Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

VERSES IN THE CELLULOID: POETRY IN FILM FROM 1910-2002ý WITH SPECIAL ATTENTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FILM-POEM

Robert Scott Speranza

ThesisSubmitted In Fulfilment Of the Degreeof Doctor of Philosophy Departmentof English Literature University of Sheffield March, 2002 Robert Speranza Verses in the Celluloid: Poetry in Film From 1910-2002, With Special Attention to the Film-Poem

Summary

Poetry is not a new phenomenon in film and television. It is consistently treated as such becauseits presenceis not common;poetry is repeatedlyviewed as a 'specialelement' in a production.However, visual poetry is becomingless and lessof an oddity in modern-dayfilms.

This thesis,which surveysmultiple intersectionsof poetry and cinema,places particular emphasison the most specific and direct use of poetry within film: 'film-poems'.Numerous poets

andfilmmakers today havemade film-poems, particularly poet Tony Harrison.These works are importantbecause they are revolutionaryin their combinationand applicationof the two media: a film-poem is a simultaneouscollaboration of writing, shootingand cutting, which makesfor extraordinary,sense-inundating viewing. Their qualities,not to mention their evolution, have escapedformal study for the most part, and fully deservecritical exploration.

The Harrisonianfilm-poem heavily involves both filmmaker and poet in most aspectsof production.Yet thereare discrepanciesthat emergewhen using the term 'film poem'.Other classificationslink the words to the arenaof avant-gardecinema. Avant-garde films might contain someverse, but mainly they depict a themeor story through a cinematically metaphoricalmeans, using imagesas thosemetaphors, using cinematicdevices as poetic devices.

A study of the avant-garde and a language of cinema that is called 'poetry'itself (by some)is

anotherfocus of this thesis.

I also concentrateon the cinematicplacement of poetry in featurefilms. When films cite

poetry, they immediatelytake on a new dimension,a significant deeperlayer to their own story

lines. Similarly, the poem also gainsa significancethat will link it with a sceneand themein the

film, and the film's specific images.I begin this thesiswith a study of this kind of citation,

discussingthe prospectof poetic presencein film, and proceedto discussthe developmentof

film andpoetry, which inevitably leadsto its most significant intersection:the film-poem. ii CONTENTS

Page Acknowledgements v Note on AccompanyingVideotape viii

INTRODUCIION 1 What is a film-poem? I The HarrisonianModel 4 The 'Avant-Garde'Film Poem 9 Other Intersectionsof Film and Poetry Coveredin this Study 11

CHAPTER ONE: FILM CITATIONS OF POETRY 12 1.1 Films with Toetry Inside' 12 1.2 'It's got to be a thing': ChristinaRossetti and Kiss Me Deadly is 1.2.1A Study of the Sonnet'Remember' 16 1.2.2'Remember'ina CinematicContext 27 1.3 FurtherExamples of Poetry in Film 42 1.3.17 seegreat things is baseball':Poetry in a SportsFilm 42 1.3.2Films that Contain Original Poetry 52 1.4 Conclusion:It DoesNot Have To Be a Thing' 60

CHAPTER TWO: THE EVOLUTION OR TRE-HISTORYI OF THE TILM-POEM' 66 2.1 Film as an Art: When did it Start? 66 2.2 D.W. Griffith: Innovationwith Poetry 71 2.3 The EarliestShort Film-Poem? 74 2.4 Soundand the Developmentof Film and Poetry 79 2.5 Film Poemswithout Verse?:The Influence of Avant-Garde 91 2.5.1 The 'CinematicConstruction'of Poetry and MontageEditing 92 2.5.2 Film-Poetsand the Art of Cinema 97 2.5.3 The Avant-Gardeand the 'Film Poem'(Without Hyphenation) 105 2.6 Adaptationsof Poemson Film 115

CHAPTER THREE: THE FILM-POEM 3.1 The Types of Film-Poems 119 3.2 Tony Harrisonand the Film-Poem 120 3.3 Problemswith Poetry:Inappropriate Images? 125 3.4 Wordson Film 130 3.4.1 'Xanadu'andRegional Accents 132 3.4.2 Twice Throughthe Heart' 138 3.5 Roy Fisher and his Brummy Doors 147 3.6 Film and Poetry after 1991 157 3.7 SimonArmitage at the Turn of the New Century 161

iii Page

CHAPTER FOUR: THE FILM-POEMS OF TONY HARRISON 168 4.1 Verse's GreatAdvantages Over Prose' 168 4.2 Early Experimentswith Poetry and Film: Stick to the Rhythm' 170 4.3 Developmentwith PeterSymes: 'Of courseit works with death' 182 4.4 Cursingin Prime Time: V. on TV 188 4.5 FurtherDevelopment of the Film-Poem 193 4.6 A Film-PoemProtocol 196 4.6.1 The OpeningShot 198 4.6.2 The Lyra Man and His 'Countrymen' 202 4.6.3 InsertedDialogue (Maybe) 204 4.6.4 The Market Montageand the Importanceof Editing 208 4.6.5 The Turn, Or the Momentsof Truth 218 4.6.6 The ConcludingScene 221 4.6.7 ConclusionsRegarding 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan' 222 4.7 A Summaryof the Stylesof the Film-Poem 222 4.8 The CinematicFilm-Poem 224 4.9 Conclusionsabout the HarrisonianFilm-Poem 234

CONCLUSION 240 The Present State of the Evolution': Notes for the Future of Film and Poetry 240

ENDNOTES: INTRODUCTION (pp. 1-11) 248 ENDNOTES: CHAPTER ONE (pp. 12-65) 249 ENDNOTES: CHAPTER TWO (pp. 66-118) 251 ENDNOTES: CHAPTER THREE (pp. 119-167) 254 ENDNOTES: CHAPTER FOUR (pp. 168-239) 256

APPENDICES 259 APPENDIX A: An Interview with PeterTodd 260 APPENDIX B: An Interview with Andrew Holmes 281 C: Poetry Sort Films 306 APPENDIX Adaptationsof with of ... APPENDIX D: 'Film and Poetry 101' 313

BIBLIOGRAPHY 316 FILMOGRAPHY 326

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My most seriousand warmest thanks must first go to Dr. Ian MacKillop, for his endlesspatience and accurateguidance throughout this study. His practical advice,notes, and academicand personalsupport were completelyinvaluable to me.

Thanksto Dr. JonathanRayner, for'shadow supervision'in the period of Dr. MacKillop's absence.His suggestionswere always clear, articulate,and helpful.

I am also grateful to Dr Neil Roberts,whose straightforward advice and preciseevaluations in Dr. MacKillop's absencewere essential,especially at the adventof my research.Thanks to Dr. Robertsfor approvingmy DepartmentResearch Grant in the Spring of 1998 as well.

My humblestthanks to Dr. Erica Sheen,whose honesty and professionalismare inspiring.

I am grateful to Dr. SueVice, whoseconsistent sharp critical eye provided me with materialon many aspectsof film and poetry. Thanksfor stockingmy pigeonhole!

Thanksto the Secretariesof the Departmentof English Literature,especially Sue Turton, Helena Pinder,and Lisa Britton for limitless favours and spontaneouswish-fulfillment.

I also extendmy sincerestthanks to the following peopleat the University of Sheffield:

Mr. Ed Cartledge,whose knowledge of film continuesto astoundme daily, andwhose ability to organisehis time aroundmany taskshas proven influential. Specialthanks to for invitation join Sort Films. Ed the to of ...

Dr. Martin Flanagan, whose friendship and academic guidance were often unconsciously, but warmly given.

Dr. John Haffenden, Dr. Sue Owen, and Dr. Matthew Campbell, for occasional recommendations and personal support.

Mr. Luke Savage,for selflessly and generously covering the Video Library for me.

Dr. Elsie Walker, whosefriendship, comments and cheerful demeanourwere appreciatedduring writing and research,not to mention a sourceof healthy competition.

I am alsoparticularly grateful to Andrew Holmes,whose interview provided rare sourcematerial for this study, andwhose invitation to the castand crew's screeningof Prometheuswas exciting and allowedme to meet the poet of ChapterFour's study, Tony Harrison.

I am indebtedto PeterTodd, whoseemails and articles,advice, and opinionswere an immense help to me throughoutresearch. His interview surpassedall my hopes.

Thanksto PeterSymes, whose interview in 1997 (for my M. A. ) also figured into this study.

V Thanks to JackieKay, who is the friendliest poet I have ever met, for answeringmy questions and for her kindnessin giving me her email address.

Many thanksto SashaHoare, whose unwavering generosity at the Royal FestivalHall during the Poetry InternationalFestival 2000 was unexpectedand extremelykind, a pleasantsurprise.

For financial aid, thanksto the CVCP and the OverseasResearch Students Awards Scheme,for the differencebetween home and overseastuition. Without this Award I would neverhave been able to afford study in England.

Thanks to the University of Sheffield'sPetrie WatsonExhibition, for providing me with finances to travel and seekout rare articlesand books,and to conductpersonal interviews in London.

Warmestthanks to Laura Metcalfe, for her nightly patienceand supportduring someof the most difficult stagesof research,and for her powerful love and compassion.

Sort Films, have in highest Awed thanksto the membersof of ... who complimentedme the mannerpossible by agreeingto film my poetry, for their patiencewhile I completedthis study.

Thanks to Amy Lowe, whoseinstant friendship, devotion and enduringselflessness were appreciatedand reciprocated.

Thanksto Gitte Schwencke,whose love and supportwas a great assetand comfort in the early days of my researchand adjustmentto English life.

I am grateful for the friendshipof Kay Kovacs and Stuart Cunningham,my oldest friends in this country, who mademe feel intellectual,welcome and impressiveas an American in Yorkshire.

Thanksalso to my housernatesand friends: Dipa Makwana,Lucero Billeter, Naomi Judge, Olivier Jacques,and GarethMorris. You were all patient,relaxed, helpful and understandingin so many situations.Special thanks to Dr. DuncanWestbury for lessonsin proper English-ness, and for perspective.

Thanks to the city and community of Sheffield, for making me feel at home.

Particularthanks to my oldestfriend in the world, Mr. Michael Rivas, who hasmade the efforts in maintainingour friendshipwhile I havebeen overseas that many othershave not. His support and advicehave been a great help to me, in all circumstancesand stagesof this study.

Thanksto the Gallagherfamily in Northport, New York (Mom, Charlie, Christa,Bryan, and Meagan),who were therewith kind words when I was disheartened,and who have donetheir best not to forget what I look like. Best of luck to Christa as she follows her brother in academic studiesabroad.

Specialthanks to the most amazingItalian-Americans this side of Brooklyn: the Speranzas, including Uncle Richard,Aunt Barbara,Mark, andmy grandparents,Frank and Viola.

vi My full appreciationand warmest love extendsto my parents,Bob and SusanneSperanza, whose supportand encouragementfrom New Jerseywere sometimesthe only thing that kept me going. Their timely financial help was also mostly unexpected,and a wonderful contribution. I seriously don't know what I would have donewithout a laptop. Thank you very, very much.

vii NOTE ON ACCOMPANYING VIDEOTAPE

Accompanyingthis thesisis a 63 minute-longseries of clips on a three-hourvideotape. Theseare clips from film productionsI cover at length. Its order follows the order of the material in eachchapter. Please note that excerptsfrom Manhalla (Sheelerand Strand, 1921) and'Arctic Paradise'(Molyneux, 1981)were not availablefor extractionon this videotape.Scenes and stills from the following films are included:

CHAPTER ONE Kiss Me Deadly (Aldrich, 1955):2 scenes,I still Bull Durham (Shelton,1988): 2 scenes The Innocents(Clayton, 1961): 1 scene Once Upona Honeymoon(McCarey, 1942): 1 scene TheDaytrippers (Mottola, 1996):1 scene

CHAPTER TWO Night Mail (Watt and Wright, 1936): 1 scene 'Metroland'(Mirzoeff, 1973): 1 scene Runner (Molyneux, 1977): 1 scene(no introductory title available) 'A TV Dante: The Inferno Cantos I-VIII" (Greenaway, 1988): 1 scene

CHAPTER THREE 'Xanadu'(Fliteroft, 1992): 1 scene 'Twice Throughthe Heart' (Lowthorpe, 1991):2 scenes Birminghamis WhatI Think With (Pickard, 1991):2 scenes 'Killing Time' (Hill, 1999):2 scenes

CHAPTER FOUR 'The Big H' (Hays and Anson, 1984): 1 scene 'Loving Memory Part Two: Mimmo Perella non 6 pid (Symes, 1987): 1 scene 'V. '(Eyre, 1985): 1 scene 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan' (Kidel and Harrison, 1994): 7 scenes Prometheus (Harrison, 1998): 1 scene 'Crossings' (Thomas, 2002): 4 scenes

viii INTRODUCTION

Poetryisn't normally a creativeidea which gets directorsgoing. Like most of us,

film makersprobably read poetry at schooland go on to forget that it evenexists.

- Film Critic Michael Thomson

Poetryon film hasa greaterpenetration or popularity than poetry on paper,in terms

of the numberof impressions. 2 - Film ProducerAndrew Holmes

What is a Film-Poem?

Film-poemsare a very specificbreed of artistic creation,but film-poems are completely unspecific as well. Before a clear definition of the term can be reached,we must first ask what a film-poem hasbeen in the past,explain how the term was forgotten and disused,and then rejuvenatedto meansomething new, so that it evolvedinto a controversialexpression today. In a brochure for a programme at London's Royal Festival Hall, in 1996, a question was proposed:

There are poems and there are films and there are poems which are said to have shape

and movementlike a film and films which are said to have a poetic quality. But is there

a new art form which combinesqualities traditionally associatedwith poetry and/or film

and manifestsitself in the form of one or the other but which can be truly said to be a

uniquehybrid of the two? Doesthe film-poem really exist?(Maclennan, 3). 3

No answersare provided in this pamphletthat directly answerthe question,but the material that cameout of the symposium,and subsequentwork studiedsuggests that there is indeeda movementof film and a movementwithin poetry that, respectfully, embracesthe other field and tries to absorbit. This thesisis concernedwith exploring the intricate and important

1 combinationsof the fields, with making clearerthe associationsthat exist with the over-usedbut ensnaringterm, film-poem.

The first stepis to shedlight on the term's usage.When using the term 'film-poem' there are immediately two definitionsfor it. One is the 'experimental','avant-garde' style of film, and this constructionof the term hadbeen used, albeit sparingly,for roughly thirty years,from the end of the 1920suntil the late 1950s(Sitney, 1979,vii-viii). This senseof the film-poem hascome to be recognisedas a form of 'no-budget'cinema (Todd, 1997,1), a memberof the world of art-house cinema,or called a 'poeticcinema' by some.

The other definition of the term is one I will use more often throughout this thesis, in which poetry and cinernaticsare combined.I will call this the 'Harrisonian'explanation of the phrase, basedon the film work of English poet Tony Harrison. This work has also beencalled, at various stagesof its development,the 'film/poem'or earlier, 'poetry film'. During the courseof this study

I will seekto pinpoint the differencesbetween the two interpretations,explore why the term is used to refer to such widely disparate forms of film. I will also observe the placement of poetry in feature films, where the literal presenceof verse affects the development of a film. Most

importantly, I will attemptto explain how one version of the film-poem has helpedto define the other. My emphasisis not purely but more heavily basedon the Hattisonian definition and its

steadydevelopment, but it is clear that the two forms of film have influencedeach other, whereas

'avant-garde'directors and producers have cited the impressionsmade by suchworks as Peter

Symes'seriesof film-poemscalled Wordson Film or any one of Harrison'spieces. The

distinction betweenthese two interpretationsof the term is one that is obvious and reasonably

easyto detect,but the critics of literatureand cinemahave not managedto makethat

identification a priority, preferring to establisha grey areawhen consideringavant-garde film. I

2 hope to castlight on this elusivemovement, which is on the verge of developinginto a genre,but unfortunately hasbeen treading on this thresholdfor sometime.

New and comparativelyundeveloped, film-poems sometimesabide by certainformulae that permit them to function as individual works. Theseprocesses have been continually changedand modified, and now a certainstandard exists within the Harrisonianfilm-poem. The modern-day film-poem conformsto a numberof rules,but thereare unlimited variations.During the evolutionary processthat hasresulted in the creationof theseguidelines, works known as film- poemshave taken the form of everythingfrom documentariesto animatedshorts, all of which throughoutthe centuryinvolved synthesesof cinematicimages and poetry at their heart.This thesisis concernedmainly with discoveringthe roots of the film-poem, and exploring the relationshipbetween film andpoetry over the last eighty to ninety years.Since nearly the dawn of cinemaas an art form or as a mediumof story telling, poetry hasbeen present in film. From the early days of silent cinema(roughly from 1911),1 will track the placementof poetry in film, and build up to its ultimate combination, the modem-day film-poem, culminating with an explication of a recentfull-length example.

Film-poems do not simply use a poem to accompany a film, or an image to illustrate a poem, as researcherWilliam Weeswrites (1999,1). Weesrefers to everything from studentand amateurfilm to the simple footageof a poet reading,and his essayseems to suggestthat the poetry-film could include anything,as he statesthat,

the history of poetry in our centuryhas taught us that any verbal expressioncan be

into 'poetry-films' illustrate is turned poetry, and vividly this modem concept... there

virtually no limit to what can be madecinematic (1997,1).

3 Indeed it would be difficult to find an argumentto counterWees: in one form or anothermost material, whethertangible or intangible,literal or metaphorical,can be expressedvisually. But that doesnot meanthat any indirect or artistic visual photoplaybecomes a 'poetry-film'or a film- poem. Wees'claim implies the exclusionof nothing and the acceptanceof anything,which cannot be the casewhen consideringa genre.

The HarrisonianModel

Tony Harrison is an English poet from Leeds,whose theatre and film works are renowned and respected.Most of his televisionwork hasbeen documentary, including pieceslike 'The

Blasphemers'Banquet' (1989) and The Shadowof Hiroshima' (1995), and he is still the only poet to createa true feature-lengthfilm-poem (Prometheus,1998).

The modem (Harrisonian)film-poem is the simultaneouscollaboration of filmmaker and poet in practice;the productof this collaborationis a poem and a film which achievea very

specifically orientedtype of match.Writing and filming often actually accompanyeach other;

one meansof expressiondoes not, as is usually the norm in practical filmmaking, entirely come

first. Typically, the screenplayprecedes the film itself, sometimesby any numberof years,and

the film is realisedwhen productionstaff finally decidewhat is possibleto translateon celluloid.

