UNION INTERNATIONALE DES SCIENCES PRÉHISTORlQUES ET PROTOHISTORIQUES INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR PREHISTORlC AND PROTOHISTORlC SCIENCES

PROCEEDINGS OF THE XV WORLD CONGRESS (LISBON, 4-9 SEPTEMBER 2006) ACTES DU XV CON GRES MONDIAL (LISBONNE, 4-9 SEPTEMBRE 2006)

Series Editor: Luiz Oosterbeek

VOL. 16

2006 lisboa

Session e27

Prehistoric Art and Ideology

Edited by Emmanuel Anati

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Proceedings of the XV World Congress of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences Actes du XV Congres Mondial de l'Union Internationale des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques

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PrehistorícArt and Ide%gy, vo/.l6, Session C27

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Presentation: Prehistoric art and ideology ...... 1 Emmanuel Anati,

Deciphering mythological narrations in the rock art of Valcamonica:

the rock of the phallus ...... 3 Emmanuel Anati & A riela Fradkin, Italy

Gravettian burial rites: functional analysis of the lithic grave goods ...... 13 Simona Arrighi & Valentina Borgia, ltaly

Animal deities and shamans, warriors and Aesir Gods - rock art of

the Nothern Countries - Scandinavia, Finland and Russia ...... 21 UlfBertilsson, Sweden

Dancing scenes and ideology in the Neolithic Near East...... 41 Yosef Garfinkel,

Patriarchy and ideology in the rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin ...... 53 Trinidad Escoriza Mateu,

The symbolism and the wearing fashion of jewellery-pendants during

the Bronze Age in Hungary ...... 61 Katalin lankovits, Hungary

Les "arts" megalithiques d' Occidentale: pourquoi une telle diversite? ...... 73 lean-Pierre Mohen,

How the artistic production of a Prehistoric society can suggest cultural changes

and everyday life imagery: the case of the Predynastic Nile Valley ...... 77 Simona Moscadelli, Italy

Evidence for a Muelos belief in African and near East Neolithic mortuary rituals? ...... 87 Estelle Orrelle, UK

Simboli al femminile: linee parallele e a volta nell'arte rupestre Calcolitica ...... 95 Umberto Sansoni, ltaly

Idéologie et symbolisme dans I'art nord-thrace ...... lB Valeriu Sfrbu, Romania

Animals as symbols in Upper Palaeolithic art ...... 121 Christian Züchner, Germany

Note: the communications are published in the alphabetic order 01 authors PATRIARCHY AND IDEOLOGY IN THE ROCK ART OF THE IBERIAN MEDITERRANEAN BASIN

Trinidad ESCORIZA MA TEU

Departamenlo de Hisloria, Geografía e Hi loria del Arte, Universidad de Almerfa (España)

Summary: IlIIerpretations of the female body in prehistoric art are socially constrllcted and marked by a series of norms IIsing the langllage of the patriarcal order. The análisis conducted here slIggests the existence of a sexllal divisi6n of labollr, and that ineqllalities in this indicate that 1V0men lVere a socially exploited grollp. I arglle that cOlllrol over 1V0men ;s rej/ected in the scarcity of representations sllch as matemity, the cancellation of sexllal attribllles, and the invisibility of female activities. Key lVords: Spanish Levallline RockArt. Figllrative Represelllations. Femin;st Theory. Exploitation. Violence against Women

Résumé: Les illlerprétations dll corps femelle dans I'art préhistoriqlle SOIll socialemelll construites et SOIll marqllées par IlIIfellilleton de non1/es lIIilisalll la lallglle de I'ordre de patriarcal. Le análisis a dirigé ici sllggere I'existence d'lIn divisi6n sexllel de travail, et qlle les inégalités dans ceci indiqllelll qlle les femmes étaielll 1111 grollpe socialemelll exploité. le displlle ce colllrole par-desslls les femmes est rej/été dans la rareté de représentations telles qlle de grossesse, I'annlllation d'attribllts sexllels, et l'inv;sibilité d'activités femelles. Mots Clés: Art Rllpestre dll Levalll Espagnol. Représelltations Figllratives. Théorie Fémilliste. Exploitatioll. Violmce cOlllre les Femmes

