination of local oral forms, giving free rein to local tutor pronunciation and bolstered by modern standard written language in course materials. Although local spoken Welsh is reflected in teaching at all levels of Bangor University provision, from Canolradd level onwards more standard Welsh is introduced, with formal forms being consolidated at Uwch level. Other course materials used in North Wales, Llanllawen (Deeside College) and Colloquial Welsh Course (Popeth Cymraeg/Welsh Unlimited) for example, place more emphasis on reflecting local spoken Welsh in written course materials.
6.11 Mid-Wales offers a complicated linguistic panorama within the sector, encompassing both southern and northern varieties. Intensive material used with beginners includes Bangor University’s Wlpan and Aberystwyth University’s Cwrs Syflaenol, the latter of which is based upon southern Ceredigion speech. Cwrs Sylfaenol tutor guidance devolves responsibility for local pronunciation and speed of delivery to the tutor. In these materials, both written and oral forms are introduced, with oral forms in parenthesis and lighter font. In a tutor focus group, however, concerns were raised about a certain learner fatigue with excessive explanations of dialectical variation, with learner opinion in the North Wales, Mid and South-West region supporting this. Author 12 noted that, as core Welsh language communities are breaking down, it may not be as important in the future to reflect micro-
164 local variations. An example of this is the recent move away in intensive materials from the southern Ceredigion ‘sa i’ to the standard form ‘dw i ddim’. Class observation in Mid-Wales evidenced both older and recent versions of Cwrs Sylfaenol being used by different learners within the same class.
6.12 From data collected across the North Wales, Mid and South-West region, there would seem to be most concentration of univocal support for teaching regional forms within the South-West Centre. Here, emphasis was placed on a south-western version of an intensive course due to the perceived linguistic diversity and richness within the Centre’s geographical area. Author 13 stated that this has led to a compromise around a version which, although distributed across a wide area, has met with positive feedback from first language speakers, with tutors being encouraged to highlight local differences as they see fit, although at higher levels learners are introduced to more literary forms and expected to be able to differentiate across registers. This writer emphasises the need to master 10 phonemes which, it is claimed, if rolled out across South Wales, could help learners sound much more natural. Opinion in the Centre was in favour of two interlinking yet distinct registers which require to be made more explicit to both tutors and learners alike. This means a focusing on oral primacy up to Canolradd and then switching from oral to more literary forms from Canolradd onwards.
6.13 Although there is an almost universal belief that different varieties of Welsh should be recognised and celebrated within WfA and that learners should be helped to consider variation as natural, divergence from North Wales, Mid and South-West region centres also comes to the fore concerning the levels at which language variety becomes more prevalent. There is agreement among directors, tutors (and learners to a lesser extent) that learners should not be overburdened with a wealth of dialectical forms at earlier stages in the learning experience, although one South-East Wales region director stated explicitly that the richness inherent in variety must not be lost. 6.14 The matter of linguistic variation in Welsh is complicated by the fact of substantial distance between written and spoken forms of the langauge and also by the substantial influence of English. The linguistic norms of L1 Welsh-speakers include significant borrowings from English and regular code-switching between Welsh and English.
6.15 The fieldwork results indicate that learners do not want to be presented with too much variation in the first place as this is confusing.
6.16 The results of the research also indicate that WfA practitioners and many learners recognise the importance of acquiring a localised version of Welsh and that this includes borrowing and code-switching. The results also show that a substantial minority of learners and WfA practitioners are quite resistant to the structured and deliberate presentation of Anglicised variations in the context of learning Welsh.
6.17 Materials writers were asked to indicate their agreement with the statement ‘It’s acceptable to let learners know they can put English words into their Welsh, if the native speakers around them do so.’ While responses were spread across the entire range from strong agreement to strong disagreement, it is clear that most authors were broadly in agreement, with an overall average score of 71.22 (Chart 95).
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 71.22
Chart 95 Authors: Q ‘It’s acceptable to let learners know that they can put English words into their Welsh, if the native speakers around them do so’, [scale 0-100, from ‘Totally disagree’ to ‘Totally agree’]
6.18 Code-switching and the use of English inside and outside the classroom are accepted, and to some extent promoted within certain parameters, by the WfA community. For example, Centre Director 6 locates the widespread use of codeswitching within the wider Welsh-speaking community and admits that it can be very difficult for a learner to negotiate both accuracy and legitimacy when speaking with first language Welsh speakers whose reasons for codeswitching may not always be apparent. The majority of learners are happy to use English, as long as they perceive that this will not be frowned upon. A substantial minority of learners (e.g. Learner 294, 300, 303 & 307), however, react negatively to the use of English during their own and others’ learning process, and perceive language contact with English in some cases as linguistic degradation.
6.19 Those in favour of code-switching by learners offered a range of justifications. This included the observation that learners do it already anyway (e.g. Tutor 52), that some consider it a good technique for learning a language (e.g. Learner 308, Centre Director 1), and in very many cases indeed that is is better to put in an English word and carry on than to stop or switch entirely into English (e.g. Tutor 36, 40, 48, 49 & 52; Learner 276, 286, 289, 309, 312 & 313). Some tutors assert that it is a normal part of one’s facility in a language to choose when to code-switch (Tutor 38 & 52) and that its a part of the contemporary condition of Welsh in any case (Tutor 48). Other common reasons included the view that L1 Welsh speakers do it (e.g. Learner 301, 314 & 315; Tutor 38), and also that so doing so makes one more nativelike (Learner 302 & 312; Tutor 50). Some tutors commented that when learners start to add ‘-io’ to English words in order to enmable their more effective use in Welsh it indicates that the learners are aware that it’s possible to create new words and also suggests that they’re becoming more confident in their own use of Welsh, instead of attempting to speak perfect Welsh (Tutor 53 & 41). Some learners simply argue that some things just cannot be translated, so the English word is quite appropriate (Learner 313 & 316).
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6.20 In contrast, those opposed to the use of code-switching, or of encouraging its use, argued that the Welsh language has, for example, its own vocabulary and learners should use it (e.g. Learner 273, 300, 302, 306 & 317; Tutor 43). Others used quite emotive language in their description of code-switching as a practice which is ‘mutilating the language’ (Learner 303) and that if Welsh is to thrive then code-swithcing ought to be avoided (Learner 306). Some learners felt that code-switching is simply a matter of laziness (Learner 318) while others again, including WfA tutors and learners, felt that it was something that learners should work towards and used only when they have completely mastered Welsh (Tutor 43; Learner 305). In the classroom context in particular, some tutors felt that code-switching should certainly be avoided despite that fact of the practice by Welsh-speakers in the community beyond (Tutor 49).
6.21 Research in TEFL (McCarthy, 2003; Carter & McCarthy, 2004) on certain aspects of variation, described as interactional response tokens, shows that such linguistic features can be critical to learners adopting authentic native-speaker type conversational strategies and that strongly argues that they ought to be adopted by language courses. In Welsh many of the response tokens that are commonly used by L1 speakers are English, or derive directly from it. In this context it could be useful to identify such interactional response tokens in Welsh and to map points at which such tokens might be presented to learners in the classroom. This could be especially pertinent to Informal Learning sessions as well. Beyond this, there is no research which suggests that extensive code-switching as a structural feature of WfA courses would be beneficial to language learning in the Welsh context. However, research on mother tongue use by L2 learners shows that it can be useful in order to aid understanding, especially at lower levels (e.g. Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009). In other words, code-switching in the classroom could be understood as an ad hoc, as opposed to structured, technique for facilitating understanding (for example of grammar) and acquiring language (for example unfamiliar vocabulary).
6.22 The results of the research revealed the L2 continuum in Welsh as a subject of material interest to WfA with regard to variety and variation. Opinions across all six Centres on the forms taught across both WfA and statutory education show widespread consensus that the difference in language variety between the two sectors needs to be addressed, with strident views expressed as to the direction in which a reconfiguration across the two sectors should occur. The vast majority of practitioners refer to WfA teaching in terms of heightened awareness around language variety, greater acceptance of informal registers as well as enhanced and more efficient language acquisition levels as opposed to the non-oral, higher- register forms and lower acquisition levels of the statutory sector. There is an overwhelming consensus that the statutory sector’s teaching of Welsh needs to adopt more oral forms, primarily for communicative and integrative reasons. Highlighting the immediacy of this issue, in respect of the ongoing Sabbatical Plan currently financed by the Welsh Government, two directors referred to linguistic compromises grudgingly reached on the orality of forms currently imparted by WfA practitioners for the statutory sector. Interviews would seem to confirm the integrative link between WfA classes for adults, statutory education and the public sector labour market (Baker et al, 2011: 57).
6.23 Author 4 noted the challenge of deciding which variety to use, given the conflicting pressures to offer Welsh ‘as Welsh speakers speak it at home’, the formal Welsh that children learn in school, and the current WfA patterns, which would facilitate learners’ joining of mainstream classes later. Decisions were still to be taken about how to pronounce words when the CD for the course was recorded.
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6.24 A rather different balance of responses was observed in relation to standardizing the register. Most WfA practitioners and learners singled out the differences between WfA and the Welsh taught in schools, and favoured a closer correspondence (e.g. Learner 286, 319 & 321; Tutor 41 & 49). The main reasons given were that the variation was an obstacle to communication between parents and schools (Tutor 40) as well as being an additional complication to parents in their attempts to support their children with homework and other schoolwork using contrasting forms of Welsh (Tutor 38, 40 & 42; Learner 310, 322). Some learners suggested that adult learners who had previously studied in school may not realize the correspondence between forms (Learner 316) and that learners might be confused as to which form is most ‘correct’ (Tutor 49).
6.25 It was noted by one director (South Wales) that some regions probably felt the contrast between WfA forms of Welsh and those forms used in the statutory education sector more acutely than others, depending on the tendency for parents of Welsh-speaking children to be adult learners of Welsh (Centre Director 1). However, recent research conducted in North Wales suggests that the issue of variation in the forms of Welsh between parents who are adult learners and their children, who are acquiring the language in school, may very well be manifest throughout Wales (Andrews, 2011; Baker et al, 2011; Beaufort Research, 2011).
6.26 According to the fieldwork, objections to standardization for register were few. One WfA practitioner didn’t see a problem with such differences (Tutor 39). Several tutors felt that it was appropriate for adults to learn the spoken forms, while children learned the written ones (Tutor 38, 42, 43 & 50). Another doubted schools would be able to adapt sufficiently towards the WfA model (Tutor 40).
6.27 Materials writers were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statement ‘It’s high time the same version of Welsh was taught in schools and in WfA’ (Chart 96). It elicited a wide range of responses, including four over 90 and three under 10. The average score was broadly in favour at 63.79.
6.28 Comments were elicited from amongst WfA authors on which variety it should be that was jointly taught. Opinion varied. For some, the schools should adopt a local, WfA-type version of Welsh (Author 2, 7 & 8), either combined with the contemporary standard written language (Author 10) or at least leading to it (Author 4). One writer advised keeping to fairly standard Northern or Southern Welsh, with occasional use of vocabulary specific to the locality (Author 1).
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100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 63.79
Chart 96 Authors: Q ‘It’s high time the same version of Welsh was taught in schools and in WfA’, [scale 0-100, from ‘Totally disagree’ to ‘Totally agree’]
6.29 One materials writer mentioned that previous attempts to narrow the gap between school Welsh and WfA had encountered problems with finding a compromise position:
Tra’n cytuno y byddai’n braf dysgu’r un Gymraeg yn yr ysgolion ag yn CiO, rwyf wedi bod yn rhan o drafodaethau ac mae hyn wedi codi eto fel rhan o’r Cynllun Sabothol, ac mae’r ddau faes ar ddau begwn ac anodd fydd cyfaddawdu / While agreeing that it would be good to teach the same sort of Welsh in schools as in WfA, I’ve been a part of discussions and this has also arisen as a part of the Cynllun Sabothol, and the two sectors are at two extremes and it would be hard to compromise (Author 3).
This writer felt that it would have been a good idea for WfA materials to introduce the school forms from the beginning, for information.
6.30 One author articulated what they considered to be the aims of WfA with regard to variety and variation in general:
Dylai cyrsiau CiO [...] arwain y dysgwr yn y pen draw (hynny yw, erbyn safon Hyfedredd) i allu: (1) amrywio rhwng iaith ffurfiol ac anffurfiol fel y bo’n briodol; (2) adnabod gwahanol gyweiriau iaith a thafodieithoedd lleol; (3) fod yn ymwybodol o’r gwahaniaeth rhwng iaith gywir ac anghywir, â’r berthynas rhwng hynny â iaith safonol, tafodieithol, llafar; a (4) siarad iaith o’r fath sy’n briodol iddo o ystyried ei oedran, y lle mae’n byw ynddo, y bobl o’i gwmpas, ei lefel addysg, y dibenion mae’n dysgu’r Gymraeg ar eu cyfer ac ati. / WfA courses [...] ought to lead the learner in the long run (that is, by Hyfedredd level) to be able to: (1) vary between formal and informal language as appropriate; (2) recognise different language registers and local dialects; (3) be aware of the differences between correct and incorrect language, and
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the relationship between that and standard, dialectical, oral language; and (4) speak a type of language that is appropriate to them considering their age, where they live, the people around them, their level of education, the purposes for which they are learning Welsh (Author 4).
Indeed, this could be the core of a mission statement for WfA with regard to forms of Welsh and their uses. That said, the Welsh language L2 continuum, incorporating WfA and the statutory education sector, is identified in this research as being problematic. Also, it is clear that there are, at present, no ready answers to hand as the precise nature of this phenomenon. This is because it is not well understood neither linguistically nor from the perspective of language policy and planning.
Recommendations: [ONE] That three principal regional varieties of Welsh – North, South-West and South-East – be facilitated by any new course; [TWO] That the presentation of local varieties of Welsh be a matter for WfA Centres; [THREE] To identify the common interactional response tokens in Welsh, including those that are English or are directly derived from it; [FOUR] To develop specific classroom material for the presentation of interactional response tokens to learners at higher levels and to relate these to Informal Learning opportunities; [FIVE] That tutors be given training in purpose of interactional response tokens and how to present them to learners; [SIX] That research be conducted into the L2 continuum in Welsh.
7 Use of Technology
7.1 The overwhelming majority of WfA practitioners across the six centres are in agreement that the use of technology in WfA is proving beneficial to the learner experience, adding a raft of possibilities to the sector. This includes the provision of diversity, differentiated learning opportunities, freshness of approach, widening learner contact with an expanded range of first language speakers as well as increasing the possibilities to ease infrastructure difficulties through the use of virtual logistics in more rural areas. Providing a constant resource for learners to work through course and supplementary material at their own pace in areas where Welsh is not a strong community language was also mentioned. However, a number of directors and materials writers, whilst acknowledging the benefits accruing to the development of technology platforms, are adamant that the core pedagogical relationship between tutor and learner should not be diminished and that the matter at hand is rather how to make the use of technology work for the sector.
7.2 There is a wide range of technology now being employed across the Centres, including blended learning; in-house podcasting applications reinforcing patterns, vocabulary and dialogues; adaption of on-line learning platforms outside the WfA sector; use of in-house MP3/4 files and CDs in order to complement course material; use of language laboratory for pattern reinforcement; hard and soft technologies in the classroom such as the interactive Smartboard and Powerpoint. In an attempt to integrate the use of technology to address
170 downtime within WfA curricula, one Centre is now rolling out remote learning to bridge the break between summer and autumn provision.
7.3 Learners on the whole are favourably disposed to use of technology (Charts 97 to 100). However, there is a persistent minority that is very opposed to use of technology. In each of the charts in which the quantitative data regarding learners’ responses to the question ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like or not like to see in WfA?’ is represented a large number of learners return the lowest score possible. This is consistent whether it is in relation to web-based tests (Chart 97), soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases (Chart 98), videos with optional subtitles (Chart 99) or an on-line version of their current course (Chart 100). While the overall average scores are positive, at 59.69, 70.75, 68.37 and 64.83 respectively, this minority of opposition is substantial in that it appears to be persistently and extremely disinclined to see greater use of technology in WfA.
SCORE 120
100
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0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 59.69
Chart 97 Learners: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Web-based tests
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SCORE 120
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0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 70.75
Chart 98 Learners: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases
SCORE 120
100
80
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0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 68.37
Chart 99 Dysgwyr / Learners: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 64.83
Chart 100 Learners: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Online version(s) of the course(s) I am registered on
7.4 The qualitative data from the fieldwork gives greater insight to the precise nature of that opposition. Learner opposition to technology relates to several things. Very many learners indeed fear that it will take the place of face-to-face interaction, as the following learners, for example, noted when commenting upon the possible disadvantages of technology:
Can limit opportunities to practice speaking (Learner 4);
Face-to-face communication is one of the most important parts of language learning and learners shouldn’t think that it can be replaced (Learner 7);
Only that it is not a replacement for talking and listening to a real person who can interact with you (Learner 24);
Only if it reduces the opportunity to practise speaking (Learner 28);
We may loose the face-to-face interaction and loose the social aspect of learning as more people may choose to go it alone (Learner 68);
I think if you used too much technology then you would move away from the best part of the learning process – that is being able to practice the language face-to-face with other learners (Learner 72);
Can take emphasis from speaking to other people, which is the most important skill to learn. Needs a balance between technology to support and a class environment (Learner 78);
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Personally I don’t enjoy sitting in front of a computer screen for hours on end. You can’t interact with a machine like you can with a tutor and classmates (Learner 141);
It is important to be able to interact personally with a tutor – which is not possible with ‘a machine’. Personal contact with all its advantages is essential – body language, feedback. Technology is antisocial (Learner 142);
Language is a social activity, technology is anti-social in the main and fosters a decline in language skills. Technology should be used to reinforce face-to-face learning (Learner 144).
7.5 Other learners noted that cost and access were issues for them. For example:
Availability of equipment within financial constraints (Learner 70);
Depends on learner access to the technology e.g. computer, phone etc. Might put some learners off (Learner 128);
Cost of equipment for individual. (Learner 160);
You need to have the up-to-date equipment to use technology to its fullest (Learner 167); Not everyone has the same up to date software on computers or phones (Learner 213);
Can be distracting as I’m not very technologically adept – also, I don’t have internet access for web-based facilities (Learner 228).
7.6 Many learners asserted that their lack familiarity with new technologies, or capability with regard to using them, was a significant reason for their caution regarding increased use of technology in WfA. For example:
I still find technology (esp smart phone / apps) intimidating (Learner 11);
I’m not computer literate. (Learner 14);
As I am not very technology-minded I would require tuition on how to use them. (Learner 31);
Technology should not replace actual speaking. As I am no good at technology I would need a lot of help to use technology. (Learner 35);
Dim computer da fi. (Learner 36);
The disadvantage that I would face is not being very technical, so I would need help with this. (Learner 40);
For older learners – I’m not good at using the web or computers. [This has been translated from the original, rather imprecise, Welsh] (Learner 43);
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Older people not familiar with modern technology. Tutor and blackboard are best in my view (Learner 146);
Not everyone is computer / techno literate. Too many younger people are far too ready to use it without alternatives (Learner 147);
Differences in understanding / ability to use technology within the class could put some people off or slow more advanced users down. (Learner 150);
Not helpful for those of us who don’t use the newer technologies unless we have instruction (Learner 181).
7.7 Significantly, a small number of learners state that using technology feels too much like being in the workplace:
Dwi ddim yn hoffi defnyddio fy nghyfrifiadur pan dw i ddim yn gweithio / I don’t like using my computer when I’m not in work (Learner 8);
I have to do this for work all the time and am not interested in doing this in my spare time (Learner 192).
7.8 Also, small numbers of learners claim that there is already too much technology, while some are overwhelmed or confused by the range of available technologies:
I think that it is possible to get too bogged down in the technology rather than implement what you know. We have access to radio, TV, website, books, tutors / friends and sometimes this can be too much / overwhelming. It’s possible that more offerings will distract from the point of using what you know (Learner 118);
I don’t have time to engage with multiple technologies (Learner 192).
7.9 It is worth noting also that recent research amongst learners in North Wales (Andrews, 2011) indicated relatively low levels of satisfaction with interactive learning via computer as a classroom-based activity (lowest of 12 items) and also with technology-based resources beyond the classroom (lowest of 4 items). However, there appears to be evidence from this research that at least a substantial minority of learners are looking to on-line resources as a possible means of supplementing their classroom experience and for compensating for their inability to find more time to spend in the classroom (Andrews, 2011) – in other words on- line resources offer the prospect of adding to learning time for some learners, if the right resources are effectively presented. Briefly, learners would like their next course to comprise one classroom-based session a week (Table 7), given demands on their time generally (Andrews, 2011; Baker et al, 2011). In order to supplement this, learners rated on-line learning second of 6 items (Table 7).
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Main Course % Once a week 73.3 Twice or thrice a week 21.7 In the workplace 7.5
Supplementary Course % Short revision course 29.2 On-line learning 25.7 Sadwrn Siarad 16.9 Weekend course (non-residential) 12.1 Residential weekend course 9.0 Residential week course 5.6
Table 7 The next course that learners would like to attend (adapted from Andrews, 2011)
7.10 In contrast to the conservativism expressed by many learners, WfA tutors are commonly much more favourably disposed to the increased use of technology (Charts 101 to 113). No significant opposition may be discerned although a number of tutors appear to not favour apps for mobile phones (Chart 102). The most highly favoured technological aids would be soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases (Chart 108), an on-line version of courses (Chart 112) and computer games (Chart 109), with average scores of 83.10, 80.65 and 79.20 respectively.
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 64.93
Chart 101 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Social networking
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 62.05
Chart 102 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Mobile apps
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 73.41
Chart 103 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Web-based tests
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SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 75.51
Chart 104 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’]-the-expert online (for learners)
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 75.44
Chart 105 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’]Ask-the-expert online (for tutors)
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SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 62.66
Chart 106 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’]Learner forum (discussion board)
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 63.68
Chart 107 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’]Tutor forum (discussion board)
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SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 83.10
Chart 108 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 79.20
Chart 109 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Welsh language computer games
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 69.91
Chart 110 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Software and equipment for making digital recordings
SCORE 120
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0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 78.89
Chart 111 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels
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SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 80.65
Chart 112 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] Online versions of every course, for those who have registered on them
SCORE 120
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NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 72.99
Chart 113 Tutors: Q ‘What sort of technological help for learning would you like to see or not like to see in WfA?’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not desirable at all’ to ‘very desirable indeed’] More availability of new technologies for learning and teaching in my workplace
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7.7 Again in contrast to WfA learners, tutors see far fewer disadvantages with regard to increasing the use of technology in the sector. One significant downside was the possible mis-use of technology by tutors. For example:
Mae TG fel unrhyw adnodd arall. Sut mae’n cael ei ddefnyddio sydd yn bwysig. Mae defnydd aneffeithiol ohono yn medru difetha nifer o elfennau pwysig mewn dosbarth iaith – rhyngweithio llafar, perthynas y tiwtor â’r dysgwyr [...] a bwrlwm y dosbarth / IT is like any other resource. How it’s used is what’s important. Ineffective use of it can spoil a number of important elements in a language class – oral interaction, the relationship between the tutor and the learner [...] and the energy of the class (Tutor 4);
Adnodd i ehangu oriau cyswllt y dysgwr â’r iaith y tu allan i’r ystafell ddosbarth ydy technoleg yn y bôn. Mae’n bosibl y gall technoleg gynnig mwy o amrywiaeth a gwedd fwy broffesiynol o fewn yr ystafell ddosbarth, ond gall tiwtor da addysgu’n effeithiol heb ddefnyddio technoleg o gwbl. Heb reolaeth gadarn gan y tiwtor, gall technoleg danseilio’r addysgu yn hytrach na’i gefnogi / Technology is a resource to extend the contact hours between learners and the language outside of the classroom. It’s possible that technology can offer more variety and a professional sheen in the classroom, but a good tutor can teach without technology at all. Without the firm control of the tutor, it’s possible for technology to undermine the teaching rather than supporting it (Tutor 5);
Wrth beidio â defnyddio technoleg rydym yn colli cyfle – ond y mae’r fath beth â ‘marwolaeth drwy SmartBoard’ hefyd / By not using technology we’re missing an opportunity – but ‘death through SmartBoard’ does exist (Tutor 19);
Dw i’n ymwybodol y gellir gor-ddefnyddio technoleg a chymryd pwyslais oddi wrth y dysgwyr – rhaid dysgu sut i ddefnyddio technoleg i hwyluso/hybu’r dysgu / I’m aware that over-use of technology can take the emphasis away from the learners – it’s necessary to learn how to use technology to facilitate the teaching (Tutor 30);
Mae perygl bod y technoleg yn dominyddu’r dosbarth, ond dw i’n defnyddio cymaint â phosibl o fewn rheswm / There’s a danger that technology dominates the class, but I use as much as possible within reason (Tutor 31).
7.8 Some tutors echo some of the concerns learners express regarding technology marginalising social interaction. For example:
Mae eisiau cyd-bwysedd rhwng defnyddio technoleg a dulliau eraill. Dydy technoleg ddim i bawb, ond mae’n braf cael y dewis. O ran y dysgwyr, rhaid gofalu nad ydy technoleg yn cymryd lle siarad a chyfathrebu wyneb i wyneb â pherson arall. O ran y tiwtor, mae defnyddio technoleg mewn gwers yn ychwanegu at amrywiaeth a diddordeb o ran dulliau a deunyddiau dysgu / A balance is needed between using technology and other techniques. Technology is not for everyone, but it’s good to have a choice. Regarding learners, it is necessary to take care that the technology doesn’t take place of speaking and face-to-face communication with another person. Regarding the tutor, using technology in a lesson can add to the variety and interest in relation to teaching techniques and materials (Tutor 6).
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7.9 There is a consensus amongst tutors that technology can most usefully add to the classroom experience, while not wholly, or substantially, replacing it. For example:
Defnyddiol iawn i atgyfnerthu gwaith y wers / Really useful for reinforcing the work of the lesson (Tutor 8);
Defnyddiol fel modd i adolygu yn y dosbarth ac ymarfer adre’ / Useful as a means of revising in the classroom and practising at home (Tutor 9);
Mae’n adnodd defnyddiol ond i’w ddefnyddio ar y cyd gydag adnoddau eraill / It’s a useful resource but it’s to be used together with other resources (Tutor 24).