This still happensto an extentin the creationof a film-poem, but not necessarilywith a precise

screenplay.Budgets, schedules, time constraints,and personnelavailability are persistent

concernsof any film production,but the script is usually what binds them all together.Before an

actor or director,for example,agrees to work on a particular piece, they almost infallibly ask to

seethe script. Alfred Hitchcock'sfamous remark aboutthe three factorsmost importantin the

making of a film ('the script, the script and the script') very conspicuouslydoes not usually apply

4 in the making of a film-poem. In the numerousHarrisonian film-poems studiedin this thesis, there was often no pre-formedscript; therewas always an idea that can lend itself to poetry. But initially, the pure collaborationbetween poet and filmmaker, in this particular system,relies mainly on the reconnaissancemission both artistswill undertake.Once an idea is establishedas a certain subjectfor the film-poem (andthis can be a long and drawn-outprocedure), locations are selected,the film-crews film while the poet writes, and the poet writes while the film-crews film

(not necessarilyor literally at the samemoment in time). Both artistsmay continueto produce raw material until both areconvinced that they have a malleableframework, and then both poet and filmmaker (often together)step into the editing suite. Writing is still done at this stage,to study and fine-tune the project and of courseto synchroniseverse and image correctly. Most of the time, more filming (within reason)will then be necessarywhen there is an inconsistent match, or when any other ideasoccur. This processis a basic descriptionof one methodof constructing the film-poem, which will be more fully documentedin ChaptersThree and Four of this thesis. There are many other methods, and Harrison, the main proponent of this system, himself slightly divergesfrom it during the making of Prometheus,but this is probably one of the most interesting to study.

The aboveprocess is a simplification, basedon various accountsof film-poem-making.It has elementsof traditional stylesof film production,both Hollywood-esqueand European,but also involves a new approachto filmmaking: that which is donewithout a script and involves a techniqueof writing while filming and cutting. Theseprojects are a true collaborationof artists.

The creationof both aspectsof the project are doneat the sametime and peopleare forced, though willingly, to work closely with one another.Soon, these aspects merge to becomeone

5 work-in-progress,and the fields of film and poetry seemless and less as separateentities as the project nearsits completion.

Writing while cutting': this phrasedescribes the closeassociation the editor of the film- poem (and director, and possibly other membersof a film crew) shouldhave with the poet.

Interestingly, the film-poem is not a collaborationof a poet with only a director, but with a team of filmmakers,since the productto be craftedwill be affectedby many peoplefrom the production staff. As PeterSymes, the producerof many film-poems,claims, 'the poet needsto understandthe editing processthe bestof all the processesof filmmaking, sincehis job is almost the most similar to the editor'sjob' (interview, 1997).Symes is referring to, and supporting,the processof the film-poet supervisingand perhapsco-editing his or her own material for the finished version of the film-poem. Film-poetsmust considersomething in the craft of the film- poem that most writers of poetry do not haveto consider;they must decidewhether the subject of their verseis likely to be fit for film. Intenselyfar-fetched metaphors, abstract intangible imagery, or other fairly 'unfilmable'verses (for example, with very complicated and irregular rhythms and metres)may not be appropriatefor a film-poem, no matter how much the poet loves them or how fine they might appear in print. But the other constraint a film-poet must contemplateis the limitation of a film's budget,the accessibilityof a desiredsite for shootingand time/circumstantialconstraints. A poetworking with pen only would neverneed to consider theseissues. Everything dependson the possibility of commitmentto film, on the inspirationas a feasible,useful part of a visual medium.Therefore, 'cutting'is also done in the poetic sense,with entire sequencesat risk if they presentthemselves as too difficult or impossibleto shoot.An exampleof the drasticmeasures of poetic cutting for the sakeof the film-poem will be studiedin

6 this thesisas well, citing Harrison'stelevision work and also the only feature-lengthmainstream releaseof a film poemto date,Prometheus.

Then again,the factor of the likelihood of 'filmability' is also one of the film-poem's strengthsin addition to its function as a sourceof frustrationand heartbreakfor many a film- poem-maker.The challengein matchingan image to an eclecticverse, or verseto a correspondinglystriking image,can be a valuable assetto the film-poem artisan,since it will force him or her to stretchthe boundariesof a film-poem'spreviously acceptedconventions. Yet this processof selection,of choosingan appropriatevisual and verbal vehicle, is what many critics identify as a problemonce a selectionhas been made. Some say this quality contributesto limiting the possibilitiesof the imageryof poetry, sinceone viewer's inferred imagemight differ radically from the one we are given to watch. Tony Cash,in his article 'Video Verses'(1995), explains:

Any attemptto depictverse is fraught with danger.At the very least it narrowsthe

listener's range of imaginable pictures. At worst it may distract attention from the

spoken word. The problems are particularly acute at any cut or transition from one

imageto another(17).

Many critics have agreedwith, or preceded,Cash's estimation, including thosethat arguethat the imagesin film-poems are only fragmentallyrelated to the verses,forcing them to ask Why are the imagesnever appropriate all the way through? (Richards,1986,12). Yet, over the last ten years,film-poets havebeen making major adjustmentsto the way in which they film/write their material,which has resultedin somemuch more denselyarranged, specifically tailored work.

They havesought ways to makethose images appropriate, or better yet, more thought provoking

and imaginative.So, evenin the most difficult of metaphoricalor poetic situations,modern film-

7 poems can usually find a way to join words and imagesin an effort to makethem seamlessand simultaneous,although instances persist where the critics of the restrictive natureof film-poems would be justified in their critiques.In spite of their relative age,this is still a fledgling art form.

Sometimesa film-poem can be a vehicle for poetic confessionalism.Provided the level of comfort and familiarity betweenfilmmaker and poet, film-poems may exposemore emotionor sensibility than can either a poemor a film on its own. Therefore,honesty and trust are essential on the set of a film-poem, as well as mutual dedicationand willingness to compromise.There is less room for shyness,squeamishness, or private musing in a film-poem's environment.Most accountsof the making of a film-poem recountintense reaction and serendipitousoccurrences, sometimessurprisingly coincidentaOThis kind of open,communicative environment invites confession,although this is not to statethat every film-poem's genesiswas peacefuland poetic in itself, sincemany times confrontationand disappointmentwere at their root. For example,some accountsof working with uncompromisingartists have led to quite a lot of strain on set, regardless of the levels of honesty and trust the filmmakers achieve!

Eventually, the film-poem will 'generate associations, connotations and metaphors', which function in each media individually but also manage to combine to achieve a unique effect. The poetic devices,which alsobecome filmic devices,reach a level of maturity which 'neitherthe verbal nor the visual text would produceon its own'(Wees, 1997,1). This statementis accurate in its considerationof the dual natureof the film-poem, which shouldnever be read as written text without having seenthe film. The work shouldbe absorbedvia both media simultaneously.

Criticism on this subjectis sparse,because of the newnessof the material and the lack of attentionfilm-poems have received. They are hybrid forms of art, still in their adolescence,but certainly deservedof analysisand appraisal.Yet the presenceof poetry in film, while it has

8 gained someattention, has occasionally appeared similar to the modem-dayfilm-poem in miniaturised form. Many filmmakersmay not have recognisedwhat they were beginning to create through the useof poetry in their work; they sometimesappear to haveused poetry as if it were a throwawaycinematic device, a tool to add flair to their narrative.For example,many have used it once andthen abandonedthe method.6 Some,however, have chosen to developit, realising poetry'spotential. In my studiesdealing with 'the presenceof poetry' and 'the evolution of the film-poem', I will analysesome of the bestexamples of films, which, over the years,have helped the inclusion of poetry in a screenplayretain a reputationas a sophisticated,inductive asset.Presumably, some of theseexamples have had an influence on the film-poem movement,a movementthat hasa chanceat becominga new genre,if it is allowed to develop,and is inspired by a wide rangeof filmic citationsof poetry and 'poetic' film. Filmmakersas diverseas D.W.

Griffith and JeanCocteau have utilised the power of poetry, as have contemporaryfilmmakers such as Robert Aldrich, Ron Shelton and Woody Allen.

The 'Avant-Garde'Film Poem

The other type of film that has been harnessedwith this double-barreled title is the experimental,art-house film, which, most importantly, doesnot necessitatethe presenceof poetry itselL The namewas probably not suitedto the work, as P. Adams Sitney points out on his definitive work on Amerieanexperimental einema, Visionary Film (1979), stating that the term was both 'inaccurateand limiting'for the material it was attributedto. Yet he goeson to say that the term was slightly more applicablethan the generalisation'experimental film'because the phraseTilm-poem':

9 hasthe advantageof underlining a useful analogy:the relationshipof [avant-gardefilm]

to the commercialnarrative cinema [which] is in many ways like that of poetry to

fiction in our times (vii).

This relatesto the sharpobservation that Tony Harrisonmakes in his descriptionof the films made by so-calledfilm-poets of the past (like Pasolinior Cocteau)in that the poetry of their films is an 'inner poetry', which might have a 'closeaffinity with poetry'but is a more unconventionalapproach to a definedstyle of art (1998,xxvii). The poetic film is not better than the straightforward,narrative film, much like 'poetry is not by essencebetter than prose'(Sitney, viii). Poetic films containindefinable characteristics that simply make them un-mainstream.Any attempt to define this cinemawould indeedbe limiting', and 'very few filmmakerswere ever satisfied'with attemptsto label the movement.One can only describethe most relevantexamples that relate to one'sstudy, and deducefrom there.

Filmmaker PeterTodd is the subjectof an interview with myself where we discussthe term

'film poem', in Appendix A of this thesis. Todd is the curator of two recent touring programmes of films under the heading'film poems'. When askedabout the definition of a film-poem, he describes that which 'is somewherebetween the poetry [a poet/filmmaker] is writing and visual material' (263). He statesthat film-poemsdo things that 'poetrymight do, suchas [employ] different rhythms,repetitions, you might be dealingmore with trying to conjureup a mood rather than a narrative '(264). Todd'sobservations are explicative and honestinsights into the elusive world of avant-gardecinema, a cinemathat seeksto facilitate a certain emotion.If that processof facilitation is consideredpoetic, then the evocationof viewer emotion is a quality of avant-garde film-poems. I will considerthis questionand many othersabout 'poetic film' and discussto what extent the films invoke poetry, if at all, in ChapterTwo. In that chapterI will look at specific

10 films as well as early philosophieson the fusion of poetry and film, and considerthe former definition of the term 'film-poem'and weigh its worth alongsidephrases like 'experimentalfilms' or 'the avant-garde'.

Other Intersectionsof Film and PoetryCovered in this Study

Before discussingthe characteristicsof film-poems, in either form, at any greaterlength, I would like to study,in ChapterOne, the presenceof poetry in film in a generalcapacity, without the rules of film-poemsgoverning the case.Does the presenceof poetry changethe look or feel of a film? The literal citation of poems in films creates a special relationship between that poem and that film, whetherit is narrative-relatedor simply incidental.There havebeen, as discussed above,many films that havebeen made with poetic sequencesor even 'mini film-poems'within them, and someearly examplesmay prove that there is a genreto be reckonedwith today in the modem film-poem, and an identifiable 'formulae'.The most ironic aspectof this study is that the term 'film-poem'had been invented over seventy years ago, that it has undergone the equivalent of a completeoverhaul, and still the term and the works themselvespersist in being regardedas

'experimental' or, simply 'new'.

Film-poemsare obviously not the only type of intersectionbetween the worlds of film and poetry. Primarily in ChaptersOne andTwo, I will explore someother relationshipsbetween poemsand films. What placedoes a poemhave in a film at all? What of previously published poetry within film? What canwe makeof films that adaptpoetry or usepoetry as their theme,or of poetry that is aboutfilm or film stars?These questions and otherswill be focussedon at certain intervalsin this study.

11 CHAPTER ONE

FILM CITATIONS OF POETRY

Poetry opensa door for cinema.Cinema might open its door a bit wider.

- Filmmaker JamesBroughton, 1952,126

1.1 Films with 'PoetryInside'

The use of poetry within film is a prevalentand evenpopular practiceor technique,yet a comprehensivestudy of poetic citation in the history of cinemaremains unaccomplished. Over roughly the last one hundredyears, films from a wide variety of genreshave containedpoetry, publishedor unpublished,well known, unknown or written expresslyfor the film and screenplay.

Thesegenres include comedy,horror, drama,thriller, sciencefiction, mystery, fantasy,romance, andfilm noir, not to mentionother, more obscureforms of film narrative.In this chapterI do not intend on providing a bibliographicalresource for every instanceof poetry in film, but to selecta certain numberof the most pertinentand characteristicexamples of poetic incorporationin films, and to study the capacities by which the poem and the film work together within the same piece.

The films that I have chosen to study closely are indicative of the wide range of formats that poetry can function within. Films which quoteverse stand as examplesof the evocativepresence of poetry, at its most dynamic andpivotal. Sincethe developmentof soundin cinema,poetry has beenpresent, reaching an apexin the late 1980sand 1990sand persistinginto the presentday.

It shouldalso be notedthat this chapterwill chiefly deal with films that containpoetry as a verbal medium,where whole poems,or fragmentsof poems,are included in a film's story or environment.In termsof a study of 'poetry as a visual medium'(Vogel, 1972,2), as in the caseof a 'poeticfilm', that will be consideredin the next chapterof this thesis,though not to the extent

12 of the subjectat hand.The presentstudy will refer to the film that is considered'poetic'on many occasions,but will not dedicatea chapterto the subjectas a separateentity, simply becauseit could not justifiably broachsuch a massivefield in the time and spacepermitted. ' I am also excluding songsin films, sincethis would involve a study on a musical level as opposedto such that dealswith poetry alone.This chapterwill also closely focus on the cameratechniques used

in a film at the momentthat verseis being quoted,recited or composed.I will attemptto expose

relationshipsbetween the cameramovements of different films that cite poetry, and betweenthe

films as wholes,entities that dealwith poetry in similar veins.

The placing of poetry within the script of a film is usually not incidental.In the films

consideredin this chapter,poetry functions in ways central to major developmentsin eachfilm.

Poetry becomesan acutecontributor to the story within which it functions,a kind of 'hinge'for

someaspect of the film to swing upon. Sometimesit is a crucial factor in the developmentof a

character,as in RagingBull (Scorsese,1980) and JeanCocteau's Orphge (1949). In other

instancespoetry is a centraltheme of a film, and characterbehaviour is basedaround that theme,

as in Dead Poet's Society (Weir, 1989) and Il Postino (Radford, 1994). The most interesting uses

of poetry in film are those which study the poetry themselves, evaluating specific lines to

enhance or propel the story-line and the development of the film as a whole; films such asKiss

Me Deadly (Aldrich, 1955) and The Daytrippers (Mottola, 1996) achieve such a balance with

well-crafted scripts and the occasionally jarring plot twist. However, no matter what type of film

in which poetry plays a part, and regardlessto what extent,the presenceof poetry accountsfor a

distinct oeuvrein the overall piece.There is an aestheticundercurrent provided by poetry, one

that most spectatorswill detectwhen the poem emergeswithin the film. Throughoutthe yearsit

is apparentthat therehas been, and still is, an 'unconsciousmovement' in the world of film-

13 making, one which adoptspoetry as a reliable asset.Poetic presence has quietly impactedthe gradual developmentof cinema,providing depth,mystery and ambiguity, perfect qualities for suspense,crime or somedramatic films. The imagery of poetry usedin films often suppliesan audiencewith a seriesof conceptionsimpossible to relatewithout the poem in the film. The symbolic, indirect natureof much poetry is a fitting addition for films that seekan etherealtone, or for films that want to undercuta frivolous plot line with somethinga degreemore emotiveor gravitational.If a film usespoetry skilfully, the effect that the poem can haveupon an audience is often subtlebut potent.

There is a shortageof materialwritten aboutthe citation of verse in film. Much hasbeen written on the generalrelationships between film and poetry as separatefields and entities,but

the study of the use of individual poemsin individual films is virtually non-existent,despite the

frequentpresence of poetry in film scripts.The types of poetry usedin films are wide-rangingas

well. Somefilms will haveoriginal lines composedfor the purposesof their specific plots: we

will seethis techniqueused in Once Upon a Honeymoon(McCarey, 1942)and TheInnocents

(Clayton, 1961), among many others. The majority of films that include poetry in their plots use

Dylan existing work, such as that by Blake, Auden or Thomas. It is the rare film that specially is impressive, commissions verse from poets, and sometimes the end result but at other times

is fluid (as Singleton's Poetic embarrassing. If the whole of the film not as as the poetry in John

Justice (1993), in which Maya Angelou's beautiful verse outshines the film's overall qualities),

the work will probably seem contrived, unevenly crossed between its storyline and poetic

forms is content. Furthermore, the myriad of different of poetry a factor in the selection of poems

for films, in that certain structural forms of poetry have been rarely adapted for the screen.

14 Regardlessof outcome,all of thesefilms add anotherlayer of meaningto their plots, one that entails a clusterof significance.Some films placepoetry very denselyand strategically;in many cases,poems are themselvessymbolic synopsesof someof the most important themesin a film's story. For example,understanding the meaningof Christina Rossetti's'Remember'in Kiss

Me Deadly is a detective-stylemystery in itself. Readingthe poem more closely offers a chance to acquirea heightenedsense of the devicesat work within the poem. Consideringits filmic significance,one can also gain a more sophisticatedinterpretation of the activities of the main charactersin the film itself, obtainingclues and meaningsthat unravel the mysteriesof the film 2 as a whole.

1.2 It's Got to Be a Thing': Christina Rossetti and Kiss Me Deadly

One of the primary examples I will use in this study is the film Kiss Me Deadly which uses

Rossetti's poetry to a well-developed degree, and provides a suitable framework with which we can consider the presence of poetry within all films. I think the wisest way to approach the functions of a poem within a film is to first study the poem on its own, without its filmic significance or connection. By studying one poem as it exists outside a film, or as it exists apart from any other medium, its specific qualities are more clearly understood, while it is stripped of

discussion all but its poetic meaning and artistic intent. My of Rossetti and Kiss Me Deadly will be the only case in which I use this approach, and I will dispense with the study of the poem itself in subsequentexamples. Each example studied will illustrate the ways through which a

is poem changes a film and how the poem's overall meaning transformed or especially given a

it is completely new significance once appearsand manipulated within a film.