WOMEN AND LEV ANTINE ROCK ART region of the Ea tern lberian Peninsula, from the foolhills of the Pyrenees (in Huesca Province) to the The figurative representations which I examine here form mountainous regions in the interior of Ihe soulh-east of part of whal is tradilionally called Levanline Rock Art or, the lberian Peninsula (Almería and Jaén Provinces). more recenlly, Rock Art of the Medilerranean Basin of Within this area, lhere are rock sheller with Levantine the lberian Peninsula. The surviving representations figures al dislances of more than 600 km from each other, produced in this artistic slyle were declared an elemenl of in geogmphical areas which can be qualified as being World Herilage by UNESCO in 1998. A whole range of highly diverse. painled figuralive represenlations, forming composilions and scenes of varied lhemes are collectively known as The chronology of lhese manifestalions has given rise to Levanline Art (Hernandez Pérez el al. 1988; Hernandez an importanl debate, given thal independenl physico­ Pérez y Soler oraz 2(05). Among lhese compositions can chemical dating are still nol available, and analyse of be found figures of women, men as well a of sexually slylislic serialization and figuralive parnllels conlinue lo indelerminale figures. There are also various lypes of be lacking. Al presenl, there is a generally hared opinion animals and a mnge of objecls, oflen related lo lhe thal Ihis is a posl-Palaeolithic art form (Molina el al. figures. The liguralive character and composilion of 2003; Garcia el al. 2(04). Recenlly il chronology has cenes means thal Levantine Rock Art can be thought of been localed in the Neolithic period of Ihe Medilerranean a a manifestalion which provides information aboul the region of the lberian Peninsula. From the 1980s the malerial conditions and social life in geneml of the chronological framework of Spani h Levantine Rock Art communities which produced and used them (Escoriza has remained fixed in this prehisloric period thanks lo the Mateu 200 I ; 2002a y 2002b). discovery the of so-called "Macro-Schemalic" Rock Art. Thi is because macro-schemalic representalion have These Levantine productions are lO be found in social been found beneath paintings in lhe Levanline slyle, uch paces where daily life was nol carried out. These are thal the latler form musl be poslerior lO, or al lea 1 places where life was nol lived on a continuou basis, bul contemporary with the former. Together wilh its difficull mlher where activilies occurred which were related lo the chronological identification, Ihere are certain olher repre entations, which show by means of figure a eries problems wilh Levantine art, such as the limited number of understandings and experiences. Thal is lo ay, lhese of studie dealing with the correspondence belween the were areas where politico-ideological practices look rock shelters with Levantine paintings and inhabiled place. The majorily of the painted panel s wilh Levanline areas. Another seriou chronological problem is lhe figures are to be found in rock shelters and open caves, in exislence of paintings added to lhe same compo ilion, hallow spaces exposed to Ihe open air and well lit by making lhe reading of scenes more difficull given Ihal il is natuml light. Genemlly they are in accessible sites, on hard lo be sure of lhe lime difference belween differenl genlle hillsides, although there are also sorne in steep figure . BOlh queslions could be c1arified once an rocky slopes wilh more difficull access (Fairen 2(04). adequate absolule chronology for Ihe painling ha been established. On the basis of the mosl recent information available, Levantine Rock Art would have occupied the whole of From the beginning my interesl has been centred on Ihe Mediterranean Fringe, the coastal and pre-coastal trying lo recover, documenl and analyse lhe grealesl