7.8 Authors were even more favourable towards technology than tutors. Author 4 exemplifies their enthusiasm:
Rwy’n meddwl bod hyn yn cyd-fynd â’r egwyddor y dylid cynnig cynifer o wahanol foddau dysgu ag y bo’n bosibl, a hefyd ei fod yn ffordd o ateb gofynion myfyrwyr sy’n methu â mynychu dosbarth yn gyson, mor ddwys, ag y byddent yn ei ddymuno. Mae hefyd yn cynyddu’r cyswllt rhwng y dysgwyr a’r Gymraeg, rhwng y dysgwyr a’r tiwtor, a rhwng y dysgwyr a’i gilydd. Hon yw’r ffordd ymlaen, yn fy marn i / I think that this conforms with the principle that as many different ways of learning as possible ought to be offered, and also that it is a means of meeting the demands of students who cannot attend classes as consistently, as intensively, as they would like. It increases the contact between learners and the Welsh language, between learners and the tutor, and between learners and each other. This is the way forward, in my opinion (Author 4).
7.9 The importance of using technology to maintain learners’ contact with the language between classes is noted spefically by several authors (e.g. Author 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12). For example:
Mae unrhyw adnodd sy’n cynyddu oriau cyswllt y dysgwr â’r iaith y tu allan i’r dosbarth yn werthfawr tu hwnt. Mae’r dechnoleg yn medru cynnig driliau cudd ychwanegol a chyfleoedd i rywun sy’n colli gwers ddal i fyny / Any resource that increases the contact hours between the learner and the language outside of the class is extremely valuable. The technology can offer extra hidden drills and opportunities to someone that has missed a lesson to catch up (Author 10).
7.10 Another author noted the potential usefulness of technology in those parts of Wales where the opportunities for using Welsh in the community beyond the classroom are rather limited. For example:
Mae Technoleg Gwybodaeth yn ychwanegu at yr amrywiaeth o strategaethau dysgu y gellir eu mabwysiadu yn y dosbarth. Mae hefyd yn rhoi cyfle i ddysgwyr i glywed siaradwyr rhugl yn y fan a’r lle, sy’n bwysig iawn mewn ardaloedd Seisnigeiddiedig lle gall cael hyd i wirfoddolwyr o Gymry Cymraeg i fynd i mewn i’r dosbarth fod yn broblem. Ond efallai rhinwedd fwyaf TG yw ei hyblygrwydd sy’n rhyddhau’r dysgwr i astudio yn ei amser ei hunan ar ei gyflymder ei hunan. Ar ôl dweud hyn, rhaid cofio mai adnawdd ychwanegol yw TG; gan mai cyfrwng cymdeithasol yw iaith, ni all TG ddisodli dysgu wyneb yn wyneb yn gyfan gwbl / IT adds to the variety of teaching
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strategies that may be adopted in the classroom. It also gives the learners an opportunity to hear fluent speakers on the spot, something which is very important in Anglicised areas where it’s hard to find Welsh-speaking volunteers to go into the class. But perhaps the greatest benefit of IT is its flexibility that can free up the learner to study in their own time and at their own speed. Having said that, it must be remembered that IT is an additional resource; as language is a social medium IT cannot wholly replace face-to-face teaching (Author 12).
7.11 However, the enthusiasm of WfA practitioners for technology contrasts with a general lack of awareness of the technology resources available in WfA Centres other than their own. WfA practitioners need to share awareness of practice and resources more effectively. This point has also been made previously by other researchers. For example, on the matter of technology according to Old Bell 3, only 42% of WfA practitioners were familiar with BBC ‘Gwrando’n Astud’ and 60% with Acen’s ‘Y Banc’ (Old Bell 3, 2011: 83). Levels of actual use were lower again. In the same survey 26% of WfA practitioners claimed to have made use of BBC ‘Gwrando’n Astud’ while 47% said that they had made use of Acen’s on-line resources. Moreover, a cursory comparsion of the BBC website
7.12 When considering the potential of technology-based learning, it is worth noting that according to educational research (Hattie, 1999) ‘computer-assisted instruction’ has an effect- size of 0.31. That is to say that the impact of technology on learner performance is below average, at 0.40 (Table 8), in comparison with a range of other possible interventions. That is not to say that technology is not worth investing in but rather that it ought to be borne in mind that other interventions are more likely to have a greater impact (such as tutor feedback or learner motivation). Therefore, when considering investment of time, money and effort technology may certainly be prioritised but not as highly as some other possible interventions. Hence, any investment in technology ought to be as precisely focussed as possible on those technologies that are most likely to be of greatest efficacy.
Factor or Influence Effect-Size Reinforcement (feedback) 1.13 Students’ prior cognitive 1.04 ability Instructional quality 1.00 Student disposition to learn 0.61 (motivation) Teacher style 0.42 Computer-assisted 0.31 instruction Individualisation 0.14
Table 8 Effect-size for different types of intervention [computer-assisted instruction] (adapted from Hattie, 1999, p. 13)
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7.13 The newest and most dynamic technological innovation in the field of language learning is ‘serious gaming’ (Barret & Lewis Johnson, 2010). Some of the stand-out examples in serious gaming include language learning games developed by the US military specifically for operations in the Middle East (e.g. see Lewis Johnson, 2007; Ludwig et al, 2009;
7.14 Of course, there already has been investment in technology in WfA (Old Bell 3, 2011: 76-85). Yet Old Bell 3 also noted the physical limitations of some technology as with regard to the BBC project ‘Gwrando’r Astud’, for example. In this case CD versions were subsequently commissioned because of the general lack of ICT facilities is some WfA classrooms and locations (Old Bell 3, 2011: 79). Clearly, there is room for investment in basic ICT amenities at WfA sites.
7.15 It was also noted in this report that the WfA sector website that is supposed to link to the Acen on-line resources at
7.16 The recent investment in technology in WfA has generated a number of resources that may be looked upon as good practice. These include the following: GmC’s iTunes resources
7.17 Some examples of good practice beyond WfA can be identified. These include the Heinle Cengage Learning Online Speaking Lab, a technology that recognises learners’
186 speech, identifies errors and provides feedback for improvement. An introduction is available at
7.18 Technology will be most effective when tutors and learners are trained in the technology for the completion of clearly identified tasks and when both tutors and learners are committed to using it (Vanderplank, 2010: 31), as Vanderplank rightly points out ‘we cannot take effective learner use for granted and principled teacher guidance is needed’ (Vanderplank, 2010: 32).
Recommendations:
[ONE] To ensure more effective sharing of good practice, including via the WfA website at
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8 Informal Learning
8.1 In WfA, informal learning has been defined by the sector as:
Learning activity that enables Welsh learners to extend and practice their use of Welsh in order to gain confidence, improve fluency in the language, and integrate learners with fluent speakers. Usually, the learning activity will occur outside of a formal course, and it will not be accredited. It is usually a group or one-to-one activity, but one can learn informally in an independent manner, e.g. through reading or listening to the radio (Gweithgor Dysgu Anffurfiol, 2009: 3).
Recent guidelines published by Estyn (2010) refer to three types of learning, namely formal learning, non-formal learning and informal learning, following European guidelines in this area.24 Non-formal learning may be defined as learning opportunities that are organised by providers beyond the class-based curriculum including social activities, reading clubs and so forth. Informal learning refers to opportunities which the learners avail of themselves, independently of the providers. WfA may, as a sector, wish to consider more closely defining, as non-formal learning, some of the various activities that are currently generally understood as aspects of informal learning.
8.2 There is a considerable scholarly and professional literature on this field. In this context informal learning is understood as learning resulting from daily life activities (Smith, 2011 - http://www.infed.org/i-intro.htm). A very similar concept is ‘situated learning’, which is defined as learning that takes place in the same place in which it is applied (Lave, 1988; Lave & Wenger, 1991). The term was coined by Lave and Wenger following their research on adults acquiring competencies in the context of a ‘community of practice’ (e.g. Wenger, 1999) where the learner learns through socialisation, imitation, social interaction and problem solving.
8.3 There has been a considerable amount of serious research on informal learning in WfA, all of which confirms that the segmented nature of local Welsh language communities means that naturally occurring sociolinguistic sites in which situated learning in relation to the Welsh language might take place are not readily accessible to L2 learners. The WfA response to this lack of context for situated learning has been to construct a pastiche of such a context through a series of locally based informal learning programmes. The aims are to help learners improve their Welsh while also facilitating their integration to Welsh-speaking social networks. Evidence of such an approach can be seen in other minoritised language contexts, both as projects with substantial infrastructure and expansive geographical coherence (e.g. Voluntariat per la llengua in Catalonia
8.4 All six directors and the vast majority of WfA practitioners report increases in the levels of informal learning provision since the inception of the current Centre structure in 2006 and consider the fuller integration of informal learning into the WfA sector as imperative for a more holistic learning experience. However, difficulties are reported as regards financing,
24 http://www.cedefor.europa.eu/EN/publications/5059.aspx 188 staffing and the content of informal learning, as well as with its cohesion with generic WfA learning.
8.5 Informal learning provision occurs in the classroom or in the community at both an individual and group level (Table 9). The Cynllun Pontio, for example, amplifies the opportunities learners have to vary their contact with first language or fluent speakers in the classroom. However, this scheme is not currently in operation at all centres. Another scheme, the Cynllun Mentora, whereby learners and fluent speakers come together on a regular one- to-one basis in order to chat informally, is operational at two centres. The Cynllun Mentora is similar in design to the ‘Voluntariat per la Llengua’ scheme promoted by the Catalan Government which has brought together more than 30,000 learners and first language speakers who meet once a week for a minimum of ten weeks in order to speak Catalan in a relaxed and friendly location. The ‘Voluntariat per la Llengua’ scheme was the subject of a WfA report in 2007 (Canolfan Cymraeg i Oedolion De-orllewin Cymru, 2007).
GwC CVGC GmC SWWC MWC NWC Cynllun X X X Pontio Cynllun X X Mentora Ffair X Gymdeithasau Clybiau X X X Darllen Sadyrnau X X X X Siarad / Preswyl Canolfan X X Cymraeg Rhaglen / X X Porth Canolog Other X X X X X X
Table 9 Informal learning provision in the WfA Centres
8.6 Other informal learning initiatives operate in one centre only, highlighting the regional nature of the planning. An example of a classroom based partnership is that between one WfA centre and a local primary and secondary Welsh medium school whose pupils add to adult learners’ language exposure. Views were expressed that synergies could be harnessed between the statutory and WfA sectors specifically for the purpose of informal learning, with tutors seeing such initiatives as increasing the ‘pool’ and bringing about significant community cohesion. Another centre focuses on taking the more advanced learner out into the community and is based around bringing together on a regular basis learners and Welsh- language associations and societies.
8.7 An emerging, yet incomplete, interface is beginning to shape between informal learning and course materials at Mynediad and Sylfaen levels. A majority of senior WfA practitioners,
189 including Centre Directors 1, 4, 5 and 6, either cite recent course material linkages with informal learning or allude to the desirability of IL elements being woven into course materials. One suggestion was that this could include working specific linguistic features, such as interactional response tokens (McCarthy, 2003), into WfA curricular material and informal learning activities.
8.8 Despite the increase in activity across all centres, however, difficulties exist in achieving either a more cohesive integration of informal learning within WfA or a more efficient correspondence to the sector. These can be summarised as learner-centred, financial and institutional as well as sociolinguistic. For example, Centre Director 2 is unsure as to whether WfA centres are the ideal location for informal learning development.
8.9 In recent learner questionnaire returns not yet fully analysed, Centre Director 4 reports 50% dissatisfaction levels, with an increase in dissatisfaction levels in more Welsh-speaking areas. This is supported to some extent by another director who cites learner questionnaire return data showing low scoring for activities outside the classroom. In this respect, directors, senior practitioners and a wide range of tutors were of the opinion that consideration needs to be given as to whether the emphasis should now shift to particular activities rather than simply gathering learners together as learners. This explains one Centre taking on the role of conduit for integrating advanced learners into specific activity-oriented Welsh-language societies, in the attempt to avoid a situation whereby learning opportunities are heavily loaded in favour of default failure and related learner disappointment.
8.10 Such critical introspection is invaluable and serves to underscore that fact that while the WfA Centres provide a very varied menu of informal learning activities, some of which appear to be very effective and the numbers of learners and L1 Welsh-speakers taking part in the full range of activities is substantial – for example, according to WfA data over 22,000 Welsh learners took part in over 1,500 informal learning activities with over 1,500 L1 Welsh- speakers during 2009-10 (Gweithgor Cenedlaethol Dysgu Anffurfiol, 2010: 1-2) – there is no robust, consistent measure of the efficacy of activities. Toolkits for monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of informal learning activities do exist and could be applied to WfA.
8.11 Some results from the fieldwork indicate that learners very much appreciate informal learning opportunities. For example:
I have enjoyed the canolradd course [...] also the extra things to do and courses outside of class (Learner 42);
A mix of social activities which are offered already is very useful (Learner 45); I enjoy Sadwrn Siarad and other activities arranged by Prifysgol Morgannwg a Menter Bro Ogwr (Learner 49);
Extraneous activities like CYO, Sadwrn Siarad are important for revision, practice and reinforcement (Learner 142);
Wide variety of activities / reinforcement [...] Good to have opportunities to speak to Welsh speakers (Learner 143).
Moreover, learners commonly expressed that they would like there to be more such opportunities. For example, Learner 50 noted that there was a need for ‘more opportunities
190 for conversation with good / native speakers,’ while Learner 172 said ‘I would like to have more ways to enhance my learning after class.’
8.12 Many learners stated that they wanted to meet with other learners. For example, Learner 72 asserted that ‘the best part of the learning process [...] is being able to practice the language face to face with other learners.’ In a similar vein, Learner 192 stated that ‘Part of the learning experience is the social aspect of meeting with local people who are also learning so it becomes a social event.’There may well be an appetite amongst learners for greater interaction with each other outside of the classroom as, according to Learner 117, they would appreciate it were learners further encouraged ‘to meet to talk Welsh in between classes.’ Indeed, some learners appear to have taken the initiative in this regard. Learner 231 noted that ‘As a group we also meet informally over the long summer holiday which is also a great help.’ While such enthusiasm and activity is certainly useful there is also the inherent potential of allowing for the development of social networks that are wholly comprised of learners of Welsh. Such a development has the obvious potential risk of the complete separation of L1 and L2 Welsh-speaking networks.
8.13 For some learners, the challenges posed by informal learning are much more prosaic. Some learners are confronted by very real practical difficulties. For example:
It’s hard to attend the extra courses on offer because of the difference in venues and the distances I have to travel with no available public transport and no vehicle of my own (Learner 65);
I would also like some time to practice the language in informal sessions in the evenings e.g. coffi a chlonc – at present most of these are in the day which isn’t great if you work full-time (Learner 72);
It is very difficult to gain experience talking Welsh outside of the class as I have a young daughter. No childcare is offered with extra courses which are always in holidays or weekends (Learner 141).
Helping learners with some of these challenges may be within the scope of WfA Centres’ capabilities but others, clearly, will not.
8.14 On the whole, there is clearly an appetite amongst learners for informal learning. However, learners would benefit from a more strategic approach to informal learning – that is, to enjoy the activities but also to have specific and realistic linguistic goals in mind. Discussing and setting such goals calls for a certain level of metacognition on the part of learners. Whether such goals are attained or not ought to be a matter of discussion between learners and pertinent WfA practitioners. In the Welsh context, the NIACE / RARPA Toolkit
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WfA Centre 2010-11 Grant [Welsh Language Board] GwC £10,000 CVGC £13,185 GmC £20,340 SWWC £16,000 MWC £15,000 NWC £15,500
Table 10 Informal learning grant per WfA Centre
8.15 Financial and institutional restraints impinge upon the fuller integration of informal learning into the WfA curriculum. The fairly modest levels of funding allocated to informal learning are indicated in Table 10. According to two directors, present budgetary and human capacity for developing an informal learning programme within an integrated learning experience does not reflect current Welsh Government policy, resulting in informal learning remaining on the periphery of core learning. Distinct informal learning structures obtain across the centres. There is a dedicated informal learning officer capacity in two Centres whilst shared in-house as well as cross-centre partnership responsibility obtains across the other four. One centre has made an explicit informal learning link in its yearly action plan, requiring its providers to dedicate 2% of local funding to informal learning activities. Financial constraints in this area are also pointed out by Gruffudd and Morris (2011: 5.9) and Old Bell 3 (2010: 30). Informal learning was identified by the Welsh Government as an area that would require greater levels of funding if it was to be as effective as it could be (Welsh Assembly Government, 2009).
8.16 Learner integration into Welsh speaking communities and networks, as well as greater mutual understanding by both learners and first language speakers of a wide range of social factors impacting upon the use of Welsh, is invariably a major concern across all six centres. Centre Director 1 was of the opinion that research still needs to be conducted into the reasons why learners are failing to integrate into Welsh-speaking communities. Several directors cite the imperative need for interventionist yet sensitive projects to be undertaken with first language speakers in order to help them understand the range of linguistic, cultural and social difficulties faced by learners. These directors point to these not insignificant difficulties as reasons why some schemes are finding it difficult to embed into civil society lived through the Welsh language, whereas similar informal learning schemes in other European non- statewide language situations would seem to be meeting with greater take-up and success from both first language speakers and learners (Canolfan Cymraeg i Oedolion De-orllewin Cymru, 2007). Conversely, senior WfA practitioners state that learners need to be helped to become aware of the panoply of reasons why first language speakers may be reluctant to engage more fully with learners of Welsh. In data collected from learners, major issues included awareness that first language speakers are required to be patient over a significant amount of time, difficulties with understanding oral Welsh forms and persuading Welsh speakers to speak the language with them.
8.17 For those WfA Centres located in those parts of Wales in which the Welsh language is comparatively weak as the recently completed study by Gruffudd and Morris (2011) of Welsh language centres [Canolfannau Cymraeg] and the social networks of adult learners of Welsh will provide an authoritative steer. Their conclusion, that the Basque model of
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Euskaltegiak language centres - as described here
Recommendations:
[ONE] That a higher level of funding be specifically provided to informal learning, via both WfA Centres and Mentrau Iaith; [TWO] That each WfA Centre have a specific officer solely responsible for informal learning; [THREE] That DfES encourage closer planning and co-operation in this area between WfA Centres and the Mentrau Iaith in their localities – language planning agents, and their activities, have an very significant role to play in this context. WfA Centres cannot, and most certainly ought not, be seen as the bodies with the primary or leading responsibilitywith regard to providing and stimulating opportunities to use Welsh beyond the classroom; [FOUR] That specific informal learning activities be more closely related to specific features and levels of the WfA curriculum; [FIVE] That learners’ Cynlluniau Dysgu Unigol include specific reference to informal learning activities, goals and aims; [SIX] That the WfA lead on informal learning develops a mechanism for identifying and sharing good practice in informal learning in WfA (For example, some WfA Centres are exceptionally good at raising funding from other sources to support informal learning); [SEVEN] That WfA Centres attend more closely to the robust assessment of the sociolinguistic outcomes of specific informal learning activities, including consideration of the use of NIACE / RARPA Toolkit
9 Learner Differences
9.1 The review of the international literature on language acquisition identified four variables in learner differences: foreign language aptitude; learning (or cognitive) styles; learner strategies; and motivation. The results of the fieldwork show that these are not considered to be of equal importance by WfA practitioners.
9.2 Across the six Centres, there is a core opinion that tutors and materials writers are increasingly aware of the need for the sector to respond positively to learner differences. For example, most authors (10 out of 12 in the questionnaire survey) strongly agreed with the assertion: ‘Her i awduron deunyddiau, tiwtoriaid a’r dysgwyr eu hunain yw’r ffaith y bydd dysgwyr sydd ag arddulliau, galluoedd a chymelliannau gwahanol i’w canfod mewn un dosbarth’ [The fact that students with varying styles, abilities and motivations are to be found in a single class is a challenge to authors, tutors and the learners themselves]. For many in the
193 sector, this acknowledgment is consistent with continuing interpretations of a post-methods approach with regards to materials.
9.3 Multiple data capture indicates that WfA practitioners agree that learner differences, to the extent that they are a factor in the acquisition process, ought to be accommodated in the teaching materials. For example, Author 10: ‘I awdur, yr her fwya ydy penderfynu ym mha drefn i gyflwyno deunydd, faint o ddeunydd i’w gynnwys ym mhob uned a faint o ymarferion gwahanol i’w cynnwys ar y deunydd dan sylw. Penderfyniadau mympwyol ydy’r rhain i raddau helaeth, ond mae rhywun yn seilio’r penderfyniadau ar brofiad o weithio gyda dysgwyr sydd ag arddulliau a galluoedd gwahanol’ [For an author, the greatest challenge is to decide in which order to present material, how much material to include in each unit and how many different exercises to include on the material under consideration. These are arbitrary decisions to a great degree, but one takes these decisions based upon the experience of working with learners with different styles and abilities]. A number of authors note that this is specifally accommodated through gradation according to ability. In response to the question ‘Sut dylai adnoddau addysgu a dysgu da fynd i’r afael â’r her sy’n dod yn sgil gwahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr?’ [How ought teaching and learning resources grasp the challenge posed by learner differences?] found in the authors’ questionnaire, for example, Author 10 suggests that: ‘Mae angen graddoli’r gwaith o fewn pob uned (h.y. yn ôl lefelau gallu)’ [Gradation of the work is required within each unit (i.e according to levels of ability)’. Similarly, Author 7 suggests the need for: ‘[...] ymarferion wedi’u graddoli – mynd yn fwy anodd wrth fynd ymlaen’ [graded exercises – getting more difficult as one progresses] and Author 5 asserts: ‘Mae’n bosibl defnyddio deunyddiau mewn ffyrdd gwahanol i’r lefelau gwahanol’ [It’s possible to use materials in different ways for the different levels]. Author 4 is in broad agreement: ‘Rhaid cynnwys gweithgareddau sy’n addas at wahanol ddysgwyr o ran lefel eu hanhawster’ [Exercises that are suitable for different learners according to the level of their difficulty must be included].
9.4 However, different degrees of emphasis are placed by authors upon the four variables in learner differences. The authors were responding to the question ‘Yn eich profiad chi, pa wahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr yw’r rhai mwyaf heriol?’ [In your experience, which differences between differences are the most challenging?] on a scale from 0 to 100 where 0 means ‘Ddim yn heriol o gwbl’ [Not challenging at all] and 100 means ‘Yn heriol y tu hwnt’ [Extremely challenging].Their responses show that they did not consider differences in learning styles (Chart 114) to be as significant a barrier to learner progress as motivation (Chart 117) and, to a lesser degree, aptitude (Chart 115) and general intelligence (Chart 116). Author 11 voiced strong views on trends in the education system, stating that most learners are supported to become visual learners because this lends itself to easier classroom management, thus creating a double bind for kinesthetic learners in that they do not receive differentiated treatment and are often subsequently considered problematic if they do not adapt to more visual approaches. This writer’s approach is designed to help learners become more aural as well as kinaesthetic, with co-ordination of speech and action through miming activities resulting in additional learning stimuli. The low rating for learning styles amongst WfA authors as a whole ought to be set in the context of the problematic nature of the empirical base regarding research on learning styles, as noted in Section One of this report. Convincing authors that learning styles ought to be seriously reflected in course materials and classroom practice would appear to pose a substantial challenge.
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 36.82
Chart 114 Authors: Q ‘In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging’, [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not challenging at all’ to ‘very challenging indeed’] Hoff arddull dysgu / Preferred learning style
9.5 The National WfA Qualification includes a section on learning styles, cognitive styles and multiple intelligences theory. This could provide a useful introduction to this complex and much contested field. However, the approach evidenced in the material is insufficiently critical. For example, Gardner’s work (e.g. 1983 & 1999) on intelligence is much criticised in the field of psychology (e.g. Klein, 1997; Visser et al, 2006) and therefore scientific basis upon which the VAK (or VARC / VACT) model of learning styles is based is questionable. The course material draws attention to the fact that ‘not everyone agrees’ with learning styles. This is certainly true but it does not go far enough. If learning styles are to be a feature of the National WfA Qualification then the students must be directed to the most comprehensive and definitive study of learning styles, including cognitive styles, by Coffield et al (2004 a and b), sponsored by the DfES (UK). As noted in Section One of this report, Coffield’s work found learning style models to be very problematic. There is merit to researching the notion of learning styles in the context of WfA, such as with a project conducted by SWWC in 2010 entitled ‘Prosiect Dysgu Dysgu’n Well – rhoi arweiniad ar strategaethau dysgu i ddysgywr y Gymraeg’. Detailed information on this project is available online at the following site
9.6 While natural aptitude for language learning (Chart 115) and general intelligence (Chart 116) were rated quite modestly by WfA authors in fact research (Hattie, 1999; Hattie & Timperley, 2007), conducted at HE, FE and secondary level covering over 180,000 studies
195 and over 50 million students and over 200,000 potential ‘effect-sizes’, on the factors that may influence students’ learning found that students’ prior cognitive ability is the second most important factor (Table 11), ahead of motivation. An effect-size rating of 1.00 is understood to have an impact equivalent to a two grade leap at GCSE level while an effect-size of above 0.4 is understood to be above average for educational research. Of course, WfA practitioners have no control over, nor means of influencing, this factor although they might adapt teaching materials to better suit levels of ability.
Factor or Influence Effect-Size Reinforcement (feedback) 1.13 Students’ prior cognitive 1.04 ability Instructional quality 1.00 Student disposition to learn 0.61 (motivation) Teacher style 0.42 Individualisation 0.14
Table 11 Effect-size for different types of intervention [reinforcement] (adapted from Hattie, 1999, p. 8)
SCORE 120
100
80
60
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 64.61
Chart 115 Authors: Q ‘In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging’, [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not challenging at all’ to ‘very challenging indeed’] Amount of natural aptitude for language learning
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SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 53.25
Chart 116 Authors: Q ‘In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not challenging at all’ to ‘very challenging indeed’] General intelligence
9.7 Motivation is considered by WfA authors as the most critical factor with an average score of just over 77 (Chart 117). This too is identified by Hattie as an important factor, but not the most important one, influencing learner progress with an effect-size of 0.61 (Table 11).
SCORE 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS avg: 77.37
Chart 117 Authors: Q ‘In your experience, what differences between learners are the most challenging’ [scale 0-100, how desirable – from ‘not challenging at all’ to ‘very challenging indeed’] Level of motivation and interest
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9.8 That said, practitioners do have a means of intervening with regard to the ‘single most powerful moderator that enhances achievement’ (Hattie, 1999: 9) namely reinforcement (Table 11). Reinforcement is understood by Hattie as a specific type of feedback whereby the learner is provided information on how and why they have made the progress they have so far accomplished, and the directions the learner must take to further improve. Thus, this most effective type of feedback provides ‘information specifically relating to the task or process of learning that fills a gap between what is understood and what is aimed to be understood’ (Hattie & Timperley, 2007: 82). Also, feedback in this sense can operate in a number of different ways:
[T]hese may be through affective processes, such as increased effort, motivation, or engagement. Alternatively, the gap may be reduced through a number of different cognitive processes, including restructuring understandings, confirming to students that they are correct or incorrect, indicating that more information is available or needed, pointing to directions students could pursue, and / or indicating alternative strategies to understand particular information (Hattie & Timperley, 2007: 82).