15 1.2.1 A Study of the Sonnet'Remember'

In the introductionto her SelectedPoetry, C.H. Sissondeemed Christina Rossetti as 'the most nakedof poets'(1984,21) which is an expressioncharacteristic of intimacy and confessionalism.'Confessional'poets, like Berryman or Plath, are pigeonholedinto a weighty vein of poetry, a vein that dealswith the study of the supposedtruth of their lyrics, the close relationsbetween their poetry and their lives. Yet, Rossettiis not classedas a confessionalpoet, and this may be becauseshe reaches a level beyond the trappingsof poetic 'confession'or even biographicalinformation and/orcircumstance through poetry. Instead,Rossetti candidly 'says what shewants to say as simply as shecan say it'(Sisson, 19). By merely scanningRossetti's poetry, one can appreciatethe meaningof this sentiment.However, upon closer inspection,a certain taint sometimesadds itself to Rossetti'sseemingly honest, uncomplicated meanings and painfully statedemotions; an undercurrentor 'wicked device' appearsin many of her poemsthat underminesotherwise straightforward messages. Plainly, her speakersare not always as sweet and innocentas they may first appear.A fine exampleof this techniquein Rossetti'swork is in her famous sonnet 'Remember':

Remember me when I am gone away,

Gonefar away into the silent land;

When you can no more hold me by the hand,

Nor I half tum to go yet tuming stay.

Rememberme when no more day by day

You tell me of our future that you plann'd:

Only rememberme; you understand

It will be late to counselthen or pray.

16 Yet if you shouldforget me for a while

And afterwardsremember, do not grieve:

For if the darknessand corruption leave

A vestigeof the thoughtsthat once I had,

Betterby far you shouldforget and smile

Than that you shouldremember and be sadý

Among many of her other poemswhich centeron the difficulties of coping with the frailties and limitations of memory ('Memory, 'Song','I Wish I Could Remember'and'He and She' are some of the bestexamples), 'Remember' focuses on the intricaciesinvolved with enduringa strong passionfor somebodywhose existence is, howeverfutilely, temporary,whilst one'sheart must seeminglyendure all time. This embodiesthe certain degreeof 'steelystoicism' (Philip Larkin's phrase)that Rossettifrequently and perhapsunwittingly insertsinto her poems,and this stoicism is what readerscan easily miss at first glance,lulled into a senseof innocenceby her beautiful and natural metaphorsor her musingson emotionaldepth or paradox.However, before we imposeany unequivocalinterpretations of this love sonnet, let us first seekits basicmeaning.

First and foremost,'Remember' is a poem that asksits subject,a romanticpresence outside of the poem,to simply rememberthe speakerand her qualities.The poem hasa strong preoccupationwith death(the silent land) and the stoppagesof 'day by day' plans and thoughts.

Rossettiexpresses her pain at the thoughtsof these'stoppages; she pleads with the subjectto at leastprovide sometrace, some 'vestige, to keep her own spirit alive once it hasdeparted from her body. It is at oncean alluring and beautiful poemwhich exposesa deepand true yearningfor the pleasuresof life and its emotions,but which also combinesthis yearningwith a saddened realisationof the inevitability of deathand a natural dependencyon the living.

17 As a sonnet,'Remember' has an 'abba'rhyme schemefor the first eight lines (the octave) separatedinto two quatrains.Its rhyme altersin the last six lines, creatingtwo tercetswith 'cdd' and 'ece'rhymeschemes. This is slightly unconventionalfor what at first appearedto be an

Italian or Petrarchansonnet, which normally has a final sestetof We, cde'. Instead,Rossetti placesa link betweenthe tercetsthrough only two lines rather than through all six. The end rhyme in lines nine andthirteen is the only link betweenthe final two tercets,separated over a greateramount of spacein the poem,and thereforea longer'period of poetic 'time'. Aside from a further significanceassociated with the themeof the poem,which will be discussedshortly, the irregular rhyme patternof the latter 'half' of the poem providesan indication of the unstableand slightly recklessnature of the speaker,whose motives are potentially as irregular as her rhyme scheme.Curiously, the sonnet's'turn' is still in its conventionallocation for an Italian sonnet,in line nine (beforethe sestet),and it is also clearly markedwith a capitalised'Yet' to prepareus for in a departurein meaningor action.This seemsto hint that Rossetti(who was Italian ethnic first origin) blatantly rejectsthe Italian form at a late stage,after rigorously sticking to it for the ten lines, at which point the poem'sform could take on an irregular elementwith lasting effect.

Manipulatingthis structurecalls attentionto the fact that Rossettisought to break from conventionand expectation,to impactnot only her subjectin the poem,but also her readers.The poemjars the readeralmost subconsciously, by easingone into the serenityimparted by the openinglines and then concludingwith an unconventional,odd-sounding ending. This ending 'aura'of death simultaneouslylifts the readerout of the and depressionwhile addinga minutia of possiblesarcasm, though barely detectableat first glance.

The poem'srhythm is iambic for the most part, and in pentameterwithout exception. The iambic qualitiesto the sonnetmake it soundas if it is rising steadily, as if to an occasion,which

18 is typical of an iambic piece(Lennard, 1996,5). The only line that doesnot usean iamb in its first two syllablesis line seven,where 'Only'is emphasisedon the first syllable, thus becominga dactyl. This minor detail is probably purposeful,since the line must emphasisethat the speaker wants nothing more at this point but than to be rememberedfondly; 'Only' standsout particularly becauseit is the operativeword of the poem. However, the languageused overall, combinedwith the constantalternations of stressedand unstressedsyllables, creates a 'dirge'quality to the poem'ssound, funereal and melodic but also fraught with bass-liketonality. The alliteration and repetition of the Wsound, in the very first line: 'rememberme when I am...'and the 'ee'soundin

'me' and 'remember'resonate with doom,with echo-like auditory effects. Line two repeatsthe word 'gone'also with a relatedsimilar W soundand a harsher,more guttural 'g'. Alliteration is found in line three(hold me by the hand) and four (turn to go, yet turning stay'). With these

be repetitionsand then the 'day by day' of line five, Rossetticrafts a lament,a hymn that can half-sungas it is read,to achievea haunting,creeping effect.

To match a rising rhythm, supported by the iambs in each line, with a 'dirgic' or funeral- esquesound is ironic, inappropriatefor the poem'stheme, which is basically one of sorrow and loss or decay.But this irony is purposeful,since Rossetti will be headingtowards a lilt in her in conclusivesestet, which containsproof that there is a hope in sight for thesefigures the lines sonnet. Much in the sameway as her expressan approachingor imminent occurrence,the tone of the poemis ominous,as if it were warning us of a threateningpresence without directly fear mentioninganything that could be equatedwith or trepidation.Yet, the alliterative qualities 'ominousness' in line of the languagemay help us to understandthe here introduced,especially two: 'into the silent land'and in line three, 'you can no morehold me by the hand'.This couplet has within the first stanzais at onceupsetting and elegantlyelegiac at the sametime. The reader

19 visions of ghost-likefigures holding hands,traveling to a grave and quiet place (the 'silent land), while one figure consistentlyattempts to break away from the other. This is expressedin line four, a sumptuouslyrealistic line, Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay'. This moment,an exquisitemoment which lovers can potentially endureat momentsof separation,is delicately expressedwith this one line, and the rhyme from line one is also satisfiedwith 'stay'.As a correlationto the themeof this openingquatrain, the speakerwhom has 'goneaway' at the end of line one 'staysaway', in termsof the absenceof rhyme for two lines, until in line four the reader is madeaware of her temptationto 'stay'. The rhyme is restoredmuch like the speakerof these lines is restored:the departurecan only be temporary,provided the subjectof the poem,the object of the speaker'saffections, will adhereto her pleasand, indeed,'remember'. To contribute to the urgency of her pleas,the lack of an unessential,but grammaticallyappropriate comma in line four (between'go'and 'yet) instills the readerwith a feeling of sincerity and movement. The omitting of a naturalpause makes the speakerseem all the more desperateand honest,as she must say what shefeels 'assimply as shecan say it' (Sisson,19) and as strongly.

Notably, thoughthe word 'remember'appears five times within this fourteen-linepoem, it only appearsonce within the first four lines. It is interesting that these four lines so heavily key convey a plea without the repetition of this word, which should demonstrate the gravity and

real significance of Rossetti's choice of words and phrases. It is also ironic that Rossetti manages is to change her mind in the later stagesof the poem, claiming that it is not as important that she

is (Bowra, remembered but that her lover not unhappy 1998,1). Yet the last line of the poem

demand for 'you seemsto add a measure of guilt and a sorrow, closing with the words should

remember and be sad'. Indeed, in the last six lines of the poem, the word 'remember' appears

twice.

20 To discussanother complication intricately written within this poem (and often easily missed),line eight'spresence is strangein this sonnet:'... you understand/ It will be late to counselthen or pray'. Obviously, the lateness'refers to the time when shewill be deadand unableto speak,butcounsel'and 'pray'are words that are linguistically unevencompared to the rest of the poem. 'Counseling'sounds like a communicationon her part, a communication volunteeredby her to her subject.Altogether upon the subjectof vocal contact,all words seemto havebeen heretofore offered by the other figure, for example'he tells me of our future', and it is he whom is repeatedlytold to remember,and to hold her hand.His existenceand function is a dominatingone for most of the poembefore this line, whereasshe suddenlytells him, 'you understand/ it will be late'. This soundslike a teachertalking to a student,a strongerand declarativestance of the speakerwhich is still in agreementwith the previousmovements of the poetry (in that sheis still imparting adviceand a plea), but she is now also speakingof actively conversingwith him. Previously,the speakerwas not this specifically admonishing,nor was she

in the mode of conversation as much as she may have been merely musing or passively involved with this person,anticipating his reactionsor behavior.

Beyond 'counsel',the word 'pray'also expressesa communionbetween the lovers, but addsa

religious elementto the couple'slove, somethingabsent from the poem until this point. For one 'pray' consideration,following 'counsel'with seemsto be reminiscentof a confession,like the

Catholic confessionbooth where sinnersare relieved of their sins through a priest'sadvice and

blessing(Rossetti was indeedCatholic). This featurein the poem could be an indication of some

feelings of wrongdoingRossetti's speaker and her lover may have felt while wooing. It is a

bittersweetsense of the word usedhere, since the speakerseems to want to end any questionable

behaviourand confessto it, a reasonfor her to 'pray'. Furthermore,a reasonto 'rememberthe

21 speakercould thenbe a confirmationof the resignationof their love, rather than a definite speech from the grave'sdepths. In this way, the 'silent land'becomesa placewhere one recedesto after the end of a passionatelove affair, a placewhere the former lover is then untouchableor unreachable.This train of thoughtcan be tracedthroughout the poem,whereas it is not necessarilythe physical deathof the speakerwhich calls for the needfor remembrance,but a deathof the love which formerly stoodbetween the speakerand her lover. This reading,most strongly facilitated by the presenceof the word 'pray', is not as clearly expressedas the former interpretation,but it is still quite viable, sincethere is no indication that provesa literal deathis the only causeof their love's abstinence.It is particularly interestingthat once an elementof religion is injectedinto the poem,we are at once forced to considerthat the moral or spiritual 'it be meaningsbehind this relationshipare tainted.She could evenbe telling her lover that will late for them to ever get back togetheragain, which expressesa confidenceon the ...to pray' is speaker'spart, in full control of the relationship.This not a very romantic readingof a supposedlove sonnet,but throughexploring any underlying messagesor tonesRossetti deliberatelyplaces within her poem,we can appreciateher 'wicked devices'at work. Beneaththe wistful and dreamytalk of memoriesand past passion,there is an authoritativestyle and tone which transcendsthe romantic andprovides the speakerof the poemwith a feministic right to decidethe outcomeof every facet of their relationship,including any memoriesof its existence.

Consideringthe 'turn', or 'changein the direction of argument'(Stallworthy, 1983,869) in a

its important The in Remember'in sonnetis often the key to understanding most messages. turn line nine is an upwardone, and can be readwith a slight but fitting lilt in one'svoice, a kind of brightening in a spokenreading of the poem.This 'brightening'is also ironic, sincepresumably this is not what the speakerwould want her ex-lover to do, much less Yorgetabout her for longer

22 than only a 'while'. Thereis impermanenceattributed to both of theseconcepts, and firmness.

Aside from the natural confidencethat seemsto dwell in this speaker,who is so self-assuredthat her mark on this lover was sucha one that it would not allow forgetfulness,her plea is irrevocable,such that the lover will be unableto ignore it. Sheconsiders every option, and obstructshim from every passagewayout of her memory. Still assuminga declarativeair, the speakerexhibits strengthand knowledgeof her lover's feelings, their depthand/or her impression on him, and shegenuinely provides him with a 'handbook'on how to deal with thesefeelings she thinks he is likely to have.

Presumptuously,the long expressionwhich beginsat line nine and endsthe poem could be

does for her viewed as in keepingwith the readingwhich not require deathas the reason going

'away', but that sheis simply leaving him. The 'darknessand corruption',which hasmanifold

be lovers connotationsregarding death and distance,could the world outsideof the slowly settling into his capacityfor awareness,perhaps even acknowledgingthe possiblepresence of (and foreign invasion other lovers. In spite of her certainty paranoia)regarding any women's of his life, sheis still confidentto know that her memory will be his primary mental occupation.

The thoughtsthat onceI had'are her own thoughts,and they are seen,by her, as an infatuation in his memory.This is evenmore than slightly presumptuous,it is genuinely egotistical.The 'darkness'and'corruption'to beyond the speakerimmediately attributes the world the spheresof love this couplehas experienced. She merely hopesthat the world, vile as it may be, is not her in her lover's her image capableof erasingthe memory of mind, or poisoning with worldly ideals.This readingcomplicates the funerealdirge-like rhythm of the poem,but it doesnot

dirge is into frantic demand, undermineit, in fact the transformed somewhatof a an even havebeen 'the fantastic lasting impression.Once strongerplea for her to one'who madea and re-

23 readmany times, the readingexpresses more of a commandfor remembranceis moreacutely articulated,and thereis a senseof bitternessthat pervadeswhat is superficially a harmlesslove sonnet.

A more traditional or literal understandingof theselines (9-14) considersthe deathof the speaker.The 'grieve'that endsline ten is obviously a word associatedwith deathand loss, but the words 'darknessand corruption',in line eleven,provide somecomplex images.Darkness, in terms of sinking into its depths, is usually associatedwith death, in spite of any bright light' storiestold by peoplewho havehad near-deathexperiences. 'Corruption'not only refers to the uncertaintiesthat exist after death,and the possibleentrance of the soul into hell (punishmentfor the lovers' illicit coupling?), but it may also refer to the physical decayof the body in the grave.

The word 'grieve',similar in soundand structureto 'grave',also introducesline eleven(and the hints 'gravel background remainderof the poem)with a colon, and at the as an undertone,or a in in motif. If the body is deteriorating this poem,the speaker'sbody particular, the preservation She, by 'vestigeto of her thoughts becomes a grotesque request. using the word summarize the tracesof her thoughtsleft in her lover's brain, pleadswith him to not allow her thoughtsto is decidedlydifferent 'only corrodelike her body, which than the simple requestto remember' them. Rossettimanufactures double meaning with the phrase,one that supportsthe speaker's deathand one that supportsher basicbreak-up with her lover, but both interpretationssignify a deedhas been done; presenceof outerwickedness after the the evil, which was always haunt both, haunt lover he is left surroundingtheir affair, may return and them or only the since more strongly conscious.

Much like the structuralsignificance of the placementof 'away' and 'stay', the latter parts of the poem structurally signify a possibleforgetting of the speaker'for a while'. From lines nine to

24 thirteen,the rhyme to match'while'is unansweredfor five lines,the lengthiest lapse without a complementingrhyme in thepoem. The 'while'is this lapsein the sonnetbefore it is rhymed with (by 'smile);it takesa 'while'to fulfill the rhymeand this pausein rhymingis purposefuland self-aware.Again, the previously labba' rhyme scheme in theoctave changes to Wd, ece'for the two tercetsthat make up thefinal sestetof thepoem. Four lines must be readbefore 'while'

(rhyme c) is met by 'smile',which, thematically,expresses a hesitationin experiencingany pleasure,a delay in the releaseof any degreeof happiness.This certainly is harmoniouswith the poem'spurpose. Another point to identify, concerningrhyme, is that a couplet doesnot end the sonnet,as it would an English or Spenserianform, and the traditional ending of an Italian sonnet

(cde, cde: the form this sonnetappeared to be in at first) is rejected.Rossetti was Italian, though shelived in Englandfor most of her life, andwas surroundedby Italian traditions and customs for the greatmajority of her upbringing and livelihood (Marsh, 1994).Yet shemanipulates this

'Italian' sonnet'sfinal structure.This suggeststhat there is a traditional ideabeing manipulated here,in that this sonnetis not as romanticas it first appears,but there are a few notions that need consideration,concerning the placementof satisfactoryrhymes in theselines.

Placinga coupletwithin the first tercetof the final sestetcreates a quickenedpace to this delays 'smile'from part of the poem,yet also further the arriving. It is the only couplet in the love itself, poem, and it is an ironic reflection of the couple's since the rhyme is with 'grieve' and leave' insteadof with positive or uplifting words. This fact supportsthe reality of her break with him, and preservesthe air of sadnessor melancholy.Rossetti refuses to gratify her subjectwith delayed not only a sweetcouplet, but also tortureswith a rhyme. Rossettimay alsobe upsetthat there is a possibility, howeverremote, that shemay be forgotten, so she feelsjustified in torturing him, fruitless as the effort may be, by withholding the traditional rhyme. The delayed

25 rhyme also dictatesthat the authoris tying up all the loose ends,and no rhymes are left unmatched.The rhymesare completed,and they are decidedlydreary (grieve'and 'leave','had' and 'sad) and all expressloss or unhappiness,but the fact that they are broken apart in an unconventionalway expressesa certainquality to this relationshipthat Rossettiwants us to realisewas also unconventional,sad and even sinful.

The poem endswith the word 'sad'eventhough the speakerseems to be telling her loved one that shewants him to try andbe happy, independentof the complicationsexplained.

Additionally, it seemsthat the speakercannot bear to think of herself as rememberednegatively, thereforeshe speaks of nothing but positive memoriesof herself in his head.If this doesnot happen,she would rathernot be rememberedat all. This outcomewould destroythe purposeof the poem, completelynullifying its meaning.After the speakerdiscusses the inner memoriesthat

her subjectpossesses, one particular aspectof the poem is glaring in its significance:that the

Ithoughts'of line twelve are her own, and not his own. The lover is not given the free will to

decide which memory of hers he would find appropriate, but is given a permission, like an

ultimatum, to maintaina positive memory of her own thoughts.In addition to the mental is connectionsand closenessbetween the two that expressedthrough this kind of intuition, or at

least that was experiencedat one point, this line evenmore firmly determinesher role as the one

in control. It is fitting that the poemends with the very word that could make its effect

impossible;if he is 'sad',there will be no remembering.

