Durham E-Theses Predynastic & Pharaonic era Rock-Art in Egypt's Central Eastern Desert: Distribution, Dating & Interpretation LANKESTER, FRANCIS,DAVID How to cite: LANKESTER, FRANCIS,DAVID (2012) Predynastic & Pharaonic era Rock-Art in Egypt's Central Eastern Desert: Distribution, Dating & Interpretation, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5909/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Predynastic & Pharaonic era Rock-Art in Egypt’s Central Eastern Desert: Distribution, Dating & Interpretation Thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. Archaeology, Durham University, 2012 by Francis Lankester Dedication This thesis is dedicated to David Rohl-without whom it would never have been started, and to my mother-without whom it would never have been finished. Acknowledgements Above all, I would like to thank Margarita Díaz-Andreu and Penny Wilson for their tremendously hard work and necessary patience as my supervisors over the years of this study, and for guiding me in my academic research and writing. I would never have conceived an interest in Egyptian rock-art without the enthusiasm and support of all the members of the Eastern Desert Survey, and the efforts of the staff and drivers of Ancient World Tours. I must also gratefully acknowledge the ideas, updates, images and feedback given to me by Russ Rothe, Andrea Byrnes, Cheryl Hanson, Aude van Craeynest, Gwenola Graff, Dirk Huyge, Hans Barnard, Barbara Tratsaert, Yarko Koblecky, Mike Shepherd, Kathryn Piquette, Stan Hendrickx and Ian Shaw. In Memoriam: Hans A. Winkler, 1900-45. “The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged.” Egypt’s Central Eastern Desert Rock-Art: Distribution, Dating & Interpretation Abstract The aim of this thesis is to examine the rock-art of Egypt’s Central Eastern Desert in order to outline the petroglyphs’ distribution and influences on their location, to date them, and to explore the reasons why they were created. The area is notable for the presence of boat petroglyphs, along with images of people and a wide range of fauna, in the middle of the desert many miles from the Nile and Red Sea. Since Hans Winkler’s pioneering work in the 1930’s, the corpus covering the whole of the area has been considerably increased due to work from the 1980’s to the present, thanks mainly to the Eastern Desert Survey (EDS) and the Rock Art Topographical Survey (RATS). The construction of a comprehensive corpus enables an analysis of the distribution of the approximately 4000 images, the dating of a significant majority of the rock-art sites and interpretation of the reasons for their creation. Many of the petroglyphs were probably made in the early predynastic period: Naqada I c to II a/b (which scholars generally date from 3750 to 3650 BCE), and often show hunting scenes associated with boats, or even have vessels integrated within them. As the spatial analysis carried out in this work demonstrates, these motifs are often located in shaded locations and, especially in the south of the survey area, near to the entrances to side wadis. In contrast, the smaller numbers of dynastic and Greco- Roman images are usually situated on routes to the mines and quarries of the Eastern Desert, as well as to the Red Sea. This thesis also proposes a new approach to the interpretation of boats and the figures with arms raised and incurved above the head. As opposed to common scholarly practice where they have previously been interpreted by retrospective comparison with pharaonic themes, I pursue a synchronic approach to interpretation, placing the predynastic motifs in Naqada culture funerary context linked to hunting as an elite activity. The later rock-art is divided between pharaonic images related to mining and quarrying expeditions, and horse and camel riders pictured in unique conflict scenes. Preface Introduction 1 Chapter One-History of Research 1 Introduction 1 0 1.2 Previous Research into Egyptian