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The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830

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The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830 The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814-1830 Thomas Goldsmith Student No. 3975592 Submission for Doctor of Philosophy University of East Anglia School of History September 2016 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. 1 Abstract This thesis is an examination of the diplomatic career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington between 1814-30. The Duke’s significant contributions to foreign policy-making have been an area neglected by historians. Occupying a central position in British politics during this time, this neglect has distorted both assessments of his career and of the wider domestic and foreign contexts. There is nothing in the extant literature that offers a thorough analysis of Wellington’s diplomatic experiences and his role in the framing and executing of British foreign policy. This work fills that lacuna. It takes a wide look at Wellington’s involvement in the conduct of British diplomacy and highlights the crucial formative experiences during his time on the Continent 1814-18 and the impact these had for his future policies. By looking at the full scope of Wellington’s foreign policy for the first time, this thesis enables scholars to have a more comprehensive view of the conduct of politics during the tumultuous years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. 2 Contents Introduction p. 5 From Soldier to Statesman 1814-18 p. 17 Wellington and the Politics of Foreign Policy 1814-18 p. 19 The Spanish Mission p. 23 The Paris Embassy I: Wellington and the Slave Trade p. 25 The Paris Embassy II: Wellington and the Settlement of Europe p. 32 Vienna to Waterloo p. 42 Wellington and the Second Bourbon Restoration p. 44 Commander-in-Chief of the Occupation I: International Arbiter? p. 53 Commander-in-Chief of the Occupation II: Reducing the Army p. 61 A Friend and a Rival: Wellington, Castlereagh and Canning 1819-27 p. 72 Wellington and Castlereagh 1819-22 p. 73 The Death of Castlereagh and the Question of his Succession p. 91 Wellington and the Congress of Verona p. 94 Canning, Spain and the New World 1823-25 p. 110 3 Wellington and the Near East I: St. Petersburg to Downing Street, 1826 –1828 p. 138 Wellington and the Near East II: The Great Game or the Old Game? 1828 – 1829 p. 164 Portugal and Algiers: Wellington and British Foreign Policy, 1826-30 p. 210 Portugal 1826-30 p. 211 French Invasion of Algiers p. 247 Conclusion p. 252 Bibliography p. 259 4 Introduction Few figures have received the attention that Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, has been accorded. Remembered as one of Britain’s greatest military leaders, the Duke has been the subject of numerous biographies.1 But most of these, and most of the wider literature on him, have focused almost solely on the relatively few years of his service in the field, especially in the Peninsula and at Waterloo. One biography devotes a mere 36 pages to the entire period from his return to Britain in 1818 until his death in 1852.2 For a man who would go on to serve in Cabinet for the best part of seventeen years, in four different stints, including time as Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary, this is a notable omission. Indeed, his political career took up much more of his life than his military one.3 Wellington was, furthermore, deeply involved in many of the principal political questions of his day. From the trial of Queen Caroline, through Catholic Emancipation, Reform and the Repeal of the Corn Laws, the Duke played an important, and often pivotal, part in each. The politics of Britain between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the start of the Crimean War simply cannot be understood without reference to Wellington and his political views. Though neglected for a long time, this aspect of his career has had more light cast upon it in recent years, beginning with Neville Thompson’s biography that focuses solely on the years after 1815 and culminating in Rory Muir’s magisterial two volume biography. This was spurred by 1 The best, and most recent, are the two volumes by Rory Muir: R. Muir, Wellington: The Path to Victory 1769-1814 (Yale and London, 2013) [hereafter referred to as Muir, Wellington, vol. I]; R. Muir, Wellington: Waterloo and the Fortunes of Peace, 1814-1852 (Yale and London, 2015) [hereafter referred to as Muir, Wellington, vol. II]. Others include, P. Guedalla, The Duke (Kingswood, 1931); E. Longford, Wellington: The Years of the Sword (London, 1970); E. Longford, Wellington: Pillar of State (London, 1972); N. Thompson, Wellington After Waterloo (London, 1986); C. Hibbert, Wellington: A Personal History (London, 1998); R. Holmes, Wellington: The Iron Duke (London, 2003). 