Up until this point, 'Remember'hasbeen described as a plea, which begs at or requestsa is like demand.The declarative memory, but perhapsthe poem more a tone of the speakerseems

to magnify as the poemis studiedand re-read,since the forceful and advisory voice of the author

26 and speakeremerges more and more authoritatively.The speaker'spleading voice grows louder, commanding,and after a time, we may not have any choicebut to obey her.

Clearly, 'Remember'isa poemthat hasmany layers of complicatedmeaning to it. It considersmultiple possibilitiesof memory and makesthe readeruncertain as to what Rossetti's subtextsprecisely mean, but we can be sure thesedualities are intentional.One thing is clear: the speakerand Rossettiwant to be rememberedfor their thoughtsand this poem servesas a proof of her lasting memory, throughthe permanenceof literature and printed texts. Most interestingly, the poem'slayers maintainsome of thesemeanings once they are placedwithin anotherwork, or within anothermedium of art (a film), but they also acquirea new and specifically oriented direction(s) which refersto the film's plot, characters,themes and intentions.Let us begin to in study where 'Remember'andRossetti appear Kiss Me Deadly.

1.2.2 Remember'in.a CinematicContext

Aldrich's 1955 film is one of the last and best examples of the genre of films known asfllm

noir. Thesefilms usually focus on someaspect of a criminal underworld,their heroesbeing not in films To unlike someof the criminal characters the themselves. complementthe shadinessof

the charactersin the film, noir films are often low-lit, and smoke,rain and particularly shadows is bleak, often obscureshots. Film noir usually pessimisticand sinister,providing an unsettling from 'pulp' and threateningatmosphere. Their complicatednarrative structures were adapted

fiction, by novelistslike RaymondChandler and DashielHammett. The most recognisablefigure

in a film of this sort is the so-calledfemme fatale, the quintessentialraven-haired beauty who is

able to manipulatemen and sometimesother women so as to achieveher goals.She is an double-crossing, enticing, intimidating, sexually active and predatorywoman, capableof theft,

27 and possibly murder.The occasionalfilmnoir further complicatesissues by castingan atypical blonde woman in the role of thefemme fatale, andKiss Me Deadly doesexactly this. In fact, both unstablewomen in the film are blondes,including the sacrificial ChristinaBailey (Cloris

Leachman,in her first film role), whom is namedafter Rossetti.Bailey announces,soon after her introduction, 'ChristinaRossetti wrote love sonnets.I was namedafter her'. The hero, or indeed anti-heroof the film, is the populariseddetective character invented by authorMickey Spillane,

Mike Hammer(played by Ralph Meeker),and the film is basedon Spillane'snovel of the same name.

Kiss Me Deadly uses'Remember'in its plot and framework to further motivate its characters. In fact, it is so conspicuously and methodologically placed within the film that the film itself gainsa completelynew perspective,while aspectsof the poem also changefrom their original meaning.Since the film is an exampleof the noir genre,most of the film's elementsare connectedto the centralmystery that comprisesthe themeof the film, and the poem is 'centralto but its importance far beyond its Hammer'sunraveling of the mystery, ... goes value as a clue' (Hill, 1995,146).

This film uses'Remember' in sucha way that the outcomesof the characters,the direction of the plot, and the very film itself, dependon the interpretationof the poem'slines. One might say that the film is 'inhabited'by poetry; this film entwinesRossetti's piece in its structure,and drastically manipulatesitself and the (then) 105-year-oldpoem's meanings. By now studying the sonnetstrictly in the contextof the film, we may be able to determinea set of outcomes,a list of resultsthat are identifiable when a film is intermeshedwith a poem,or vice versa,and therefore seekthe primary differencesbetween a filmically-cited poem and a textual or printed poem.

28 The phrase'Remember me'is usedin Aldrich's film within the first ten minutes,is then unmentionedor presumablyforgotten for a short while, then returnswith strong significanceand intricate purposeas the mystery of the film complicates.Notably, the placementof 'Remember' is entirely Aldrich's addition.Mickey Spillane'snovel Kiss Me Deadly did not contain a referenceto Rossettior to her poetry; it is entirely absentfrom the novel. The idea of rememberingis presentin the novel but the useof poetry, conceivedby Aldrich and screenwriter

A. 1. Bezzerides,to expressthis memory,makes the film more eloquent,multi-faceted, and altogethercerebral. The insertionof poetry is not the only changefrom that of the original novel either. From what ClaudeChabrol called 'the worst material to be found, the most deplorable,the most nauseousproduct of a genrein a stateof putrefaction'(Hobe rman, 1994,43) when referring to the novel, comesa film with a seriesof grandiosechanges:

The novel's soupedup heapbecame a Jaguar.Hammer's secretary, Velda, is transformed

from a chasteand adoringfianc6e to professionalsex bait. The location shifts ftom New

York to L. A. The villains mutate from gangsters to atom spies (Hoberman, 43).

Clearly the novel was overhauledby Aldrich and Bezzeridesto make a film that crossesthe genre of noir with sciencefiction, a film that Chabrolalso termed'the thriller of tomorrow'at the time (Hoberman,43).

The first few minutesof the film very subtly preparesus for the 'Rossettimechanismi.

Christina, in her overcoat(apparently nude underneath), is picked up by Hammerin his car after the film's memorableopening scene. The first shot of the film is a tracking shot of her running legs, followed by various shotsof the breathlessChristina trying to pull over passingvehicles.

Throughout her crying andwheezing (and the roll of the credits),Nat King Cole's 'RatherHave

the Blues (Than What I Got)'is playing on the radio, and this is an indirect referenceto the

29 loathsomesecret she is carrying with her. The basenessand callousnessof Hammer'scharacter, icily underplayedby Meeker,also emergesfrom the very first angry words that spurt out of his mouth. Following the sombrescenes of the two in the car, which is full of typically noirish snappybut sarcasticconversation, we find out that Christinais an escapeefrom an asylum,she is carrying importantinformation, and sheis in trouble with someoneto the point of being aftaid for her life. Hammertakes steps to protect her, andwhen they pull off the road at a petrol station, she postsa letter, a letter that will later emergeas one of the only textual affirmations of the pivotal role 'Remember'will play.

The film's openingscene hardly wastesany time getting acquaintedwith the conceptof poetry. Shortly after the 'perverselybackward title crawl (outrageouslyaccompanied by orgasmic heavy breathing)'(Hoberman, 43), Meeker'scold, hard detectivecharacter is facedwith having to deal with somethingcompletely antithetical to what he is able to understandand relate to: poetry, which hasan initially charmingbut eventuallyuncomfortable presence in the film. The film, it does poem never appearsin its entirety in the and not fully appearin shot as printed lines its on a page(as many other films haveused poetry on-screen).But lines are repeatedmany times over, its authoris referredto as an inspirationfor the naming of the 'insane'Christina and the mechanismsof the poetry are studiedfor deepermeaning or for clues to solve the mysteries Christina's of the film. Thesemysteries are murder,and the contentsof a sinister-lookingblack box, the significanceof which is deemed'the greatwhatsit.

There is much more importantpoetic significancein the film's first few minutes.After

back dark in pulling away from the petrol station,the two are on the road, a wide-anglemedium The is dimly lit from dashboard shot through the windscreenof the car. shot the of the car and from other carsheadlights(especially an ominouspair following distantly behind). It is herethat

30 Christina specifically asksHammer, 'You ever readpoetry'? Shetells him, 'ChristinaRossetti wrote love sonnets.I'm namedafter her'. The conversationcontinues, and a threat is imposed upon this apparentlyharmless scene, when sherepeats, 'If we don't makethat bus

At the this dramaticbackground stop... remember me'. conclusionof statement,sudden, music blaringly takesover andthe shot finally cuts as anothercar anglesitself in front of Hammer's.

His car screechesoff the road,where the two are waylaid by waiting men. Christina screams,and continuesto screamthroughout the dissoIveto the next sequence,which is nauseatingin its depiction of violence throughshots of her dangling,quivering legs while she is tortured.Finally, her legs hang limply andwe are cryptically told by voices that she is dead.Though this sequence of the film doesnot quoteany poetry in a way that is clear to the first time viewer as of yet,

'Rememberme'is introducedas a hinging statement,being Christina'slast words and a clue for the detective,who survivesa car crash,set up to look like an accidentby the facelessvillains.

The murderersare only in frame from the waist down, so we mainly seetheir shoesand trousers; their apparentleader wears a pinstripedsuit.

Notably, this importantsequence naturally includesan introduction to Mike Hammer's character.Christina describes him as a true male chauvinist,who only has 'one true lasting love' and that is himself. She'needles'Hammer and intoneshis inner thoughtsby playfully mocking incomplete And does to her?Why, him, 'Ah...woman ... the sex. what sheneed complete man of course.Wonderful man'.This dialogue,directed at Hammerand his personality,are similar to the bitternessRossetti sometimes evokes in her poetry and the undercuffent of her indifferenceto the feelings of the male lover in 'Remember'.Christina's torn, mocking reflectionson the dynamic betweenmen andwomen are reminiscentof Rossetti'ssimultaneous coupling of desire

love. Christina and angeror acrimony regarding saysshe was namedafter the poet, which

31 supports the idea of overlappingcharacteristics and relationshipsbetween the two. In

'Remember',called a love sonnet,this samebitterness and resentmentat the lack of love or understandingfrom a male,which Christinaobserves, is discernible.

Kiss Me Deadly providesan appropriatesetting for the mystery surroundingChristina, which is the film's initial priority. Even Hammer'sscattered musings on the last words and acts of Christina are fraught with mutteringsof 'Rememberme'. This frequent,unconscious quoting of the first words of the poemcreate an atmosphereof suspense,one that makesus constantly wonder at the meaningof the words and of the contentsof her letter. The use of the word

'remember'is also prevalent in scenesleading up to the discovery of her book of sonnets. For example,Pat, the police inspectorwith a typical contemptfor the detective,asks him upon his awakeningin the hospital, 'Canyou remember,MikeT Just after thesewords, Hammerblacks out again. Soonafter his recovery,alone with his secretary(and part-time lover) Velda (Maxine

Cooper),he discussesChristina's last words with her and concludes,'She must be connectedwith something big'.

OnceHammer picks up on the link with Rossettiand finds a book of her sonnetsat

Christina'sold apartment,we expectthat perhapshe will immediately read 'Remember'and figure out something.But insteadhe is painstakinglyslow at decipheringthe poetry, and seems to find it incomprehensibleor not worth his interest.This steersthe plot into deepermystery, and gives us an inkling into anotherone of Hammer'scharacter traits: he is not intelligent, not a very adept detective,nor is he the type that could successfullyanalyze anything literary. Hammer's detectivestrength is in his instinct, which is not artistic, so the audiencemust wait for the words to be thoroughly exploredand realised.The numberof namesand leadsthat Hammerfollows up, dangerously apart from anything to do with the poetry, enmeshhim in the case,but do not

32 provide any conclusiveanswers. An unveiling of sortsapproaches when Hammerfinds

Christina's letter in the mail, but he finds it too late, as the killers have alreadybeen to his apartment,found the letter, and readits contents:'Remember MeNn cursive handwriting. Again, the words appearin the film, this time in a close-up,and this time we must acceptthat they will not only motivate the killers to try and eradicateHammer if he doesnot tell them their meaning, but that they will also drive Hammerto every end in order to discovertheir meaning,if he can survive. Through his strong-armtactics, and with the help of unspeakableand apparently

'unshowable'physicalability (he overpowershis foes with hardly any effort and usesan almost

in bettershis supematuralstrength or power that is not shot or captured the sceneswhere he rivals), he will persist,delving into the poetic phrase.

After he finds the letter in his apartment,Hammer is capturedand kidnappeda secondtime by the criminals, who are therewaiting for him. They administersodium-pentathol ('truth serum) to him as he is tied down on a bed, and their aim is to find out the meaningbehind 'Remember have bed, me'. When the serumis supposedto taken effect, one of the thugs sits nearthe saying Of the phraseto him and askinghim what it means. course,Hammer does not know, so he can The this is only mumble gibberishto the criminal. significanceof scene quintessentialto the role interestin that poetry plays in this film; by the criminals' the words and the lengthsthey will go to in order to discovertheir meaning,we are given a notion as to the extent of their importance.

The film constructsits narrativeto permit the lines'meaning as the foremostclue to the great

'piece he for in his hunts. mystery of the film. They are the of string'Mike often claims searches

Along the trail of the mystery,Hammer manages to find Christina'sformer roommateand friend, Lily Carver. In the sceneimmediately following his escapefrom his captors,he is alone

he finally decidesto from book Rossetti's with her, and this is when study a poem the of sonnets.

33 Mike asksCarver to readthe poem 'Remember'.In this scene,we gain valuable insights into the rnechanismsthat the poemprovides in this film, and how the poemchanges itself as well. The

reading beginswith the two charactersin a medium shot, and cuts to a medium close-upof the

two as line sevenis read,with Carverin the right foregroundof the frame.The poem is presented

in snippetsand the lines that are indeedchosen and readare very significant. From the full

sonnet, Carverreads only lines five to seven,and lines elevenand twelve. The rest of the poem is

unread and treatedas nonexistent,and somewords are changedto fit the context of the story of

the film, to aid the charactersin their questfor 'the greatwhatsit'. For example,'you' in line seven

is changedto 'youll'(read 'youll understand'and omitting the completionof the enjambed Carver 'you'll sentencethat continuesand concludesin line eight). also readsthe words Hammer understand'with much emphasis,and sheglances at sporadicallythroughout her is lies Additionally, 'For' in reading, clearly recognisingthat there a clue that within the words.

line elevenis changedto 'But' and the conspicuousand meaningful T in line twelve is changedto

'we' (read 'But if the darknessand corruptionleave /A vestigeof the thoughtsthat once we had).

Hammer asksher to repeatthese lines (elevenand twelve), the last part', as he puts it. His he is decipher behind characterneeds a repetition,since not clever enoughto the meanings them his face is lost in he at a single glance.During the poem'sreading, that of one thought, and door, heedingCarver's suddenly rises from the couch,moving towardsthe not protestations.

Over-dramaticmusic also plays herein the background,and due to its timing and placementat believe important hasjust theI end of the reading,we areled to that something happened.Ernest

Laszlo's cinematographyalso provides some evidence of the importanceof this scene,as the

Carver's to figures' faces. camerafollows every move as shereads, cutting a close-upof the two

The movementof the camerasignals that this sceneis indispensable,as the slightestgestures and

34 expressionsmade within it are trackedand treatedas pivotal and illuminating. The scoreby

Frank de Vol also is a signifier in that the music itself is compositionallynondescript, but its positioning in the film is alignedwith the positioning of the poetry, or with the links that lead directly to the poetry.

But ironically, it is Hammer'sstupidity and misinterpretationof the lines that substantiate the sonnet'sprime importance.In his mind, the 'vestige'of line twelve is equatedwith the 'small thing'that hasbeen left behindby Christina,a clue that was given to him by one of his victims of his cross-examinations.This 'vestige, in the poem,is somethingentirely intangible, a thought or memory of the thoughtsof the speaker.But Hammeris not this kind of analyst;he is not able to imagine a subjectthat is not concrete.He is headstrong,reliant on good luck and muscleto achieve his desires,a callousbrute. This is why he impulsively leavesCarver and the apartment when the poem'sreading is completed.The actualtransformation from intangible 'vestige'to tangible vestige as small object is accordantwith his character,an affirmation of Hammer's stone-like mentalcapacity and his inability to seebeyond the obvious,momentary 'Piece of string'. Again, ironically, and in spite of his misinterpretation,he managesto find what he imagines was left by Christina.

However unorthodoxthe grammaticalchanges in the poemmay be, it is clear that Aldrich wanted to make the viewer believethat Christinawas sendingHammer a codedmessage, therefore 'we' soundsmore likely to involve the both of them.The use of I)ut, rather than 'for', is like an introduction to a clue, a strongerinkling to the possibility that there might be something left discover.The 'you'to 'youll' remaining or something to alterationof also soundslike an invitation for the detectiveto pick up the piecesof this puzzle and fit them together,further

35 supported by Carver'svocal emphasis,YOUEL underSTAND'.In the next scene,Hammer comes closer to the mystery'ssolution with a sinister,greedy mortician.

While Hammerstands over Christina'sdead body in the morgue,he repeatslines elevenand twelve (including the %ve'change),which is the third time they are repeatedin the film. In this instance, somethingis realised.The lines are spokenover Christina'sface, even though she is dead, and it is as if he is still having a conversationwith her. This is a hearkeningto one reading of the Rossettisonnet, involving a communicationwith a spirit on the other side of life. Hammer is rememberingher, after shehas 'gonefar away into the silent land'. Here Hammerdispels the for film. The inystery of the lines, unravelingtheir meaning the specific purposesof this missing

Ivestige'or small thing will lead him to 'the greatwhatsit', which everyoneis chasing.After

he 'But if it's deadbecause dead'.Aside from being repeating the lines says, the thought she's in its Hammer ungrammaticaland strange constructionthis sentencepermits to concludethat the

'vestige'is indeedsomething that sheconcealedý He states,'It's got to be a thing. Something

hide', through the detective'slogic, by the small, somethingshe could and prompted nodding, it is that the is key that found in smirking ogre of a mortician, revealed object, the vestige, a was

Christina's deadbody. This discoveryis the most important of the film, and the decipheringof

is its It is the that has the direction the meaning in the poetry at source. poem governed of plot, direct important development and is the causeof the most onscreenactivity, narrative and

character evolution. Critic RodneyHill, in an article that concentrateson the role of Remember'in Kiss Me

including DeadlY, makesa numberof proposalsconcerning the sonnet, somethat relatenarrative

the At one point he states: consequenceto the presenceof poetry.

36 Thus a readingof the poemmight help to keep Christina'sbeneficial intentions (to

prevent the box from falling into the wrong hands)alive; it might evenbe an edifying

experience,similar to taking communion.I suggestthat in invoking the Rossettisonnet,

Bailey hopesthat its messagewill enableHammer to fill her shoes,to carry on her gospel

of communication,to preventultimate disasterin the inevitable eventthat she should die

(147).

Furthermore, the idea of communion,of acceptingthe body of Christ into one'sown body, is

being hidden Christina's The (and related to the key itself within corpse. removal theft) of the key contains a strong irony, sincethe key doesnot lead to anything remotely similar to salvation. it leads insteadto a box of horror, of what many critics refer to as an evil holocaust,spiritual in its escape.Within that mysteriousbox, we soondiscover, is fissionablenuclear material or bright burning light. When box is energy, which is exposedas a searing, the opened,the energy hisses and snapslike a raspingdemon unleashed upon the world.