Hattie’s work in particular on ‘effect sizes’ demonstrates that reinforcement can have a very substantial impact but that the precise type of feedback and the way in which it is given is critical in its overall effect. Not all types of feedback are effective (see, e.g., Hattie & Timperley, 2007: 83-5). Briefly, the more specific and immediate the feedback then the more beneficial will be its overall effect. Evidence gathered from the field indicates that WfA learners are provided with feedback in a number of ways: written feedback on homework and accreditation assessment tasks, and mid-course and end-of-course reviews in Individual Learning Plans. It is also clear that very many tutors also provide oral feedback and other advice to learners during lessons. In addition, not only is the form of feedback a key issue but the manner in which it is given is of considerable importance, paying due sensitivity to the individuality of learners amongst other factors (Hattie, 1999; Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
9.9 Feedback is related to assessment –whether formative or summative. This area has a complicated history in the context of WfA (Old Bell 3, 2011: 86-7). Old Bell 3’s research indicates that around the late 1990s and the early 2000s practitioners in WfA felt that there was less of an appetite for assessment at that time. However, since then Old Bell 3 claim that others, including language planners, have come to believe that exams are of strategic importance with regard to the status of the Welsh language more generally (Old Bell 3, 2011: 86). According to Old Bell 3 it is a matter concern that there is evidence that some WfA practitioners and learners do not see any value in accreditation pathways (Old Bell 3, 2011: 90, 121-3). The possibility that WJEC would design a portfolio as a means of credit-bearing assessment alternative to examination (Old Bell 3, 2011: 88) is a potentially welcome innovation as this might facilitate greater engagement with the fundamental relationship between pedagogy and assessment on the part of both WfA practitioners and WfA learners. However, the key issue here is the purpose of assessment. Assessment for the purposes of accreditation has no particular, intrinsic educational value. Whereas, educational research shows that formative assessment in particular, with its impact on metacognition, is extremely valuable and purposeful, feedback must be informed by some type of evaluation of the progress of the learner (e.g. Hattie and Timperley, 2007; Little, 2009). This could be conducted by tutors. If presented appropriately to learners and implemented effectively by WfA practitioners then the educational case for such formative assessment and the provision of feedback is unambiguous and imperative.
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9.10 Current national training for WfA tutors includes a unit on giving and receiving feedback. This is useful to some degree. However, there are some obvious limitations. For example, considerable attention is given to feedback as ‘praise’ while this has been identified in the educational research as one of the least effective forms of feedback. The material on correcting learners’ errors is useful with regard to live classroom practice in particular. There is also useful material on marking written work and using this to provide feedback to learners and evidence that WfA Centres have their own marking policies. What is not clear is whether WfA Centres monitor the implementation of policy in this regard.
9.11 Recently, WfA has paid considerable attention to Individual Learning Plans for WfA learners and a recently completed project in Bangor has resulted in the introduction of a suite of pro formae which enable the considered reflection upon the learning process by the learner. This device has the potential to be a rich site for the metacognition that has been identified in educational research as being critical to learners’ learning strategies and motivation (e.g. Hattie, 1999). It also has the potential to help better align learner expectation with the amount of progress likely to be made within course contact hours, a concern noted by other longitudinal research conducted amongst WfA learners in North Wales (Baker et al, 2011). That 87% of WfA learners surveyed as a part of the research behind Individual Learning Plans in Bangor felt that they were without value (Sbectrwm, 2011: 9) is a severe challenge to WfA practitioners. Of even more concern is the fact that 59% of tutors surveyed felt likewise (Sbectrwm, 2011: 11). Clearly, there is much work to be done in this regard.
9.12 In questionnaire and interview responses, a wide range of opinion has been collected upon how catering for difference should be practically managed. These can be grouped under the following themes: the design of course material; the role of the tutor in the classroom; the expectations of learners.
9.13 Good tutors will invariably be attuned to the differing needs within any given class and this is attested to across the Centres. Moreover, the authors in general agreed that the classroom tutor was central to the accommodation of learner differences through adapting to individual learners and tailoring teaching materials. See, for example, Author 10: ‘Y tiwtoriaid eu hunain sy’n cael eu heffeithio’n uniongyrchol gan y gwahaniaethau hyn, gan fod rhaid iddyn addasu’r deunydd crai i gwrdd â gofynion a galluoedd eu dysgwyr’ [It is the tutors themselves that are directly effected by these differences, as they have to adapt the raw material to meet the needs and abilities of their learners]; Author 7: ‘Fel arfer [...] ar y tiwtoriaid mae’r faich yn cwympo yn fwy nag ar awduron neu ddysgwyr’ [The burden usually falls upon the tutors more than on authors or learners]; Author 4: ‘Credaf fod rôl bwysig gan y tiwtor mewn helpu dysgywr ddod dros y problemau hyn’[I believe that tutors have an important role in helping learners overcome these problems]; and Author 12: ‘y person allweddol yn y broses dysgu gwahaniaethol yw’r tiwtor [...]Mae’n dra phwysig fod y tiwtor yn adnabod cryfderau a gwendidau dysgwyr unigol o’r cychwyn cyntaf, ac yn llunio strategaethau dysgu sy’n mynd i’r afael â’r rhain’ [The key person in the process of differentiated learning is the tutor [...] It’s very important that the tutor recognises the strengths and weaknesses of individual learners at the outset, and forms teaching strategies that get to grips with them].
9.14 However, some WfA practitioners note that not all tutors from the outset possess the skill to manage learner differences and that current training helps to highlight differences
199 among learners within increasing numbers of the tutor cohort. Concern was also raised regarding the efficacy of training due to high attrition rates amongst tutors and that if continuing professionalisation of the sector is to continue, then this drain on capacity needs to be addressed.
9.15 A related issue in the minds of a range of respondents is the tension between meeting class-wide goals while at the same time accommodating learner differences. For example:
Mae’n bwysig [...] sicrhau nad yw’r dysgwyr yn diflasu ar ei gilydd. Holl bwysig i’r grŵp deimlo fel grŵp. Eu bod yn ymwybodol eu bod yn cefnogi ei gilydd. [It’s important [...] to ensure that learners don’t frustrate each other. It’s important that the group feels itself to be a group. That they are aware that they are supporting each other] (Author 2);
Ffactor arall: dw i ddim yn credu mai ‘gwahaniaeth rhwng dysgwyr’ yw’r term cywir i ddisgrifio hon, ond yn hytrach lefel ymwybyddiaeth yr unigolion tuag at y pwyntiau uchod, sy’n bwynt tyngedfennol bwysig. Hynny yw, os bydd unigolyn yn tybio bod eraill yn fwy deallus / abl i ddysgu iaith ac ati, a’i agwedd tuag at hynny’n negyddol, gall hyn fod yn andwyol i’r dysgu [...] Peth allweddol yw goddefgarwch yr ungiolion tuag at y gwahaniaethu (real neu dybiedig) hyn. [Another factor: I don’t believe that ‘differences between learners’ is the correct term to describe this, but rather the level of awareness of individuals regarding the above points, which is a most important point. That is, if an individual thinks that others are more intelligent / capable of learning a language etc, and their attitude towards that is negative, this could be damaging to the learning] (Author 4).
9.16 Attempts to build in realistic learner expectations of the learning timeline before courses commence is currently being debated in one Centre and has been the subject of pilot project funding. This is due to the opinion that there currently exists a mismatch between learner expectations and the reality of the hours needed to be invested in the learning process, although there was general acceptance that helping people become better language learners in this manner would need to be realised with sensitivity. One intensive course currently discusses learner needs and expectations before classes begin and how the courses can best meet these.
9.17 In general, learners have felt both acceptance of and frustration towards the impact learner differences have upon classes, as well as expressing appreciation for the efforts tutors make to accommodate difference within classes. Related to the point above, learners also make the point that learner differences within the classroom could be partially relieved if more learners were to realise the commitment and time involved in learning the language, bolstering the points made by practitioners and academics above.
9.18 Across the six centres, learners were very aware of learner differences. Some noted that such differences can add value to their learning. Learners reported that tutors manage learner differences by varying teaching approaches or by using more or less English in class. Learner satisfaction with learner difference in materials, however, does show a degree of variation across the Centres.
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9.19 Authors were not in favour of tailoring existing WfA materials so as to accommodate learner difference. Many authors felt that any tailoring of WfA materials would be problematic given the tightly structured nature of WfA courses. For example:
‘Mae pob dysgwr yn wahanol, felly, yn ddelfrydol dylid creu cwrs gwahanol ar gyfer pob dysgwr unigol ond dyw hynny ddim yn ymarferol, felly, ceisir sicrhau digon amrywiaeth a theilwra’ [Every learner is different, therefore, ideally one ought to create a different course for each individual learner but that wouldn’t be practical, so, one ought to try and ensure sufficient variety and tailoring] (Author 8);
‘Pa ddeunyddiau bynnag fydd yn cael eu defnyddio, mae lefel cynnydd pob dysgwr yn mynd i fod yn wahanol, felly mae’n amhosib i unrhyw ddeunyddiau gael eu teilwra i adlewyrchu hyn’ [Whatever material will be used, the rate of progress of each learner is going to be different, so it’s impossible for any materials to be tailored to reflect this] (Author 10);
‘[...] mae’r patrymau iaith a geirfa ar gyrsiau Mynediad (a Sylfaen) yn rhai sylfaenol, felly anodd gweld sut y gellir eu haddasu i ddibenion dysgu gwahaniaethol’ [the language patterns and vocabulary for Mynediad (and Sylfaen) courses are essential, so it’s hard to see how they could be adapted to the needs of differentiated learning] (Author 12);
‘Oni bai fod anghenion dysgu difrifol gan y dysgwyr dim. Dim ond llwyfan yw’r cwrs [...] yr hyn sy’n bwysicach yw pa ddefnydd dych chi fel tiwtor yn ei wneud o’r llwyfan’ [Unless the needs of the learners are serious none (i.e. no tailoring of material ought to be done). The course is only a platform [...] what’s important is the use you make of that platform as a tutor] (Author 11);
‘[...] nid yw’n hawdd i diwtoriaid greu adnoddau ac arnynt ddiwyg proffesiynol eu hunain er mwyn ateb gofynion y dosbarth. Hefyd mae angen hyfforddiant ar diwtoriaid ar sut i ymdrin â gwahaniaethau dysgu’ [it’s not easy for tutors, in response to the needs of the class, to create resources that have a professional finish. Tutors need training on how to deal with learner differences] (Author 12).
9.20 That said, the authors were in agreement that variation in classroom and the preparation of additional materials, as opposed to tailoring, were both desirable. For example:
‘O ran gallu ieithyddol / cyffredinol, braf fyddai cael deunyddiau atodol i’w dosbarthu pan fydd unigolion neu grwpiau wedi gorffen, neu ar gyer gwaith cartref ychwanegol. Nid wyf yn ymwybodol o unrhyw gyrsiau sy’n cynnig hyn ar hyn o bryd felly y tueddiad yw i bob tiwtor orfod paratoi rhywbeth atodol’ [From the point of view of linguistic / general ability, it would be good to have extra material to give out when individuals or groups have finished, or for extra homework. I’m not aware of any course that offers this at present thus the tendency is for each tutor to have to prepare something extra] (Author 3);
‘Amrywio pynciau ac arddulliau sy’ bwysica, gan sicrhau bod nifer o ddulliau o gyflwyno ac ymarfer patrymau newydd yn cael eu defnyddio er mwyn i bob dysgwr gael yr un cyfle i gofio’r deunydd. Mae rhai yn ymateb i wrando, eraill i ysgrifennu, eraill i ddysgu / cofio patrymau, eraill i ddarllen a deall ac eraill i ddulliau ymarferol
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gan ddefnyddio deunyddiau “go iawn”’ [Varying the subjects and styles is most important, while ensuring that a number of methods of presentation and of practising new patterns are used in order that each learner gets the same opportunity to remember the material. Some respond to listening, others to writing, others to learning / remembering patterns, others to reading and others to practical methods using “real” materials] (Author 1);
‘Amrywiaeth o weithgareddau ar bob sgil (darllen, gwrando ayb), amrywiaeth o bynciau [...] trafod yr hyn mae’r dysgywr yn ei gael yn anodd / hawdd wrth ddysgu â nhw’ [A variety of activities on each skill (reading, listening etc), variety of subject [...] discuss with the learners that which they are finding difficult / easy] (Author 9); ‘Ceisio sicrhau bod cydbwysedd rhwng y gweledol, clyweledol a chinaesthetig yn y cyrsiau’ [Try and ensure a balance between the visual, audiovisual and kinaesthetig in the courses] (Author 8);
‘Trwy gynnig amrywiaeth o gyrsiau sydd yn defnyddio dulliau dysgu gwahanol. Yn y cyrsiau Mynediad a Sylfaen i mi ysgrifennu, defnyddir driliau fel y prif ddull oherwydd ei record o effeithiolrywdd. Ond nid yw’r dull yn addas i bawb ac nid mater o gyflymdra’n unig yw e. Ffordd mae’r dysgwyr yn cymhathu gwybodaeth yw’r cwestiwn allweddol. Nid un cwrs yn unig sy’n gallu cyflawni hyn’ [Through offering a variety of courses that use different learning methods. In the Mynediad and Sylfaen courses I wrote, drilling is used as the main method because of its record of efficacy. But this method isn’t appropriate for everyone and it’s not simply a matter of speed. The way in which the learners absorb information is the key question. One course alone cannot accomplish this] (Author 6);
‘Mae angen i weithgareddau roi cyfle i ddysgwyr ddefnyddio gwahanol rannau o’u hymennydd e.e. gweithgareddau gweledol, lluniau a thestun, rhai clywedol, llafar, synau a chanu; amrywio’r sgiliau – siarad, gwrando, darllen ac ysgrifennu [...] y gobaith yw y bydd pob teip o ddysgwr yn cael rhywbeth sy’n apelio a’i ysbrydoli’ [Activities are needed which give a chance to the learners use different parts of their brain e.g. visual activities, picture and text, some aural, oral, sound and song; vary the skills – speaking, listening, reading and writing [...] the hope is that every type of learner will find something which appeals to them and inspires them] (Author 4).
9.21 At the same time, certain restraints were immediately recognised namely that challenge of time on tutors to prepare extra material and the cost of producing extra material of appropriate quality. Some also felt that given the nature and structure of WfA, in contrast to statutory education where the learner is in the system for years on a full-time basis, it is impossible to robustly ascertain the specific differences between learners in any given group and to prepare for such potential differences in advance or to meet the identified needs adequately within the timescale of WfA courses. For example, authors identify the following constraints:
‘Yn anffodus, mae [paratoi deunydd atodol, sy’n beth hynod o ddefnyddiol] i raddau yn gorfod dibynnu ar adnabyddiaeth y tiwtoriaid o’u dosbarthiadau unigol gan bod anghenion mor benodol, ac felly mae hefyd yn ddibynnol ar brofiad, hyder a hyblygrwydd y tiwtor’ [Unfortunately, preparing any extra material, which is extremely useful, depends to a great degree on the understanding of the tutor of the
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different classes as needs are so specific, and so it also depends on the experience, confidence and flexibility of the tutor] (Author 1);
‘Gan fod y rhan fwyaf o’r dosbarthiadau yn cwrdd am ddwy awr yn unig, anodd iawn yw trefnu mynd trwy’r maes llafur a [mynd i’r afael â] gwahaniaethau’ [As the majority of classes meet only for two hours, it’s very hard to be so organised as to cover the course material and to get to grips with learner differences] (Author 3); ‘Y prif gyfyngiad yw cyflwyno’r wybodaeth fwya bosib yn yr amser lleiaf posib’ [The main constraint is presenting as much information as possible in the least possible time] (Author 6);
‘amser – bach iawn o amser sydd ar gael i ailwampio pob uned’ [Time – very little time is available to tailor each unit] (Author 7);
‘cost unrhyw ddeunyddiau atodol’ [The cost of any extra materials] (Author 4);
‘Anodd rhagweld lefel y gwahaniaethau o flaen llaw cyn dechrau’r dosbarth’ [It’s difficult to predict the level of differentiation beforehand prior to the class starting] (Author 7).
Recommendations:
[ONE] The importance of prior cognitive ability to learning per se requires that differentiation according to levels of ability be accommodated and therefore DfES ought to commission additional or supplementary WfA materials specific to learner differences regarding general aptitude – i.e. gradation of material according to level of ability and in different language skills – speak, read, write and understand; [TWO] The importance of reinforcement, or feedback, to learning per se requires that WfA directors ought to lead upon the further development of learning strategies for individual learners with greater focus on feedback informed by tutor-based evaluation of learner progress; [THREE] The importance of reinforcement, or feedback, to learning per se requires that DfES, in commissioning new WfA course material, ought to identify feedback as a necessary and specific feature of the progression of learners and that WfA practitioners are trained in the centrality of feedback and the fundamental link between pedagogy and assessment so as to enure that attitudes and values in WfA in this regard are informed by educational research; [FOUR] That the WfA lead on Training initiates the tailoring of specific training for tutors in the use of WfA materials which are differentiated in order to address the challenge of variation in level of ability amongst learners; [FIVE] Learning styles have some influential proponents in the field of WfA but the empirical basis is problematic therefore (1) theWfA lead on Research ought to consider the means of conducting Action-Research on learning styles. This could comprise a longitudinal and multi- centre study with the aim of better understanding this notion in the context of WfA; and, (2) WfA training, including in its localised forms, ought to reflect the nature of the empirical basis of learning styles in the national training programme; [SIX] That the WfA lead on Informal Learning takes the initiative upon making a more strategic link between learner differences and Informal Learning through adopting a more tactical approach to the construction of specific Informal Learning activities.
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10 Task-based learning and task-supported learning
10.1 Given the prominence of attention given by researchers in TEFL / MFSL to TBL in recent years, the fieldwork paid particular, specific attention to TBL and the notion of ‘task’ as understood by certain key WfA practitioners. The fieldwork in relation to TBL focussed primarily on the views of authors. There appears to an interesting contradiction at that heart of the results of the fieldwork with regard to ‘tasks’. One the one hand, WfA authors are clearly opposed to the basic principle of TBL. For example, in response to the question ‘I ba raddau mae eich profiad yn eich arwain i gytuno â’r cynnig hwn?’ / To what extent does your experience lead you to agree with this statment’ - ‘Yng nghyd-destun gweithgareddau dosbarth, mae rhai ymchwilwyr ac athrawon wedi cynnig bod gwell dysgu yn digwydd pan fydd y dysgwyr yn canolbwyntio ar dasg nad oes canlyniad ieithyddol iddo (e.e. canfod rhywbeth, penderfynu rhywbeth, creu rhywbeth) – hynny yw, pan fydd yr iaith yn gyfrwng yn hytrach nag yn gyrchfan’ / ‘In the context of classroom activities, some researchers and teachers have suggested that better learning occurs when learners concentrate on a task that does not have a linguistic outcome (e.g. discover something, decide something, create something) – that is, when the language is the medium instead of the aim’ authors responded negatively, or very conditionally, apart from Authors 2 and 11. For example:
Credaf fod hyn yn anodd gyda dechreuwyr / I believe that this is difficult with beginners (Author 3); Dim ond fel rhan o raglen ddysgu ehangach / Only as a part of a wider learning programme (Author 4);
Mae’n rhaid cael y patrymau sylfaenol yn gyntaf / The basic patterns have to be obtained in the first place (Author 5);
Er mwyn cymhathu’r patrwm ar y dechrau, mae’n rhaid ei drin fel cyrchfan. Ond er mwyn ei atgyfnerthu, mae’n well ei drin fel cyfrwng tasg / In order to absorb the pattern to begin with, it has to be treated as an aim (Author 6);
Nes bod dysgwyr yn gymharol rugl, gall tasg sy’n ennyn diddordeb dysgwyr arwain at orddefnydd o’r Saesneg / Until learners are fairly fluent, a task that is interesting to learners might well lead to over-use of English (Author 10).
10.2 They also see many potential disadvantages to tasks. In response to the question ‘Beth yw’r anfanteision, os o gwbl, o gynnwys tasgau (yn yr ystyr uchod) mewn deunyddiau ac o’u defnyddio yn y dosbarth?’ / ‘What are the disadvantages, if any, of including tasks (as defined above) in materials and of using them in the class?’ authors noted the following:
Teimlaf fod angen i’r dysgwyr ganolbwyntio ar gynhyrchu iaith – mae hyn yn ddigon o dasg iddynt. / I feel that the learners need to concentrate on producing language – that’s enough of a task for them (Author 3);
Mae’r dysgwyr yn dysgu brawddegau i un sefyllfa yn unig a ddim yn gwybod o ble mae’r patrymau’n dod i’w defnyddio mewn sefyllfaoedd eraill / The learners learn sentences for one situation alone and don’t know from where the pattern has come so as to use it in other situations (Author 5);
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Os nad yw’r dysgwyr yn gyfarwydd â’r patrymau hanfodol, gall fod yn anodd cael lles o’r tasg / If the learners aren’t familiar with the basic patterns, it could be difficult to get any benefit from the task (Author 6);
[Mae tasgau] yn llai addas ar y lefelau cychwynnol / [Tasks are] less suitable at beginner levels (Author 7);
Gall y dasg fynd yn bwysicach na’r dysgu’r iaith i rai e.e. torri ar y Saesneg i gwblhau’r gweithgaredd / The task could become more important than language learning e.g. using English in order to complete the task (Author 9);
Gall pwysigrwydd cyflawni amcanion y dasg arwain dysgwyr i gyfathrebu yn Saesneg ar brydiau / The importance of completing the task could lead the learners to communicate at times in English (Author 10);
Author 4 suggests that learners might very well not see the point to a non-language based tasks. They also suggest that it would be difficult for tutors to ensure that the learners had sufficient vocabulary and patterns in the target language to complete such a task. Tutors would also find it difficult to pay sufficient attention to the learners’ language in a task which is quite unstructured and over which the classroom tutor has little control. In addition, this author suggests that some learners could become disheartened as other more capable and extrovert learners dominate such tasks.
10.3 Yet, WfA authors are also clear that their own course materials include tasks. In this sense authors are asserting, to some degree, the fact that task-supported learning, as opposed to TBL, has gained some traction in WfA. For example, in response to the question ‘Ydy eich deunyddiau yn cynnwys tasgau o’r math yma (hynny yw, gweithgareddau sy’n canolbwyntio ar gyflawni rhywbeth sy’n mynd y tu hwnt i’r canlyniad dysgu ieithyddol arfaethedig, megis canfod rhywbeth, penderfynu rhywbeth, neu greu rhywbeth)?’ / Do your materials include tasks of this sort (that is, activities which concentrate on accomplishing something that goes beyond the intended language learning outcome, such as discovering something, deciding something, or creating something)?’ authors, with the sole exception of Author 5, asserted that they do indeed incorporate such tasks. For example:
Ar y lefel uwch, ydyn [...] Does fawr ddim tasgau fel hyn ar lefelau is / They do at the higher level [...] There aren’t many tasks like this at lower levels (Author 10);
Ydyn, yn enwedig wrth symud lan y lefelau / They do, especially as one moves up through the levels (Author 7);
Cymharol ychydig o hyn sydd yn bosibl ar safon Mynediad [...] Yn hwyrach yn y cwrs (ar ôl 30+ o oriau dysgu), ceir gweithgareddau sgwrsio mwy rhydd [...] / Comparatively little of this is possible at Mynediad level [...] Later in the course (after 30+ of hours), conversational activities of a freer nature are to be had (Author 4); Credaf fod y cyrsiau Uwch a Mesitroli yn cynnwys nifer fawr o’r tasgau hyn [...] / I believe that Uwch and Meistroli courses include a large number of such tasks (Author 3);
O safbwynt y gwerslyfr Canolradd – nifer fawr o weithgareddau atodol i’r darn dysgu craidd er mwyn ymestyn defnydd y dysgwyr o’r patrymau, ymarfer y sefyllfa lle
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defnyddir y patrwm / Regarding the Canolradd handbook – a large number of supplementary activities in order to extend the learners’ use of the patterns, practise the situation in which the pattern is used (Author 10).
There is also a good quality WJEC publication on WfA tasks (Morse, 2010). This contains a variety of tasks identified as good practice by WfA practitioners and organised according to the different WfA sector levels – Mynediad, Sylfaen, Canolradd, Uwch and Hyfedredd. Making more of similar such materials more readily and widely available ought to be very useful.
10.4 The apparent ambiguity, or even contradiction, regarding tasks in WfA is, ironically, reflected in the TBL literature. TBL is an approach to language pedagogy that places the task at the heart of the teaching and learning process. However, while proponents of TBL have a certain idea in mind with regard to the notion of ‘task-based learning’, the literature on TBL struggles to define ‘task’ succinctly. For example, one of the leading authorities on TBL states that: ‘in neither research nor language pedagogy is there complete agreement as to what constitutes a task, making definition problematic, nor is there consistency in the terms employed to describe different devices for eliciting learner language’ (Ellis, 2003: 2). He presents (Ellis, 2003: 4-5) various definitions coined by others, which are re-presented here with very minor modifications:
A task is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication. It can be a brief practice exercise or a more complex workplan that requires spontaneous communication of meaning (Breen, 1989)
A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination, and helping someone across a road. In other words, by task is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. Tasks are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists (Long, 1985).
A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language, i.e. as a response. For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, and listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion for the task. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make teaching more communicative since it provides a purpose for classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake (Richards, Platt & Weber, 1985).
A task is a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as a part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research (Crookes, 1986).
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A task is an activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process (Prabhu, 1987).
A communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focussed on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right (Nunan, 1989).
A task is an activity in which: meaning is primary; there is some sort of relationship to the real world; task completion has some priority; and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task outcome (Skehan, 1996).
A task is (1) a classroom activity or exercise that has (a) an objective obtainable only by the interaction among participants, (b) a mechanism for structuring and sequencing interaction, and (c) a focus on meaning exchange; (2) a language learning endeavour that requires learners to comprehend, manipulate, and / or produce the target language as they perform some set workplans (Lee, 2000).
A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with an emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective (Bygate, Skehan and Swain, 2001).
