Beyond Turk and Hindu Copyright 2000 by David Gilmartin and Bruce Lawrence. This work is licensed under a modified Creative Commons Attribution-Non- commercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ 3.0/. You are free to electronically copy, distribute, and transmit this work if you attribute authorship. However, all printing rights are re- served by the University Press of Florida (http://www.upf.com). Please con- tact UPF for information about how to obtain copies of the work for print distribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor (but not in any way that suggests that they en- dorse you or your use of the work). For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this work. Any of the above conditions can be waived if you get permission from the Uni- versity Press of Florida. Nothing in this license impairs or restricts the author’s moral rights. Florida A&M University, Tallahassee Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers Florida International University, Miami Florida State University, Tallahassee University of Central Florida, Orlando University of Florida, Gainesville University of North Florida, Jacksonville University of South Florida, Tampa University of West Florida, Pensacola Beyond Turk and Hindu Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia Edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence University Press of Florida Gainesville · Tallahassee · Tampa · Boca Raton Pensacola · Orlando · Miami · Jacksonville · Ft. Myers Copyright 2000 by David Gilmartin and Bruce Lawrence Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper All rights reserved 05 04 03 02 01 00 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beyond Turk and Hindu: rethinking religious identities in Islamicate South India / edited by David Gilmartin and Bruce Lawrence. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8130-1781-5 (cloth: alk. paper) 1. Islam—Relations—Hinduism. 2. Hinduism—Relations—Islam. 3. India—Ethnic relations. 4. Ethnicity—India. 5. India—Religion. I. Gilmartin, David. II. Lawrence, Bruce. BP173.H5 B47 2000 297.2'845'0954—dc21 00-055977 The University Press of Florida is the scholarly publishing agency for the State University System of Florida, comprising Florida A&M University, Florida Atlantic University, Florida Gulf Coast University, Florida International University, Florida State University, University of Central Florida, University of Florida, University of North Florida, University of South Florida, and University of West Florida. University Press of Florida 15 Northwest 15th Street Gainesville, FL 32611–2079 http://www.upf.com Contents List of Figures, Maps, and Tables vii Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence Section 1: Literary Genres, Architectural Forms, and Identities 1. Alternate Structures of Authority: Satya P•r on the Frontiers of Bengal 21 Tony K. Stewart 2. Beyond Turk and Hindu: Crossing the Boundaries in Indo-Muslim Romance 55 Christopher Shackle 3. Religious Vocabulary and Regional Identity: A Study of the Tamil Cirappuranam 74 Vasudha Narayanan 4. Admiring the Works of the Ancients: The Ellora Temples as Viewed by Indo-Muslim Authors 98 Carl W. Ernst 5. Mapping Hindu-Muslim Identities through the Architecture of Shahjahanabad and Jaipur 121 Catherine B. Asher Section 2: Sufism, Biographies, and Religious Dissent 6. Indo-Persian Tazkiras as Memorative Communications 149 Marcia K. Hermansen and Bruce B. Lawrence 7. The “Naqshband• Reaction” Reconsidered 176 David W. Damrel 8. Real Men and False Men at the Court of Akbar: The Majalis of Shaykh Mustafa Gujarati 199 Derryl N. MacLean Section 3: The State, Patronage, and Political Order 9. Sharia and Governance in the Indo-Islamic Context 216 Muzaffar Alam 10. Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States 246 Richard M. Eaton 11. The Story of Prataparudra: Hindu Historiography on the Deccan Frontier 282 Cynthia Talbot 12. Harihara, Bukka, and the Sultan: The Delhi Sultanate in the Political Imagination of Vijayanagara 300 Phillip B. Wagoner 13. Maratha Patronage of Muslim Institutions in Burhanpur and Khandesh 327 Stewart Gordon Glossary 339 List of Contributors 345 Index 347 Figures, Maps, and Tables Figures 5.1 Jami Mosque, Amber 124 5.2 Fakhr al-Masajid from street, Shahjahanabad, Delhi 125 5.3 Shivalaya of Dhumi Mal Khanna, Katra Nil, Shahjahanabad, Delhi 128 5.4 Chandnee Chauk, Delhi 130 5.5 Entrance to the Sri Brijnandji Temple, Jaipur 131 5.6 Mosque of Maulana Zia al-Din Sahib, Jaipur 133 5.7 Interior, mosque at Dargah Zia al-Din Sahib, Jaipur 134 5.8 Interior courtyard of the haveli-style Ladliji temple, Katra Nil, Shahjahanabad, Delhi 137 Maps 10.1 Temple desecrations, 1192–1394 272 10.2 Temple desecrations, 1394–1600 273 10.3 Temple desecrations, 1600–1760 274 Tables 10.1 Instances of temple desecration, 1192–1760 274a 12.1 Narrative structure of Vijayanagara’s founding 310a Acknowledgments This volume originated