But why is a poemthe sourceof the mystery and the link to this secret?Dense and strangely

incomplete in this film, the poemis like a veil, and Hammer'scharacter is realistically not

intelligent enoughto clearly seethrough or lift that veil. He can only find the key, the tangible

deeper the lines. To object, and he cannotunderstand the meaningand significanceof poetic is thereto Hammer'shaplessness his coincide with this view, perhapsthis poetry also expose and As Hill Uammer to be chauvinism to an evengreater extent. writes, might considerpoetry an (or He its imagery unacceptablyfeminine effeminate)mode of communication... never considers (148), this to the his This is the and possiblesymbolism' and contributes extent of oversight. he Carver the to him; this like rnain reasonwhy makes read poetry activity would not suit a male

him. Yet Aldrich manipulatesthe poetry; a poemthat previously stood as a plea for a

37 continuanceof memory,or an insistenceon that sameremembrance, is transformedinto a catalystfor cluesthat will solve a mystery. The poem is never readin full, but this is permissible sincethe lines that are indeedread are treatedpivotally, regardlessof alteration.In this way, the poem is the perfect complementto thisfilm noir, since it is an apparatusof elaborate complication,and suspensefulfilms benefit from a challengingnarrative. The poemchallenges the audienceeven further, in that they must concentrateon the lines of poetry and their possible meanings,as well as on the intrinsic mysteriesof the film itself.

Remember',forlorn and distressedat its most superficial level, has a sharpunderbelly that ridicules its subject,selfish in its demands.Much like Gabrielle (Lily Carver'sname and true identity) in Kiss Me Deadly, the forlorn, fearful figure is a maskedfemme fatale; from the box sheunleashes a destructiveenergy, a force portrayedas if it were evil itself. SinceGabrielle possessesthat sharpunderside as well, perhapsshe hasunderstood the true meaningsof

'Remember'allalong, but like Hammer,is too self-involved to realiseits total ramifications.

Gabrielleis the antithesisof Christina,who dies becauseof her innocentknowledge, while she embodiesand representsthe sharpedge of the sonnet.One can view Christina'scharacter as the authorof the poem,a representationof Rossetti,who is innocently in love with love but who has

'the nicestway of needlinga guy'. Gabrielleis like the ironic, self-centredspeaker of the poem, whoseulterior motive eludesthe reader'svision at first glance,and who deceivesMike Hammer throughouthis blunderingsearches, until it is almosttoo late. Gabrielle,who hasfaked her name

film, is and passedherself off as someoneelse throughout most of the a reflection of the poem's , falsification as a love sonnetas well. The poem is anything but innocentwithin, akin to

Gabrielle'seventual exposure; both innocently claim to be somethingthat they are not at first.

Hammer,who can himself further representthe ex-lover in the poem,never seesthe edgein the

38 poemor in Carver/Gabrielle.His lack of foresight preventshim from seeingthe deathtrap that heis acceleratingtowards, until themoment of his final confrontationwith Gabrielle,when she shootshim. The bullet from Gabrielle is a final 'vestige, a proof of the 'darknessand corruption' that consumesHammer. He can only stareblankly at the turn of events,as he strivesto comprehend'Remember me', much like Rossetti'sidea that her ex-lover would try to remember her, or seethe poem,misunderstand its irony, sometimesforget her, and all the while live in tormentat her loss. This is why Hammersimply tells Pat that he 'didn't know', and the inspector harshly retortsthat he probably wouldn't havedone 'any different' if hehad known.

The endingof the film pairs Hammerwith his faithful secretary,Velda, but we are not led to believethat they havelearned anything from the experience,will fall in love, or shareany moral enlightenmentwhatsoever. Aldrich's abruptstyle is a factor here,as is his understandingthat this film is not meantto be a moral tale; in fact it is quite the opposite. It exposesmultiple dark sides to humannature without reconciliationor soothingmeasures of balance,very much a film not in accordancewith the tendenciesof ClassicalHollywood. Insteadthe film endswith destruction, unlike the end of Rossetti'ssonnet, which endssadly and in mock considerationof the lover's feelings and future.

The only possiblelink betweenthe endingof the film and the end of the sonnetcould be in

Gabrielle'swords, utteredjust before sheshoots Hammer, 'Kiss me Mike. Kiss me. I want you to kiss me. The liar's kiss that saysI love you meanssomething else'. This could be a tribute to that samesharp underside that the poem contains,summarising its lack of earnestnessand truth.

Rossetti'sspeaker does not exactly lie, but sheis not steadfasteither. The poem revealsher sarcasmand her interestin only ensuringthat her nameis well remembered.The abovelast

39 words of Gabrielleare a reflection of the greedof Gabrielle, openingthe box like curious,fateful

Pandora,responding to only what shewants regardlessof consequence.

Alternatively, the lines that are not quotedfrom the sonnetare such that might exposethe most detail aboutthe mystery, and this is probably why the film doesnot quotethe entire sonnet.

Indeed,the only lines readby Carver in the scenedescribed above are, with alterations:

Rememberme when no more day by day

You tell me of a future that you'd planned.

Only rememberme; you'll understand.

But if the darknessand corruption leave

A vestigeof the thoughtsthat oncewe had.

Hill writes of the potential impact of the remaininglines of the sonnet,unread by Gabrielle.

Howeverirrelevant they are for the purposesof the fixed film and script, their exclusionpoints to somespecific ideasabout the uncoveringof the terrible secretsin the film. Referring to 'the incompleteclause'that is left at the conclusionof Carver'sreading (stopping at line twelve) Hill writes,

Yet Gabrielle presents it as the poem's conclusion, a mysterious stopping point at best.

The completeending of "Remember," if it were communicatedto Hammer,could indeed

him instructions Even if its provide with someuseful ... we accepton own terms

Hammer'sinadequate interpretation that the "vestige" must be a thing (specifically a key -

which leadsto the whatzit - found in Christina'sbody), thesefinal lines still signal a

warning. They suggestthat if the dark, corrupt forcesleave the key, if they do not find it,

then all will be well; then Hammercan "forget and smile." More significantly, the

thoughtsthat 'onceChristina Bailey had'were thoughtsof communication,of talk. Thus

40 lines Hammer if is the shouldwam that, all talk that remains a merevestige ... then

communicationcan be undesirable;engaging in mysterious,evasive double-talk can only

worsenthe situation - better to forget entirely (150).

Thesewarnings, though only obvious in part, could haveprematurely exposed the ultimate mystery of the film, of which thereare two parts:what is in the box, and why was Christina killed for having any knowledgeof its contents?The rest of the poemseems to havebeen omitted to permit further speculationin the audience,and also to preventHammer from devising any way out. Even thoughhe doesnot heedthe warningsthat he is providedwith from the lines that are presentin thefilm, the possibility for him to indeed'forget and smile'would ruin the film's cataclysmicconclusion. This is not a film that wants to end safely and reassuringly;it is a tale of 'darknessand corruption'.

Aldrich and Bezzeridesare brilliant in the way they link the poem and the film together, entwining its characterswith the emotionsintroduced in the poem and creatinga poetic atmosphereto the film aswell. Perhapsthe changesthey makein the poemare objectionableto poetry purists,but this may be called, to coin a phrase,'filmic license, with intent to preserve logical structure,grammar, and artistic integrity. When the sonnetis intermeshedwith the plot of

Kiss Me Deadly and its characters,its own meaningis subvertedthrough the film's applicationof it within its own narrative.Looking at the poem'smetaphors and ironic hiddenmeanings, there are echoesof most of the layers of the poem in the film aswell, consideringespecially the sonnet'snasty narcissisticsubtext.

41 1.3 Further Examplesof Poetry in Film

By the meansdescribed in the abovesection of this study of film and poetry, one can see how a poem'soriginal interpretationis manipulatedby the insertionof that poemwithin a film, as opposedboth to other mediumsand to its existenceon its own. Additionally, a film acquiresa level of depthimpossible before the poem'spresence and the film is imbuedwith a framework, evenan entire structure,with a poem in its screenplay.In somecases, the structureof a poem is imitated in the film's structureas well, and this createsanother relationship between the two that is worth study.There are many other examplesof poetry that exist within films, functioning and creatingpossibilities that may be beyond the filmmaker's original intention, and we will look at someof the most importantof these.Throughout further discussion,the 'Rossettiprotocol' can function as a firm reference,a confirmationof film and poetry'seffect on one another.

1.3.11 seegreat things in baseball':Poetry in a SportsFilm

Ron Shelton'sBull Durham (1988), is different from Kiss Me Deadly on most levels,but the two films sharethe quality of allowing poetry to infiltrate their narratives.Shelton's film is a light-heartedaffair, an exampleof an emergingsub-genre of 'sportscomedy' films. Of course this film is not aboutpoetry, and there is no mystery to solve where poetry can provide clues,but this film accomplishessomething that appearsas a mechanismin a numberof films. It uses poetry so that it may inform characterdevelopment, plot development,and the overall structure of the film itself. Baseball,sex, and playful frolicking on and off the baseballdiamond are the principal themesof this film, with fine performancesby SusanSarandon and Kevin Costnerand an early, 'young stud'role for Tim Robbins.Placed between the sexualantics and the education in baseballthat we receivefrom this story are important 'injections'of poetry. Romanticand

42 fervent excerptsof piecesby William Blake and Walt Whitman subtly set up decisivemoments for thecharacters in their developingperceptions of themselvesand each other.

This poetry is readto Nuke Laloosh(Robbins) while he is tied to a bed ('a guy will listen to anything if he thinks it's foreplay), hollered to CrashDavis (Costner)at momentsof character realisation,and referredto and quotedat various times in the film by the poetic Annie Savoy

(Sarandon).The lines are sometimesread or statedin a voice-overby Annie to better expressher personalphilosophies, and the poetry often affirms her own beliefs. It is an unusual counterbalanceto baseball,or to any sport,but it combineselements of traditional romanceand mystical eroticism(which accountsfor the poetry'sparallel to sexualthemes) with pivotal momentsin the lives of the main characters.Throughout, comments made in Annie's voice-over also remind us of the film's associationwith poetry, to the extent that poetry in general,as a subject,becomes a sub-themeof the primary narrative.

One interestingpoint to note is that, thoughBull Durham could haveeasily incorporated poetry aboutbaseball, of which thereis a fair amountin print (e.g. 'Caseyat the Bat'by ErnestL.

Thayer, 1888), it primarily chooses to cite provocative poetry by Whitman, Blake and Gray. The poemsAnnie readsand/or recites in the film are as sexually or emotionally chargedas she is, striving to makean impressionas shesearches for the ideal male in a baseballuniform. It is read and recitedonly at momentsof vulnerability or assertivenessin the film and not at other more innocentor frivolous times. The poetry helpsto further the developmentof emotionalrelations betweenAnnie and Crash;in fact the poetry is almostplayed with, as if to reflect someof the aspectsof the gameitself.

Annie readssome poetry to 'Nuke' Lalooshwhen he is at her housefor the first time, tied down in bed, almostnaked. He is crassand eagerwhile Annie is patient, artistic and creative

43 with her enticement.At the end of the scenethe film cuts to the morning after that night, with

Laloosh stumblinginto the baseballclubhouse muttering about how poetry is much more tiresomethan making love all night. Though he tries to relateto Annie's readings(1impid jets of love... Doesthat meanwhat I think it means?), he never fully understandsAnnie's motives.

Crash,on the other hand,is initially introducedas a cultured person(one characterclaims that they 'actually saw him reada book without picturesonce), and it is evident that he will eventuallyconnect with Annie sincehe alone appreciatesthe poetry shebestows upon other characters.Until Crashenters the picture, her pastefforts with othersseemed to havebeen, ultimately, in vain. The differencebetween the personalitiesof the two lead male charactersand their varying degreesof appreciationof an art form like poetry is the central issuein the story, and is what drives the action of the film towardsa convincing climax. Nuke is a young and impressionablefuture star but he has 'a million dollar arm and a five cent head'. Crashis there to teachhim the finer points of living up to the lifestyle of Major LeagueBaseball. Crash's experienceand maturity is the obviousroot behind why he will successfullyattract Annie, but it is Crash'sbelief in and appreciationfor 'the soul'that binds him and Annie together.Meanwhile,

Nuke is given his 'education'in baseballand poetry (Hey Annie, what's this moleculestuff? ) but soonreceives the call to the upper echelonsof the baseballworld. He escapesthe poetic and the minor leagues,while the older Crashbelongs there, to teach(as a future manager)and flourish with Annie.

In the openingsequence of the film, Annie is introducedthrough a voiceoverand we watch her preparingherself and walking over to the baseballfield for one of the first gamesof the season.She discusses her disillusionmentwith various religions, preferring 'the church of

44 baseball'.While the cameratracks through her houseand pauseson her while sheapplies her make-up,her voice-overstates,

I You life I prefer metaphysicsto theology... seethere's a certain amountof wisdom

give theseboys. I can expandtheir minds. Sometimeswhen I got a ball-player alone I'll

just readEmily Dickinson or Walt Whitman to them.And the guys are so sweet,they

always stay and listen.

Therefore,poetry is introducedin the first two minutesof the film, and we are told what its precisefunction is in this story: somethingthat will help 'expandthe minds'of Annie's 'pupils'. It is no coincidencethat while Annie is not at the ballpark or with a player, sheteaches literature and creativewriting at the local junior college.Not long after this scene,Annie will demonstrate how sheattempts this with a player (Nuke, in the scenebriefly referredto above)and the parallelsbetween his personaland physical developmentand the presenceof poetry will begin.

Annie is really the centralfigure of the film, primarily becauseit is her effect on the ball playersthat the film is most concernedabout. Her advice and observationsare almostalways met with favour and respect.For example,in her first observationof Nuke'spitching Annie notices that he is not bending his back'enough,and after she sendsa note to him to alert him of the problem,he beginsstriking out the players on the opposingteam that he previously walked and hit with the ball. Clearly, Annie's adviceis highly regardedon the Durham Bulls'team, and this quality pervadesthe film and naturally extendsto her treatmentsof poetry. As a reviewer of the

'in it is Annie's SusanSarandon's knows film wrote, the end - and - movie ... she exactly what she'sdoing and why'(Walters, 1989,35).

In the scenewhere Annie first readspoetry to Nuke, she ties him to the bed first, making it impossiblefor him to escapeher reading.She askshim if he hasever heardof Walt Whitman,

45 and Nuke responds,Vho doeshe play for?'which helps to further solidify the stereotypeof

Nuke's role as a dumbjock. Shereads him excerptsfrom different parts of Whitman's'I Sing the

Body Electric', a poemthat focuseson the aestheticbeauty of the body, in harmonywith itself:

I Sing the body electric,

The armiesof thoseI love engirth me and I engirth

them,

They will not let me off till I go with them, respondto

them,

And discorruptthem, and chargethem full with the

chargeof the soul.

Annie than pauses,leans closer to Nuke, turns the pageand reads:

But the expressionof a well-mademan appearsnot

only in his face,

But is in his limbs andjoints also, it is curiously in the

joints of his hips and wrists,

love flesh swel-

ling and deliciously aching,

Limitless limpid jets of love hot and enormous 6

The poem'ssexual imagery is lost on Nuke, as he only finds it confusing.He even interruptsthe poem'sreading at one point (ironically at its most physically descriptive),asking Annie, 'Are we gonnafuck or what, to which she laughsmildly and continuesto readuntil the scenecuts to a shot of the players'locker room the following day. Annie reinforcesher role through Whitman's

46 versein that sheis meantto 'discorrupt'Nuke and 'charge'his soul with an appreciationof beauty,of the humanbody, of life and love and poetry in general.When Annie pausesshe skips a few lines and readsfrom the secondpart of the poem,and if Nuke had listenedhe would have detectedAnnie's praisesof his body throughthe poetic lines. The camerauses shot/revcrse shot techniquesin this scene,with Nuke's long form often occupying the entire foregroundof the shot. Annie sits on a chair next to the bed hunchedover him, provocatively closeto his groin, but all the while shemerely reads.In the reverseshots over Annie's left shoulder,we seeNuke in an extremelyprone position, lying supinewith his wrists tied to the bedposts.He is completelyat

Annie's mercy, but sheresists any temptationto touch him. Annie is, in all perceptionsand interpretations,a teacherand trainer, who indeedattempts to 'expandthe minds'of theseyoung men.

Strangely,the last versesof the poemquoted above (love flesh swelling... ) are from the fifth part of the poem,quoted from the middle of the fifty-ninth line to the middle of the sixtieth line. There is no relevant detail provided by the film to suggest that these lines do not naturally follow eachother accordingto the original poem, sinceduring their readingthere is just a cut to a reverseshot over Annie's shoulderagain, as before. This is similar to the way in whichKiss Me

Deadly usesonly portions of Rossetti'ssonnet, lines chosenthat are consideredthe most fitting for the film. In Bull Durham, Shelton(also the screenwriter)quotes some of the most erotic versesfrom the lengthy eight-partpoem, but even thesehave no (immediate)effect on Nuke.

There are someversions of the poemthat are publishedwithout lines 56-66, which are focused on the female form. It is likely that somepublishers (for example,the Oxford University Press,

1923)felt the lines too racy or provocativeto print in a scholarly text. In 1989,however, they becomeimportant defining material in the cinematiccharacter development of a baseballplayer,

47 and we will seehow Lalooshgradually maturesthroughout the film, eventually refusingsex with

Annie becausehe is afraid it will ruin his winning streak.His belief in the etherealor is superstition,will graduallytake shape.At least Sheltondid not include the most strongly erotic words that completeline sixty of Whitman'spoem, which are 'quiveringjelly of love, white-blow and deliriousjuice'. They are too graphic for even the liberal Annie and the fervid Nuke.

It is alsoworth noting that Annie gives Nuke his nicknamethat samenight, and he insistson peoplecalling him that from then on (his real nameis Ebby Calvin). This is significant because after a night of Annie's poetry reading,Nuke 'discovers'hisstable identity, which will persistfor the rest of the film and ascendwith him into the Big Leagues.In fact, the young pitcher insists on being called 'Nuke'simply because'Annie says'it is his new nickname.The confirmation of the importanceof Annie's influenceis reiteratedin the wake of poetry'spresence, taking effect after one night with the ball player. A further exampleof poetry'simpact in defining the roles of the two suitorsfor Annie happensduring the locker room sceneas well. When Nuke is reflecting on Whitman'spoem, he asksCrash if limpid jets of love'meanswhat he suspects.Crash does not gratify him with an answer,ignoring his simple, sexualinterpretation of the poem; Crash insteadturns his attentionto the stateof his sandals:'You'll nevermake it to the bigs with fungus on your showershoes'. As practical as Annie is fanciful, Crashis able to balancehis love of the gameof baseball,and his purposeon this Single-A minor leagueteam, with the appreciationof

art that will more strongly emergeas the film progresses.This sceneconcludes the impact of 'I

Sing the Body Electric'and further delegatesthe roles of Crashand Nuke into, respectively,that

of the skilled, `professional'analyst and that of the simple and headstrongboy'.