53 PREHI TORIC ART 0 IDEOLOGY

number of female repre ntation in the Le antine panel . Finall ,in thi tudy of Le antine production , a ''Theory The aim wa to try to explain them in relation to the social of Figurative Representation "i developed, in order to practice in which they were involved, based on the take on the analysis of image with recognizable figure activitie represented.In the face of the enormou volume (women, men, animal and/or thing) (Escoriza Mateu of existing information. I decided to devote this first tudy 2002b; Escoriza Mateu 2(05). The tudy made on th exclu ively to the analy is of the scene in which female ba is of the isolated scene from a total of 60 helte representations are documented. Neverthele ,I am aware analysed ha allowed me to reach a serie of conclu ion that it i nece ary to broaden thi work with future which affect different a pect of the ubject matter. inve tigation analy ing compo itions both with and without female representations. It i therefore nece sary to analyse both the scenes composed of men and those with REPRESENTATION AND REALITY: figure f indeterminate sex. There i an important with THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF LEV ANTlNE the figure of indeterminate ex, because they have been ART sexually identified incorrectly, and erroneou sexual attribution have been made to the activitie which they From the year 8000-5000 cal BC, there wa a variabilit are carrying out. Only with a detailed exual attribution of in the forms of food production in different part of the the representati n will we be able to really know what eastern Iberian Penin ula (Ca tro Martinez et al. 2006; pia e women and men occupied in relation to the different Schuhmacher y Weniger 1995). Thi contra ts with the economic and politico-ideological activitie portrayed. theme repre ented in the Levantine painting . which how, by contrast, a great homogeneity between the A uch, I propose the need to recover both women and different communitie , with hunting a a central economic men, and in order to do 0 it i nece ary to .. exuate" activity. Having rejected the po sibility that the (identify acc rding to sex) with the greate t pos ible repre entations corre pond to a pre-Neolithic time period, accuracy. At pre nt, archa logy ha two way of thi lead to the uggestion of the exi tence of similar and sexuating the past. In the fir t place through the analy i hared political practice and ideological heme in the of bone remain which allow u to gain an exhau ti e different ocial group , tran ending the ambit of the and precise under tanding of the ubjects reco ered. The different economic trategie . In conclu ion, the economic second approach i the use of image and/or figurative image of Levantine Art doe not re pond to realit . representation carried out on different type of material Levantine Art create a fal e version of economic upports, and which are alway sexuated. Thi i the practice , giving hunting an importance which it did not option we will use in the pre ent work, in relation to the really have. Le antine Rock Art compo ition (Escoriza Mateu Sanahuja VII 2(02). The exual identification of the figure in the Levantine panel can be made in a high percentage of case . There Thi tudy of Levantine Rock Art sets out from the are two clear elements of sexuation which figure in many articulation of variou theorie and methodological occa ion , breasts for women, and penise for men. At the proposal , which have the novelty of dealing with ame time, we have documented a large number of human different aspect of the ubject matter from the analy i of representation for which the se cannot be determined, the empirical evidence to hi torical explanation . In as it i not represented or it i not clearly recognizable contrast to the mo t frequent conception, which identifie from our contemporary perspective. The presence of production exclu ively with the production of object , the sexually indeterminate figure i a seriou ob tacle in ofar per pective of the ''Theory of the Production of Social a it prevent the e tabli hment of clear relation between Life" which i used here, propose that all ocietie are these and the re t of the ubjects and/or material object reproduced by mean of different type of production, repre ented with which the e tabli h relevant namely: Production of Bodie ; Production of Objects; a ociation in many occa ion . Maintenance Production of Subject and Maintenance Production of Objec . These productive proce se each Fortunately there i another po i51e mean of sexuating present their own pecific characteristic , and they aI 0 the figure represented in the case in which these do not extend to the con umption, use, profit and/or enjoyment how either breast or penise . In the ca e of women, the of the re ulting products of ocial labour,both the object repeated presence of long kirt , alway a ociated with and the ubjects themselve (Castro Martinez et al. 1996). figure with brea t allow u to use thi item of clothing as an additional element of sexuation. In the case of the Thi pr posal emerge from the Hi rical Materiali t male collective no other element of clothing i to be found traditi n, ut it incorporate and i enriched by which i ufficiently widely hared to allo it to be used c ntributi n from Materiali t Femini m. The ''Theory of as an extra element of sexuation. e erthele , the Social Practice "which i followed in thi work allow u in i tent recurrence between ma culine figure , that i to to e tabli h the network of activitie and relation which ay those with a peni , and tho carrying bow and make up ocial life. And from the per pective of thi arrow ugge t that the sexually indeterminate figure theory we can tackle the study of the activitie which carry these object are ma culine representation . represented in the figurative portrayal of Levantine Art. Thi mean that we can con ider bow and arrow to be