with a conference held under the auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation. Without the encouragement and support of Lynn Szwaja of the Arts and Humanities Division, we would not have pursued our application to the foundation. It was a grant to the Triangle South Asia Consortium that made possible a three-year Rockefeller Residency Institute on South Asian Islam and the Greater Muslim World. The conference was held at Duke University in April 1995, and most of the papers included in this volume were originally presented on that occasion, although some have been significantly revised to suit the scope and theme of the current volume. Other scholars presented papers or made comments at the conference that could not be included in this volume. We would like to give special thanks to the following confer- ence participants: Simon Digby, Eleanor Zelliott, James Laine, Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Anisuzzaman, Philip Lutgendorf, Daniel Ehnbom, Carol Salomon, Gregory Kozlowski, and Tazim Kassam. John Richards of Duke University played a central role in conceptual- izing and organizing the 1995 conference. From 1994 to 1998, he served with Bruce Lawrence as codirector of the Rockefeller Residency Insti- tute, and he was instrumental in the early stages of this volume’s prepa- ration. We would also like to thank both Katherine Ewing and Munis Faruqui, who not only participated in the conference but also helped to ensure its success. Among those who gave time and energy to planning the conference, Constance Blackmore of the Comparative Area Studies Program at Duke University deserves special mention. In preparing these papers for publication, we are indebted to the out- side reviewers from University Press of Florida. They read and com- mented on the initial draft in painstaking detail. It was due to their in- sight that we reorganized the essays and also reduced their number. Nor could we have produced a readable volume without the skill of John Caldwell in the initial scanning and editing of these essays and the labor of Rob Rozehnal in formatting the final version of essays to con- form to University Press of Florida guidelines. Patient in all aspects of x | Acknowledgments drafting, copying, and preparing the manuscript for publication was Lillian Spiller, administrative assistant to the Department of Religion at Duke University. We acknowledge their collective assistance, even while absolving them of responsibility for the content of this manu- script. The editors are the sole custodians of blame, while all the above are to be thanked for making possible a volume that is at once unique in content and challenging to received wisdom about South Asia. Note on Transliteration A volume including papers drawn from such a wide variety of linguistic sources as this one presents unusual problems of transliteration. Since many words of Islamicate origin appear in variant forms in Indic lan- guages, we decided that it would violate the spirit of the volume to at- tempt to impose any standardized system of transliteration. We have thus left it to individual authors to use whatever system suited them. Some have employed a full range of diacritics while others have not. We have attempted to note in the glossary some of the more common vari- ant spellings that appear in the volume. Introduction David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence Muslims have been an integral part of South Asia for over a thousand years. Why then is it so hard to define them as “indigenous”? Why are they not as seamlessly Indian as Sikhs, who have been there for less time, or as Jains, who have been there longer but in fewer numbers? Part of the difficulty lies with the stress on Islam and Hinduism as religious worldviews. Not only are Islam and Hinduism seen as alterna- tive belief systems but they are deemed competitive and irreconcilable in their differences. Here is how a prominent Egyptian jurist, Judge Muhammad al-Ashmawy, whose major life’s work has been both to chart Islamic humanism and to demonstrate how compatible Islam is with Judaism and Christianity, describes Muslim-Hindu interaction: “On the Indian subcontinent the relationship between the Hindu (the majority population) and the Muslim (the minority population) forms a dark and disturbed chapter in the history of interreligious relationships. This is partially due to the great differences between Islam and Hindu- ism.” He then goes on to enumerate in terms of belief, whether it is belief in a deity (Muslims do, Hindus do not) or belief in the next life (Muslims think it is judgment at the end of each life, while Hindus opt for reincar- nation).1 Judge Muhammad al-Ashmawy is not wrong to cite differences be- tween Islam and Hinduism, whether as worldviews or as belief systems. The differences he cites do exist, and they are not unimportant, espe- cially if one thinks of religion as, above all, belief or ritual.