10.5 Ellis’s own definition of task (2003: 9-10) includes the following: A task is a workplan, it involves a primary focus on meaning, it involves real-world processes of language use, it can involve any of the four language skills, it engages cognitive processes, and, it has a clearly defined communicative outcome. Yet, he still cautions that it is not easy to differentiate between ‘linguistically focussed tasks’, which are considered to be tasks by TBL, and ‘contextualised language exercises’ (Ellis, 2003: 321-2) which TBL, in principle, does not consider to be tasks. Many of the tasks WfA authors identify in their own courses would certainly fall within some of the above definitions of task from the TBL literature.
10.6 WfA authors are right to be accepting of tasks while at the same time also being cautious of what might be termed strong versions of the TBL approach. For example, a leading authority on TBL points out quite unambiguously that ‘learners should not be expected to produce language that has not been introduced either explicitly or implicitly’ (Nunan, 2004: 35). Indeed, Feeney points out that Nunan’s seven guiding principles for TBL, namely ‘schema building, controlled practice, authentic repetitive skills work, a focus on form (lexical and / or grammatical), freer practice (communicative activities) and finally the task itself’ (Feeney, 2006: 200), bear a striking similarity to ‘elements within a traditional PPP approach’ (Feeney, 2006: 200). Indeed, Nunan is unambiguous in cautioning against strong versions of TBL. Moreover, Nunan states that there is a role, to some extent, for focus on form pre-task. This confirms, to a certain degree, Sheen’s insight that the criticisms by some early advocates of TBL of the synthetic syllabus were ‘largely unjustified’ (Sheen, 1994: 127). Ellis draws our attention to the fact that the apparently deep divisions between communicative and structural approaches to language teaching are in reality rather fuzzy when he asserts that communicative tasks are central to communicative language teaching [CLT] and that ‘distinction between a weak and a strong version of CLT parallels that distinction between task-supported language teaching and task-based language teaching’ and
207 that ‘the weak version of CLT has traditionally employed a methodological procedure consisting of PPP’ (Ellis, 2003: 28-9).
10.7 Set in the context of this sense of overlap, it is not surprising therefore that the results of the fieldwork show that WfA practitioners are interested in better understanding tasks. For example, Author 4 noted that: ‘Hoffwn weld hyfforddiant ar gyfer tiwtoriaid ynglŷn â’r dull dysgu hwn; rhoddwyd sylw eisioes i ddulliau megis Dadawgrymeg, ond hoffwn weld mwy o amrywiaeth, arbrofi, trafod ac ymchwil yma, er mwyn ehangu dewis tiwtoriaid o weithgareddau a dulliau dysgu’ / I would like like to see training for tutors on this teaching technique [TBL]; attention is already paid to techniques such as Desuggestopedia, but I would like to see more of variety, experimentation, discussion and research here, in order to extend the choices open to tutors regarding activities and teaching techniques.’
10.8 In this light, WfA practitioners could benefit from increased awareness of examples of tasks, as defined by TBL researchers and practitioners. Not only are examples provided by Ellis (2003: 11-13) and McDonough and Shaw (2003) but many tasks are available on-line. Some of the more authoritative sources include ‘Willis-ELT’
10.9 WfA practitioners are of the view that what they regard as tasks are increasingly suitable as learners move up through the levels. The strongest versions of TBL would take issue with this but there is very little empirical evidence of purely communicative tasks for absolute beginners. Ellis is sensitive to this particular challenge for TBL. The answer, he suggest, is listening tasks: ‘For teachers, listening tasks provide the obvious starting point for a task- based course designed for low-proficiency learners. Simple listening tasks can be devised that can be performed with zero competence in the L2 and that thus cater to the ‘silent period’, which characterizes the early stages of acquisition for some learners’ (Ellis, 2003: 37). How this actually enables acquisition in ‘zero competence’ learners Ellis does not demonstrate. This is widely regarded as a significant weakness in TBL approaches. As Swan points out: ‘While [TBL] may successfully develop learners’ command of what is known, it is considerably less effective for the systematic teaching of new language. This is especially so where time is limited and out-of-class exposure unavailable, thus making heavily task-based programmes inappropriate for most of the world's language learners. The polarization of meaning-based and form-based instruction is unconstructive, and reflects a recurrent pattern of damaging ideological swings in language teaching theory and practice’ (Swan, 2005: 376). For WfA in particular Swan’s assertion with regard to both time and out-of-class exposure being limited is most pointed.
Recommendations:
[ONE] There is no case for a revised WfA curriculum adopting a TBL approach. Current practice in WfA already engages with a wide variety of tasks and may be characterised as a task-supported pedagogy. However, there is an appetite for further developing awareness
208 amongst WfA practitioners of the communicative task. WfA ought to incorporate in the national training programme and strategy continuing professional development sessions on this subject for WfA practitioners. This could include the dissemination of information about tasks of this type that have been identified as examples of good practice by authoritative sources such as ETALAGE
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SECTION FOUR: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1 New WfA Course
The recommendation is that DfES ought to commission a single, national WfA course based upon a detailed specification, similar to the WJEC Manylebau.
This course is to have the following features:
I. three regional varieties of Welsh language namely North, South-West and South-East; II. local varieties and variations to be at the discretion of local WfA Centres; III. short, contextualised drilling chunks; IV. variously graded, communicative tasks designed to accommodate differences between learners; V. clearly identified core vocabulary for different levels based upon ‘geirfa graidd’ in the first place; VI. sections outlining grammatical explanations pertinent to the text; VII. guidelines to learners on the acquisition of vocabulary; VIII. specific links to technology-based activities at the different levels; IX. specific links to non-formal learning activities at the different levels; X. material on register linked to non-formal learning activities; XI. material on interactional response tokens at higher levels; XII. specific points at which learners are provided with feedback on progress, using Individual Learning Plans; XIII. distinction between intensive and non-intensive to be replaced by sliding scale of instructional quantity, incorporating financial incentive to prioritise provision at more intensive end of continuum over provision at least intensive end of continuum; XIV. clearly identified total guided learning hours to conform with CEFR / ALTE guidance ie A1 = c.75; A2 = 180-200; B1 = 350-400; B2 = 500-600; C1=700-800; C2 = 1,000- 1,200. Noting that guided learning can include classroom contact time, e-learning, and non-formal learning activities (if the last two are sufficiently structured). Note also that the total guided learning hours at A1 may very well be an under-estimate for the WfA context. The CEFR / ALTE figure is based upon the acquisition of larger languages. Given the social context of minoritised languages, such as Welsh, the number of hours required at this level is likely to be higher.
Total approximate cost implications: £500,000
Project management costs @ up to £65,000 per annum F-T FEC x 1 pro rata 0.20 (notionally, if 1-year project. However, it is most likely that the project will only be able to be delivered over a period of several years [probably 3-5] in order to allow for the incremental development of the course, trialling, appropriate consultation etc. and, as such, the precise
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financial structure of the whole will be affected by the exact timetable for the delivery of the project. Inherent to the delivery of a project over a number of years is, of course, the reality of incremental growth in costs such as staff salaries. Thus, the figures are approximate) = approximate cost £13,000
WfA author @ up to £50,000 per annum F-T (Full-time) FEC (Full economic costing) x 4 = approximate cost £200,000
Production costs (including the following): Designing Editing Photographs Illustrations Printing = approximate cost £280,000
Miscellaneous costs (including travel, IT support, accommodation etc) = approximate cost £7,000
2 Grammar Guidebook for Learners
The recommendation is the DfES ought to commission a bespoke grammar guidebook for WfA learners.
The guidebook ought to draw together and make use of current, relevant WfA materials, as suggested by WfA practitioners. It ought to be in terminology that is accessible to learners and that it also to incorporate explanations in the L1:
I. BBC ‘Learn Welsh. Grammar’
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The development of this guidebook could also be usefully informed by a range of bestselling, popular texts from TEFL:
I. Raymond Murphy ‘Basic Grammar in Use Answer Key: Reference and Practice for Students of English’; II. Raymond Murphy ‘Essential Grammar in Use with Answers: A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Elementary Students of English’; III. Raymond Murphy ‘English Grammar in Use with Answers: A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English’ [for intermediate levels]; IV. Michael Swan and Catherine Walter ‘How English Works: A Grammar Practice Book (With Answers)’; V. Martin Hewings ‘Advanced Grammar in Use: A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Advanced Students of English’.
Total approximate cost implications: £18,000
Project management costs @ up to £500 per day F-T FEC x 3 days (if 1-year project) = approximate cost £1,500
WfA author @ up to £50,000 per annum F-T (Full-time) FEC (Full economic costing) x 1 pro rata 0.25 = approximate cost £12,500
Production costs (including the following): Designing Editing Printing = approximate cost £4,000
3 Grammar Guidebook for Tutors
The recommendation is that DfES ought to commission a bespoke grammar guidebook for WfA tutors.
This guidebook ought to draw together and make use of current, relevant WfA materials as suggested by WfA practitioners:
I. BBC ‘Learn Welsh. Grammar’
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VIII. Stephen J. Williams ‘Elfennau Gramadeg Cymraeg’; IX. Morgan D. Jones ‘A Guide to Correct Welsh’; X. Uned Iaith Genedlaethol Cymru ‘Gramadeg Cymraeg Cyfoes; Contemporary Welsh Grammar’; XI. Heini Gruffudd ‘Cymraeg Da’ / ‘Welsh Rules’; XII. WJEC ‘Ffeil Hyfedredd’. The development of this guidebook could also be usefully informed by certain popular grammar reference books from TEFL:
I. A. J. Thomson and A. V. Martinet ‘A Practical English Grammar’; II. Michael Swan ‘Practical English Usage’.
Total approximate cost implications: £18,000
Project management costs @ up to £500 per day F-T FEC x 3 days (if 1-year project) = approximate cost £1,500
WfA author @ up to £50,000 per annum F-T (Full-time) FEC (Full economic costing) x 1 pro rata 0.25 = approximate cost £12,500
Production costs (including the following): Designing Editing Printing = approximate cost £4,000
4 Grammar app for Learners
The recommendation is that DfES ought to commission a bespoke grammar app for WfA learners.
This App ought to incorporate explanations in the L1 and ought to draw upon good practice from TEFL as follows:
I. Cambridge University Press English Grammar in Use Activities App for iPhone (
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III. University College London Interactive Grammar of English [iGE] (see the following
Total approximate cost implications: £15,000
This figure is based upon know costs for the development and production of the iEG app.
5 WfA Corpus
The recommendation is that DfES ought to commission a bespoke, electronic WfA language corpus based on contemporary spoken Welsh.
DfES ought to work with experts in language corpora along with WfA expert practitioners and academic experts in contemporary spoken Welsh on the development of an appropriate corpus.
Total approximate cost implications: £150,000
This figure is based upon the known costs of other similar corpora.
This is not necessarily a potential cost to DfES. The funding for other similar corpora has usually been drawn down from the UK research councils and research funders e.g. the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Economic and Social Research Council, the Leverhulme Trust, and the British Academy. Funding for the creation of a bespoke WfA Corpus could replicate these, high quality, precedents for the development of large electronic corpora.
6 Graded Readers (Scoping Project)
The recommendation is that the WfA lead on curriculum development ought to conduct a scoping exercise in order to identify and evaluate current materials and assess their potential for use in WfA along with giving consideration to the necessity for commissioning new material.
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Graded readers ought to be used in learners’ Reading Clubs as an integral feature of the informal learning programme of each WfA Centre.
Total approximate cost implications: £5,000
WfA author @ up to £50,000 per annum F-T (Full-time) FEC (Full economic costing) x 1 pro rata 0.10 = approximate cost £5,000
One possible outcome of this scoping exercise could be to confirm that it is necessary to commission a set of graded readers specific to WfA. Such an outcome would have cost implications. No estimate of any such potential costs is made here in this report.
7 Informal and Non-formal Learning Activities
The recommendation is that the WfA lead on what is currently understood as informal learning and WfA Centres adopt a more structural relationship between non-formal learning activities and the WfA curriculum.
This approach ought to have the following features:
I. A clearly defined understanding of the difference between formal, non-formal and informal learning; II. Specific non-formal learning activities, including register and interactional response tokens, be linked to specific features and levels of the WfA curriculum; III. Non-formal learning activities be subject to monitoring and evaluation through using the NIACE / RARPA Toolkit; IV. Each WfA Centre to have a specific member of staff dedicated to the development and implementation of non-formal learning; V. Each WfA Centre endeavours to work more closely with local Mentrau Iaith in this area.
Approximate additional cost implications: £25,000
This figure is based upon recent historical and current levels of funding provided to WfA Centres by the Welsh Language Board for supporting informal learning (Table 10 in this report). In addition, we note that the implementation of Gruffudd and Morris’ (2011) recommendations regarding Canolfannau Cymraeg would have, potentially, far-reaching and positive implications for informal learning. No estimate of costs for the implementation of the Gruffudd and Morris recommendations is made here in this report.
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8 Training for Authors
The recommendation is that DfES support the WfA lead on training in developing a training programme for emerging authors in WfA.
The first part of this training ought to be aimed at developing the next generation of WfA authors and it ought to be led by current WfA authors. The second part of this training ought to comprise a ‘masterclass’ for experienced WfA authors conducted by invited international expert. This ought to be held on an annual basis.
Approximate cost implications: £2,800
Invited expert author fee (if applicable) @ up to £600 per day x 2 = approximate total cost £1,200 Invited expert author travel @ up to £1,400 = approximate total cost £1,400 Invited expert author accommodation @ £120 per overnight stay x 1 = approximate total cost £120 Invited expert author subsistence @ £40 per day x 2 = approximate total cost £80
9 Training for Tutors
The recommendation is that the WfA lead on training incorporates a variety of revised or new sessions for WfA tutors on drilling, grammar, feedback, vocabulary and differentiated activities aimed at accommodating learner differences.
This training ought to have the following features:
I. Drilling – training in varying the presentation of drilling and in the full range of drilling styles, in order to prevent or ameliorate semantic satiation; II. Grammar – training in the use of appropriate terminology and approaches to explanation, in order to prevent or ameliorate overgeneralisation; III. Feedback – training in language specific, rather than generic, feedback. Also, guidance on working with learners’ Individual Learning Plans and ‘homework’ as guided learning activities as channels for providing language specific feedback; IV. Vocabulary – training in the technique of structured reviewing; V. Differentiated activities – training on the appropriate use of activities or tasks designed to meet the challenge of differences amongst learners regarding cognitive ability.
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In addition, we note that the implementation of Old Bell 3 (2011: 110-111) recommendation regarding the compulsory training of tutors, pro rata – on basis of extent of contracted time, would have beneficial implications in this area.
No new cost implications unless a decision is taken to implement compulsory training of tutors.
10 Training for Learners
The recommendation is that WfA Centres provide appropriate training to WfA learners in specific areas of technology and on Individual Learning Plans.
Training in technology ought to ensure that learners are presented to the specific technology- based support that is related to the WfA curriculum. This will include the use of Blackboard, Moodle, iTunes, Apps and other web-based resources.
Training on Individual Learning Plans ought to include persuading learners of the value of these (a concern noted by Sbectrwm, 2011). Key features of this ought to include the following: realistic target setting, time-management (guided time incorporating contact / classroom-based time and other guided time activities), and, obtaining and understanding feedback.
No new cost implications
11 Dissemination of Good Practice
The recommendation is that the WfA sector makes greater use of the existing web-based portal and ‘Y Tiwtor’ to ensure that good practice in WfA and pertinent good practice beyond WfA is identified and widely disseminated.
The areas of technology and TBL emerge from the research data as areas to be prioritised for the identification and dissemination of good practice.
No new cost implications
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12 Action Research
The recommendation is that the WfA lead on research consider facilitating action research projects in priority areas on an ongoing basis.
Several areas emerge from the research data that may meriting priority. These are as follows: the current use of technology-based support by learners and their attitudes towards such support; learning styles; semantic satiation in drilling; patterns in overgeneralisation.
Approximate cost implications: £5,000-£10,000 per project
This figure is based upon the known costs of action research projects previously supported by the Quality Improvement Fund/ Y Gronfa Gwella Ansawdd.
This is not necessarily a funding implication for DfES. The funding to support these, or similar such action research projects, could be drawn down from various sources, similar to the Quality Improvement Fund / Y Gronfa Gwella Ansawdd.
13 Further Research
The recommendation is that DfES considers exploring the issue of the L2 linguistic continuum in Welsh.
This area emerged as a substantial and complicated matter. The development of ‘Cymraeg i’r Teulu’ is a recent innovation of the WfA sector and it served to underline the problematic nature of the L2 linguistic continuum in Welsh. Also, a substantial minority (at the very least) of WfA learners indicate that they have already encountered Welsh as L2 in statutory education. For example, only 13.2% of learners surveyed by other researchers in North Wales had not studied Welsh before and 31.3% had learnt at least some Welsh in primary school (Baker et al, 2011: 49).
No new cost implications unless a decision is taken to commission research.
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14 Benchmarking
The recommendation is that DfES considers encouraging WfA Centres to broaden benchmarking so as to include international comparators.
This practice is being developed by units that are similar to WfA Centres in other jurisdictions (e.g. National University of Ireland, Cork: 2011: 9).
No new cost implications
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SECTION SIX: APPENDICES
Appendix 1: List of stake-holders / contributors / consultees / respondents
Appendix 2: Varieties of Welsh in the WfA materials reviewed by the research team
Appendix 3: List of WfA materials examined by the research team
Appendix 4: Fieldwork questionnaires
Appendix 5: Drilling
Appendix 6: Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) levels
Appendix 7: Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) levels and Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) ‘can do statements’ and estimated study hours
Appendix 8: TBL Tasks - European Task-based Activities for Language Learning (ETALAGE)
Appendix 9: De-Suggestopedia concert texts
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Appendix 1: List of stake-holders / contributors / consultees / respondents ap Rhobert, Iestyn Baker, Colin Baldaquí, Josep Beverley, Michael Brake, Phyl Brier, Myfi Conlon, Eirian Clowes, Carl Davies, Aled Davies, Emyr Ensslin, Astrid Evans, Dewi Grannd, Dàibhidh Gruffydd, Ifor Gunn, Howard Hughes, Elwyn James, E Wyn Jones, Christine Kemp, Charlotte Laugharne, Janet Larrea, Kepa McEwan-Fujita, Emily Meredith, Siôn Morris, Steve Ní Uigín, Dorothy Prosser, Helen Puig i Moreno, Gentil Rawlins, Christopher Redknapp, Catrin Reynolds, Deborah Smallwood, Jeni Spiller, Jackie Stonelake, Mark Talfryn, Ioan Thomas, Nefydd Prys Tiplady, Anna Vila i Moreno, Xavier Williams, Colin H Wilson-Price, Geraint
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Appendix 2: Varieties of Welsh in the WfA materials reviewed by the research team
Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) Acen Cyn-fynediad i Rieni Conversational South Wales ‘Ble mae pen Rhys? Fan hyn!’ ‘Fi ydy mam John Jones’ (Unit 4:1) (Pre-entry for (Unit 3:1); ‘Mae eisiau tacluso’ [Cymraeg Byw]; ‘Sut rwyt ti’ (Unit 1:4) Parents) (Unit 9:1) [Standard] Modules 1-10 Conversational ‘Dych chi’n nabod Gwen?’ ‘Fasech chi’n hoffi mynd?’ (Module 3, 6: 1) Southern/Cymraeg Byw + (Module 3, 3: 1) [Cymraeg Byw]; ‘Mae gen i dair chwaer’ Conversational Northern (Module 8, 3: 1) [Northern]; ‘Mae ganddo + Conversational literary nifer o gas bethau’ (Module 8, 4: 1) [Conversational literary]; ‘Roeddwn i’ (Module 3, 5: 1) [Cymraeg Byw]; ‘Rydych chi’ (Module 3, 4: 2) [Cymraeg Byw] CVGC (Cardiff) Blasu/Mynediad Conversational ‘Mae e’n mynd’ (Wlpan Unit 2: Southern/Cymraeg Byw 5); ‘Dych chi wedi colli’ch ffôn chi? Ydw, dw i’n credu.’ (Wlpan Unit 21: 76)
Sylfaen Conversational ‘Dof i draw ar unwaith’ (Wlpan ‘Baswn i’n dod, taswn i’n gallu’ (Wlpan Southern/Cymraeg Byw Unit 38: 27) Unit 40: 35) [Cymraeg Byw]
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) Canolradd Conversational ‘Dyw e ddim mor swil â phawb ‘Doedd e ddim eisiau cyrraedd yn hwyr’ Southern/Cymraeg Byw arall’ (Unit 9: unpaged) (Unit 1: unpaged)
Uwch Conversational ‘Pa enw basech chi’n ei ddewis ‘Elwn i/delwn i/gwnelwn i’ [dialect] as Southern/Cymraeg Byw + ar ferch?’ (Unit 6: 1) opposed to ‘Awn i/down i/gwnawn i’ Informal Literary + Southern (Unit 9: 2) [informal literary]; ‘Dw i’n Dialect gwybod nad ydw i’ (Unit 3: 1) [informal literary]
Meistroli Literary forms alongside ‘Taswn i’n gweld > Petawn yn spoken equivalents gweld/Pe gwelwn’ (Unit 11: 4) [Cymraeg Byw compared with literary forms] Gwent WfA Centre Siaradwch! Conversational South ‘Beth yw’ch rhif ffôn chi?’ ‘Ydy e’n hoffi seleri?’ (Mynediad file: 12) Siaradwch! Wales/Cymraeg Byw (Mynediad file: 12) [Cymraeg Byw] Siaradwch! MWC (Aberystwyth) Sylfaenol Southern Welsh + ‘(D)w i’n byw yn Llandysul’ There are notes on differences between Ceredigion forms; ‘You (Unit 1: 12); ‘(D)w i’n mynd Ceredigion and Cardigan/Pembrokeshire will be learning colloquial ma’s’ (Unit 3: 16) pronunciations – e.g “O’n / Nac o’n
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) Cymraeg, not the ‘Rydw i (Wên / Na wên in the Cardigan area and / Dydw i’ stuff they ought Pembrokeshire)” Cwrs Sylfaenol, Unit 13: not to teach in schools’ 39. (.p.9) Pellach Southern Welsh + ‘dw i’n gwrando bob bore’ Ceredigion forms (Unit 11: 26); ‘Licet ti ddod draw?’ (Unit 1: 7)
Uwch Southern Welsh + ‘Ydych chi’n lico lle dych chi’n ‘Beth gafodd [ga’th] Siôn i frecwast bore Ceredigion forms byw nawr?’ (Unit 1: 6); ‘Dyn ddoe?’ (Unit 2: 10) [Southern Welsh and nhw ddim yn mynd, nac yn Ceredigion compared within a drill]. Unit nhw?’ (Guidelines: 76) 24 dedicated to different Welsh dialects. Meistroli Southern Welsh + ‘Ble (y) canodd Phil y gloch? Unit 9 given over to main differences introduction of literary forms Canodd Phil y gloch tu fa’s i’r between written oral Welsh and literary tŷ.’(Unit 2: 13) forms (Unit 9). Chapters are headlined with grammatical functions. ‘Gwelodd geffyl yn y cae / (Mi) welodd e/hi geffyl yn y cae’ (Unit 9: 38)
NWC (Bangor) Wlpan ‘Conversational North- ‘Sut dach chi?’ (Unit A: 11); ‘Sut Grammatical Walian Welsh’ (p.6) with oedd o?’ (Unit 12: 97) forms presented some informal Northern in slightly different order
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) Pellach Conversational North- ‘Ydy, fo ydy’r gorau’ (Unit 18: Note the use of ‘gorau’ and not ‘gora’ from South- Walian Welsh with some 139) expected in conversational NW Walian courses variation including more standard forms in the reading and listening activities (p.1) Uwch Literary forms introduced ‘Mi es i = Euthum’ (Unit 14: from Unit 11 onwards, in 140); ‘Mi welais i = gwelais’ order to help with (Unit 11: 106) reading, but not intended to be used by learners (p.4) Meistroli Written and spoken ‘Dwyt ti ddim wedi cyfarfod ‘Dw i’n gwybod = Gwn’ (Unit 4:55) Northern forms side by side; Tom > Tim di cwarfod Tom’ [Literary and higher register oral Welsh] some literary forms (Unit 1:3); ‘Wneith o ddim symud > Neith o’m symud’ (Unit 2:17); ‘Mi ddudes i, on’d do? > Udish i do’ (Unit 5:78) NWC (Coleg Llysfasi) Llanllawen Spoken ‘Tisio help?’ (1: 10); ‘’Sgynnoch ‘ddaru’ is not Informal conversational chi…?’ (1: 52); ‘Be ôchisio used, but ‘Wnes i Northern wneud?’ (2: 52); ‘Dy o’m yn dawnsio/feddwl deg!’ (2: 60) /yrru etc.’ (1:110)