54 T. EsCORIZA MATEU: PAllUARCHY AND IDEOLOGY IN THE ROCK ART OF THE IBERIAN MEDlTERRANEA BAS!

an indirect form of sexuation,in the same way as clothing exi tence of a symmetrical or reciprocal situation in the (the long skirt) in the ca e of feminine representation . divi ion of labour between women and men. The This argument takes on more value when no feminine existence of reciprocity would require that there wa a figures are to be found carrying bow and arrow , let compen ated investment of labour and/or a imilar alone using them, even in the hunting cene in which participation between the different ocial (exual) women participate. collective ,a well as a symmetrical social con umption and/or benefit (Ca tro Martfnez et al. 2(03). The exi tence of exploitation,or by contrast of reciprocity,in ECONOMIC LABOUR IN THE LEVANTINE the e relations, depend on the e tabli hment of REPRESENTA TlONS imbalances in the participation in labour, and on the benefits implied by acces to con umptionluselenjoyment By mean of the analysis of the economic actIvItIes of the products. For thi reason it is vital to indicate the portrayed we can affirm that the Levantine panel difference between the ocial activitie of labour and of repreent the female collective carrying out a wide range consumption-use-enjoyment,if these are represented. of labour activities. These include: clearing field , barve ting, sowing, herding, transport of objects and It mu t not be forgotten that the exi tence of exploitation participation in beating for collective hunts. To these doe not depend on the framework of ocial practice in ould be added other economic activitie such as the which labour activities are carried out, but rather on the production of new individual (production of bodies) and compensation that the women and men obtain in the maintenance of the infant individual (children),as exchange for that participation. In this sense, it ha repreented in some of the scene recovered (Escoriza already been mentioned that with regard to participation Mateu 2002a). in labour,the conditions cannot be qualified a being ymmetrical. Thi i the case given that th.ere i a clear the evidence point to an important fact: the female asymmetry between the exes with the masculine llective is repreented in Levantine Art engaging in a collective benefiting from a erie of ta k carried out by wide range of economic activities, participating with it the women, without that collective apparently labour both in the Production of Bodie a well a in the compen ating thi ituation with corre ponding material production of a wide range of objects and maintenance benefit . production tasks. On this basis it can be argued that the women are the main contributors to the production and In relation to the type of exploitation which occurred,it maintenance of ocial life in general. A regard the could be ugge ted that there are ufficient clue of a uline collective, it partIcIpation in economic figurative nature to upport the exi tence of a relative or acti itie i much less varied,although the carce range of partial exploitation, but not an in extended form (Ca tro ks which they engage in are repreented in a much Martinez et al. 2(03). Po ibly thi is a material reality in p-eater number of case . Masculine figures appear in which women and men make different labour investments nting and pastoral scenes,for which rea on it does not (to the detriment of the feminine collective),although it i .:em exce ive to argue that their ocial contribution i not possible to determine whether there are patterns of h maller than that of the women. Other tasks cannot con umption and/or benefits which can be considered to attributed sexually, uch as the po ible riding and/or be asymmetrical in ome a pect between the two dome tication of animal and climbing to collect good , collective (and if thi i again prejudicial to the female 'ven the impo sibility of ascertaining whether the figure collective). On the other hand, there are no indication carrying out these activities are of women and/or men. that allow us to sugge t the use of associated group for exploitation or, as such, the exi tence of what we have This division doe not nece arily imply the exploitation referred to ha extended exploitation. In any case,it can • one collective by the other,but the inequality exi ting be concluded that among the Neolithic communitie the division of ta ks indicates that the feminine re pon ible for Levantine Art, equality i a fallacy and the collective could be a social group whose labour benefited reality is one of a fundamental difference between the men without adequate compensation. The women, sexe with regard to their social contribution within the although they hared certain activities, such a grazing framework of different forms of production. Levantine animal with the men, carried out more ta ks than them, Art itselfreinforce thi ituation,repeatedly representing those ta k were more important from the point of masculine activitie ,which took on an importance which Wew of the ati faction of the alimentary requirements of they did not appear to actually have. * whole community. Furthermore, the women al 0 cwried out other tasks such as gestation,nursing and the All of the above leads me to sugge t once more the of children - basic maintenance production, of exi tence of control over women, which even re ult in lute importance for the continuity of the social life the concealment of certain ta ks within Levantine Rock _ which benefit the whole community. Art,such a the production of bodie ,the cancellation of sexual attribute and in general a scarce representation of 1i1Ius. in function of the representation portrayed in the the wide range of activitie which women carried out. The �antine panel , it is not possible to ugge t the politico-ideological trategy i to screen that collective