2 Holmes, Wellington, pp. 257-293. 3 Wellington is not alone in the neglect he has received. The 14th Earl of Derby, the longest serving Conservative leader and three-time Prime Minister, had no biography prior to the recent volumes by Angus Hawkins. A. Hawkins, The Forgotten Prime Minister: The 14th Earl of Derby Volume I: Ascent, 1799-1851 (Oxford, 2009) & The Forgotten Prime Minister: The 14th Earl of Derby: Volume II: Achievement, 1851-1869 (Oxford, 2011). 5 Wellington’s papers entering public ownership under the national heritage legislation. Since then, it has been possible to take a much wider view of his career, further encouraged by the regular Wellington Congresses, and the ensuing publications, Wellington Studies.4 The contributions in these volumes have vastly expanded the horizons of scholars working on the Duke and enriched our understanding of the age in which he lived. Historians looking at the career of the Duke of Wellington also have access to a veritable goldmine of published primary material – over 40 volumes of his correspondence have been released over the years. Two sets in particular form an important component of this thesis. Both edited by Arthur, 2nd Duke of Wellington, the Supplementary Despatches (WSD) and its continuation, informally known as the Wellington New Despatches (WND), a convention followed here, they include almost all the correspondence, both domestic and foreign, of the Duke on diplomatic questions over the years this thesis covers.5 They make up an invaluable resource for the historian interested in Wellington’s career and are supplemented by numerous other published sources, most notably, the diaries of Harriett Arbuthnot, Wellington’s close friend and the wife of Charles Arbuthnot.6 Despite the amount of material available, and the advances in scholarship made in recent years, there remains one notable lacuna in the historiography surrounding the Duke of Wellington: foreign policy. This is an odd omission given the very 4 Wellington Studies I, ed. C.M. Woolgar (Southampton, 1996); Wellington Studies II, ed. C.M. Woolgar (Southampton, 1998); Wellington Studies III, ed. C.M. Woolgar (Southampton, 1999); Wellington Studies IV, ed. C.M. Woolgar (Southampton, 2008); Wellington Studies V, ed. C.M. Woolgar (Southampton, 2013). An earlier volume also arose out of the transfer of the papers to Southampton: Wellington: Studies in the Military and Political Career of the First Duke of Wellington, ed. N. Gash (Manchester, 1990). 5 Supplementary Despatches, Correspondence and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur, Duke of Wellington, K.G., ed. the 2nd Duke of Wellington, 15 vols. (London, 1858-72) [WSD]; Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda of Field Marshal Arthur, Duke of Wellington, K.G., ed. the 2nd Duke of Wellington ‘in continuation of the former series’, 8 vols. (London, 1857-80) [WND]. The printed correspondence was compared with the archival copies for 1814 from the Wellington Papers at the University of Southampton and for 1828 from the Aberdeen Mss. at the British Library. There were very few differences between the contents and no substantive correspondence was left out. For the years 1819-30, the WND have largely formed the primary basis of the research into the Duke’s correspondence on matters of foreign policy. However, the quoted material below has come directly from the Wellington Papers, using the excellent Wellington Papers Database, available at www.archives.soton.ac.uk/wellington/. Any significant differences between the published and the archival material have been noted, and the reference to both has been given in the footnotes. 6 The Journal of Mrs Arbuthnot, 1820-1832, eds. F. Bamford & the Duke of Wellington, 2 vols. (London, 1950). 6 prominent role that he played in its formation, and the important place he occupied in the diplomatic discourse of Europe. Yet this aspect of his career has received scant attention. Out of the 53 chapters in the five volumes of Wellington Studies, only two deal explicitly with this subject.7 Even the more political biographies of him devote almost no space to foreign policy. Thompson, for example, writes two pages on Wellington’s mission to St Petersburg in 1826 and then nothing else on the question of Greek independence, the Treaty of London, the Russo-Turkish War or the Treaty of Adrianople.8 These were issues to which the Duke devoted a substantial portion of his time and correspondence. Foreign policy was undoubtedly the area of policy where Wellington most consistently directed his attention over these years and not to examine it in the detail it deserves leaves the historical picture of him limited in the richness of its colour palette. This issue, however, is not one that is solely limited to the writing around Wellington.
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