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) NWC (Popeth Cymraeg) Mynediad 1 & 2 Conversational Welsh of ‘’Sgynno fo’m’ (1: 30); ‘O lle Clwyd: ‘normal everyday dych chi’n dŵad?’ (1: 34); ‘’Aru forms of Welsh used in mi fynd’ (1: 86) Clwyd’ (1: green section, unpaged) De-Suggestopedia Conversational Northern ‘Mae Marian wedi dod i Ruthun The Year 2 text (Amser a ddengys) efo Dafydd’ (Yr Antur Fawr 4: introduces different registers (spoken, 35); ‘fedri di agor y drws?’ (Yr standard spoken, and literary and the Antur Fawr 7: 63) Year 3 novel includes various dialects, as well as a wide range of registers (Suggestopedia: Cynllun Gwaith, p.11-1). OU Croeso Conversational Southern ‘Does dim car gyda ni’ (1: 65); ‘prynest ti’ as example of main past tense Welsh: ‘The course ‘Beth yw lliw ei wallt e?’ (1: form but ‘prynaist ti’ (1: 130) given as website will provide 204); ‘Faset ti’n rhoi arian i alternative form, but the form is not written and spoken Oxfam?’ (2: 162) explained; ‘’swn i/byddwn i’ also given as examples of northern interchangeable forms (2: 166). Welsh, but the course book and the CDs contain southern forms only’ (Course Guide, p.6) + Cymraeg Byw
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) SSIW North Standard + ‘Bydda i’n…’ (Guide to the ‘Ti isho paned o de?’ (Guide to the Grammatical Conversational Northern Introductory Course (North), Introductory Course (North), Lesson 6) forms presented + Informal Northern Lesson 6) [Standard [Contemporary informal Northern] in slightly Northern]; ‘Does gen ti different order in ddim…’ (Guide to the the two courses Introductory Course (North), Lesson 5) [Conversational Northern] South Standard + ‘Bydda i’n…’ [Standard ‘Ti'n moyn disgled o de?’ [Contemporary Conversational Southern Southern]; ‘Nagyw, dyw e ddim informal Southern] + Informal Southern yn…’ [Conversational Southern] SWWC (Swansea) Cwrs Mynediad ‘Spoken language of South ‘So fe – he isn’t/doesn’t’ Grammar at back gives negative of verb Dwys West Wales’ (p.2) (Vocabulary section in Unit 1: ‘to be’ in informal South-West Welsh 20); ‘Sa i’n gwybod’ (Unit 3: form as well as introducing standard 20); ‘So hi’n gweithio.’ (Unit 3: negative form (p.382). 21); ‘Sandra yw hi.’ (Unit 3: 21); ‘Ydyn nhw moyn paned o de?’ (Unit 10: 59) Cwrs Sylfaen Dwys Spoken language of South- ‘O’t ti’n siarad â fi? Beth West Wales (Canllawiau i (dd)wedaist ti?’ (Unit 3.3); ‘Pam
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) Diwtoriaid, p.2) so Ffred ‘ma heddi ‘te? Falle fod e mewn cyfarfod’ (Unit7.6); ‘’Na beth (d)w i’n lico weld’ (Unit 8.4); ‘Byddai hi’n mynd’ (Unit 31.3) WJEC (North) Mynediad Conversational North Wales
Sylfaen Conversational North Wales Canolradd Conversational Northern ‘Oes gynno fo deulu?’ (Pecyn ‘Cafodd y dyn ei anafu’ (Pecyn Ymarfer: 25) States that there + reference to dialectical Ymarfer: 1); ‘Be’ fasech chi’n [Cymraeg Byw] are N & S versi- variations wneud…?’ (Pecyn Ymarfer: 5); ons of book, but ‘Dach chi isio rhentu tŷ’ (Pecyn learners should Ymarfer: 10); ‘mi gaeth Huw now be familiari- Edwards ei benodi’ (Pecyn sing themselves Ymarfer: 11); ‘Lle oeddet ti’n with different byw ddeg mlynedd yn ôl?’ dialects (Pecyn Ymarfer: 13); ‘Tyrd i barti’r dosbarth’ (Pecyn Ymarfer: 33) Cymraeg i’r Teulu [No self-description of variety]
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Course Own description of Characteristics of main Features from other varieties that Comments target/ researchers’ variety are mentioned, and where and why impression of target (where no description given) WJEC (South) Mynediad Conversational South ‘Dw i’n mynd ma’s’ (Unit 10: ‘Mae gwallt golau gyda fe’ (Unit 26: 160) Wales (Canllawiau i 61); ‘Rhaid i fi beidio mynd’ [combination of both]; ‘Dych chi eisiau Diwtoriaid, p.i) + Cymraeg (Unit 20: 126) llaeth a siwgr?’ (Unit 25: 152) Byw [combination of both] Sylfaen Conversational South ‘Rhoian nhw lifft i ni heno’ ‘Baswn i’n darllen mwy, tasai amser gyda Wales (Canllawiau i (Unit 17: 86) fi’ (Unit 21: 106); [Cymraeg Byw]; ‘Gaeth Diwtoriaid, p.i) + Cymraeg e ei eni yn Aberystwyth’ (Unit 15: 70) Byw + South-West [South-West] Canolradd Conversational Southern ‘…lle cafodd lwyddiant mawr’ ‘Taswn i’n gweld damwain, baswn i’n Maps indicate + reference to dialectical (Unit 22: 111) ‘Licet ti gael ffonio’r heddlu’ (Unit 22: 108) [Cymraeg regional variations (Canllawiau i paned?’ + ‘Hoffwn i fynd i Byw] differences. Diwtoriaid, General Rufain’ (Unit 3: 12-13) In-text recognition of dialect forms (e.g. Dialect boxes Introduction) p.22 and p.98) interspersed through textbook (e.g. Unit 18: 91) Cymraeg i’r Teulu Conversational Southern ‘Paid crïo’ (Unit 8: 32); ‘Rwyt ti’n mynd i’r eglwys’ (Unit 13: 50)
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Appendix 3: List of WfA materials examined by the research team25
Acen Course & date . Pre-entry for Parents (Cyn-fynediad i Rieni) (no date) . Modules 1-10 (1996-7) Who uses it Cwmni Acen, a private Welsh for Adults company, based in Cardiff; Coleg Glanhafren use Y Banc Enrolments/year Awaiting a response Levels available All Intensity According to demand Formal WJEC Use of Welsh (Intermediate and Advanced) assessment Examinations Media and . Books: Black-and-white booklets with some illustrations, presentation supported by downloadable, colourful worksheets form Acen’s online Y Banc resource . Two CDs and one audio-cassette Variety Standard South Wales dialect Description The ACEN Parents course is highly functional in purpose, though it is not clear from the materials themselves how learners engage with them. The mainstream courses include a vocabulary section, then a section on language patterns being introduced in the unit, followed by communicative activities, and sometimes a soap opera for listening practice. There is also the occasional grammatical explanation. CVGC: written by teams at Cardiff University Course & date Taster (Blasu) 2007, Entry (Mynediad) 2009, Foundation (Sylfaen) 2009, Intermediate (Canolradd) 2010, Advanced 1 (Uwch) 2009, Advanced 2 (Meistroli) 2009, Blended Mynediad/Sylfaen 2008-9 and Blended Canolradd 2010 Who uses it Used across South-East Wales; University of Wales Lampeter Enrolments/year 633 in CVGC; 185 in Glamorgan (Canolradd 70, Uwch 115); Awaiting a response from Lampeter Levels available Taster (Blasu), Entry (Mynediad), Foundation (Sylfaen), Intermediate (Canolradd), Advanced 1 (Uwch), and Advanced 2 (Meistroli) Blended learning is available at two levels: Mynediad/Sylfaen and Canolradd
25 WfA providers were invited to send copies of materials for us to examine. This report, including this table, covers only materials to which we had access. 246
Intensity . Pre-entry: from 1 x 2 hours p.w. for 5 wks to 5 x 2 hours p.w. for 1 week . Entry and Foundation (Express): 4 x 2 hours p.w. for 1 year . Accelerated Face-to-face courses: 2 x 2 hours p.w. for 1 year . Accelerated Blended learning courses: 1 x 2 hours online and 1 x 2 hours in class p.w. for 1 year . Leisurely Courses: 1 x 2 hours p.w. for 2 years Formal Agored Cymru credits for all community courses apart from assessment Intermediate, which offers WJEC credits; optional WJEC exams Media and . Books: files with chapters handed out in lessons (Pre- presentation entry and Advanced); Coursebooks (Entry, Foundation and Intermediate); colour at all levels apart from Advanced; many illustrations . Audio files available online and as CDs containing dialogues, summary of content, aural comprehension passages, and songs. Video files available online containing comprehension passages and music videos. . Blended learning: e-resources replace 2 hours of class p.w. These include: videos with language drills; audio files containing vocabulary/phrases/sentences; worksheets with exercises, examples and checklists; interactive quizzes, tests and crosswords; and soap opera episodes (audio). Variety Conversational South Wales Description The Entry and Foundation Courses (including blended version) have been built on traditional Wlpan method, with initial pattern introduction & drilling, & minimal English in class. Intensive provision, often co-taught. Form-focussed, but with communicative activities. However, the Intermediate and Advanced Level Courses are post-method in approach. The Intermediate Course includes formal teaching of grammar, use of native-sounding formulae and memorisation. Gwent Welsh for Adults Centre Course & date Speak! Speak! Speak! – Games and communicative activities (Siaradwch! Siaradwch! Siaradwch! – Gemau a gweithgareddau cyfathrebol). Date unknown Who uses it Gwent Welsh for Adults Centre, as a supplement to the WJEC materials
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Enrolments/year Awaiting a response Levels available Entry, Foundation and Intermediate Intensity Mainly designed for use on non-intensive courses but can be used on intensive courses too. Formal None assessment Media and Files of resources to be photocopied by the tutor presentation Variety Standard South Wales dialect Description Resources include: Pronunciation guide; Word lists; Work cards; Questionnaires; Dialogues; Conversational questions; Battleships; Information-gap grids; Language games; Transformation drills; Cloze exercises; Mutation exercises; Yes / No answers exercises; Error correction exercises. The materials are in black, white and grey and do not include any pictures. MWC: Aberystwyth University Course & date Basic Course (Cwrs Sylfaenol); Further Course (Cwrs Pellach); Advanced Course (Cwrs Uwch); Mastery Course (Cwrs Meistroli) (2010) Who uses it Aberystwyth University; Ceredigion Enrolments/year 500 Levels available Entry, Foundation, Intermediate, and Advanced Intensity 2 x 2 hours p.w. or 1 x 5 hours p.w. for 1 year, 1 x 2 hours p.w. or 1 x 3 hours p.w. for 2 years and 1 x 1.5 hours p.w. for 3 years Formal Agored Cymru credits; WJEC examinations optional assessment Media and . Coursebooks and teaching guidelines presentation . Audio-files for learners and tutors Variety Ceredigion dialect Description Each course follows a structural curriculum. The Basic Course is based on the original ‘Wlpan’ Method. Typically, the first hour is spent on communicative activities and the second on repetition drills, dialogues and learning vocabulary. The learner’s coursebook includes a pronunciation guide, advice on learning Welsh and useful lists of vocabulary at the start. There is a revision session after every 7 units and a list of vocabulary and grammar summary at the end. The coursebook is in black and white with few pictures. The Further Course is divided into 24 units. Each unit
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includes oral work, reading, revision activities, a subject for discussion, and homework. There is also an aural comprehension every 3rd unit. The materials are black and white in colour. The Advanced Course includes stimulus-and-response drills, dialogues, question-and-answer pair-work, multi-skill activities, mechanical exercises, and reading and aural comprehension. The colour is black and white and there are a few pictures. The Mastery Course includes grammatical explanations, reading passages on Welsh history and literature, writing exercises, literary extracts, and aural comprehension. The colour is black and white. NWC: Bangor University Course & date Wlpan: 2000, Further (Pellach): 2000-7, Advanced (Uwch): 2003, Mastery (Meistroli): 2009 Who uses it Bangor University; Aberystwyth University Enrolments/year 1566 in NWC (Wlpan 805, Pellach 312, Uwch 251, Meistroli 198); 350 in MWC Levels available Entry, Foundation, Intermediate, Advanced Intensity Intensive courses only of varying frequency and contact hours per week Formal Agored Cymru credits; WJEC examinations optional assessment Media and . Learner files in black and white, apart from Mastery presentation where colour is used. Some illustrations . CDs accompany all levels. Variety North Wales dialect Description . The Wlpan has a taster section with an introduction to basic patterns, guide to pronunciation and a survival kit. Each unit in the main body is split into 5 sections: Drills and vocabulary; Activity; Dialogue; Soap Opera; Work Sheet. There are grammar and vocabulary appendices at the end of the course-file. There are also numerous accompanying communicative activities in the tutor’s guidelines . Each unit of the Further Course is divided into: Oral Practice; Grammatical Explanation; Listening Comprehension; Written Tasks; Reading Comprehension. There are a vocabulary appendix and a large number of communicative activities in the tutor’s guidelines.
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. On the Advanced Course, each unit is subdivided into: An ice-breaking conversation and / or role-play; Vocabulary; Dialogue; Grammatical exercises; Introduction to Literary Welsh (2nd half of course); Reading and conversation; Writing; Aural comprehension. There are also a collection of newspaper articles at the end of the course and again accompanying communicative activities. . Each unit of the Mastery Course is subdivided into sections to practise the four second-language skills. NWV: written for Coleg Llysfasi by Myfi Brier Course & date Llanllawen (c. 2005) Who uses it Coleg Llysfasi, Denbigh; Deeside College. Taught by several tutors. Enrolments/year Llysfasi: 175 (Books 1-4), 22 (Lleisiau’r Llan, post bk 4); additional students at Deeside, figures unknown Levels available Books 1-3, equivalent to Wlpan; Book 4 plugs gaps ready for Pellach. Students continuing with Llanllawen do drama activities Intensity 1 x 2 hours per week, 1 book per year Formal No assessment Media and Attractive glossy colour books; CDs of dialogues; some presentation Powerpoint alternatives for input Variety Local (NE Wales) spoken variety used by native speakers Description Strong focus on not having to ‘worry’ about grammar. Aim is fluency, confidence & convincing pronunciation, to maximise chances of sustaining conversations in Welsh. Based on memorisation of scripts, plus some exploration of forms, often optional. Emphasis on communicating, even if not grammatically correct. NWC: Welsh Unlimited (Popeth Cymraeg) Course & date Colloquial Welsh Course (2006) Who uses it Welsh Unlimited Enrolments/year 589 (Mynediad 1 = 402; Mynediad 2 = 187) Levels available Entry Intensity 1 x 2 / 2.5 hours per week, 1 file per year Formal WJEC examinations optional assessment Media and . files of colourful, illustrated material presentation . 4 CDs – 2 per year
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Variety North Wales dialect Description Units follow a functional / notional curriculum and comprise colour-coded panels – blue for input and green for dialogues to be memorised. English translation is used throughout. There are also appendices on homework, wordsearches, reading Welsh, spoken and written Welsh, a simple grammar of spoken Welsh, and a thematic dictionary. NWC: Welsh Unlimited (Popeth Cymraeg): devised and written by Ioan Talfryn Course & date De-Suggestopedia (no date) Who uses it Welsh Unlimited (De-Suggestopedia) Enrolments/year 45 Levels available Entry – Advanced Intensity 2 x 2.5 / 3 hours (Year 1), 2 x 2.5 hours (Years 2-4), 1 x 2.5 (Advanced) Formal By the end of Year 1, learners should be ready to sit the assessment Defnyddio’r Gymraeg exam, though this is not compulsory. Media and Printed materials: separate Welsh and English versions. Black presentation and white text with colour artwork. Parts of some lessons are accompanied by Romantic or Baroque music. Variety Conversational Northern dialect Description Each year’s course is built around exposure to a major text: Year 1 Yr Antur Fawr (12 Acts); Year 2 Amser a ddengys (7 Acts); Year 3 based on a novel. Learners adopt new identities (characters from the play/novel). Texts are studied one Act at a time, over 6 or 7 lessons: the Act is read twice, with background music; learners carry out activities based on the language used in the Act; learners act out parts of the Act. Activities include bingo and wordsearches using words from the Act, miming out sentences from the Act, re- creating sentences from jumbled up words, cloze exercises, and some more open games and activities in the last lessons of each act, to facilitate more creative use of the new language. Learners write the last Act of Yr Antur Fawr themselves. Welsh versions include grammatical points as they come up in the main text. Most grammar items are dealt with in the first few Acts and are then repeated throughout the course. The language in the texts is not presented in any particular structural order. A substantial amount of vocabulary is introduced, particularly at the beginning (e.g. over 1200 items are presented in each of the first two Acts of Yr Antur Fawr). Years 2 and 3 introduce
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different registers of Welsh, such as spoken, dialectal, standard and literary. OU Course & date Welcome (Croeso) Beginner’s Welsh (2008) Who uses it Open University Enrolments/year 150 Levels available Entry and Foundation Intensity Online Course Formal HE credits assessment Media and . Books: Course Guide, Coursebook 1 and 2, Practice presentation book 1 and 2, assessment book . Printouts: CD audio transcripts, language notes, cultural notes, course index . 8 CDs Black and white with some pictures. Variety South Wales dialect, with North Wales variants occasionally included Description The course has been adapted from the WJEC coursebooks. Each unit comprises language input at the start, followed by numerous practice activities, then a vocabulary and grammar notes. The practice book contains both mechanical exercises and practice activities. Say Something in Welsh, http://www.saysomethinginwelsh.com: written by Aran Jones & Iestyn ap Dafydd Course & date Say Something in Welsh (2009) Who uses it Web-based, so worldwide, but mostly UK Enrolments/year Over 10,000 people (website, 17.10.10) Levels available Introductory (free to download); Intermediate26 (paid by monthly sub, which includes weekly additional practices); Intensity 25 x 30 min audio recordings per level, but done at own pace; Weekend bootcamps available Formal No assessment Media and Audio for web-use or MP3 download; a range of spin-off presentation activities via website; tone of lessons is humorous Variety Two versions: Conversational North Wales; Conversational South Wales Description Oral. Presentation of sentence pattern, then English sentences given, for translation into Welsh, followed by two
26 Not reviewed here
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versions of answer varying by dialect. Considerable pattern practice, at very fast pace. Minimal vocabulary (130 words in Introductory course), mostly verbs and adjuncts. Written version of lesson material can be downloaded but for post hoc reference only. Introduces and rehearses most main grammatical structures, but minimal explanation provided. SWWC: Swansea University: written by Mark Stonelake Course & date Intensive Entry Course (Cwrs Mynediad Dwys) 2009, Intensive Foundation Course (Cwrs Sylfaen Dwys) 2010 Who uses it South-West Wales WfA Centre (SWWC) Enrolments/year Awaiting a response Levels available Entry and Foundation Intensity 1 x 4 / 4.5 hours, 2 x 2 hours and 4 x 2.5 hours a week Formal WJEC credits with exams optional assessment Media and . Course files presentation . 9 CDs Mainly black, white and grey with a few illustrations Variety West Wales dialect Description The curriculum is post-method in that it combines structural and functional / notional. Each unit of the Entry course comprises: Revision activities; Drill; Dialogue; Vocabulary; Grammar; Worksheet; Soap Opera worksheet. Every sixth unit is a revision and extension unit. There are also appendices, which include: the soap opera scripts, pronunciation guide, the course grammar and exercises, vocabulary learning exercises, and the course vocabulary. The Foundation Course is broadly similar in structure except that revision units appear every 5th unit and there is an appendix for the learners to note their own vocabulary.
WJEC Course & date Entry Course (Cwrs Mynediad) 2005, Foundation Course (Foundation Course) 2006 and Intermediate Course (Intermediate Course) 2006 Who uses it County councils and FE colleges throughout Wales Enrolments/year Coursebook sales over one year: Mynediad 2953, Sylfaen 1163, Canolradd 804. (These figures may overestimate learner numbers) Levels available Entry, Foundation and Intermediate Intensity Non-intensive, normally 1 x 2 hours a week
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Formal WJEC or Agored Cymru credits, with exams optional assessment Media and . Coursebook presentation . Practice Pack . Tutor’s Guidelines and tape / CD for listening comprehension The materials are in full colour and include many illustrations / graphics etc. Variety North and South Wales Versions Description The Courses follow a mixed structural and functional / notional curriculum. In the Entry and Foundation Courses, every 5th unit is revision. Each unit (apart from revision units) includes: Formal language input; Activities to reinforce the language input; Dialogue; Grammar. In addition, the revision units include: Reading; Aural; comprehension; Check list; Summary of grammar / core vocabulary. The units of the Intermediate Course do not follow such a consistent template but include various combinations of the following elements: Conversation practice; Tasks; Dialogues; Reading passages; Aural comprehension; Language pattern practice; Grammar; Language games; Clozes; Revision; Question and answer practice. All courses also include Workplace and Parents Supplements at the back of the book. WJEC, for DCELLS Course & date Welsh for the Family (Cymraeg i’r Teulu) (2010) Who uses it Every Welsh for Adults Centre Enrolments/year 478 Levels available Entry (Mynediad) Intensity 1 x 2 hour p.w. and 2 x 2 hours p.w. for 2 years Formal 24 Agored Cymru credits assessment Media and Coursebook presentation The format is colourful and includes many pictures. Variety North and South Wales versions Description The course is structural in curriculum and post-method in approach. There are blocks of repetition drills in each unit and a number of grammatical explanations. There are also communicative activities, language games, dialogues, and songs. Pronunciation is taught in Unit 1. There are lists of vocabulary to be learnt by the next lesson.
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Bespoke Courses Bangor University: One Minute Please: a short course for reception staff (Un Munud, os gwelwch yn dda); This won’t hurt: a short course for nursing students (Wneith hyn ddim brifo) Cardiff University: Rugby Taster (Blasu Rygbi); Meeters and Greeters (Cyfarch); Cardiff Bus (Bws Caerdydd); Introduction to Wales and the Welsh Language (Cyflwyniad i Gymru a’r Gymraeg)
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Appendix 4: Fieldwork questionnaires
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(1) HOLIADUR AR GYFER AWDURON DEUNYDDIAU
Gwella’r ffordd y mae’r Gymraeg yn cael ei throsglwyddo i oedolion Prosiect ymchwil Prifysgol Caerdydd a ariennir gan Lywodraeth y Cynulliad
Diolch yn fawr am gytuno i gyfrannu at ein hymchwil. Mae’r holiadur hwn yn chwilio am wybodaeth fydd yn ychwanegu at ein harolwg o’r llenyddiaeth o’r ymchwil ynghylch sut i addysgu ail iaith ac iaith dramor yn effeithiol i oedolion. Bydd yr ymchwil hefyd yn edrych ar ystod y deunyddiau a ddefnyddir ar hyn o bryd ym maes CiO. Ar ben hynny, byddwn yn casglu gwybodaeth drwy gynnal grwpiau ffocws a chyfweliadau gyda chyfarwyddwyr y Canolfannau, tiwtoriaid a dysgwyr yn ogystal â thrwy arsylwi dosbarthiadau. Byddwn yn defnyddio’r wybodaeth er mwyn gofalu ein bod yn cynnig darlun cywir a chytbwys o sefyllfa gyfredol darpariaeth CiO ac o safbwyntiau a blaenoriaethau’r sawl sydd ynghlwm wrth roi’r ddarpariaeth ar waith.
Mawr obeithiwn y byddwch yn agored ynglŷn â’ch safbwyntiau. Byddwn yn gofalu na fyddwn yn datgelu safbwyntiau unigolion yn ein hadroddiadau.
Os bydd gyda chi unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect, cysylltwch â Dr Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost, [email protected].
Drwy lenwi’r holiadur hwn, yr wyf yn cydsynio i gymryd rhan yn y prosiect ymchwil hwn. Yr wyf yn deall bod cymryd rhan yn wirfoddol ac y gallaf dynnu yn ôl ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall fy mod yn rhydd i ofyn unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall y gellir dal unrhyw wybodaeth a roddir gennyf yn unol â Deddf Diogelu Data 1998. Yr wyf yn deall y bydd yr ymchwilwyr yn gwneud pob ymdrech i sicrhau cyfrinachedd wrth ymdrin â’m sylwadau, oni nodir yn wahanol, ond y gallaf gysylltu â’r tîm ymchwil i ofyn y dylid hepgor o’r adroddiadau terfynol unrhyw wybodaeth a roddwyd gennyf.
Llofnod: Dyddiad:
Eich enw:
Eich cyfeiriad ebost/manylion cyswllt eraill:
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Adran A: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod gwahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr, a sut y dylai’r deunyddiau dysgu ac addysgu ddarparu ar eu cyfer orau
“Her i awduron deunyddiau, tiwtoriaid a’r dysgwyr eu hunain yw’r ffaith y bydd dysgwyr sydd ag arddulliau, galluoedd a chymhelliannau gwahanol i’w canfod mewn un dosbarth.”
1. I ba raddau rydych chi’n cytuno â’r datganiad hwn?
2. Yn eich profiad chi, pa wahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr yw’r rhai mwyaf heriol? Yn y siart isod, rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol (e.e. |————/——| ) i nodi ble rydych chi’n lleoli eich safbwynt. Gallwch chi roi’r llinell unrhyw le ar hyd y llinell yn ei chyfanrwydd, gan gynnwys yn y naill ben neu’r llall. Gwnewch hyn â llaw ar y copi caled.
Ddim yn heriol Yn heriol Gwahaniaethau o ran: o gwbl y tu hwnt . Faint o allu naturiol sydd gan y dysgwr i ddysgu iaith ...... | ————————————————————— –| . Deallusrwydd cyffredinol...... | ————————————————————— –| . Hoff arddull dysgu (e.e. gofyn cwestiynau; ysgrifennu pethau i lawr; peidio â siarad yn y dosbarth, ac ati) ...... | ————————————————————— –| . Lefel cymhelliant a diddordeb ...... | ————————————————————— –| Rhowch eich rhai eich hun: ...... | ————————————————————— –| ...... | ————————————————————— –|
3. Sut dylai adnoddau addysgu a dysgu da fynd i’r afael â’r her sy’n dod yn sgil gwahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr? Rhowch enghreifftiau (gan gynnwys enghreifftiau o’ch deunyddiau eich hun lle y bo’n briodol).
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4. O safbwynt y deunyddiau, pa gyfyngiadau ymarferol sydd o fynd i’r afael â gwahaniaethau rhwng dysgwyr?
5. Oes gyda chi unrhyw sylwadau eraill ar wahaniaethau mewn dysgwyr?
Adran B: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod y gweithgareddau rydych chi’n eu defnyddio i gefnogi dysgu
Yng nghyd-destun gweithgareddau dosbarth, mae rhai ymchwilwyr ac athrawon wedi cynnig bod gwell dysgu yn digwydd pan fydd y dysgwyr yn canolbwyntio ar dasg nad oes canlyniad ieithyddol iddo (e.e. canfod rhywbeth, penderfynu rhywbeth, creu rhywbeth)—hynny yw, pan fydd yr iaith yn gyfrwng yn hytrach nag yn gyrchfan. (Mae’r llenyddiaeth o’r ymchwil yn galw hyn yn ddysgu ‘sy’n seiliedig ar dasgau’ neu’n ddysgu ‘sy’n cael ei gefnogi drwy dasgau’.)
1. I ba raddau mae eich profiad yn eich arwain i gytuno â’r cynnig hwn?
2. Ydy eich deunyddiau yn cynnwys tasgau o’r math yma (hynny yw, gweithgareddau sy’n canolbwyntio ar gyflawni rhywbeth sy’n mynd y tu hwnt i’r canlyniad dysgu ieithyddol arfaethedig, megis canfod rhywbeth, penderfynu rhywbeth, neu greu rhywbeth)? Rhowch enghreifftiau.
3. Beth yw’r anfanteision, os o gwbl, o gynnwys tasgau (yn yr ystyr uchod) mewn deunyddiau, ac o’u defnyddio yn y dosbarth?
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4. Oes gyda chi unrhyw sylwadau eraill ynghylch dysgu sy’n cael ei gefnogi drwy dasgau?
Adran C: Bydd yr adran yma yn trafod addysgu a dysgu gramadeg
“Pan fyddwch chi’n dysgu iaith arall fel oedolyn, mae’n rhaid ichi wybod y ramadeg yn eich pen, ond does dim rhaid ichi wybod eich bod yn ei gwybod!”