55 PREHISTORIC ART A D lDEOLOGY

and limit it ocial value in relation to its work in the LEVANTINE ART, IDEOLOGY AND ECONOMY creation of the material condition for the production and maintenance of ocial life (Ca tro Martlnez et al. ep.) Having evaluated the available archaeolo· information I go on to propose a number of interpretati1llt hypothese relating to Levantine Rock Art and THE POLITICO-IDEOLOGICAL PRACTICES po ible social group associated with it. These REPRESENTED hypothe e et out from a recognition of Macro hematic Art, and its relation to the Levantine production duri

The tudy of the politico-ideological activities identified the o-called Neolithic in certain geographical zon . If ha al 0 allowed me to reaffirm the exi tence of the we are to suppose the exi tence, according to the politico-ideological practice within which I have been information provided by the archaeological record, of the able even to propose diverse mode of activities to tudy. u e of different food production technique b the In the first place, there are what I have called "relational different Neolithic group we will tend toward a acl1vltle between women". In the second place, conclu ion that thi represents a situation of lack of "ceremonial type activitie " and finally "activitie related homogeneity. Not all the communitie hare and implana to war, violence and death" (Escoriza Mateu 2002b). the ame economic practice , nor in the ame order of importance. With the term "relational activitie between women" refer to a whole series of scene which how two or more On the other hand, the Levantine painting seem women together in a group and/or establi hing ome type indicate a homogeneou and shared ideology, whi b of relation among themselves. These are women who nouri he and legitimizes hunting a the fundamental appear not to be u ing any material object nor to be economic activity. Thi as ertion lead to an evident engaging in any of the economic activitie defined and conclu ion, which i that the politico-ideological activitie analysed previou Iy. Nor are they found with other social (and particularly the parietal figurative representation ubject (figures of male or indeterminate sex) except for are governed by an apparent themat uniformity. Thi fa t other women and perhap with very young children who ignifie the exi tence of hared norms, pattern and/or sometime accompany them. The relational activitie schema which extend acro a range of geographical z0- between women tell us about the women, about ne over a great di tance, and which coincide in a singl themselve , about their feelings, their mo t immediate direction: the image that the hunt i the most relevant urrounding , perhap at a day to day level, and about the activity from the economic point of view. We thu face a social space where they e tabli h link with other wo­ ituation which how very different "realities", in which men. The "ceremonial type activities" are compo ition the evidence from the ettlement doe not agree with the which traditionally have been given ambiguous name , image hown by Levantine Art. In the face of thi uch a of ritual, ymbolic and/or religious character etc. situation, two po ible hypotheses could be proposed: All these representations illustrate social practice in which both women and men, a well a figure of Hypothesis I. indeterminate sex participate. With regard to the la t Levantine Rock Arl is the Ideology of the Hunters of the form, that which we have termed "activitie related to Mediterranean Basin war, violence and death", I would indicate out that thi type of activity hould be qualified or defined a non­ The Levantine representations are the material expre ion productive and as the antithe is to production itself. That of communitie which used hunting as the principal food i to ay, war and confrontation not only engender gathering trategy, although they coexisted with other violence and death but they also imply the de truction of communitie which obtained their food through other the primary social material: the body. And they are activitie . If this i the case, it would not prevent u from activitie in which women never participate actively. talking about the exi tence of a legitimizing "hunters' ideology", which i alway impo ed in the ense that it The detailed analy i of thi type of repre entation ha over-dimensionalize only one method of obtaining food led me to sugge t an unmi takable a ociation between - hunting. According to the different type of figurative the male collective and violence, de truction and death representation analysed, we could uggest the exi tence to judge by the repre entation in the Levantine panel . of a screening and/or limited figuring of certain task nd it i at this point where we mu t pau e once again carried out by women. This fact would be detrimental to to reflect on a central que tion. I refer to the evident the female collective and to women' contribution to the paration or egregation in function of ex regarding production and maintenance of ocial life. The Levantine the non-participation (voluntary or impo ed) of women compo ition would cease to be vehicles of social in thi type of politico-ideological activity at a figurative communication, and would constantly manifest the 1 el. And it i here that the fir t major difference limited participation of women, and the limited relevance tween men and women is rooted, a material differ­ of the work which they carry out. rence , of exuated bodie , which place u in relation to life cycle in ab olutely different and diametrically If thi representative universe were true, we could ite place ugge t. as we have commented previou Iy, the exi tence