Smallerdetails within the film also contributeto the generalpotency of the poetry, like the

baseballcard Annie usesas a bookmarkin her book of poetry, thereby fusing the two themesin

48 one imageand one object. Similarly, when the Durham Bulls begin winning their games,Annie, in her familiar voice-over,declares that the Bulls are playing with, 'joy and verve and poetry'.

This metaphoricalreference to poetry is an allusion to a commonexpression that means, normally, with 'fluidity and grace'.This is certainly how the viewer is supposedto interpretthe lines, but they can be obviously also takenliterally sinceAnnie preservesa poetic awarenessat consistentintervals throughout the narrative.While she saysthese particular words, the montage of baseballaction onscreenconcludes with an impressivegame of catch amonga few of the players.

Another fine exampleis providedwhile Crashrounds the basesafter hitting his career minor-league-record-breaking home run, as Annie says, 'Full many a flower is born to blush 7 unseen/ andwaste its sweetnesson the desertair'. Annie's appreciationof Crash'sfeat is all the more heightenedwith this line, providing fitting praiseof his milestone.The poetry insteaddoes justice to a greatinjustice at work within the plot of the film, and sayswhat perhapsnothing else could say. In spite of Crashclaiming that his feat is somethingof a 'dubioushonour, Gray's versesperfectly summarisehis painful achievement,and thereforethe 'sweetness'is not altogether 'wasted'.

Throughoutthe film poetry is associatedwith femininity, but not only through Annie's presence.The impressionableNuke is given a garter belt to wear while he pitches,since, Annie claims, this will 'keepone side of [his] brain occupiedwhile on the mound, thus keeping [his] brain slightly off centre,which is where it shouldbe for artistsand pitchers'.This is an excellent pairing of the sport and the poetry, linking Nuke's particular talent to the poetry he shouldbe also appreciating.Juxtaposed with this idea of femininity is a distinct and predictablehomosexual tensionthat occasionallysurfaces in this film, but is also relatedto the poetry. Whitman's'I Sing

49 the body electric'is saturatedwith homosexualimagery, aboutstrong male camaraderieand the beauty of the male embrace.The locker room scenesof Bull Durham, of which thereare many, involve a fair amountof contact,especially between Crash and Nuke. Both haveexplosive nicknames,both havevolatile personalities,and one is meantto learn from the other. In the first scenewhere the threemain charactersmeet in a bar and the two men first competeto dancewith

Annie, sheclaims,

I love a little machomale bonding.I think it's sweet-I do. Even if it probably is latent

homosexualitybeing re-channeled...

Both men silently reactto this statement,and it is immediatelyafter this momentthat Annie

invites both men back to her place,where shewill chooseone of them to be the man she 'hooks

up'with for the baseballseason. The promiseof sexualactivity with Annie displacesany further

talk of homo-eroticism,and the men both rise and follow Annie, even if Nuke is slightly taken

abackby the impendingcompetition. Crash reassures him with a slap on the back (flirtation?),

and Nuke dutifully follows him out of the bar. The atmosphere,however, is light and playful,

and the homosexualtension Annie refers to is forgotten and can be easily overlookedin this film

at first glance. But the subsequentpoetry matches this underlying theme of the film very well.

Later in the film, in a scenewhose purpose is to consolidatebonds between Annie and

Crash,Annie burstsinto Crash'shouse while he is ironing his clothes.Among the accusations

hurled at eachother in this scene,Crash mockingly asksAnnie why shedresses so excessivelýto

which shereplies with a line by William Blake, The road of excessleads to the palaceof

wisdom'. Crash,in his agitatedstate, simply repeatsBlake's name incredulously, while Annie

repeatsit insistently.Crash's rebuff causesAnnie to say that she 'wants'him but Crashstill asks

her to leave.This is a classicexample of the male characterfeigning disinterest,and it will

so ultimately benefit Crashand Annie. As much as Crashrejects and evenmocks her philosophies at times (go on', he saysat one point, 'dazzleme), he is attractedto Annie's poetic side.Again, poetry is presentwhen the onscreenaction is at its most pivotal. In the next scenewhen they are together,at the end of the film, Annie and Crashadmit their mutual affection for eachother and the film soonends with a shotof the two dancing.

A quotefrom Whitman (finally aboutbaseball, but prosaic),closes this excellentfilm, linking poetsand poetry with the sport. Shestates, again in voiceover,

Walt Whitman oncesaid, "I seegreat things in baseball.It's our game.The

Americangame. It will repair our lossesand be a blessingto us".

And the last line of the film is particularly fitting, which is 'You could look it up'. This line not only crossesthe boundarybetween film and literature,but it actually demonstratesa reality presentin the film, increasingits degreeof believability and cementingthe conceptof a natural intertextualitybetween film and literature.Whitman's words are treatedlike a tribute to the sport and the film treatsbaseball as an equalto the art of poetry, so this line is a perfect conclusion.

Films like Kiss Me Deadly and Bull Durham are by far not the only films that adopt previously published verse for their narratives. There are a large number of films that contain poetry within their narrative frames, some of which is incidental, some of which provides a

'hinge'that major aspectsof the film will depend upon. For example, Woody Allen's films

is Academy- periodically contain small amounts of poetry, and one of the best examples the

Award winning comedy Hannah and her Sisters. In New York City, relationships intermingle

between three sisters and the men in their lives. e.e. cummings'beautiful poem 'somewhere i

havenever travelled, gladly beyond'is usedto entice one of the titular sisters,Lee, that Michael

Caine'scharacter, Elliot, is in love with. Unfortunately,Elliot is also married to Lee's sister

51 Hannah(Mia Farrow).The poem'spresence is the impetusfor the most dramaticturning point in the film, as it grantsElliot his hearts'desire:a direct opportunity to persuadethe unhappyLee

(BarbaraHershey) to havean affair with him. Again, only fragmentsof the poem are read,but

Allen choosesthe most romanticlines of the poem for inclusion, and they are amongthe most importantlines of the film. The poem'sfinal line ('nobody, not even the rain,has such small hands) is usedas one of the film's textual intertitles betweenscenes. The printed lines on the screenseparate the film's scenesinto cinematic'acts' and the poem'slast line introducesthe act in which Elliot getshis wish. The entire sceneis basedaround the placementof this poetry, since before its citation Lee is naively blind to the natureof Elliot's attention,whereas after its introduction sheis clearly affectedand interestedin his motives.Throughout their relationship,

Elliot hasrecommended music, novelsand other books to Lee, and shownher attentionand affection that he shouldbe bestowingupon his wife, but it is the powerful poetry that finally gets through to her and makesher 'feel really close to [him]' soonafterwards. This poem is yet anotherexample of the 'hinge'that poetry providesin films, where the placementof the poem in the narrative is a catalyst for major plot developments.

Other directors and screenwriters find it more reliable, or more appropriate, to forsake the limitations of poetry alreadyin the public domain,in favour of creatingoriginal poemsfor their films. Let us now study a few casesin which this occurs.

1.3.2Films that ContainOriginal Poetry

In somefilms that utilise poetry, a poem is written entirely for the film itself, not selected

from any previously publishedmaterial. Though this is not relevantin termsof the poetry's in overall effect, there are someissues that arisein thesecases that would havebeen impossible

52 films that adoptexisting poetry.8 Let us look at an examplein the 1961British thriller, The

Innocents,directed by JackClayton.

Basedon a novella by Henry James(The Turn of the Screw [1897]), TheInnocents focuses

on a governess,Miss Giddens(Deborah Kerr) and two children, Miles (Martin Stephens)and

Flora (PamelaFranklin), and on ghostly occurrencesat a stately home(Bly) in the English

countrysideýKerr's characteris hired as the children'sgoverness at the beginningof the film. As

the story unfolds,we are slowly suppliedwith clues and inklings to the children'sproblems, and

the reasonsbehind them soonseem rooted in the supernatural.In the midst of the odd behaviour

of the children, Miles providesthe most substantialclue as to the unravelingof the film's

mystery: he recitesa poemabout abandonment and loss, simply called, accordingto Miles, 'A

Poem'.10 Miles asks,in the poem, 'whereshall I go, for my Lord is away'. At this point in the

film, at the specific conclusionof the poem'srecitation, we are truly madeaware of the fuller

possibility of Miles'corruption, which we will eventuallysuspect is a sort of possession.Miles'

adorationof the old valet of the house,Peter Quint, persistseven thoughthe man is dead,and

this poemis the most direct clue that we are given. It invites us to try and work out the natureof

Miles' affliction, much like the poem itself invites the ghostof Quint into Miles'own soul and

into the house.While reciting, Miles is dressedas a king, drapedin a long robe, a crown upon his

head.He carriesa candleand paces back and forth in front of his audience,Miss Giddensand the

housekeeperMrs. Grose(Megs Jenkins).There is a slight echoeffect on his voice, since this is

happeningin a large, high-ceilingedroom, and the echo intensifiesthe boy's words and their

sombretone. The most importantverses of the original piece are as follows:

Whomshall I love whenthe moon is arisen?

Goneis my Lord and a graveis his prison.

53 What shall I say when my Lord comescalling?

What shall I say when he knocks on my door?

What shall I say when his feet enter softly,

Leaving the marks of his grave on my floor?

Theselines are pregnantwith meaning.The themeof this poemhas a strong connectionto the story of Miles'closenessto Quint, which is explainedin more precisedetail to Miss Giddens

(and to us) immediatelypreceding this scene.Close-up shots of Miles' face are usedin this sequence,intercut with close-upsof Miss Giddenslooking progressivelymore anxiousas the poem continues.The cameratracks Miles as he wandersthe room, his face softly lit by the

flickering candlehe consistentlyholds in front of his face. There is also a high key light focused

on his face, intensifying its effect on the transfixedMiss Giddens(and on the viewer). His

countenancelooks pale and ghostly, and his gazeis not focusedon any specific object, until the

last threelines of the poem,which are,

Enter my Lord, comefrom your prison

Comefrom your gravefor the moon is arisen

Welcomemy Lord.

This is a classicmoment, found often in horror tales,when the vampire/ghost/spiritis

inadvertently'welcomed'into a house,and then beginsto wreak havocon its inhabitants.With

thesewords Miles approachesand staresthrough the glassdoors on the rear wall of the room,

behind andto the left of the sofa that Miss Giddensand Mrs. Groseare sitting on. The last line of

the poemis whisperedoff-screen, as the accompanyingshot is of Miss Giddens,looking

worriedly at Miles. The next shot, after the poem'scompletion, is a close-upprofile of his face,

as he gazesout of the window and slowly turns his headtowards the governess,then slowly back

54 towardsthe window. The camerathen cuts back to Miss Giddens,who wondersaloud to Mrs.

Grose,almost in the form of a protest,whether Miles knows aboutthe ghostof Quint. It is clear that this scene,using poetry, containsthe ultimate invitation for Quint's ghost;the lines serveas an introduction to and evidenceof the possiblespiritual possessionof Miles. Sincethe film uses poetry to conveythis possessionmakes the eventeven more elusive and indirect, and since this is a thriller, it seemsspookier as well. As Miss Giddensstates, the children are seemingly involved in 'somethingsecretive, whispery and indecent'.Yet, the story also considersthat the presenceof the spirits is completelya fabrication by Miss Giddens,and its natural ambiguity is the basisfor the fear it can inspire in the viewer. Though the novel is equally as spinechilling as the film, the poetry is absentfrom the novel altogether.

TheInnocents relies on understatementand uncertainty.There are a numberof

'unmentionable'pieces of information in the film; its slow unravelingis mostly due to Mrs.

Grose'sunwillingness to relatethe historiesof the house,involving Quint and the former governess,Miss Jessel.The story is surroundedby imprecisecircumstances and endswith questionableconclusions. In a famousalternative reading of the film and novel's plot, there is enoughevidence to suggestthat the governessherself is responsiblefor the madnessin the children, forcing them to face their nightmaresand unfortunatepasts as a manifestationof her own personalinsecurities and unrequiteddesires. This readingis strengthenedby the fact that the steadfastMrs. Groseis not affectedby the supposedlysupernatural occurrences in and around the house.In her initial interview, Miss Giddens,is askedwhether or not shehas 'imagination', which supportsthe idea of her own mind creatingthe illusion of a possession.Even if this were the case,poetry still functions in a way beneficial to and perfectly in harmonywith the primary aim of the story, which is centeredon the exposureof the mansion'sdark past. Much like

55 Rossetti'spiece in Kiss Me Deadly, the poemused in Clayton'sfilm operateslike a pieceof a puzzle. Miss Giddensmust try and comprehendthe true meaningbehind Miles'words, as Mike

Hammermust do the sameto discoverthat a key was found inside the body of Christina.In The

Innocents,each time a stepis takenin the direction of sheddinglight on the mystery, something occursto makethe viewer doubt the validity of the 'ghoststory'. At the conclusionof this scene,

Miss Giddensasks Mrs. Grose,'What if Miles knows', referring to the presenceof Quint's ghost.

The housekeepernever answers,as insteadFlora, Miles(equally disturbed?) youngersister, interjectswith the words 'Knows what, Miss Giddensdear? 'The cameralingers on her in a mediumclose-up as an all-too-innocentsmile spreadsacross her face, and a very slow dissolve superimposesFlora's sickeningly sweetexpression upon a shot of the two ladies discussingthe eventfor an unnaturallength of time. Flora'sexpression here is a materializationof the ironic meaningbehind the title of the film; it is a microcosmof the lack of any innocencein the

children whatsoever,in fact it seemsthe children know all too well what is really happening.Are

they are playing a gamewith Miss Giddens,with the ghostsand with the viewer? If so, Miles'

poem is part of the game'sstrategy. The slow dissolveon Flora's face is one of the most haunting

(and memorable)images of the film, sinceit immediatelyfollows the powerful poetry, and since

it is unconventionalin its shot duration.

This scenefrom TheInnocents uses original poetry to further intensify a situation already

mysteriousand tense.The fact that we are permittedto assumeMiles is the authorof the piece,

just becausewe are not told otherwise,creates an even more expressivescenario, in that Miles'

own words give way or at leastlead to the film's darkestsecret. This is the primary difference

betweenfilms that use previously publishedpoetry and films that createverse specifically for the

story of a film; part of appreciatingand linking the poetry'spurpose to the narrativeof the film is

56 to assumeauthorship on the part of one of the characters.In Leo McCarey'sOnceUpon a

Honeymoon(1942), original poetry functions again as an intensifier, a mechanismfrom the mind of a characterwithin the framework of the story. This makesthe poetry much more evocative and hastensthe centraldevelopment of the charactersinvolved. This time it is not a mystery's solution at the film's core,but a love that must be proven or honestlyadmitted. Cary Grant'sPat

OToole is a radio newsbroadcaster and analyst,an ex-reporterwhom often lies in order to achievean angleon a story or to get an interview. The targetof his affection, CatherineButte-

Smith (Ginger Rogers)therefore has to be convincedthat his advancesare not an extensionof his typical behaviour,but genuine.Poetry functions at this point, helping OToole prove the authenticityof his feelings(in spite of the complicationsinvolved with attemptingto attract the flanc6eof a suspectedNazi collaborator).

Catherine'sna*fvete regarding the truth abouther husbandis almostunbelievable in the film, but Cary Grant'stypically manipulativebut charming and righteousOToole is the man who opensher eyes.Not only is patriotism celebratedin their love affair (through their shared

American roots and occasional bouts of nostalgia), but the fact that they both have Irish heritage is emphasisedas well (Catherine's original surname is OHara), strengthening the sensethat the two are destined to be together. The process of the unveiling for Catherine is an interesting one, and OToole is clever, slow moving and deliberatein exposingher husband'sreal motives.The film containsother examplesof poetry as well, including quotationfrom RobertBrowning and

Shakespeare.Both of thesequotations are by the dreamyCatherine, as the two get drunk together in a bar. The extentof Catherine'sblindness to the actsof the Nazis is evenfurther exemplified by her sappyrendition of Browning ('God'sin his heaven/ All's right with the world), to which

OToole sarcasticallyreplies, That is a truly remarkablebit of philosophy,Baroness, coming at a

57 time when the whole world's gonebehind a cloud'. Here we seeOToole the realist matched againstCatherine the idealist,and the patient OToole is wise in his subtle rebuttalof her silly claim. Fittingly, her next quotationis from Shakespeare;it is aboutself-honesty and in this case, the fear of committing an act of infidelity evenwhen confrontedwith a suddenundermining truth:

This aboveall: to thine own self be true,

And it must follow, as the night the day,

Thou canstnot then be false to any man. (Hamlet: I, iii, 78-80)

At the conclusionof theselines, Catherinedramatically slows down, clearly at a momentof realisation.OToole says,Now we're getting somewhere',and usesthis momentto quotean

Irving Berlin songto her, presentedas if poetry as well. OToole is awarethat he is reaching

Catherine,and this is one of the most crucial momentsof her epiphany;it is significant that the scenecalls for more poetry as a convincingmedium aswell. Unfortunately,Catherine still must undergoa sincereprocess of realisation.before shefinally will fully understandthe political consequencesof the actsof her fianc6e,as OToole later laments,'If a gnat dove into your pool of knowledge, he'd have broken his neck'.

In the most romanticscene of the film, which is also the couple'sdefining moment,OToole revealsthat he has discovered'ambition'(1 want to do things) and foretells the new man he is willing to becomeby offering her a poemthat he 'found himself'writing one night. He mockingly insults his own ability (It's not so good but the thought'snot bad though), and tells her to readit:

Let's makeour love songone that will live,

Let's make it one and forget and forgive.

58 As life's shadowslengthen over the years,

Our love will strengthenthrough laughterand tears

I will know your thoughts,you will know mine,

Without ever a word, without ever a sign.

We will know what is deepin eachother's heart,

We will know for it must be, till deathdo us part.