1. a) I ba raddau dych chi’n cytuno ar y datganiad uchod (o ran oedolion sy’n dysgu ail iaith neu iaith dramor)?
b) Ydy eich deunyddiau yn adlewyrchu eich barn? Os felly, sut? Fel arall, pam nad ydynt?
2. a) Pa rai yw’r ffyrdd gorau i ofalu bod dysgwyr yn meistroli patrymau gramadegol y Gymraeg yn ddigonol?
b) Sut mae eich deunyddiau yn helpu dysgwyr i wneud hyn? Rhowch enghreifftiau.
3. Pa mor bwysig ydy hi i iaith y dysgwyr fod yn ramadegol gywir?
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4. Dywedwn fod dysgwr yn gofyn yn y dosbarth, ‘why do you say ‘mae’n eitha drud’ but ‘mae’n rhy ddrud’?’, pa fath o ateb(ion) dylai’r tiwtor ei roi/eu rhoi a/neu fod yn gallu ei roi/eu rhoi?
5. Pe bai dysgwyr yn dweud yr hoffen nhw gael mwy o wybodaeth fanwl am ramadeg, ble dych chi’n meddwl y dylai fod ar gael? Rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol, e.e. |————/——|
Dylai gwybodaeth fanwl am ramadeg fod ar Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gael i ddysgwyr mewn: o gwbl y tu hwnt . Sesiynau penodol yn y dosbarth...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Adrannau ym mhenodau perthnasol y gwerslyfrau ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Adran tua diwedd y llyfr ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr ar wahân a ysgrifennir yn unswydd ar gyfer y cwrs ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i ddysgwyr (*nodwch pa lyfr y byddech yn ei argymell isod) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. E-ddeunyddiau i ddysgwyr...... | ————————————————————— –|
. ‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i ddysgwyr)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Fforwm i ddysgwyr (bwrdd trafod) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Gweithdai penodol i ddysgwyr ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Arall: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
* Hoffwn argymell y llyfr gramadeg canlynol i ddysgwyr CiO:
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6. Pe bai tiwtoriaid yn dweud bod angen iddyn nhw fod â gafael cadarnach ar ramadeg er mwyn teimlo’n hyderus tra’n ei thrafod, ble rydych chi’n meddwl y dylai fod ar gael?
Dylai gwybodaeth fanwl am ramadeg fod ar Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gael i diwtoriaid yn/mewn: o gwbl y tu hwnt . Y gwerslyfrau y mae’r dysgwyr yn eu defnyddio ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Canllaw gramadeg ar wahân i diwtoriaid ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i diwtoriaid (*nodwch pa lyfr y byddech yn ei argymell isod) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. E-ddeunyddiau i diwtoriaid ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. ‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i diwtoriaid) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Fforwm i diwtoriaid (bwrdd trafod)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Gweithdai penodol i diwtoriaid ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Arall: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
* Hoffwn argymell y llyfr gramadeg canlynol i diwtoriaid CiO:
7. a) Pa mor bwysig ydy hi i ddysgwyr a thiwtoriaid fod yn gyfarwydd â therminoleg ramadegol (e.e. ‘arddodiad’, ‘treiglo’r gwrthrych’)? Rhowch gylch o amgylch un ateb ym mhob rhes.
Dysgwyr: Hanfodol Dymunol Ddim yn Ddim yn Ddim yn angenrheidiol bwysig gwybod
Sylw:
Tiwtoriaid: Hanfodol Dymunol Ddim yn Ddim yn Ddim yn angenrheidiol bwysig gwybod
Sylw:
b) I ba raddau mae eich deunyddiau yn defnyddio terminoleg ramadegol?
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Adran Ch: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod drilio fel rhan o addysgu a dysgu ym maes CiO
1. Sut byddech chi’n esbonio proses a diben drilio i athro iaith nad oedd erioed wedi’i ddefnyddio?
2. Rhowch eich barn am pa mor werthfawr yw’r gwahanol fathau o ddrilio isod: a) I ddechreuwyr Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol Math o ddrilio o gwbl y tu hwnt . Dril ailadrodd/patrwm ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril disodli (pan fyddwch yn newid un elfen yn y frawddeg bob tro) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril holi-ac-ateb ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril trawsnewid (e.e. newid datganiad yn gwestiwn) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cyfieithu ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cudd (e.e. pan fydd y dysgwr yn ailadrodd yr un deunydd sawl gwaith er mwyn casglu gwybodaeth gan ddysgwyr eraill) ...... |.————————————————————— –|
. Math arall o ddril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Diben y dril
. Dril i ymarfer treigladau...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer gramadeg gyffredinol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer geirfa...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer terfyniadau berfol ac arddodiadol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer y lluosog ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Diben arall i’r dril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Pam?
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b) Canolradd ac ymlaen Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol Math o ddrilio o gwbl y tu hwnt . Dril ailadrodd/patrwm ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril disodli (pan fyddwch yn newid un elfen yn y frawddeg bob tro) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril holi-ac-ateb ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril trawsnewid (e.e. newid datganiad yn gwestiwn) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cyfieithu ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cudd (e.e. pan fydd y dysgwr yn ailadrodd yr un deunydd sawl gwaith er mwyn casglu gwybodaeth gan ddysgwyr eraill) ...... |.————————————————————— –|
. Math arall o ddril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Diben y dril
. Dril i ymarfer treigladau...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer gramadeg gyffredinol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer geirfa...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer terfyniadau berfol ac arddodiadol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer y lluosog ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Diben arall i’r dril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Os yw eich atebion yn wahanol i’ch atebion yn achos dechreuwyr, pam felly?
3. Os ydych chi’n cynnwys drilio yn eich deunyddiau: a) Ydy’ch canllawiau yn rhoi arweiniad ar sut i ddrilio?
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b) Ydych chi’n disgwyl i diwtoriaid: Rhowch gylch o amgylch un ateb ym mhob rhes.
. Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr weld Y tiwtor gaiff Ydw Nac ydw y driliau cyn cychwyn benderfynu
. Esbonio’r driliau cyn Y tiwtor gaiff Ydw Nac ydw cychwyn benderfynu
. Cyfieithu’r driliau cyn Y tiwtor gaiff Ydw Nac ydw cychwyn benderfynu
. Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr Y tiwtor gaiff Ydw Nac ydw ysgrifennu yn ystod y dril benderfynu
. Caniatáu i’r dysgwyr ofyn Y tiwtor gaiff Ydw Nac ydw cwestiynau yn ystod y dril benderfynu
Sylw:
4. Oes unrhyw anfanteision neu beryglon yn sgil drilio? Os oes, beth ydyn nhw?
5. Mewn cwrs sy’n defnyddio llawer o ddrilio, pa elfennau eraill mae’n rhaid iddyn nhw fod yn bresennol er mwyn gofalu bod y profiad addysgu a dysgu yn un cyflawn? (Hynny yw, beth yw’r hyn nad yw drilio yn ei gynnig?)
Adran D: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod addysgu a dysgu geirfa
1. I ba raddau yr ydych o’r farn y dylai tiwtoriaid a dysgwyr roi sylw penodol i ffurf ac ystyr geiriau unigol, o gymharu â gweithio gyda geiriau mewn cyd-destunau ystyrlon fel eu bod yn dod yn gyfarwydd yn naturiol? Rhowch gylch o amgylch y datganiad sydd agosaf at eich barn.
Allwch chi Does dim rhaid ichi Os ydych chi’n Mae canolbwyntio ar eiriau Arall: ddim dysgu ddysgu geiriau ar gweithio gyda yn mynd yn groes i’r graen, geiriau’n eich cof yn unswydd brawddegau rydych achos drwy wneud hyn bydd effeithiol heb ond dylech chi roi chi’n eu deall, bydd y yr iaith yn caei ei dryllio eu dysgu ar digon o bwyslais geiriau yn fwy ystyrlon mewn ffyrdd annaturiol ac eich cof yn arnyn nhw er mwyn ichi a byddan nhw’n annefnyddiol (bydd geiriau unswydd sylwi ar y berthynas glynu yn naturiol yn yn ymddangos mewn rhwng ffurf ac ystyr eich cof grwpiau ac nid ar eu pennau eu hunain)
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2. I ba raddau rydych chi o’r farn y byddai rhoi mwy o sylw i ddysgu geirfa ym maes CiO yn gwella lefelau hyfedredd cyffredinol dysgwyr? Na fyddai, Byddai,
yn ddi-os yn ddi-os |—————————————————————–| Sylw:
3. Pa fethodolegau, yn eich barn chi, yw’r rhai mwyaf effeithiol, os bydd dysgwyr yn paratoi ar gyfer prawf geirfa?
4. Yn eich deunyddiau, pa arweiniad rydych chi’n ei roi i ddysgwyr a/neu i diwtoriaid am ddysgu geirfa, a pha arweiniad byddech chi’n ei roi mewn byd delfrydol (os yw hyn yn wahanol)?
Adran Dd: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod addysgu ‘dwys’
1. Sut byddech chi’n diffinio addysgu ‘dwys’ a) yng nghyd-destun cyfredol CiO?
b) yn fwy cyffredinol?
2. Yn eich barn chi, p’un yw’r ffordd ddelfrydol i oedolyn ddysgu iaith, o ran nifer yr oriau yr wythnos ac amlder y dosbarthiadau?
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3. A ddylai addysgu dwys ddefnyddio deunyddiau penodol sy’n seiliedig ar addysgu dwys, a) yng nghyd-destun diffiniad cyfredol ‘dwys’ ym maes CiO
b) yng nghyd-destun unrhyw ddiffiniad arall o ‘dwys’ a nodwyd gennych uchod
4. Oes gyda chi unrhyw sylwadau eraill am addysgu dwys?
Adran E: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod sut mae amrywio ieithyddol yn y Gymraeg yn cael ei addysgu
1. Os tybir ei bod yn briodol cynnwys tafodieithoedd yn narpariaeth CiO, faint o dafodieithoedd gwahanol yn ddelfrydol y mae angen deunyddiau penodol ar eu cyfer? (Enwch y tafodieithoedd.)
2. Sut byddech chi’n disgrifio’r math(au) o Gymraeg a ddefnyddir yn eich deunyddiau? Rhowch enghreifftiau, os yn bosibl.
3. Pe bai eich deunyddiau yn cael eu dewis fel y rhai mwyaf dymunol i’w defnyddio mewn rhan arall o Gymru lle mae’r dafodiaith yn wahanol i’r hyn a ddefnyddir yn eich deunyddiau chi, i ba raddau byddech chi’n blaenoriaethu creu fersiwn ddiwygiedig yn y dafodiaith honno? Rhowch gylch o amgylch un ateb.
Ddim yn Ddim yn Pwysigrwydd newid y deunyddiau Hanfodol Dymunol angenrheidiol ddymunol o i gyfateb i’r dafodiaith leol: a dweud y gwir gwbl
Pam?
4. Sut mae’r dysgwyr sy’n dilyn eich cwrs yn dod i wybod am ffurfiau’r iaith ysgrifenedig safonol?
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5. Beth yw eich barn am y datganiadau canlynol? Rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol, e.e. |————/——| Anghytuno’n Cytuno’n
gyfan gwbl gyfan gwbl . Mae’n hen bryd i’r un fersiwn o’r Gymraeg gael ei dysgu mewn ysgolion a CiO* ...... |———————————————————— |
. Mae’n dderbyniol i roi gwybod i ddysgwyr y cânt gynnwys geiriau Saesneg yn eu Cymraeg, os yw siaradwyr y Gymraeg o’u cwmpas yn gwneud felly ...... |———————————————————— |
. Mae’n briodol rhagdybio bod dysgwyr eisiau meistroli Cymraeg llafar lleol, o’i chymharu â mathau o Gymraeg mwy ffurfiol** ...... |—————— ——————————————|
. Dyw dysgu un math o Gymraeg llafar lleol ddim yn rhwystro dysgwr rhag cyfathrebu’n effeithiol mewn ardaloedd eraill yng Nghymru ...... |..———————————————————— |
* Y math gorau o Gymraeg i’w dysgu fyddai…
**Sylw:
Adran F: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod y defnydd o dechnoleg
1. Pa gymorth technolegol rydych chi’n ei gynnig ar y cyd â’ch deunyddiau (e.e. CDs, DVDs, ac ati)?
2. a) Ydych chi’n gwybod am unrhyw Ganolfannau neu diwtoriaid sy’n creu eu cymorth technolegol eu hun?
b) Os ydych, beth yw eich barn chi ynghylch hyn?
3. I ba raddau rydych chi’n ystyried technoleg yn ffordd o roi cymorth gwerthfawr i ddysgwyr, a sut byddech chi’n disgrifio’r cymorth hwn?
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Adran Ff: Mae’r adran yma yn crynhoi ychydig o bwyntiau i gloi
1. Os yw eich deunyddiau yn creu llawer o gyfleoedd i ddysgwyr gyfarwyddo â ffurfiau cywir, ac os nad ydych yn rhoi ffurfiau anghywir, pam felly mae dysgwyr sy’n dilyn eich cwrs/cyrsiau yn gwneud camgymeriadau? Rhestrwch gymaint o resymau posibl ag y gallwch sydd, yn eich barn chi, yn rhai nodweddiadol.
2. Pe gallech chi ysgrifennu cwrs CiO newydd sbon, heb unrhyw gyfyngiadau ariannol o gwbl, pa nodweddion byddech chi’n eu cynnwys nad ydyn nhw yn rhan o’ch deunyddiau ar hyn o bryd, a pham?
3. Oes gyda chi unrhyw sylwadau eraill ynglŷn â maes CiO?
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(2) HOLIADUR I DDYSGWYR
Gwella’r ffordd y mae’r Gymraeg yn cael ei throsglwyddo i oedolion Prosiect ymchwil Prifysgol Caerdydd a ariennir gan Lywodraeth y Cynulliad
Diolch yn fawr am gytuno i gyfrannu i’n hymchwil. Mae’r holiadur hwn yn rhan o astudiaeth ehangach i weld sut gallwn ni wella effeithlonrwydd yr addysgu sy’n digwydd ym maes Cymraeg i Oedolion. Rydyn ni hefyd yn casglu gwybodaeth oddi wrth gyfarwyddwyr a thiwtoriaid mewn Canolfannau ac hefyd oddi wrth awduron gwerslyfrau. Byddwn ni’n defnyddio’r wybodaeth i ofalu ein bod ni’n cynnig darlun cywir a chytbwys o sefyllfa gyfredol darpariaeth CiO ac o safbwyntiau a blaenoriaethau’r sawl sydd ynghlwm wrth roi’r ddarpariaeth yma ar waith.
Mawr obeithiwn y byddwch yn agored ynglŷn â’ch safbwyntiau. Byddwn yn gofalu na fyddwn yn datgelu safbwyntiau unigolion yn ein hadroddiadau.
Os bydd gyda chi unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect, cysylltwch â Dr Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost, [email protected].
Drwy lenwi’r holiadur hwn, yr wyf yn cydsynio i gymryd rhan yn y prosiect ymchwil hwn. Yr wyf yn deall bod cymryd rhan yn wirfoddol ac y gallaf dynnu yn ôl ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall fy mod yn rhydd i ofyn unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall y caiff unrhyw wybodaeth a roddir gennyf ei dal yn unol â Deddf Diogelu Data 1998. Yr wyf yn deall y bydd yr ymchwilwyr yn gwneud pob ymdrech i sicrhau cyfrinachedd wrth ymdrin â’m sylwadau, ond y gallaf gysylltu â’r tîm ymchwil i ofyn y dylid hepgor o’r adroddiadau terfynol unrhyw wybodaeth a roddwyd gennyf.
Llofnod: Dyddiad:
Eich enw: Ble rydych chi’n cymryd eich gwersi?
Ebost neu fanylion cyswllt eraill:
Beth yw lefel eich dosbarth ar hyn o bryd?
Llenwch y frawddeg: Bydda i wedi dysgu’r hyn o Gymraeg sydd ei hangen arna i pan fydda i’n gallu…
Pa mor agos dych chi at wireddu hyn?
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A: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod sut (os o gwbl) gallech chi ddefnyddio technoleg i gefnogi eich dysgu
1. Pa fath o gymorth technolegol dysgu yr hoffech ei weld neu na hoffech ei weld ym maes CiO? Yn y siart isod, rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol (e.e. |———————/——| ) i nodi ble rydych chi’n lleoli eich safbwynt. Gallwch chi roi’r llinell unrhyw le ar hyd y llinell yn ei chyfanrwydd, gan gynnwys yn y naill ben neu’r llall. Ddim yn Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gwybod o gwbl y tu hwnt (ticiwch)
Podlediadau o ddosbarthiadau a gollwyd ...... |———————————————— –|
Crynodeb o wersi drwy neges testun ...... |————————————————. –|
Rhwydweithio cymdeithasol ...... |———————————————— –|
Cymwysiadau ar gyfer ffonau symudol ...... |———————————————— –|
Profion ar y we ...... |———————————————— –|
‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i ddysgwyr) ...... |———————————————— –|
Fforwm i ddysgwyr (bwrdd trafod) ...... |———————————————— –|
Ffeiliau sain i ymarfer geirfa ac ymadroddion...... |———————————————— –|
Gemau cyfrifiadurol Cymraeg ...... |———————————————— –|
Meddalwedd ac offer i wneud recordiadau digidol ...... |———————————————— –|
Fideos gydag isdeitlau dewisol yn Gymraeg/ Saesneg ar gyfer lefelau gwahanol ...... |———————————————— –|
Fersiwn ar-lein o bob cwrs dw i wedi cofrestru ar ei gyfer ...... |———————————————— –|
Mwy o dechnolegau ar gael ar gyfer dysgu ac addysgu ble dw i’n dysgu ...... |———————————————— –|
Arall (nodwch) ...... |———————————————— –|
2. Yn eich barn chi, oes anfanteision o ddefnyddio mwy o dechnoleg mewn dysgu iaith?
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B: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod sut gallai dysgwyr gael gwybodaeth am ramadeg y Gymraeg
1. Os oes angen mwy o wybodaeth benodol am ramadeg, ble yn eich barn chi y dylai fod ar gael?
Dylai gwybodaeth benodol am ramadeg fod ar Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gael i ddysgwyr mewn: o gwbl y tu hwnt . Sesiynau pwrpasol yn y dosbarth ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Adrannau ym mhenodau perthnasol y gwerslyfrau ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Adran tua diwedd y llyfr ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr ar wahân a ysgrifennir yn unswydd ar gyfer y cwrs ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i ddysgwyr ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Deunyddiau dysgu ar-lein ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. ‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Grŵp dysgwyr ar-lein...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Gweithdai penodol i ddysgwyr ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Arall: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
C: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod ‘drilio’—pan fydd brawddegau yn cael eu hailadrodd yn y dosbarth nifer o weithiau, a hynny i helpu dysgu [Os na fydd hyn yn digwydd yn eich dosbarth, ewch i adran Ch]
1. Yn gyffredinol, beth yw eich barn chi o’r defnydd o ddrilio yn y dosbarth?
2. Oeddech chi’n gwybod bod sawl math o ddrilio? Allwch chi restru rhai?
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3. Yn y dyfodol, pa rai o’r canlynol yr hoffech chi eu gweld yn y dosbarthiadau?
ESBONIWCH
Y sefyllfa ar hyn o bryd yn fras
Newid yn lefelau’r dysgwyr sy’n cael eu drilio (h.y. Mynediad, Sylfaen, ac ati)
Newid yn y ffordd y cyflawnir drilio
Newid o ran faint o amser a neilltuir i ddrilio
Arall
Ch: Mae’r adran yma yn trafod y math o Gymraeg rydych chi’n ei dysgu
1. Sut byddech chi’n disgrifio’r math o Gymraeg rydych chi’n ei dysgu?
2. Rhowch linell fertigol isod:
Anghytuno’n Cytuno’n gryf gryf Pe bai rhaid imi ddewis rhwng dysgu fy nhafodiaith leol a ffurfiau mwy safonol, byddwn i’n dewis y math safonol ysgrifenedig ...... |——————————————————————...... –|
3. Dych chi’n teimlo y dylai darparwr eich cwrs gynnig dewis i chi o ran y math o Gymraeg rydych chi’n ei ddysgu?
Oes sylwadau eraill gyda chi am eich profiad dysgu?
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(3) LEARNERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
Improving the way in which the Welsh language is transferred to adults A Cardiff University research project funded by the Welsh Assembly Government
Thank you for agreeing to contribute to our research. This questionnaire forms part of a larger study to find out how improvements can be made to the effectiveness of Welsh for Adults teaching. We are also collecting information from Centre Directors, tutors and course book writers. We will use the information to help ensure we present an accurate and fair picture of the current state of WfA provision and of the views and preferences of those involved in its delivery and use.
We hope you will be frank about your views. We will take care not to attribute views to individuals in our reports.
If you have any questions about the project, please contact Dr Mac Giolla Chríost, [email protected].
By filling in this questionnaire, I give my consent to participate in this research project. I understand that participation is voluntary, and that I may withdraw at any time. I understand that I am free to ask any questions about the project at any time. I understand that any information I provide will be held in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998. I understand that the researchers will make every effort to ensure anonymity when reporting my comments, but that I am also able to contact the research team to request that information I have given not be included in the final research reports.
Signature: Date:
Your name: Where do you take your Welsh classes?
Email address or other contact details:
What level of class are you taking?
Please complete: I will have learned the amount of Welsh I want/need when I can…
How close are you to achieving this?
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Section A: This section is about how (if at all) you could use technology to support your learning
1. Which sorts of technological support for learning would you like and not like to see in WfA? In the chart below, mark the horizontal line with a vertical one (e.g. |———————/——| ) to indicate where you place your view. You can place the mark anywhere along the entire length of the line, including right at an end. Don’t Not at all Extremely know desirable desirable (tick)
Podcasts of missed classes ...... |—————————————————— |
Summaries of lessons via text message ...... |—————————————————— |
Social networking ...... |—————————————————— |
Mobile apps ...... |—————————————————— |
Web-based tests ...... |—————————————————— |
Ask-the-expert online (for learners) ...... |—————————————————— |
Learner forum (discussion board) ...... |—————————————————— |
Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases...... |—————————————————— |
Welsh language computer games ...... |—————————————————— |
Software and equipment for making digital recordings...... |—————————————————— |
Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels ...... |—————————————————— |
Online version(s) of the course(s) I am registered on ...... |—————————————————— |
More availability of new technologies for learning and teaching where I learn ...... |—————————————————— |
Other (please specify) ...... |—————————————————— |
2. Are there any disadvantages, in your view, to using more technology in language teaching?
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B: This section is about how learners might get information about Welsh grammar
1. If learners need more information about Welsh grammar, where do you think it should be made available?
Explicit information for learners on grammar Not at all Extremely should be available in: desirable desirable . Dedicated sessions in class time ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A section at the back of the book ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate book, specially written for the course...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate published book, recommended to learners ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Learning materials online ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Ask-the-expert online ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A learner group online ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Dedicated workshops for learners ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
C: This section is about ‘drilling’—when sentences are repeated in class several times to help with learning [If this does not happen in your classes, please go to Section D]
1. What is your overall opinion of the use of drilling in class?
2. Were you aware that there are several different types of drilling? Can you list any?
276
3. In future, which of the following would you like to see in Welsh for Adults classes?
PLEASE EXPLAIN
Broadly what we have now
A change to the levels with which drilling is conducted (Mynediad, Sylfaen, etc.)
A change in how drilling is carried out
A change to the amount of time dedicated to drilling
Other
D: This section is about the type of Welsh you are learning
1. How would you describe the type of Welsh that you are learning?
2. Please add a vertical line below: Strongly Strongly disagree agree If I had to choose between learning my local dialect of spoken Welsh and more standard language forms, I would choose the standard written variety ...... |———————————————————— –|
3. Do you feel your course provider should offer you a choice in the type of Welsh that you learn?
Do you have any other comments about your learning experience?
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(4) Holiadur i Diwtoriaid ar Dechnoleg, Gramadeg a Drilio
Gwella’r ffordd y mae’r Gymraeg yn cael ei throsglwyddo i oedolion Prosiect ymchwil Prifysgol Caerdydd a ariennir gan Lywodraeth y Cynulliad
Diolch yn fawr am gytuno i gyfrannu at ein hymchwil. Mae’r holiadur hwn yn chwilio am wybodaeth fydd yn ychwanegu at ein harolwg o’r llenyddiaeth o’r ymchwil ynghylch sut i addysgu ail iaith ac iaith dramor yn effeithiol i oedolion. Bydd yr ymchwil hefyd yn edrych ar ystod y deunyddiau a ddefnyddir ar hyn o bryd ym maes CiO. Ar ben hynny, byddwn yn casglu gwybodaeth drwy holiaduron a thrwy gynnal cyfweliadau a grwpiau ffocws gyda chyfarwyddwyr y Canolfannau, awduron deunyddiau a dysgwyr yn ogystal â thrwy arsylwi dosbarthiadau. Byddwn yn defnyddio’r wybodaeth er mwyn gofalu ein bod yn cynnig darlun cywir a chytbwys o sefyllfa gyfredol darpariaeth CiO ac o safbwyntiau a blaenoriaethau’r sawl sydd ynghlwm wrth roi’r ddarpariaeth ar waith.
Mawr obeithiwn y byddwch yn agored ynglŷn â’ch safbwyntiau. Byddwn yn gofalu na fyddwn yn datgelu safbwyntiau unigolion yn ein hadroddiadau.
Os bydd gyda chi unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect, cysylltwch â Dr Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost, [email protected].
Gofynnir ichi lenwi copi caled o’r holiadur hwn fel y gallwch chi nodi â llaw i ba raddau rydych chi’n cytuno â’r datganiadau ar y continwwm ar y llinell. Pe hoffech ychwanegu mwy o fanylion yn electronig, nodwch hynny yn glir mewn ebost at naill ai Dr Patrick Carlin [email protected] neu Jenny Marshall [email protected]. Pan fyddwch wedi llenwi’r holiadur, a fyddech cystal â’i ddychwelyd at aelod o’n tîm, neu ei anfon at naill ai Patrick neu Jenny i: Ysgol y Gymraeg, Prifysgol Caerdydd, Adeilad y Dyniaethau, Rhodfa Colum, Caerdydd, CF10 3EU. Fel arall, gallwch sganio’r holiadur a’i anfon drwy e-bost atyn nhw i’r cyfeiriadau uchod.