56 T. EsCORIZA MA TEU: PATRIARCHY AND IDEOLOGY IN THE ROCK ART OF THE IBERIAN MEDlTERRANEA BASI

=1 .... =1 .. =2 ..

a b c

=3 .. d

=2 .. f

Fig. 5.1. Women in economic activities: a) y b) Abrigo del Ciervo (Dos Aguas, Valencia). Segun Jorda y Alcocer (1951); c) Abrigo de los Trepadores (Barranco del Monero, Alac6n, Teruel). Segun Dams (1984, fig.32); d) Abrigo de la Pareja (Do Aguas, Valencia). Segun Jorda y Alcocer (1951); e) Covacho Ahumado (Barranco del Monero. Alac6n, Teruel). Segun Dams (1984, fig. 14, 15 y 16); f) Barranco del Pajarero (Albarracfn, Teruel). Segun Dams (1984, fig. J J I)

57 PREHISTORIC ART AND IDEOLOGY

of exploitation of the female collective. This exploitation Bibliography takes the form of a clear inequality in the division of tasks that they carry out, and in the non-existence of material CASTRO MARTINEZ, P.V. et al. 1996, Teorfa de las return on the part of the men. The situation would be Pn'icticas Sociales, en Homellaje a M. Fernande· very different if there were an appropriate compensation Mirallda. Madrid, Ulliversidad Complutellse. vol. n for the labour carried out in the different fields of Madrid. p. 35-48. production. In that case we could accept the existence of a CASTRO MARTfNEZ , P.V.; ESCORlZA MATEU, T. reciprocal ituation. If Hypothesis I were to be confirmed, (ep), Trabajo, Desigualdad y Realidad. Argumento it would imply a maximal expre sion of the patriarchal para no perpeturar ficciones en la Arqueologfa Social, ideology of a group of hunter gatherers, which legitimizes Revista Atltintica-Mediterranea de Prehistoria y and institutionalize ma culine domination and material Arqueolog£a SociaL VII, Cadiz. control over women and which is manifested in their CASTRO MARTfNEZ, P.V.; ESCORlZA MATEU, T. limited representation, and in the screening of ome of the OLTRA PUIGDOMENECH, 1. 2006, Social Hypo­ tasks which they carry out. Social value is removed from theses for the Communities of the Iberian Mediterra­ women when the concentration is placed on hunting, an nean Basin (From the VI to II mllennia BC). P. Dlaz activity predominantly associated with men. del RIO & I. Garcfa SanjUlin, (eds), Approaches to Social Inequality in Iberian Recent Prehistory, Oxford, Hypothesis 11. "British Archaeological Reports, International serie ' . Lellantine Rock Arl is the Ideology of the Neolithic S1525. Patriarchs of the Mediterranean Basin CASTRO MARTJNEZ, P.V.; ESCORlZA MATEU, T.; It seems that Levantine Rock Art is a material expression SANAHUJA YLL, Ma. E. 2003, Trabajo, Recipro­ shared by a large number of ocial groups who engage cidad y Explotaci6n, en Molina, Uferradas, I. (eds), indiscriminately in different techniques of food pro­ Cultura y Pol£tica. IX Congreso de Alltropologla. El duction. We are thus faced with figurative representations Recurso a la Reciprocidad, Universidad de Barcelona. relating both to agricultural and herding communities and Edici6n en CD rom. Instituto Catahin de Antropo­ with hunter and gatherers, or which develop food gathe­ logfa. ring techniques which share some forms of production. If ESCORlZA MATEU, T. 2001, Una fragmentaci6n e, this is the ca we could sugge t the existence of politico­ intencionada: el amilisis de las representacione ideological activities which generate "norms" at a repre­ arqueol6gicas del cuerpo de las mujeres, en T. Sauret sentative level which again, a in the previous ca e, y A. Quiles (eds), Luchas de Genero en la Historia a legitimize hunting