Petroglyphs 1.2.1 Weigall and Winkler 11 12 1.2.2 Further study and Resch’s reassessment of Winkler 13 1.2.3 The UNESCO rescue archaeology recording teams 13 1.2.4 P. Červiček’s reworking of Winkler 13 1.2.5 Fuchs in Wadi Baramiya 15 1.3 Renewed surveying inspired by Winkler 1.3.1 The Eastern Desert and Rock Art Topographical Surveys 17 1.3.2 Additional Surveys 21 1.4 Conclusion 24 Chapter Two-Methodology 2.1 Introduction 26 1 2.2 Methodological Issues Arising from the Corpus 2.2.1 The Composition of the Corpus 26 2.2.2 Survey Problems 2 8 2.3 Creating the typologies 2.3.1 Animal Images Typology-Determining Numbers 2 9 2.3.2 Determining Species 29 2.3.3 The Overall Typology 32 2.4 Human Images 2.4.1 Problems of Identification 32 2.4.2 Differentiating Types of Figure 32 2.4.3 Identifying Gender 34 2.4.4 Horse/Camel Riding 35 2.4.5 Using Accoutrements and Gesture 35 2.5 Boat Typology 2.5.1 Identifying Boats 36 2.5.2 Previous Attempts at Classification 36 2.5.3 Issues in Creating a Boat Typology 38 2.5.4 Creating a Useable Boat Typology 39 2.6 Dating Petroglyphs: Boat Images as a Case Study 2.6.1 Dating Boat Petroglyphs – Radiometric Dating Techniques and Patination 40 2.6.2 Dating the Boats Stylistically 44 2.6.3 Naqada I Boat Motifs 45 2.6.4 Naqada II Boat Motifs 47 2.6.5 Naqada III Boat Motifs 48 2.6.6 Pharaonic and Later Boat Motifs 48 2.6.7 Beyond the Boats: Dating the Petroglyphs 50 2.7 Distribution 2.7.1 Questions Regarding Distribution 52 2.7.2 Issues in Determining Distribution of Motifs in the Corpus 53 2.8 Interpreting the CED Petroglyphs 2.8.1 Previously Suggested Motivations for the Rock-Art 54 2.8.2 Establishing a Synchronic Approach to Interpretation-The ‘Associated’ and 55 ‘Integrated’ Scenes 2.8.3 Establishing a Synchronic Approach to Interpretation-The ‘Late’ Scenes 56 2.9 Conclusion 57 Chapter Three-Environment and Landscape 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Geography and Geology of the Survey Area 3.2.1 Extent of the Survey Area 6 0 3.2.2 The Wadi System 6 3 3.3 Water Resources & Environment in the Survey Area 3.3.1 Water Resources: Rainfall 6 5 3.3.2 Water Resources: Aquifers 6 6 3.3.3 Water resources: Rock pools 6 7 3.3.4 Resources: Vegetation 6 8 3.4 Climate in the Prehistoric and Pharaonic Eras 7 0 3.5 Predynastic and Pharaonic Fauna 3.5.1 Faunal Bone Remains 72 3.5. 2 Fauna in the Predynastic and Pharaonic Eras 7 3 3.6 The Wadis as Habitation 3.6.1 Animal Habitation 7 5 3.6.2 Human Habitation 7 6 3.7 Routes through the Desert 3.7.1 Modern experience 7 8 3.7.2 Pharaonic & Greco-Roman Experience 79 3.7.3 Routes to the Gold Mines 70 3.8 Height and Possible Chronology of Central Eastern Desert Wadi Floor Levels and Sites 3.8.1 Previous Attempts at Dating 8 1 3.8.2 Wadi Floor Levels Over Time: The Effect of Flooding 8 1 3.8.3 The Effect of Wind on Wadi Floor Levels 8 2 3.9 Conclusion 8 3 Chapter Four-Animal Depictions 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Riverine Animals 4.2.1.1 Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) 8 6 4.2.1.2 The Species 8 6 4.2.1.3 Distribution 8 6 4.2.1.4 Dating 8 7 4.2. 1.5 Discussion 89 4.2.2 Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) 4.2.2.1 The Species 9 1 4.2.2.2 Overview 9 1 4.2.2.3 Dating 92 4.2.2.4 Discussion 9 3 4.3 Large Animals 4.3.1 Elephants (Luxodonta africana) 9 5 4.3.1.1 The Species 9 5 4.3.1.2 Distribution 9 6 4.3.1.3 Dating 9 7 4.3.1. 4 Discussion 1 0 0 4.3.2 Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) 4.3.2.1 The Species 1 0 1 4.3.2.2 Distribution 1 0 2 4.3.2. 3 Dating 1 0 3 4.3.2.4 Discussion 10 8 4.4 Ungulates 4.4.1 Asses (Equus asinus africanus) 1 09 4.4.1.1 The Species 109 4.4.1.2 Distribution 1 09 4.4.1.3 Dating 11 0 4.4.1. 4 Discussion 11 0 4.4.2 Ibex (Capra ibex nubiana) 4.4.2.1 The Species 11 2 4.4.2.2 Distribution 11 2 4.4.2. 3 Dating 11 3 4.4.2.4 Discussion 11 4 4.4.3 Antelope 4.4.3.1 The Species 1 1 5 4.4.3.2 Distribution 1 1 5 4.4.3.3 Dating 116 4.4.3.