Drwy lenwi’r holiadur hwn, yr wyf yn cydsynio i gymryd rhan yn y prosiect ymchwil hwn. Yr wyf yn deall bod cymryd rhan yn wirfoddol ac y gallaf dynnu yn ôl ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall fy mod yn rhydd i ofyn unrhyw gwestiynau am y prosiect ar unrhyw adeg. Yr wyf yn deall y caiff unrhyw wybodaeth a roddir gennyf ei dal yn unol â Deddf Diogelu Data 1998. Yr wyf yn deall y bydd yr ymchwilwyr yn gwneud pob ymdrech i sicrhau cyfrinachedd wrth ymdrin â’m sylwadau, oni nodir yn wahanol, ond y gallaf gysylltu â’r tîm ymchwil i ofyn y dylid hepgor o’r adroddiadau terfynol unrhyw wybodaeth a roddwyd gennyf.
Llofnod: Dyddiad:
Eich enw: Canolfan:
Ebost neu fanylion cyswllt eraill:
Oes gyda chi’r Cymhwyster Cenedlaethol Tiwtoriaid Cymraeg i Oedolion? Oes/Nac oes (Sylw dewisol):
Ydych chi’n gallu addysgu’r Gymraeg ar bob lefel?
278
1. a) Pa fath o gymorth technolegol dysgu yr hoffech ei weld neu na hoffech ei weld ym maes CiO? Yn y siart isod, rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol (e.e. |——————/———| ) i nodi ble rydych chi’n lleoli eich safbwynt. Gallwch chi roi’r llinell unrhyw le ar hyd y llinell yn ei chyfanrwydd, gan gynnwys yn y naill ben neu’r llall. Gwnewch hyn â llaw ar y copi caled. Ddim yn Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gwybod o gwbl y tu hwnt (ticiwch)
Podlediadau o ddosbarthiadau a gollwyd ...... | ————————————————|
Rhwydweithio cymdeithasol ...... | ————————————————|
Crynodeb o wersi drwy neges testun ...... | ————————————————|
Cymwysiadau ar gyfer ffonau symudol ...... | ————————————————|
Profion ar y we ...... | ————————————————|
‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i ddysgwyr) ...... | ————————————————|
‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i diwtoriaid) ...... | ————————————————|
Fforwm i ddysgwyr (bwrdd trafod) ...... | ————————————————|
Fforwm i diwtoriaid (bwrdd trafod) ...... | ————————————————|
Ffeiliau sain i ymarfer geirfa ac ymadroddion...... | ————————————————|
Gemau cyfrifiadurol Cymraeg ...... | ————————————————|
Meddalwedd ac offer i wneud recordiadau digidol .....| ————————————————|
Fideos gydag isdeitlau dewisol yn Gymraeg/ Saesneg ar gyfer lefelau gwahanol ...... | ————————————————|
Fersiynau ar-lein o bob cwrs i’r sawl sydd wedi cofrestru ar eu cyfer ...... | ————————————————|
Mwy o dechnolegau ar gael ar gyfer dysgu ac addysgu yn fy ngweithle...... | ————————————————|
Arall (nodwch) ...... | ————————————————|
b) Yn eich barn chi, oes anfanteision o ddefnyddio mwy o dechnoleg mewn dysgu iaith?
279
2. Pe bai dysgwyr yn dweud yr hoffen nhw gael mwy o wybodaeth benodol am ramadeg, ble yn eich barn chi y dylai fod ar gael?
Dylai gwybodaeth benodol am ramadeg fod ar Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol gael i ddysgwyr mewn: o gwbl y tu hwnt . Sesiynau pwrpasol yn y dosbarth ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Adrannau ym mhenodau perthnasol y gwerslyfrau...... |————————————————————— –|
. Adran tua diwedd y llyfr ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr ar wahân a ysgrifennir yn unswydd ar gyfer y cwrs ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i ddysgwyr (*nodwch pa lyfr y byddech yn ei argymell isod) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. E-ddeunyddiau i ddysgwyr ...... |————————————————————— –|
. ‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i ddysgwyr) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Fforwm i ddysgwyr (bwrdd trafod)...... |————————————————————— –|
. Gweithdai penodol i ddysgwyr ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Arall: ...... |————————————————————— –|
* Hoffwn argymell y llyfr gramadeg canlynol i ddysgwyr CiO:
3. Sut byddech chi’n disgrifio lefel eich gwybodaeth o ramadeg y Gymraeg, gan gynnwys y derminoleg i’w disgrifio hi? (rhowch gylch o amgylch un ateb)
Dw i ddim bob tro Dw i’n gwybod Mae fy Galla i ddod i ben Rwy’n hyderus y yn sicr beth sy’n beth sy’n gywir ngwybodaeth o gyda phob un o’r bydda i’n gwybod ramadegol gywir ond allwn i ddim ramadeg braidd cwestiynau popeth y gallai esbonio pam yn rhy wallus i fod sylfaenol ond dim dysgwr ei ofyn imi yn ddiogel byd rhy dechnegol
Unrhyw atebion/sylwadau eraill:
280
4. Sut dysgoch chi’r ramadeg sydd gyda chi?
Astudiais i’r Drwy Drwy ofyn Dw i’n deall y Drwy ennill y Drwy sesiynau Gymraeg yn ddefnyddio cwestiynau yn ramadeg Cymhwyster hyfforddiant yr ysgol/ llyfrau neu’r y dosbarth drwy astudio Cenedlaethol tra’n gweithio brifysgol rhyngrwyd gan tra’n dysgu ieithoedd Tiwtoriaid Cymraeg fel tiwtor amlaf Cymraeg eraill i Oedolion
Unrhyw atebion/sylwadau eraill:
5. Pe bai tiwtoriaid yn dweud bod angen iddyn nhw allu cael gafael sicrach ar ramadeg er mwyn teimlo’n hyderus tra’n ei thrafod, ble rydych chi’n meddwl y dylai fod ar gael?
Dylai gwybodaeth fanwl am ramadeg fod ar gael Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol i diwtoriaid yn/mewn: o gwbl y tu hwnt
. Y gwerslyfrau y mae’r dysgwyr yn eu defnyddio ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Canllaw gramadeg ar wahân i diwtoriaid ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Llyfr cyhoeddedig ar wahân sy’n cael ei argymell i diwtoriaid (*nodwch pa lyfr y byddech yn ei argymell isod) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. E-ddeunyddiau i diwtoriaid ...... |————————————————————— –|
. ‘Gofynnwch i’r arbenigwr’ ar-lein (i diwtoriaid) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Fforwm i diwtoriaid (bwrdd trafod) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Gweithdai penodol i diwtoriaid ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Arall: ...... |————————————————————— –|
* Hoffwn argymell y llyfr gramadeg canlynol i diwtoriaid CiO:
6. Ynghylch drilio, a) oes gyda chi brofiad o ymarferion drilio ym maes CiO, naill ai fel tiwtor neu gyn-ddysgwr? Os nad oes, cewch hepgor y cwestiynau sydd ar ôl.
281
b) Beth yw eich barn am ddrilio mewn CiO (rhowch linell fertigol drwy’r llinell lorweddol, e.e. |———————/——|): i) I ddechreuwyr Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol Math o ddrilio o gwbl y tu hwnt . Dril ailadrodd/patrwm ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril disodli (pan fyddwch yn newid un elfen yn y frawddeg bob tro) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril holi-ac-ateb ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril trawsnewid (e.e. newid datganiad yn gwestiwn) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cyfieithu ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cudd (e.e. pan fydd y dysgwr yn ail- adrodd yr un deunydd sawl gwaith er mwyn casglu gwybodaeth gan ddysgwyr eraill) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Math arall o ddril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Diben y dril
. Dril i ymarfer treigladau ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer gramadeg gyffredinol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer geirfa ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer terfyniadau berfol ac arddodiadol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer y lluosog ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Diben arall dril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
ii) Pam?
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iii) Canolradd ac ymlaen
Ddim yn ddymunol Yn ddymunol Math o ddrilio o gwbl y tu hwnt . Dril ailadrodd/patrwm ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril disodli (pan fyddwch yn newid un elfen yn y frawddeg bob tro) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril holi-ac-ateb ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril trawsnewid (e.e. newid datganiad yn gwestiwn) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cyfieithu ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril cudd (e.e. pan fydd y dysgwr yn ail- adrodd yr un deunydd sawl gwaith er mwyn casglu gwybodaeth gan ddysgwyr eraill) ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Math arall o ddril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
Diben y dril
. Dril i ymarfer treigladau ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer gramadeg gyffredinol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer geirfa ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer terfyniadau berfol ac arddodiadol ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Dril i ymarfer y lluosog ...... |————————————————————— –|
. Diben arall dril (nodwch beth): ...... |————————————————————— –|
iv) Os yw eich atebion yn wahanol i’ch atebion yn achos dechreuwyr, pam felly?
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c) Rhowch eich barn am y canlynol:
Agwedd tuag at ddrilio Lefel Byth Bob tro . Rwy’n dilyn canllawiau Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| penodol ar beth i’w ddrilio, a sut i ddrilio Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–| elfen ieithyddol benodol
. Cyn i’r dril gychwyn, Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| rwy’n esbonio’r patrwm Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
. Cyn i’r dril gychwyn, Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| rwy’n cyfieithu’r patrwm Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
. Rwy’n cynghori’r Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| dysgwyr i beidio ag ysgrifennu dim tan ar ôl Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–| y dril
. Rwy’n caniatáu i Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| ddysgwyr ofyn cwestiynau yn ystod y Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–| drilio
Sylwadau:
ch) Yn y dyfodol, pa rai o’r canlynol yr hoffech eu gweld ym maes CiO?
ESBONIWCH
Y sefyllfa ar hyn o bryd yn fras
Newid yn lefelau’r dysgwyr sy’n cael eu drilio (h.y. Mynediad, Sylfaen, ac ati)
Newid yn y ffordd y cyflawnir y drilio
Newid o ran faint o amser a neilltuir i’r drilio
Arall
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(5) Tutors’ Questionnaire on Technologies, Grammar and Drilling
Improving the way in which the Welsh language is transferred to adults A Cardiff University research project funded by the Welsh Assembly Government
Thank you for agreeing to contribute to our research. This questionnaire seeks information to supplement our review of the research literature into effective adult second and foreign language teaching, and an examination of the range of materials currently used in WfA. We are also collecting information, via questionnaire, interview, focus group and observation, from materials writers, Centre Directors, and learners. We will use the information to help ensure we present an accurate and fair picture of the current state of WfA provision and of the views and preferences of those involved in its delivery and use.
We hope you will be frank about your views. We will take care not to attribute views to individuals in our reports.
If you have any questions about the project, please contact Dr Mac Giolla Chríost, [email protected].
You will need to complete this questionnaire in hard copy so you can mark by hand the extent of your agreement with statements on the line continuum. If you would like to add more details electronically, please send these by email to either Dr Patrick Carlin [email protected] or Jenny Marshall [email protected]. Please return your completed form to one of our team, or else send it to either Patrick or Jenny at: School of Welsh, Cardiff University, Humanities Building, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU. Alternatively, you can scan the questionnaire and email it to them via the addresses above.
By filling in this questionnaire, I give my consent to participate in this research project. I understand that participation is voluntary, and that I may withdraw at any time. I understand that I am free to ask any questions about the project at any time. I understand that any information I provide will be held in accordance with the Data Protection Act 1998. I understand that the researchers will make every effort to ensure anonymity when reporting my comments, unless otherwise stated, but that I am also able to contact the research team to request that information I have given not be included in the final research reports.
Signature: Date:
Your name: Centre:
Email or other contact details:
Do you have the National Qualification Welsh for Adults Tutor Qualification? Yes/No (Optional Comment):
Are you able to teach Welsh at all levels?
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1. a) Which sorts of technological support for learning would you like and not like to see in WfA? In the chart below, mark the horizontal line with a vertical one (e.g. |——————/———| ) to indicate where you place your view. You can place the mark anywhere along the entire length of the line, including right at an end. Do this by hand on the hard copy. Don’t Not at all Extremely know desirable desirable (tick)
Podcasts of missed classes ...... | —————————————————–|
Social networking ...... | —————————————————–|
Summaries of lessons via text message ...... | —————————————————–|
Mobile apps ...... | —————————————————–|
Web-based tests ...... | —————————————————–|
Ask-the-expert online (for learners) ...... | —————————————————–|
Ask-the-expert online (for tutors) ...... | —————————————————–|
Learner forum (discussion board) ...... | —————————————————–|
Tutor forum (discussion board) ...... | —————————————————–|
Soundfiles for practising vocabulary and phrases...... | —————————————————–|
Welsh language computer games ...... | —————————————————–|
Software and equipment for making digital recordings...... | —————————————————–|
Videos with optional subtitles in Welsh/English for different levels ...... | —————————————————–|
Online versions of every course, for those who have registered on them ...... | —————————————————–|
More availability of new technologies for learning and teaching in my workplace ...... | —————————————————–|
Other (please specify) ...... | —————————————————–|
b) Are there any disadvantages, in your view, to using more technology in language teaching?
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2. If learners reported that they would like more explicit information about grammar, where do you think it should be made available?
Explicit information for learners on grammar Not at all Extremely should be available in: desirable desirable . Dedicated sessions in class time ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Sections in the relevant chapters of the course books ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A section at the back of the book ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate book, specially written for the course...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate published book, recommended to learners (*please indicate which book you would recommend below)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. E-materials for learners ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Ask-the-expert online (for learners) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A learner forum (discussion board)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Dedicated workshops for learners ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
* I’d recommend the following grammar book to WfA learners:
3. How would you rate the level of your knowledge of Welsh grammar, including terminology for describing it? (circle one)
I’m not always I know what is My knowledge is I can manage all I’m confident I certain what is correct but I too patchy for the basic know everything a grammatically couldn’t explain comfort questions but learner might ask correct why nothing too me technical
Other/comment:
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4. Where did you develop the knowledge of grammar you have?
I studied Mostly By asking I’ve worked it Through doing Through Welsh from books questions in out on the basis the National training grammar at or the class when of what I know Welsh for Adults sessions school/ internet learning Welsh from studying Tutor whilst working university other languages Qualification as a tutor
Other/comment:
5. If tutors requested access to more explicit information about grammar in order to feel confident talking about it, where do you think it should be made available?
Explicit information for tutors on grammar should Not at all Extremely be available in: desirable desirable . The course books that the learners use ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate tutor handbook on grammar ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A separate published book, recommended to tutors (*please indicate which book you would recommend below)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. E-materials for tutors ...... | ———————— —————————————–|
. Ask-the-expert online (for tutors)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. A tutors’ forum (discussion board)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Dedicated workshops for tutors ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other: ...... | ————————————————————— –|
* I’d recommend the following grammar book to WfA tutors:
6. Regarding drilling, a) do you have experience of drilling exercises in WfA, as a tutor or former learner? If you do not, you may omit the remaining questions.
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b) What is your view on drilling in WfA (please mark the horizontal line with a vertical line, e.g. |———————/——|): i) For beginners Not at all Extremely Type of drilling desirable desirable . Repetition/pattern drill ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Substitution drill (where you change one element in the sentence each time)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Question-and-answer drill ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Transformation drill (e.g. changing a statement into a question) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Translation drill...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Hidden drill (e.g. when the learner repeats the same material several times in order to gather information from other learners)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other mode of drill (specify): ...... | ————————————————————— –|
Purpose of drilling
. Drill to practise mutations ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise general grammar ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise vocabulary ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise verb and preposition endings ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise plurals ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other purpose of drill (specify): ...... | ————————————————————— –|
ii) Why?
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iii) Canolradd and above
Not at all Extremely Type of drilling desirable desirable . Repetition/pattern drill ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Substitution drill (where you change one element in the sentence each time)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Question-and-answer drill ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Transformation drill (e.g. changing a statement into a question) ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Translation drill...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Hidden drill (e.g. when the learner repeats the same material several times in order to gather information from other learners)...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other mode of drill (specify): ...... | ————————————————————— –|
Purpose of drilling
. Drill to practise mutations ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise general grammar ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise vocabulary ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise verb and preposition endings ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Drill to practise plurals ...... | ————————————————————— –|
. Other purpose of drill (specify): ...... | ————————————————————— –|
iv) If your responses for intermediate learners are different from those for beginners, why?
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c) Indicate your view on the following:
Approach to drilling Level Never Always . I follow specific Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| guidelines on what and how to drill a given Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–| element of the language
. Before the drill begins, I Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| explain the pattern Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
. Before the drill begins, I Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| translate the pattern Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
. I advise learners not to Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| write anything down till after the drill Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
. I allow learners to ask Mynediad/Sylfaen |—————————————————————–| questions during the drilling Pellach/Canolradd |—————————————————————–|
Comment:
d) In future, which of the following would you like to see in WfA?
PLEASE EXPLAIN
Broadly what we have now
A change to the levels with which drilling is conducted (Mynediad, Sylfaen, etc.)
A change in how drilling is carried out
A change to the amount of time dedicated to drilling
Other
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Appendix 5: Drilling
Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan WfA Centre tutor guidelines on drilling (Wlpan 2009):
Drilling Steps
(When presenting the first Unit, one must start with Step 2, but from the second Unit onwards start with Step 1)
1. Distribute the unit and ask the learners to work in pairs in order to attempt to pronounce the sentences and infer their meaning. The tutor ought to move around the class all the while helping and answering questions. 5-10 minutes ought to be given to the learners to work on the sentences.
2. Ask everyone to look at the first sentence and recite it after you. Explain the meaning of the sentence in English. Follow the same steps with each sentence, allowing the learners to write on their copies if they so wish.
3. Ask everyone to close their folders and look at you.
4. Drill the first sentence in your usual method while ensuring sufficient repetition as a class and then individually. Once everyone is fairly comfortable with pronunciation proceed to drill the other sentences in the first block. After drilling the four sentences of the first block, ask the learners what the sentences were and as they say the sentences write them on the whiteboard.
5. Once the four sentences are on the whiteboard, do more drilling, while at the same time asking the learners to look at the whiteboard as they repeat, translating from English to Welsh and substituting elements of the sentences.
6. Clear the whiteboard and ask the learners to recall the sentences.
7. Proceed to drill the other blocks in the same way.
8. Ask everyone to look again at the Unit and recite the sentences after you.
9. Answer any questions that arise from the sentences.
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DRILLING 1 By TE Editor Created 18 Oct 2004 - 12:00 TeachingEnglish Drilling 1 Submitted by TE Editor on 18 October, 2004 - 12:00
Drilling is a technique that has been used in foreign language classrooms for many years. It was a key feature of audio lingual approaches to language teaching which placed emphasis on repeating structural patterns through oral practice.
Based on the Behaviourist view that learning to speak a foreign language - like other skills - was simply a question of correct habit formation, it was thought that repeating phrases correctly lots of times would lead to mastery of the language.
Nowadays we know that language learning is not like this - it is a far more complex and creative process - and language is a lot more than just a list of structures to be memorised.
An approach based mainly or only on language drills is unlikely to find many adherents today. However, drilling remains a useful technique in the classroom if it is used appropriately.
What drilling is
What drills can be useful for
What we should drill
When we should drill
What drilling is At its simplest, drilling means listening to a model, provided by the teacher, or a tape or another student, and repeating what is heard. This is a repetition drill, a technique that is still used by many teachers when introducing new language items to their students. The teacher says (models) the word or phrase and the students repeat it.
Other types of drill include substitution drills, or question and answer drills. Substitution drills can be used to practise different structures or vocabulary items (i.e. one or more words change during the drill). o Example: Prompt: 'I go to work. He?'~ Response: 'He goes to work.'
In question and answer drills the prompt is a question and the response the answer. This is used for practising common adjacency pairs such as 'What's the matter?', 'I've got a (headache') or 'Can I have a (pen) please?', 'Yes here you are.' The words in brackets here can be substituted during the drill.
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In all drills learners have no or very little choice over what is said so drills are a form of very controlled practice. There is one correct answer and the main focus is on 'getting it right' i.e. on accuracy. Drills are usually conducted chorally (i.e. the whole class repeats) then individually. There is also the possibility of groups or pairs of students doing language drills together.
What drills can be useful for For the learners, drills can:
Provide for a focus on accuracy. Increased accuracy (along with increased fluency and complexity) is one of the ways in which a learner's language improves so there is a need to focus on accuracy at certain stages of the lesson or during certain task types.
Provide learners with intensive practice in hearing and saying particular words or phrases. They can help learners get their tongues around difficult sounds or help them imitate intonation that may be rather different from that of their first language.
Provide a safe environment for learners to experiment with producing the language. This may help build confidence particularly among learners who are not risk-takers.
Help students notice the correct form or pronunciation of a word or phrase. Noticing or consciousness raising of language is an important stage in developing language competence.
Provide an opportunity for learners to get immediate feedback on their accuracy in terms of teacher or peer correction. Many learners want to be corrected.
Help memorisation and automisation of common language patterns and language chunks. This may be particularly true for aural learners.
Meet student expectations i.e. They may think drilling is an essential feature of language classrooms.
For the teacher, drills can:
Help in terms of classroom management, enabling us to vary the pace of the lesson or to get all learners involved.
Help us recognise if new language is causing problems in terms of form or pronunciation.
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What we should drill At all levels we should drill vocabulary or chunks of language that cause pronunciation problems.
At low levels students are still getting used to the sounds of English and need plenty of opportunity to get their tongues around them so it is likely that drilling will be used more. o Sounds that either do not exist in their L1 or occur differently. o Consonant clusters and weak forms may also cause difficulty - for example in words like vegetable, comfortable.
At the phrase level intonation, stress, and weak forms often cause learner difficulties and at higher levels there may still be problems with these aspects of pronunciation. Phrases such as, 'If I'd known you were coming I'd have stayed at home' are difficult to say.
Intonation patterns that are crucial to meaning may also be usefully practised through drilling, for example tag questions (which ask for confirmation or which are genuine questions) or expressions like You could have told me it was his birthday! (as a rebuke)
If we believe that drilling helps our learners memorise language, we should also drill useful and common language chunks to help them internalise them. This would include many common phrases such as,
'Hello, how are you?
'Can I have a ..?'
'Have you got a …'
' If I were you I'd.. '
etc.
Drilling of structures per se seems much less likely to be useful because of the mental processing that is required to apply grammar rules accurately, particularly if it is a new piece of language for the learners.
When we should drill For drills to be meaningful, learners need to understand what they are being asked to say. Monotonous chanting of decontextualised language is not useful to anyone.
This means that work on the meaning of the language must come before drilling.
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Drilling can be comfortably and effectively incorporated into many types of lessons - whether you use a PPP model or a task-based approach, for example.
Drilling may follow a language focus stage particularly if you are dealing with spoken language. It may be too much, however, to expect learners to get it right immediately so you may want to introduce drilling later for remedial purposes. Or you may do it after a fluency task as a correction strategy.
It shouldn't be used too much however; if boredom sets in it is unlikely to be useful at all.
(source: British Council / BBC
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DRILLING 2 By TE Editor Created 25 Oct 2004 - 12:00 TeachingEnglish Drilling 2 Submitted by TE Editor on 25 October, 2004 - 12:00
Drilling is a technique that has been used in foreign language classrooms for many years. It was a key feature of audio lingual approaches to language teaching which placed emphasis on repeating structural patterns through oral practice. In the first part of this article, Drilling 1, I focused on:
What drilling is
What drills can be useful for
What we should drill
When we should drill
This second part will focus on how we drill. Here are some ideas for using drilling effectively in the classroom.
Repetition drills
Guessing games
Disappearing text
Dialogue building
Mingle activities
Information gaps
Songs, rhymes and chants
Conclusion
Repetition drills When learners are getting used to the sounds of English it may be easier for them not to see the language written down before they practise saying it, so get them to listen to your model and then repeat.
Make sure you give clear, natural sounding and consistent models.
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Use hand movements to indicate intonation, use your fist to beat the stress, and join or separate fingers to show word boundaries and where linking occurs in phrases. This kind of gesturing may in particular help visual learners since it helps them visualise the language they are practising.
Back chaining helps learners focus on correct pronunciation and intonation and is also attention-grabbing. For example, when you are modelling a phrase, start at the end, getting the learners to repeat after each chunk you give them. For example: yesterday / get up yesterday/ did you get up yesterday/what time did you get up yesterday?
You can vary the drill in terms of who repeats - whole class, half the class, boys only, girls only, individuals. Make sure drilling is done at a snappy pace. You can also try:
Whisper drills (for quietening down a rowdy class)
Shouting drills (for livening them up ) These ideas work particularly well with young learners. Or you can liven drills up by saying things in different ways. For example, sound very happy, very sad, very bored, very excited with a facial expression to match as you model the language and get the learners to do the same. Putting expression into it and exaggerating the intonation helps make the language more memorable.
Guessing games Simple guessing games which require lots of repetition of the target language are ideal for practising language items at low levels and are in fact a form of drill.
After you have used pictures to introduce vocabulary or phrases stick the pictures on the board back to front so they can't be seen. Students try to guess which picture is which.
Pick out one picture and don't show it. Students guess which one it is. If you're using real objects you can use the same principle by hiding the objects under a cloth or in a bag and getting them to guess which object you're holding.
For practising 'Is it..?' questions, classroom objects and describing location with children, hide a plastic spider somewhere in the room and get the children to guess where it is. 'Is it under the teacher's desk?', 'Is it behind Jose's chair?'
Disappearing text This can be done with a list of vocabulary items or phrases, a short text or a dialogue at any level.
Write up the text on the board. Read out the text and drill.
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Rub off a small part of it. Students have to say the whole text again.
Gradually rub off more and more in bits and each time get the students to say the whole text.
This provides intensive drilling practice as the students have to repeat it so many times. However, the game factor also increases motivation to get it right and that gets more challenging as the activity continues.
Dialogue building This is useful particularly for low level students to build confidence in speaking and to learn useful chunks of language. Use pictures to set a scene and elicit a dialogue.
Example:
Have you got a pet?
Yes, I've got a cat.
Oh, what's its name?
It's called Fred.
Drill each line as you elicit the dialogue. Rather than writing the whole dialogue on the board as you go, you can just write one or two words to help them remember each line. Example:
Have/pet?
Yes/
/name?
/Fred
Then let the students choose different pets and make up similar dialogues in pairs. Aim for not more than eight lines or so in the dialogue or it may become difficult to memorise.
Mingle activities With smaller classes, mingle activities work well and provide opportunities for lots of repetition of target language. A simple example of this for low level learners is 'Say and swap'.
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Learners are given flashcards or small pictures of target vocabulary items or phrases.
They mingle and swap their pictures but as they swap they have to say the word on the picture they have. Alternatively this can be done as a more stationary chain drill: students pass the flashcards or pictures around the whole class and again say the word each time they pass it on.
Another example is 'Find Someone Who' which can be adapted to any level. Students have a list of people to find. Example: Find someone who o gets up before 7.00 o watches TV in the morning o eats toast for breakfast etc. Students go around asking the question. In this example the language practised is 'Do you…?' and the topic daily routines. This activity generates lots of repetition of this pattern as well as providing opportunities for freer responses if the learners develop the conversation. In larger classes it can be done as a stationary group work activity.