as the most important activity. These traves de la Imagen, vol. I.p. 283-304. circumstances are detrimental to the existence of other ESCORlZA MATEU, T. 2002a, Representation of technique of food collection in a productive panorama women in Spanisch Levantine Rock Art. An intenti­ which we know, in economic reality, to be more varied. onal fragmentation, Journal of Social Archaeology 2 This circumstance would lead us to suggest the existence (I), London. p.81-108. of a patriarchal ideology as a con truct which extend across all the different economic and political territories ESCORlZA MATEU, T. 2002b, La Represelltacioll del in which Levantine manifestations occur. Cuerpo Femenillo. Mujeres y Arte Rupestre Levalltillo del Arco Mediterraneo de la PenInsula lbirica, An important conclusion can be drawn from both of the Oxford. Briti h Archaeological Reports. International hypotheses sketched out here: the existence of a Series", 1082. patriarchal ideology legitimized by coercive power, which ESCORlZA MATEU, T. 2005, Producci6n y Trabajo generates a whole serie of politico-ideological practices Femenino en las Representaciones Rupe tres Levan­ (figurative representations) which transcend the existing tinas". Actas del m Congre 0 del Neolftico en la economic form practised by different communities. The Penfnsula Iberica, Santander del 5 al 8 de octubre de illustrated representation of the sexual division of labour 2003. P. Arias et al (eds), Unfversidad de Cantabria, allows us to talk of situations of social asymmetry and Santander, p. 729-739. exploitation, independently of the food obtaining ESCORlZA MATEU, T.; SANAHUJA YLL, Ma.E. 2002, techniques used. We can conclude then, that a direct El pasado no es neutro: el cuerpo femenino como correlation can not be established between the food materialidad y forma de representaci6n social, en 11/ production techniques and the forms of social relations COlIgreso de Historia de Andalucfa. Cordoba, 2001, established, without taking into account other questions of vol. Il.p. 243-258. equal relevance. The basi of the homogeneity of Levantine Rock Art wa in the existence of a series of FAlREN, S. 2004, Arte rupestre, estilo y territorio: la common social and economic relations, in a fundamen­ construcci6n de un paisaje neolftico en las comarcas tally patriarchal reality which was favoured and supported centro-meridionale valencianas, Zephyrus 57.p. 167- by means of different mechanisms: alliances between 182. communities, circulation of products, social mobility GARCIA, 0.; MOLINA, L.; GARCIA, M.a R. 2004, El Y through exogamy. el proceso de Neolitizaci6n en el Arco Mediterraneo

58 T. EscORlZA MATEU: PATRIARCHY A D IDEOLOGY r THE ROCK ART OF THE IBERIAN MEDlTERRA EA SASI

Pen(nsular: el contexto Arqueol.gico y su significado, MOLINA, L.; GARCfA-PUCHOL, 0.; GARCfA. M.R. Arehivo de Prehistoria Levantilla XXV, Valencia.p. 2003, Apunte al marco crono-cultural del: Neolitico 61-90. vs neolitizaci6n. Saguntum-PUV 35, Valencia. p. 51- HERNANDEZ, S.M.; FERRER P.; CATALA, E. 1988, 67. Arte rupestre en Alieante, Alicante. SCHUHMACHER, X.T.; WENIGER, C.G. 1995, Continuidad y cambio. Problemas de la neolitizaci6n HERNANDEZ. S.M.; SOLER, J.A. (ed ), 2005, Aetas del en el E te de la PenJnsula I!>erica, Trabajos de COIIgreso de Arte Rupestre en /Q Espana Mediterra­ Prehistoria 52, (2), Madrid. p. 83-97. Ilea. Alicante, 25-28 de Octubre de 2004). Alicante.

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