Sheis obviously touchedby the poem, and sheaccepts it as a symbol, a token of a genuinelove for her that will last over time, and a willingness to sacrifice that which must be sacrificedin such dangeroustimes. The simple, greeting-cardstyle poetry varies betweendactylic and trochaictetrameter. It usesclich6s has a childish quality to it, using an 17abb'rhymescheme. Yet this poem,as it is readby Catherine,provides the most poignantmoment in the film, accompanyingthe coupleon their 'only night in Paris' and helping them imaginetheir love can be fulfilled (Let's supposeeverything, just for tonight). This poem obviously communicates

OToole's love for Catherine,and providesthe impetusfor the climactic honestexpression of their Iove for eachother. Even thoughit beginsto rain, they keepon 'supposing'andthe scene ends with a kiss. Much like 'A Poem'in The Innocents, the poem that supposedly penned by a main characterin the film addssubstance to his individuality. If therewas any doubt as to the feelings, lays Poetry 'creates forms for validity of OToole's this poem suspicionto rest. visible ... somethingthat is invisible, which is the feeling, or the emotion,or the metaphysicalcontent of the movement'(Deren, in Vogel, 1963,4). Only original poetry would convey this strengthof emotionbest; poetry adaptedfor a specifically generatedfilm characterwould not be as authentic if that characterwere to useit as if it were their own.

59 1.4 Conclusion:It DoesNot Have To Be a Thing'

This evidenceof poetry as a catalystfor significant narrativedevelopment begs us to ask why poetry, in particular,should act as a hinging element?There is a simple answerto that question,since poetry is, of course,not the only device that films use to drive their plots. Most of the time, if thereis an object, a single thing that a film's developmentdepends on, it will be a tangibleitem or vital pieceof information, like the famous'Rosebud'sled in Citizen Kane

(Welles, 1941)or the searchfor Woody the toy cowboy in Toy Story 2 (Lasseter,1999). But poetry functionsin a way that is different from all theseother elements;poetry containsmeaning within it that can be analysedand interpretedindependent of the film it is cited in, but also its meaningscan be applied to the film that cites it. It is true that a quotationof prosecan operatein

the samemanner, but poetry containsrhythm, meter,metaphor and other poetic devicesto

diversify its meaning.About the only comparablemechanism to the usageof poetry in film

would be the symbolic (possiblyrepetitive) use of a song.It is only the rare film, however,that

usesthat songto a symbolic extent,allowing its lyrics to relateto the film's plot and influence

it. " Therefore,the questionwe should ask aboutpoetry in films is not why it is used,but why it

should not be, as versatile a form of language as it is. Poetry opens up a minefield of possible

interpretation,and for films that would benefit from any degreeof ambiguity, poetry is a perfect

hinge to move the story upon.

Poetry has enjoyeda new popularity in its placementin films, especiallyover the last

decade.Poems are sometimesrecited in full, as in Four Weddingsand a Funeral (Newell, 1994),

sometimesalluded to as a comparativemedium, as in Bridget Jones'Diary (S. Maguire, 2001),

or sometimesprovide a pivotal structuraltool the film dependsupon, as in the films described

abovein this chapter. An especiallyfine exampleof a modem film's useof a poem as a

60 motivational tool is Greg Mottola's TheDaytrippers (1997). Poetry'sfunction in this film is very similar to its function in Kiss Me Deadly, in that it providesclues and motivationsfor travel, investigation,suspicion and considerationon the part of protagonistsand viewers alike. In The

Daytrippers, the poemin question,part of a love letter, is found in a young couple'shouse; at somepoint the letter fell behind a chestof drawers.At the beginningof the film, the wife (Eliza, playedby Hope Davis) finds it while cleaningup the bedroom,after the husband(Louis, played by StanleyTucci) hasleft for work in the morning. Eliza unfolds the pieceof paper,begins to readit with a concernedexpression on her face, and then the cameracuts to a completely unrelatedscene of characterswe have,as of yet, not beenintroduced to in a setting that is also new and unfamiliar. Soonwe will learn that the two older peoplein the houseare Eliza's mother

(Rita Malone,played by Anne Meara) and father (Jim Malone, played by Pat McNamara).

As soonas Eliza arrivesat her parents'house, Jim greetsher by asking Vhat brings you here',which is a structurally significant piece of dialogue,giving the poemmotivational purpose.

Soon,the family is discussingthe poemaround the breakfasttable, with various rangesof speculation occurring, from a coarsely analytical approach by Eliza's younger sister, jd2 (Parker

Posey) to the hapless and uncertain remarks by Rita (I don't understand poetry). The lines in questionare incorporatedinto a short letter from an obvious admirer (androgynouslynamed

'Sandy5,and are the four lines of the last stanzaof Andrew Marvell's The Definition of Love'

(1681):

Thereforethe love which us doth bind,

But Fate so enviously debars,

Is the conjunctionof themind,

And oppositionof the stars.

61 The stanzaconcludes a poemabout a love that cannotbe fulfilled due to Fate'sintervention,

abouta 'parallel'love that cannotbe madefruitful due to some'Impossibility. If this letter was

written to Louis, then he is obviously involved in an affair-like situation.The questionas to how

to confront Louis then emerges,and it is the garrulousRita who suggeststhat they take Eliza into

New York with them so shecan talk to him face-to-faceabout the letter and the poem,since 'It's

very easyto lie on the phone.See, you can't seethe eyes.Eyes always give you away. The next

scenesoon commences with a long tracking shot,with a snaredrum beatingin the background,

of the family marchingout of the houseand into the car, the questabout to begin.

Throughoutthe rest of the film, the poemappears at various intervals,but it continuesto

govem the thoughtsof the characterthat we most sympathisewith, Eliza. Throughoutthe trip,

her mind is wholly focussedon the contentsof the letter, while the rest of the family makes

infuriatingly insipid small talk. Even Jo'sboyfriend Carl (Liev Schrieber),who seemsto have

creativeability sincehe haswritten a novel, can only spoutgenerally vague literary or socio- 13 political notions,some of them incorrect. When Eliza meetsauthor Edward Mazler (Campbell

Scott) at Louis'office, he offers an explanationof the stanza(and of the entire poem) which is

much to her dismay,since he tells her it is a love poem'. He discussesa doublemeaning in the

last line of the poem,explaining how the line meansboth that they cannotsee the samestars, the

sameheaven, because they are on 'oppositesides of the planet',and also that their love is in

oppositionto the stars,'against fate'. His explanationand conveyanceto her is mademore

significant due to his obviousattraction to her, but as soonas he meetsher he discoversthat she

is marriedto one of his colleagues.It is quite fitting that he talks to her abouta love that is

impossible.In this way, the poem infiltrates almostevery aspectof the film's themes,and helps

to identify the subtleinterrelations between the characters,exaggerating their qualities to the

62 extentthat the film is at times in dangerof whittling its protagonistsdown to stereotypes.Yet, the poemis able to guide the viewer through the conflicting personalitiesof the frantic figures,

and the film endswith an unexpectedtwist on the suspectedaffair.

Films like TheDaytrippersembrace poetry and manipulateit, adaptingit to their scenarios.

Marvell's poemis from the mid-1600s,yet it translatesand performsextremely well in the film,

infusing the modemstory with a richnessand art that is admirableand eventuallyshocking. No

matterwhat form it takes,it is importantto recognisethat poetry is fast becominga familiar

dynamic in a wide variety of films, and filmmakers are no longer afraid that its presencewill

alienatean audience,but insteadrealise that the inclusion of poetry addsdiversity, providing

anotherlayer to a film. Today, poetry is enjoying a popularity that it hasnever experienced

before in the world of cinema,perhaps as a result of the growing acceptanceof cinematic

experimentation,and a willingness by the public not to switch off but to listen when poetry is

recited.

Before concludingthis chapter,one other film deservesmention, which hasbeen advertised 14 as being entirely 'in verse'on televisiontalk showsand the internet. TheMonkey's Mask (S.

Lang, 2001) is based on an Australian 264-page 'verse-novel'by Dorothy Porter. During the

summerof 2001 it is travelling on a festival circuit, appearingin the United Kingdom as part of

the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival. The film centres on a young girl named Mickey's

(Abbie Cornish)murder, and private investigatorJill Fitzpatrick (SusanPorter), who also

happensto be a lesbian.The murderedgirl wrote and performedpoetry and was a studentin a

collegeEnglish classtaught by Diana (Kelly McGillis), a bisexual.The film containsportions of

poetic inner narration,like when Jill is alone,musing on the murder caseand on her sexual

longings for Diana,but all of the dialoguein the film appearsto be in normal conversational

63 prose.Jill, who is desperateto find cluesto her death,also studiesMickey's written poetry. There are also other charactersin the film who play poets,and a major pieceof evidencewhich is a videotapeof Mickey reciting a poem to a caf6 audience,but the film is not by any means obviously in verse.Much like Betjeman'scolloquial soundingcommentary in his film-poems, the dialogueto this film may be structuredlike verseon the page,in Porter'snovel and/orin the film's script, but it is not unmistakablypoetry as it is being performedby the actors.is Readersof the novel havewritten that the verse'at first glanceappears to be randomthoughts shaped in the form of unstructuredpoetry'(Keller, 2001). New York's newspaperThe Village Voiceclaims that large chunksof dialogueand narrationare lifted from the original versenovel, which may or may not explain lines like "I neverknew poetry could be as sticky as sex"' (Lim, 2001).The film is clearly not as poetic as the novel, which won the Age Poetry Book of the Year Award, 2000.

The most significant aspectof the film is its structuralapproach: each 'section'of the film is treatedlike a movementin a poem,since each is introducedby a textual intertitle on-screen

(reminiscentof in Woody Allen's techniques)and by a few lines of poetry in the form of interior monologueby Jill. In her searchfor answers,Jill encountersmore and more poetry by Mickey and other poetsthat containclues that point to her murderer,but the end of the film has a bizarre twist that disappointinglynegates a potentially interestingevolution, similar to the resolutionin

Kiss Me Deadly. 16Unpolished and overtly sexual, the brashnessof the lesbian lust-affair soon

dominatesthe script (written by Anne Kennedy)and by the film's end the use of poetry is almost

forgotten.In fact, an alternativetitle to TheMonkey's Mas4 accordingto the Internet Movie

Database(http: //uk. imdb. com), is Poetry, Sex.

The film-poem, in its applicationof poetry to simultaneouslyshot images,is part of the

evolutionaryprocess that haspermitted a gradualprogression to this stateof mind throughoutthe

64 yearsand throughoutthe history of motion pictures.Likewise, the film containingpoetry has continually proven how films and poemswork together,in brief snippetsand/or for the duration of a well-crafted film. The next chapterwill help to further track this processthrough time, placing emphasison the most importantworks of film and poetry, or the 'poetic',together.

65 CHAPTERTWO

THE EVOLUTION, OR TRE-HISTORY'OF THE FI LM-POEM

[How can one] allegoriseon one'sown hook on the subjectof a poem,without killing, for

oneselfand everyone,a distinct idea of the poet's?

- Christina Rossetti'

2.1 Film as an Art: When did it Start?

The roots of film-poems,both Harrisonianand otherwise,are widespread,and also have

recognisableversions of the modem-dayformulae for film-poemsat the core of their

construction.Some of the qualitiesof even the earliestinstallations of poetry in the cinemastill

survive intact in today'smost 'cutting-edge'film-poems.

Film and poetry haveexisted together, although not always peacefully,since near the

beginningof cinematichistory. As PeterSymes writes in his introduction to his collection of

film-Poems(Words on Film), The use of versecommentary on documentaryfilm is not a new

development.Experiments with the techniquego back a long way'(1992,1). The producerof

film-Poems has never referred to any specific text on film aesthetics as his source for such a

claim, but the contentof one particular text provesSymes'point? Vachel Lindsay'sTheArt of

the Moving Picture (1922) is generallyregarded as the first book which treatedfilm artistically

andnot just anothermanual meant 'to teachoffice boys ways to make"quick money" in the

"movies"' (18), as Lindsay himself claims. Previousto Lindsay'swork, most cinemabooks were

motivatedby this 'get rich quick'schemeat the time. Lindsay'swork will featureas a primary

text in my 'journey' throughthe earlier instancesof motion picture poetry.

66 Originally written in 1915,The Art of the Moving Picture was revisedby Lindsay in 1922, presumablyafter he had seenmore films. This book, althoughpreachy at times, hopelesslydated and obviously limited in scope,does an excellentjob of predicting the valuableartistic medium that film would somedaybecome. It insiststhat art museums,universities and English departmentsall over the world (but mostly America) embracethe mediumof film as a way by which the written literary word would becomeexcitingly and artistically alive. Lindsay never usesthe term 'film-poem', his work pre-datingthe coinageof the term by aboutten to fifteen years.His studiesare more congruentwith the idea of 'inner poetry' that Harrison detectsin his prefaceto his 1998film-poem, citing Pasolini(xxvii). Nevertheless,Lindsay's study is the first of its kind, and the first to attribute a poetic natureto film.

To introducehis purposeand convincehis readershipof his goal to 'spreadthe word'of the value of film as an art form, Lindsay includesmany passagesthat supportcertain films and their deservedadmittance to art museumsand the like. For example:

I had convertedone Art Institute director to the idea that [the film, in this caseThe Wild

Girl of the Sierras (Powell, 1916),and referredto as "painting-in-motion"] could be

shown in an Art Museum as promise of greater things in this world (3).

After this particular passage,the author then refers to Powell's film as 'one of the loveliest bits of poetry ever put into screenor fable'(4). Lindsay'scampaigns were successfulin many instances, and in fact the director of the DenverArt Association,George W. Eggers,prefaces the revised edition (1922), in which he supportsLindsay's then revolutionaryobservations. This film is only one of many that Lindsay evaluatesand mentionsin a casualyet awedstyle, and we are remindedas readersthat thesefilms were only availablefor viewing at limited times in the early daysof silent cinernaý

67 Lindsay is the earliestwriter to detectthe possibilities inherentin filmic adaptationof poetry. In his chapter'Patriotic Splendor',he illustratesthe needfor poetry in the movies:

We must haveWhitmanesque scenarios, based on moodsakin to that of the poem By

Blue Ontario'sShore Whitman brought idea democracyitself ... the of to our

sophisticatedliterati, but he did not persuadethe democracyitself to readhis democratic

poems.Sooner or later the kinetoscopewill do what he could not (65-66).

Lindsay writes emphatically,but he is often vague,nalive and prone to generalisation.Though

thesetraits (to be expectedin the first book aboutart and the cinema)are presentin the work, his

points areclear and firmly made.In the next few chapters,the author attemptsto describewhat

he feels are the strongestexamples of poetic film. His primary aim was to convincehis

readershipthat films neededto be includedin the art schoolsand museumsof the country, but

Lindsay also inadvertentlyidentified someof the earliestpoetic sequencesever filmed. These

sequencesbegin 'the prehistoryof the film-poem' and can be tracedback, with Lindsay as

principal watchdog,as far as 1911.In ChapterSeven, Lindsay discussesUwrence Trimble'sThe

Battle Hymn of the Republic.

Trimble's film deals,as might be expected,with American patriotism, specifically the

American Civil War (which occurredonly fifty yearsearlier at this time). The film openswith

PresidentLincoln in the White House,brooding over the lack of responseto his last call for

troops'(Lindsay, 73). Julia Ward Howe, the authorof the famed Sattle Hymn'observesthe

inactive enlistmentheadquarters with the President.Soon after cataloguingnumerous examples

of domesticapathy towards the American armedforces, Julia Ward Howe is 'shownin her room

in Battle Hymn by bed(74). This at midnight ... rising a tranceand writing the at a table the

introducesthe sequencethat looks and soundslike an early film-poem, akin to the images

68 attachedto other, later cinematicuses of verse.Night Mail (Watt and Wright, 1936,verse by

W. H. Auden) is often referredto as the first film to employ film-poem tactics,but I must specify that it is not the first film to usepoetry as its medium of verbal expression.Night Mail was probably the first film that specifically requesteda poet'soriginal verse,and thereforeit hasa

'commissioned'film-poem as part of its documentary-styledplot (this film will be discussedin more detail later in this chapter).Yet, TheBattle Hynin of the Republic,released twenty-rive yearsearlier, adoptedthis conceptfor an existing piece of poetry. Lindsay writes of the specified sequence:

The picturesthat might possibly havepassed before her mind during the tranceare

thrown upon the screen.The phrasesthey illustrate are not in the final order of the

poem,but in the possiblesequence in which they went on the paperin the first sketch.

(73)

Significantly, the authorchooses to say that the imagesare 'thrown'on the screen.This sounds like a highly probableinterpretation for a swiftly moving poetic sequencethat attemptsto merge imageand verse. Today we might term this sectionof the film a montage,and view it as a device by which the filmmaker can achievea passabletranslation of a voluminousor complex amount of material.Thought the imagesin this sequenceare conspicuouslyliteral, the film achievesits end,which is to illustrate the possiblevisual interpretationof The Battle Hymn of the Republic'.

Lindsay describesand evaluatesparts of the sequence:

"Mine eyeshave seen the glory of the coming of the Lord"; a graciouspicture of the

nativity; I haveseen him in the watchfiresof a hundredcircling camps"and "They

havebuilded him an altar in the eveningdews and damps"- for theseare given

symbolic pageantsof the Holy Sepulchrecrusaders. Then thereis a visible parable,

69 showinga marketplacein somewicked capital, neither Babylon, Tyre, nor Ninevah,but

all of them in essentialcharacter. First comespectacles of rejoicing, cruelty, and waste.

Then from Heavendescend flood fire, brimstone lightning Just before and and ... the overthrow,the line is projectedupon the screen:"He hath loosedthe fateful lightning of

his terrible swift sword". Then the heavenlyhost becomesgradually visible upon the

air, marchingtowards the audience,almost crossing the footlights, and blowing their

solemntrumpets. With this picture the line is given us to read:"Our God is marching

on". This host appearsin the photoplayas often as the refrain sweepsinto the poem(74-

75).

The analysisis curiously similar to that of a modern-dayfilm-poem, but two major factorsare worth noting. The first is the natureof the verbal material,which was not written at the same time as the film was shot, so it is not purely a film-poem synthesis.The secondis the processof repetition,a techniqueused to a greaterdegree in the modem-daymusic video. The repetitionof an imageto matcha chorusor repeatedverse is often seenin a film-poem, sincerepeating an

image or verse has the effect of reinforcing the principle messageof a work. This causesthat specific imageto be the one most precisely instilled in the minds of the audience.Since this film

is coveredin Lindsay'ssurvey of 'religious' photoplay,the messageof this film is meantto be religious, thoughit seemsmore a spirit of American nationalismor patriotism that pervadesthis

film. Nevertheless,Lindsay identifies the power that a repeatedimage contains, especially when

matchedwith an emphaticrepeated verse, by commenting:

The celestialcompany, its imperceptibleemergence, its spiritual power when in the

ascendant,is a thing neverto be forgotten,a tableauthat provesthe motion picture a

greatreligious instrument(75).