Information gaps Information gap activities are often designed to provide highly controlled practice of particular structures. By swapping information which requires use of a particular language pattern, the students have to solve a problem. This problem solving provides a communicative purpose to what is essentially a drill. Example:
The students have a shopping list of fruit they need to buy (6 oranges, 1 kilo of apples etc.) Student A has the prices of various fruits in one shop, student B has the prices in another shop. They have to ask each other and answer about the prices and complete a grid with the information. The task is then to decide which shop will be the cheaper one for them to buy their fruit in.
Songs, rhymes and chants Many primary aged learners respond very well to songs, games and chants. These young learners can find it very difficult to remember how to say complete phrases in a foreign language when they are first learning, but they remember whole songs and chants with ease. Action songs like 'Head, shoulders, knees and toes' provide fun drills of language for parts of the body. Or you can make up your own action songs by putting target language to a well known tune and getting the children to do actions. For example, as you sing this to the tune of 'Frere Jacques', do actions of putting on all the clothes mentioned :
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Shorts and T-shirt Shorts and T-shirt Shoes and socks Shoes and socks Jumper hat and trousers Jumper hat and trousers Skirt and dress What a mess!
When accompanied by gestures and actions, songs and chants appeal to different learning styles such as aural and kinaesthetic. Older learners may be self conscious about singing but chants and raps can still work well and, once again, involve lots of repetition.
Conclusion Drilling is not a new or a fashionable classroom technique, but, used appropriately in the classroom, it can be of great value to our learners.
Only drill language that will benefit from being drilled (for example if it causes pronunciation problems or if it is a useful chunk of language to be memorised)
Don't drill too much and keep drilling stages lively.
Respond to your learners' needs - drill if you, or they, think it will help them pronounce or memorise words or language chunks.
Vary the way in which you do drills to help make the language more memorable.
(source: British Council / BBC
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TESOL /ESL (Northern America) toolkit on drilling
Drilling
To most English language teachers, drilling is perhaps one of the most detested and underused skill. Inexperienced teachers often do not see the point to drilling. They may not drill for fear of boring their students stiff as they believe they should be filling their classroom time with more interesting activities. One thing is for certain: the total absence of drilling, or drilling ineffectively, will always result in students getting embarrassed when practice activities are botched and teachers getting frustrated because target language is not mastered and lesson aims not achieved.
Why drill?
For many teachers, drilling conjures images of a teacher standing next to the whiteboard saying a word and students merely repeating it, again and again. Before considering some effective drilling techniques, let us first look at some possible grounds for drilling. Here are a few simple reasons why drilling should be incorporated into your lessons:
1. Drilling to Introduce New Target Language: This is often the first, and sometimes, the only reason why new teachers drill. Whereas teachers often incorporate drilling into a lesson with words in isolation, they rarely do drill new vocabulary using complete sentences. Consider the advantages of drilling "I sometimes eat broccoli" versus "sometimes". 2. Drilling for Pronunciation: Rarely do novice teachers drill for pronunciation. Yet this is a crucial element of accuracy. Whether for word stress (e.g. Tokyo), sentence stress (e.g. I love studying English.), or intonation, drilling pronunciation should be included into every lesson to some extent. Failing to do so may result in communication problems. 3. Drill for Meaning: Simply introducing new vocabulary is not enough. Teachers must introduce new language in context and check meaning. Drilling vocabulary can then be used as a means to drill definitions (e.g. pointing to an action verb such as "run" and young learners acting it out). 4. Drilling for Memory: Recycling language is crucial to language acquisition. Not only does drilling for memory help precipitate language acquisition, but if done effectively, it can also challenge students and make lessons fun. 5. Drilling for Grammar: Novice teachers often neglect to see the importance of drilling to introduce, or recycle grammar. Drilling for grammatical form is not only a great way to enable accuracy, but also allows teachers to drill for simultaneous purposes. Drilling "I've never been to Hawaii" is a good example of how drilling a single sentence can lead to multiple spin offs (e.g. drilling for contractions, drilling for grammatical form, drilling for pronunciation, drilling for sentence stress, and drilling for word stress). 6. Drilling for fun: If planned and executed effectively, drilling activities can be incorporated into a lesson in a fun, meaningful and challenging way. Check out "Drilling Techniques" below for some practical examples.
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Drilling Techniques
1. Listen & Repeat Drills Using Picture Prompts: Listen and repeat drills also known as choral drills are typically used for modeling language. These drills occur when teachers say a word, or sentence out loud and students repeat what has been said. The danger of choral drills is that they can become mind-numbing for both teachers and students. The good news is that there are many ways to spice up choral drills. For instance, incorporating the elements of picture prompts and memory can make choral drills more challenging and engaging. Example:
1. Write one to ten on the whiteboard. 2. Write one target word next to each number (e.g. 1. cat, 2. dog, 3. fish, etc.) Alternatively, you could put up a picture of the word instead of the written form, or you could have both. 3. Drill the words that are on the whiteboard. 4. Once students have been introduced to all the language start rubbing out one word at a time beginning with the word next to number one. For instance, point to number one and say the word. Have students repeat the word. Rub out the word. Point to the spot where the word was and have students repeat it. This is normally the part of the drill where students begin to really focus as they realize they are being challenged. 5. Point to number two and say the word. Rub out the second word. Point to the spot where the word was and have students repeat it. 6. Gradually keep doing this always going back to previous numbers so that previous words are not forgotten. 7. Eventually the teacher should be able to point to all the spots where the words used to be in random order and students should be able to say all the words. This is a great memory tool and children and adults love it!! 2. Substitution Drills: In the substitution drill, the teacher gives an example of a sentence then says a word and students must substitute it into a new sentence. Example: I can ski.
Teacher: (skate) Students: I can skate. Teacher: (play soccer) Students: I can play soccer.
3. Transformation Drills: In this type of drill, the teacher puts up a sentence on the whiteboard and drills it. Then the teacher says one word, or phrase and the students must change the sentence accordingly: Example: My sister loves shopping with her friends.
Teacher: (brother) Students: My brother loves shopping with his friends.
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Teacher: (mother) Students: My mother loves shopping with her friends. Teacher: (hates) Students: My mother hates shopping with her friends.
4. Back-chaining: For long sentences, a useful technique for teachers to use is to drill words, or phrases starting from the end of the sentence. Example: "The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog."
The lazy dog Jumped over the lazy dog Brown fox jumped over the lazy dog The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog. Whisper & Shout Drills: For teachers of young learners, a fun way to have students practice new language is through whisper and shout drills. This is a technique where teachers conduct a chorus drill, but start off by whispering the language - gradually increasing the volume until the word, or sentence is being shout. Young students find this very amusing! This drill can also be done in reverse where the teacher begins the drill shouting and decreases the volume until the word, or sentence is whispered. Please Note: this is a stirrer - you'll need a settling activity to calm your group after this!
Don't Forget
When drilling new target language, always remember STRIC:
Sink in Time Repeat Involve Challenge
Sink In: Drilling is often ineffective because inexperienced drillers often fail to recognize how much time students need for new language to sink in before they can process it and produce it. Wait a couple of seconds for the new language to sink in before repeating it.
Time: Do not underestimate how much drilling your students will need to produce the target language. To be sure, allow for extra time in your lesson plan to effectively drill new target language. If you find yourself rushing through drilling sequences, this means you have failed at the planning stage and have not allocated enough time to drill effectively, or have introduced too much new language.
Repeat: One of the most common mistakes made in drilling is when teachers end their drilling exercises before students have mastered the target language. What usually results are practice activities failing miserably because students cannot remember the language, or produce it accurately. Teachers should always remember to test their students after their drills
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to see if students can produce the target language. Also, do not assume that students will remember, or be able to correctly pronounce the target language from previous lessons. Drilling then can become part of recycling activities.
Involve: No matter how engaging, or well-set up your practice activities are, if you do not take the time to drill your target language effectively, your students will not be able to produce the language desired.
Challenge: Like any teaching activity, when it is too easy for students, they become bored and frustrated. It is crucial then that drilling is made challenging, yet realistic [e.g. by adding the element of time - speed up the drill as they begin to master it, or the element of memory - add a word to a mastered one (cat, cat-dog , cat-dog-cow, cat-dog-cow-horse, etc.)].
So how can you drill more without boring your students?
Variety Pace Challenge Memory Personalization Intonation
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‘LanguageLink’ TEFL Clinic, Practical Teaching, Drilling (2011 – R u s s i a )
D r i l l i n g
What is drilling?
Drilling is a repetition by students of a model given by the teacher. Students can be drilled individually or in a group.
Why do we drill?
Drilling is necessary at all levels. We use drills to perfect pronunciation and intonation, or to practice new grammar and vocabulary. Drilling is a controlled practice activity, so it’s a good way to get students talking early in the lesson, before they are ready for freer speaking practice activities. It also allows the teacher to check and make corrections as necessary before errors become embedded.
Isn’t that boring?
Not necessarily. You can find a lot of ways to make it more interesting and challenging for the students.
Drilling Techniques for the Classroom
While there is a place for straightforward, traditional drills in your lessons, they can become boring when used too often. Here are some more interesting drilling techniques for you to use.
Substitution Drills: These drills are useful for checking grammar points or sentence stress. Make a table or chart on the board (or in a handout). For example:
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T: What are you doing? S: What are you doing? T: We. S: What are we doing? T: The cat. S: What is the cat doing?
This can also be done as pairwork, with one student supplying the words and the other producing the sentence.
Chaining: In a chain drill, the teacher (T) puts together a sentence one word at a time, and the students (s) repeat after every step.
T: What S: What T: What are S: What are T: What are you S: What are you T: What are you doing? S: What are you doing?
You can also try back-chaining, a chain drill that starts from the end of the sentence.
T: doing? S: doing? T: you doing? S: you doing? T: are you doing? …and so on.
Mill Drills: A mill drill is a freer practice activity. Students are given cards with a word or visual prompt on both sides. For example:
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The student holds the card so that other students can see the word “dancing.” The student circulates around the class producing the same question and receiving the same answer, and producing answers to other students’ questions.
S1: What are you doing? S2: I am dancing. What are the children doing? S1: They are drawing.
Other Drilling Ideas
Competition: Students enjoy competition. Make a list of the more difficult words on the board and give a point to the group that has better pronunciation. Or do a fast-paced substitution drill and give a point to the team that produces a correct sentence first.
Creativity: When possible, elicit different words from the students to use in a substitution chart. Younger learners may enjoy creating their own cards for a mill drill, by drawing the visual prompt.
Don’t Forget! : 1) Always give an example the first time you use a new drilling technique. 2) Mark stress, and remind your students to, too. 3) Use hand gestures to indicate intonation, word stress, or sentence stress. 4) Use natural, correct intonation.
( s o u r c e : < http://jobs.languagelink.ru/tefl_clinic/practical_tea ching/drilling/ >)
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Appendix 6: Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) levels
The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions which can be divided into six levels:
A Basic Speaker A1 Breakthrough or beginner A2 Waystage or elementary B Independent Speaker B1 Threshold or intermediate B2 Vantage or upper intermediate C Proficient Speaker C1 Effective Operational Proficiency or advanced C2 Mastery or proficiency
The CEFR describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and writing at each level.
Level Description Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions A1 about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). A2 Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need. Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area B1 where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and B2 spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use C1 language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. C2 Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the most complex situations.
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Appendix 7: Common European Framework Reference (CEFR) levels and Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) ‘can do statements’ and estimated study hours
The Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) have devised a set of statements describing what 2L learners typically can do at the different CEFR levels. ALTE have also estimated the number of study hours, or guided learning hours, required to reach the different levels. Both the ALTE ‘can do statements’ and the estimated study hours per level are set out below:
ALTE ‘estimated study hours per CEFR level’ CEFR Level Guided Learning Hours
C2 approximately 1,000–1,200
C1 approximately 700–800
B2 approximately 500–600
B1 approximately 350–400
A2 approximately 180–200
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ALTE ‘can do statements’ per CEFR level
CEFR Listening/Speaking Reading Writing LEVELS
CAN advise on or talk about complex or CAN understand documents, CAN write letters on any subject and sensitive issues, understanding colloquial correspondence and reports, C2 full notes of meetings or seminars references and deal confidently with hostile including the finer points of complex with good expression and accuracy. questions. texts.
CAN read quickly enough to cope CAN prepare/draft professional CAN contribute effectively to meetings and with an academic course, to read the correspondence, take reasonably seminars within own area of work or keep up C1 media for information or to accurate notes in meetings or write a casual conversation with a good degree of understand non-standard an essay which shows an ability to fluency, coping with abstract expressions. correspondence. communicate.
CAN follow or give a talk on a familiar topic CAN scan texts for relevant CAN make notes while someone is
B2 or keep up a conversation on a fairly wide information, and understand detailed talking or write a letter including
range of topics. instructions or advice. non-standard requests.
CAN express opinions on abstract/cultural CAN understand routine information
matters in a limited way or offer advice and articles, and the general meaning CAN write letters or make notes on B1 within a known area, and understand of non-routine information within a familiar or predictable matters.
instructions or public announcements. familiar area.
CAN understand straightforward
information within a known area, CAN complete forms and write CAN express simple opinions or A2 such as on products and signs and short, simple letters or postcards requirements in a familiar context. simple textbooks or reports on related to personal information.
familiar matters.
CAN understand basic instructions or take CAN complete basic forms, and CAN understand basic notices, A1 part in a basic factual conversation on a write notes including times, dates instructions or information. predictable topic. and places.
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APPENDIX 8: TBL Tasks [ETALAGE]
Cities in Italy
Skills: Gathering and sharing Level: Duration: Language: information, text production, noting A2 45 min. Italian data, formulating questions
I can ... formulate sentences on the basis of given (written) information, ask for information, take notes, summarize the text heard Product: The computer projection of documents and their oral presentation Product The presentation and interpretation of all information gathered within a given topic, formulating requirements: questions concerning the topic in question Situation / Introducing an Italian city or town with the help of the Internet theme: Process and Before the lesson itself, one of the students prepares the presentation of an Italian city resourses: or town (eg. Venice), gathering data, websites, the paths to pictures on the net (taking notes) In-class, this student is seated at the computer while the other students are watching the material projected. As the pictures (films) picked are shown, comments are constantly added by the student in charge. On the basis of the presentation, all students take notes. After the presentation of the material collected, students ask questions (reinforcing questions as well as questions about whatever has not been mentioned) (eg.:What’s the main square’s name? When was the building of the Doge’s Palace finished? Who gave the little bridge leading to the prison the name „Ponte dei Sospiri”?) Subsequently, the teacher may select from the information given (eg. names of sights; famous people / special vehicles associated with the city in question), then (s)he asks a student out of the group to summarize what (s)he has learnt about the Italian town or city concerned. On the basis of his/her notes, the student summarizes the contents of the presentation. Finally, other students may add to what has been heard; the teacher as well as the student who compiled the presentation may confirm the comments. Division of One student talks, another student has to summarize the content, the rest (may) ask questions roles: Skills Speaking skills, listening comprehension developed: Evaluation You were successful in doing the task if ... criteria: • Vocabulary you were able to use the vocabulary relevant to the topic properly (expressions concerning culture, art and geography) • Grammar using simple syntactic structures, you produced a short but compact text; you paid attention to the rules of sentence structure: word order phenomena, the rules of conjugation etc. • Communicative competence
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you could formulate your own opinion and ideas with the help of simple, often-met linguistic elements; you were able to react to the (oral) comments of others and formulate questions • Fluency you could speak relatively fluently at a (nearly-)appropriate speed, even if with some mistakes • Coherence you used the appropriate linguistic style; your opinion formulated orally fitted the subject • Pronunciation, intonation with some effort, your pronunciation could be understood by native speakers (despite your accent as well as some instances of slow speech) Author: Majzik Andrea
Title Cities in Italy Level A2 Skill Spoken Production Target language Italian Description language English Duration 45 min. Situation/theme Introducing an Italian city or town with the help of the Internet
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Letter to introduce yourself to your host family and ask for additional information.
Level: Skill/skills: Duration: Target language: A2 Writing 60 mins English
I can…: I can introduce myself I can give information about my hobbies, family and school. I can give information concerning any special needs during my stay with the host family. I can ask for information about the host family and my accommodation during my stay with them. Product: A letter of 150 words. Product A semi-formal letter in which you introduce yourself by giving global information about your requirements: interests, hobbies, family, friends and school. In the letter you politely ask for extra information about the host family itself and whether they can accommodate any special needs you might have. Situation / theme: In April we will be going to England, where you will stay with a hostfamily for three nights. Of course, this is very exciting! You have a lot of questions and before we leave you decide you are going to write a letter to the family in which you introduce yourself so they will have an idea of who you are. You also ask for some extra information about the hostfamily. (For instance: do they have pets? Will you have a bedroom of your own? Is it a problem that you are vegetarian?) Process and Before you start writing: make a short list of information you want to give to the hostfamily and what information you would like to receive. resources: Write your letter in your own words: check your spelling in a dictionary and your grammar with your textbook.
Recourses:
Pen & Paper
Lay out: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/22319
Dictionary: (Dutch to English: http://www.vandale.nl/vandale/opzoeken/woordenboek/) (English: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/) Division of roles Individual Assignment (optional): Consolidating ------activities : Success You will have done well if: factors/evaluation you have written 150 words. criteria : you have used the lay-out correctly. your sentences may be short, but you have used the present tense correctly and the words in your sentences are in the correct order. you have spelled words you have learned this year correctly and have checked the spelling of difficult words in a dictionary. you have used the correct tone for writing to someone you have not met before, but whom
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you will meet soon.
Authors: Marija ragutinovic, Duygu Bekler
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(Regions in) France
Level: Skills: Gathering information, Duration: Language: A2-B1 speaking + writing, taking notes 45 min. + 15 min. French
I can ... take notes, summarize a text heard and produce a written text on its basis Product: A document projected in-class as well as an oral presentation based on it Product An awareness of cultural characteristics of native speakers of the language learnt; learning requirements: about the country (countries) home to the language concerned Situation / Stereotypical ideas about countries watched on the Internet (cf. http://www.wat.tv/video/france- theme: vue-par-etrangers-vf-33r89_2ey61_.html) and then built into ppt-presentations of the students themselves Process and At the beginning of the lesson, the word stereotype is written on the board. The resourses: meaning of the word is defined. People’s stereotypical ideas of Frenchmen are discussed. In-class, the students in the group watch a short video material („La France vue par les étrangers”, 6 minutes) with the help of the projector; in the meantime, students take notes in groups. (The film watched contains information about eating habits and food, freetime activities, French men and women, about the French language, about celebrities etc.) The groups compare their notes, enrich them thereby and share them by putting them on the blackboard. Subsequently, the students watch the video sequence for the second time. Notes are further completed; with the help of the teacher, unknown words and expressions are written on the blackboard. Discussion: does personal experience fit or contradict the information seen in the film? In groups of three, gathering prototypical ideas about our own country: How do other nations see us? Preparing the homework: what are we like? How do others see us? (a process of collecting the different groups’ ideas lead by the teacher) teacher : what are we like? What opinion do other nations have about us? Homework: a short ppt-presentation about the topic named (i.e. our national image in an international context) compiled individually, containing much more visual material than text. At the beginning of the next lesson, these presentations are watched, discussed and evaluated. Division of All students are speakers as well as participants asking questions. roles: Skills Speaking skills, listening comprehension, writing developed: Evaluation You were successful in doing the task if ... criteria: • Vocabulary you were able to interpret and use the vocabulary relevant to the topic properly (eg. features of different personalities, activities, cultural events as well as sights); your speech was characterized by rich vocabulary • Grammar using simple syntactic structures, you produced short but compact utterances, involving more
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complex structures • Communicative competence you could formulate your own ideas with the help of simple, often-used linguistic elements; you were able to react to the (oral) comments of other students, to ask them questions about the topic concerned and interpret answers • Fluency you could speak relatively fluently at a (nearly-)appropriate speed, even if with mistakes • Coherence you used appropriate linguistic style; your opinion formulated orally fitted the subject • Pronunciation, intonation with some effort, your pronunciation could be understood by native speakers (despite your accent as well as some instances of slow speech) Author: Vesszős Ildikó (M dách Imre Secondary School Budapest)
Title Stereotypical ideas Level B1 Skill Writing Target language French Description language English Duration 45+15 min. Situation/theme Stereotypical ideas about countries watched on the Internet and then built into ppt-presentations
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Task: Your machine ate my card - money problems abroad
Situation/theme: Plan of action (on-line/off-line sources):
On holiday, you are about to withdraw 1) Find a partner to work with. money with your Mastercard “Cirrus” or Visa “Plus” card from a cash machine or 2) You will have to record a conversation ATM. between you and a bank employee, after the machine ate your card outside office hours. You have inserted your card and entered your PIN correctly. After having waited for 3) Think up a heart-rending story why you some five minutes, it becomes quite clear were hard hit when the bank’s cash machine that the computer system is out of order. failed to provide you with cash after closing hours. Make notes. However, your card stays inside the machine and you have no money left…. 4) Together think up ways in which you could get the bank to provide you with a (new?) card as soon as possible. Make notes.
5) Divide roles: one of you works for the bank, one of you is the duped tourist.
6) Next record the conversation as you could have it in real life. You can use your mobile phone for a digital recording. If you do not have one available, think of an alternative way to record your conversation.
7) Ask a reliable person for feedback.
8) Add the recording to your language portfolio.
Roles: one student has the role of "foreigner'', who starts up the conversation. The other is the bank employee. Planning products: Notes on heart rending stories (plan of action 3) Notes on possible solutions (plan of action 4) Final product: a (digitally) recorded conversation as you might have with someone in a bank
Product requirements: The conversation Is natural. Consequently, the text is not read out from a piece of paper. The length of this conversation should be 5 to 10 minutes.
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Indication CEF level: Main focus is on Duration: English having a 50 minutes conversation/ spoken interaction I can cope with less routine situations; I can make a complaint.
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Ways to re-inforce your English: Evaluation: (language intensifiers) You have been successful if:
make a list of the new words and Use of words and vocabulary language chunks that you have come your vocabulary/knowledge of words has across and file them away in a word- been sufficient to give descriptions of file "the cash machine" on everyday subjects, such as relatives, www.wrts.nl hobbies, work, travel and topical events. When necessary, you have done this by can you think of more ways to means of paraphrasing (i.e. when you complain about something? couldn't think of the proper word you -I am not happy about... used other words to make your intentions -I would like to complain about... clear.) - ...... Grammatical correctness - ...... you have made reasonably correct use of - ...... common routines and patterns that go - ...... with situations that are generally - ...... predictable.
Interaction you have started, carried on and concluded a simple face-to-face conversation on familiar topics in which you take a personal interest. You have been able to repeat parts of what someone has said to confirm that you have understood each other correctly.
Fluency It has been easy to follow you although there have been quite a few pauses for grammar, vocabulary, correction of mistakes, especially in longer text fragments.
Coherence you have connected series of shorter sentences to a logical whole.
Pronunciation you have a pronunciation which is clear and understandable, although you have an accent and you pronounce a word the wrong way occasionally/now and then.
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Title Your machine ate my card Level B1 Skill Spoken Interaction Target language English Description language English Duration 50 min On holiday, you are about to withdraw money with your Mastercard “Cirrus” or Visa “Plus” card from a cash machine or ATM. You have inserted your card and entered your PIN correctly. After Situation/theme having waited for some five minutes, it becomes quite clear that the computer system is out of order. However, your card stays inside the machine and you have no money left….
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Appendix 9: De-Suggestopedia Concert Texts27
ONE
Once upon a time there was a young man who was addicted to chocolate. He ate it for breakfast in the morning, at lunch and dinner - it seemed that he was never tired of eating it. Chocolate with cornflakes, chocolate on toast, chocolate and beer - he even boasted of eating chocolate and steak. He was married to a beautiful woman whom he had met when he was recovering from flu. She was a nurse, responsible for all the patients in the area and very content with her job. In fact the only problem these two had was his dependence on chocolate. One day the young wife decided on a plan to make her husband allergic to chocolate forever. She confided in her best friend and asked her to cooperate with her in playing a trick on her husband. She was aware of the fact that her friend suffered from rats and she asked if she could borrow some of her rat poison. Her friend was a little surprised at the request but agreed to it and gave her the poison. The young wife hurried home and started work in the kitchen, very satisfied with herself. An hour later she emerged from the kitchen proudly carrying a large chocolate cake and the empty tin of rat poison. "Darling - I've made a lovely chocolate cake for you!" she called fondly. Down the stairs the greedy husband ran and in short time he had polished it off, right down to the last crumb.
He was released from hospital after only two weeks. He never accused his wife of poisoning him, but he was always slightly suspicious of her. Needles to say, he never again touched chocolate.
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27 Various other examples of teaching materials for the approach can be found in Lozanov and Gateva (1988) and ân illustrative Italian lesson is produced in Lozanov’s seminal text (1978: 282-309). 322
TWO
EINE OPER FÜR DIE TUPARI
1. SZENE: ANKUNFT AN BORD 1. TONEEL: AANKOMS AAN BOORD
(Hafen in Koblenz: (Hawe in Koblenz: Anlegestelle des Kabinenschiffes aanlêplek van die kajuitskip "Perle der Mosel". "Pêrel van die Mosel". Es ist ein herrlicher Spätsommermorgen: Dit is 'n heerlike laatsomeroggend: Stille. Stilte. Sanftes Licht, Sagte lig, blaues Wasser, blou water, bunte Weinberge. bont wingerde. Ein leichter Wind bewegt 'n Sagte wind beweeg die Wimpel des weißen Schiffes. die vlae van die wit skip. Ein Taxi - gelber Mercedes - 'n Huurmotor - geel Mercedes - nähert sich fast lautlos nader amper geluidloos der Anlegestelle des Dampfers. die aanlêplek van die skip. Roswitha und Werner steigen aus, Roswitha en Werner klim uit, gehen mit ihrem Gepäck stap met hul bagasie über die kurze Treppe oor die kort trap auf das Schiff. op die skip. Der Erste Offizier Die Eerste Offisier empfängt sie.) ontvang hulle.) OFFIZIER: Willkommen an Bord! Welkom aan boord! Mein Name ist Brecht. My naam is Brecht. Ich bin der Erste Offizier. Ek is die Eerste Offisier. Darf ich Mag ek lhre Fahrscheine sehen, u kaartjies sien, bitte? asseblief? (Werner und Roswitha (Werner en Roswitha reichen ihm ihre Tickets.) gee vir hom hul kaartjies.)
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