70 Indeed,the motion picture hasbecome a great instrumentand a medium of conveyancethat

Lindsaycould not havepossibly fathomedat the time, but he importantly observesthe potential

that motion picturescontained in their development,both poetically and non-poetically.Ile

culminateshis discussionof TheBattle Hymn of the Republicwith the declaration,'Every student

of AmericanArt shouldsee this film', implying that the poetic sequenceof the film (the only

segrnentof the film discussedin detail) is worthy of artistic classification.To date,this film has

not beencited by any film-poet as a major influence (in publishedform or throughpersonal

contact),but the works of D.W. Griffith indeedhave, to which this film bearsa striking

resemblance.

2.2 D.W. Griffith: Innovationwith Poetry

Griffith, the premier director of the silent era, was known to often use 'poetic' techniquesto

link ideasand themesin his films. The task I am trying to achieveis to make you see, he wrote,

likening his work to that of a painter that transformsthe site of an ugly, old, rundownbarn to that

of somethingbeautiful, throughthe attentionto detail his or her brushstrokescreate (Stephenson

and Debrix, 13). The Battle Hymn of the Republic is most similar to Griffith's Birth of a Nation

(1915) in termsof genre(political and historical dramatisation)and its forms of cinematography

(the useof montage-likecutting). Birth of a Nation was America'sfirst major full-length feature film, and it "took audiencesby storm" (Knight, 1979,26). Nearly three hours(twelve reels)in length, 'the passionsit aroused,the tensionsit created,lasted beyond the theater...[audiences] overflowed into the streets,and race riots and mob action followed in the wake of its presentationin many cities'(Knight, 27-28). From its intimate openingshot of crying children

and womenupon a hill, through its battle scenesand racially motivatedclashes, to its 'painfully

71 poetic epilogue'(Knight, 29), therehas argUablynever been a film sincethen which 'sweptalong with suchcumulative force'(Knight, 26). Though today it is sometimesregarded as 'a simple- minded,horrifyingly racist pieceof garbage'it is uncertainas to whetherthis opinion undermines the film's 'valueas the genesisof film as art'or not (Carlson, 1999).Griffith was the first to use close-upsof actorsand other forms of framing for dramaticeffect, and he did not limit his 5 creativecamera work to shootingpeople. He initiated the use of close-upsof objectsat times, ratherthan actors,displaying their prominencewithin the storyline and therebymaking them 'act'

aswell. Griffith was the masterof the subtlenuance, gesture or facial expression,popularising

the lengthy close-upin which minor, barely perceptiblechanges occur on-screen.His stanceas a

'poetic'filmmaker is justified as a result of his then unconventional,innovative methods of

filming, which includedthe cinematicequivalent of somepoetic tools or devices,like symbolism

or metaphor.The characterizationthough vivid symbol'(Knight, 28) and his way of

manipulatingcamera techniques to makethem 'servehis purpose'(23) were what led to Griffith's

title as the 'father of film technique'(22)and a reputationas a poetic filmmaker.

Griffith's Intolerance (1916),a much lesscontroversial film thanBirth of a Nation and one

which hasgarnered 'greatest film of all time'reviews in numerousforms of publication, also uses

poetic methodsin the constructionof its complex four part narrative.In fact it usesa poem to

link the four different lines of action that take place in the film: Whitman's 'Out of the Cradle

EndlesslyRocking' (1859). 'A recurrentshot of a woman (Lillian Gish), rocking a cradle,a

symbol of time, of eternity, of rebirth' (Stephensonand Debrix, 1974,67) is usedto

metaphoricallymerge the four drastically different plot episodes.This inter-cutting was a film

techniquenever before seenin the American cinemaat the time.

72 in Lindsay'scommentary on the film, he calls Griffith 'the ungrammaticalByron of the films

Byron, he is first his kind I for to and certainly as magnificentas and... the of ... one, am willing namehim with Marlowe'(1922 ed., xxvi). Clearly, Griffith was and is seenas a pioneering

filmmaker who usedpoetry or poetic sequencingto achievehis expressivegoals. One of his writing creditsincludes a lesserfilm, at least in termsof fame and notoriety.Enoch Arden

(Cabanne,1915) is one of the only films from the early 1900swhich takesits storyline from 6 poetry, basedon Tennyson'slong poem. Much like Intolerance usesthe leitmotif of the woman

rocking the cradleto reflect the themeof domesticity,peace and time, and additionally to link the

film with the poem,Enoch Arden 'is a photographicrendering in many ways as fastidiousas

Tennyson'sversification' (Lindsay, 24)ý Lindsay'sdescription of the film is perhapsas fine an

exampleof the explanationof a 'poetic cinema'as there exists in better known works concerning

the cinemaas art, suchas JeanCocteau's classic book TheArt of Cinema(1973) or Peter

Wollen's Signsand Meaning in the Cinema(1969). He describesthe film to his readership,

whom he often seemsto personally'adopt'through the courseof the book, by using a particularly

vivid phrasing:

If you cannotget your local managerto bring EnochArden, rereadthat poemof

Tennyson'sand translateit in your own mind's eye into a gallery of six hundred

delicately tonedphotographs hung in logical order, most of them cosy interior scenes,

someof the facesfive feet from chin to foreheadin the more personalepisodes, yet

exquisitelyfair. Fill in the out-of-door scenesand generalgatherings with the

appointmentsof an idyllic Englishfisher-village and you will get an approximate

conceptionof what we meanby the Intimate-and-friendlyMotion Picture,or the

Intimate Picture,as I generally call it, for convenience(25).

73 By the 'intimatepicture' Lindsay is referring to a film that dealswith a domesticsituation and a family-orientedtheme. He links the ideaof poetrywith this 'intimacy'sincemost of his examples for this self-inventedgenre involve poetic sequencesor poetry itself. But Lindsay also takesthe

idea of the filmic adaptationof a poem one stepfurther with the likening of the film's impact on

his memory to that of the poem's,by saying, 'seenseveral months ago it fills my eye-imagination

and eye-memorymore than that particular piece of Tennyson'sfills word-imaginationand word-

memory'(25). With this statement,Lindsay automaticallycompares film as a medium of

expressionto poetry as a medium of expression,and it is clear which he favours.This may have

beendue to the newnessor novelty of the techniquesof film, and would explain someof the

author'sexcited declarations regarding them. In any case,he is comparingone artistic form of the

samework to another,and he choosesthe visual form as more effective. Using statementslike

theseas foundationson which to build ideas,and the filmic useof poetry to this degree,there

were soonfurther developmentsin the adaptationof poetry for the cinema.The poetry of Walt

Whitman was againused as an inspirationfor a silent film now inductedby someinto a rendition

of the genre of 'film-poem'.

2.3 The Earliest Short Film-Poem?

In termsof a film basedsolely on the versesof a poem andwithout any other text or

material includedin its plot or storyline,Manhatta (1921) must be the first example.William

Wees,a notedlecturer on the film-poem and supporterof the film-poem movement,writes about

this film:

This practiceof juxtaposingpoetic texts and cinematicimages goes back at least as far

as 1921,when CharlesSheeler and Paul Strandreleased their short film Manhatta. By

74 combiningshots of New York City with quotationsand paraphrasesfrom several

poemsby the great lyh century American poet Walt Whitman, Sheelerand Strandnot

only celebratedAmerican urbanismand modem technology(including the technology

of cinemaitself), but also inaugurateda new film genre,the poetry-film (1999,1).

Manhatta appearsto be the first self-containedexample of film and poetry'ssimultaneous presence,where the short film is inspiredby the lyrics of the poem. It is describedby filmmaker

PeterTodd, in the notesfor his touring 'programmeof film poems'as 'a famousimpressionistic representationof Walt Whitman'slyric hymn to the city'(1998). Yet, it is not a true film-poem since the modem definition suggests,and at times stresses,collaboration between poet and

filmmaker at the same time, which was impossible for Whitman in 1921.8 But Manhatta

contains,albeit primitive, excellentexamples of the types of mechanismsfilm-poems strive to

achieve,and it harboursthe samegoals at its heart.I wish to analysethe dynamicsof this early

hybrid.

Manhatta setsimages of New York City againstthe words of Walt Whitman'spoetry, with

verseschosen from his poemsbearing relationships to the city, especiallyfrom 'Crossing

Brooklyn Ferry' (1856). A fairly short experimental work of 9 minutes, this film happens to

follow many of the techniquesthat film-poems of today have adoptedas genre-specificrules. It

contains,like TheBattle Hymn of the Republic,the attemptedmatching of probablelyrical

implication with a visual interpretationof the chosenlyrics. For example,we can seethis

specifically at the point in the film where the words With iron rails' are printed onscreenand then

the next shot displaystrains at a station,with somedistinct iron rails gleamingin the sunlight.

Similarly, in the following sequence,the film displayssteamships and other boatsin the New

York harbourafter featuring lines aboutthem aswell. The visual contentof the film openswith

75 shotsof the city and its generalbustle at peak travel times. Shotsof the ferry, of peoplegoing to work, and of the skyline of Manhattanall are generatedfrom the introductory lines.

Unfortunately,the film doesnot transcendthe boundariesof static photographyby much, except with the grainy camerapans of someof New York's skyscrapers.Here, Lindsay'scomment about

EnochArden comesto mind, regardingthe 'gallery of six hundredphotographs' (25), only these shotsdo not move as dramaticallyas thosein Cabanne'sfilm. In fact, the film hasbeen labeled 'a pioneer,but little more' in the Internet Movie Database,and the film is describedas unmemorable(Hartman, 1999). The samereview of the film, however,claims it is one of the original 'city symphony'films. This statement,coupled with the claim that 'thereis very little, if anything,memorable about Manhatta', clearly ignoresthe inclusion of poetry as an innovation within the film in favour of discussingthe short as comparedto other, longer, more impressive work. A 1999 article by GarethEvans, describing Peter Todd's touring collection of film poems, evaluateseach one of the includedfilms individually. Beginning the programme,Manhatta is called the 'sourceof the American avant-garde'and a 'streetpoem that also getsthe penthouse shot' (9). Labeledas a sourcesimply becauseof its age and unpretentiousness,the film is also said to locate words in skyscrapers,river traffic, industry and crowds' (9). According to this opinion, the imagecan indeedthen give the impressionof informing the verse,as much as the verseseems to guide the imagery in termsof what to show the observerabout the city. It is difficult to permanentlyaffirm which one of the media,poetry or image,should take precedentin an estimationof the piece.This concernhas also beenbriefly addressedin a review of the programmefrom Sight and Sound:

76 This is the perpetualproblem of the film poem - as in all cross-formcollaborative

efforts: one elementbecomes subservient to the other. A balanceor an uneasytruce

must be maintained(Lambirth, 32).

An early work suchas this shouldexpect such doubtscast upon it, but at least the film introduces this problem,which is more notablethan any film processthat would attemptto solve it.

Therefore,this film doescontain somethingmemorable, and is much more than a pioneer.It is a veritable precursorto an entire movementand an engineerof larger, provocativequestions about the relationshipbetween film and poetry.

There is no music to accompanythe film, unlessit was played live (and this was probably

the intention of the directors).Regardless, some of the shotsof the Brooklyn Bridge, which are

alignedwith the line 'Shapesof the bridges',are well-timed, as are the shotsof the hustling

crowds of New York matchedwith Whitman'sverse about them.These bits of versethat are

intercut with the scenesof New York City becomeýishersl for the viewer throughthe projection The of the film, while we grow accustomed to the printed text telling us what we will see next.

viewer is clearly waiting for the next set of text to appearonscreen as a kind of 'guide'to the 9 context of the images projected.

Film-poemstoday also often employ a 'guide'of somesort, whether it is an invented

character,as English poet Tony Harrison is fond of implementing,or the simple usageof the

printed poemas text onscreen.This processmay seemfairly simplistic, but in reality it is not,

given the fledgling statusof film as an art form in 1921.The sceneschosen in Manhatta are

logical accompanimentsto straightforwardlines, yet they still overstepthe boundsof the poem

(or in this case,a collection of selectedverses) that exists on its own as a printed medium.The

imagesdirect the reader/viewer'simagination, and no longer doeshe/she simply assessthe page

77 of the book as he reads/observesthe poem.Among the film-poem's greatestsource of power and amongits greatestreasons for negativecriticism, selectingan image is a defining characteristic of the film-poem.

Lindsay doesnot mentionManhatta in his evaluationof the applicationsof films and poetry, but he doesask an importantquestion in ChapterSeventeen (XVII). After he lists a few poets underthe heading,'the Imagists'he claims: 10

They followers imitators Imagist impulse be are gathering and ...the neednot confined to verse.Why would you be imitators of theseleaders when you might be creatorsin a

new medium?There is a clear parallelismbetween their point of view in verseand the

Intimate-and-friendlyPhotoplay, especially when it is developed...An Imagist film

would offer a noble challengeto the overstrainedemotion, the overloadedsplendor,

the mere repetitionof what are at presentthe finest photoplays(239-240).

Manhatta may haveattempted to imitate the Imagists,however primitively or simply, and it was just too small a film to be noticedby Lindsay, or too recently madeat the time of the revised

edition's publication, or it was missed by the author. Lindsay refers to Imagist poetry's tone, and

Strandand Sheeler'sfilm, if it doesnot accomplishanything else,does achieve the tone or mood

of the selectedWhitman lines. 'CrossingBrooklyn Ferry'for example,is a lulling, rambling,

quickly pacedpoem that rushesthrough its long lines and nine stanzasof variable length. It

involves much repetitionof certain 'city words' and phrases,like 'shore','ferry', 'ships','the

hundredsand hundredsthat crossand the geographicalnames of placeslike Srooklyn'and

Manhattan'.In much the sameway, the filmManhatta is repetitive and abrupt, quickly paced

with cuts and scenesof the city and its surroundings,yet is lulling by way of simplicity. Hartman

claims that all the film 'really offers to modem audiencesis a reasonto fall asleep'(1), which is a

78 harshand sophomoricopinion. I treat this film as an inspiration for the continuedjuxtaposition of poem and image,but it follows the sameschema that many pure film-poems still do today.

Lindsay knew the importanceof the preservationof mood in a film adaptedfrom a poem,when

he wrote, againrelating to the Imagists,'Read some of the poemsof the peoplelisted above,then

imaginethe samemoods in the films'(240).

The next level to which the film-poem may progressshould now be obvious:what would

happenif a film-poem attemptedto representlines that are not as plainly descriptiveas 'Crossing

Brooklyn Ferry', for example?Sheeler and Strandmade an effort to approachthe level to which

poetic devicescan be interpretedfilmically by breaking apartthe poem'sinherently stratified

lines, matchingthem with the film's choppy, strung-togetherseries of images.But more complex

poemsbegan to slowly adoptthe filmic medium as their methodof visual expression,and the

films which depictedtheir imagery becamelonger and more denselyor thoroughly developed.

With the coming of the 'talkie' (1927), soundadded a new dimensionto the contentof the

gradually evolving film-poem. Poetry beganto appearin documentaryfilms, which were

searching for new ways to convey meaning. Documentary is the form of film that poetry would

eventually flourish within, discovered to be a perfect asset in punctuating straightforward factual

material.

2.4 Soundand the Developmentof Film and Poetry

Repeatedly,almost incessantly cited as the strongestinfluence on the developmentof the

film-poem, the GeneralPost Office film-unit's Night Mail (Wright and Watt, 1936)contained a

segmentof roughly aboutthree minutes in which W.H. Auden'spoetry is spokenin rhythmical

conjunctionwith a seriesof imagesrelating to the travel of a British night mail-train. The

79 sequenceconcludes the film, for which Auden wrote prose,as well as poetry, and it is the principle model for the modem definition of the film-poem, thoughthe poetry was written for existing footageinstead of allowing it to infonn the cinematographyas well. It is probably also the most famousof examplesof film-poem development(and this is actually a large factor to consider,when argumentssurface against the film-poem's ability to accuratelyrepresent verse).

Night Mail is particularly notablesince it involved Auden, who is usually consideredone of the forefathersof this genre.Auden worked on a seriesof other projectsthat cameto be known later as film-poems,including Runner (1962) and Us (1967). Someof his projectsflanking the period of Night Mail, exceptfor his segmentfor TheLondoners (1939), were sadly decommissionedor never madeavailable to the public, but they remainAuden's creations, the film-poem literati are awareof them, and they are thereforean influence on the documentaryfilm-poem movemene.

Night Mail was 'an alreadyedited picture' (Harrison, 1998,xxiv) by the time Auden'sverse

(and Benjamin Britten's music) was addedto the production.Since he was working in an age beforethe existenceof videotape,as Harrison also observes,it was difficult for him to accurately 12 time his verseso that it perfectly matchedthe speedof the visual material. Auden expressed

very lucid doubtsabout the successfuladdition of verseto film, as madeobvious by someof his

commentsfrom an early lectureon poetry and film (1936). In his defense,Auden was imagining

a scenarioin which a poet would alwaysadd verseat a late stagein the developmentof the film,

not writing while cutting or beforeprincipal photography.In 1936 soundin film was still a novel

concept,so experimentationwith that soundwas also largely untried. Auden defendshis

determinationsby explaining:

The visual imageis a definite one,whereas verbal imagesare not sharp;they have auras

of meaning.A visual image cannotbe madeto meana numberof things, nor can a word

80 imagebe confinedto one thing. For this reason,highly developedmetaphors cannot be

includedin the film medium (Mendelson,512).

Auden fearedthe limiting natureof addingone particular image to a line of poetry, preventingor at least stifling the natural ambiguity inherentin the verse.Producer Tony Cashstill found this a problem in 1990,when he declaredthat depictingverse 'narrowsthe listener'srange of imaginablepictures'(17). Though his article insistson the illustration of every noun in a verse,

this is not necessary.The literal visual representationof words is not the film-poem'smain

agenda.Cash worked on a seriesof 'illustratedlectures' about poets in the early 1990scalled

Toetry in Motion'with writer and monologistAlan Bennett,but thesefilms, thoughentertaining,

'too did have done: the often ... what so many other poetry programmes rammedunder viewer's

nosea literal visual interpretationof the lines, which kills the experienceof poetry stonedead'

(Dunkley, 1990,12). Therewere two seriesof these:one six-part seriesin 1990and one four- 13 part seriesin 1992,exhibited on ChannelFour. As opposedto his own work, Cashpraises the

film version of Harrison'sV. becauseof its tendencyto departfrom the streamof imagesthat

accompanyparts of the poem,returning to shotsof the poet readingto his audiencewhen

instances in the poem 'resolutely resist visual representation' (17). This is certainly an intelligent

technique,as it providesan audiencewith respite,sparing them from a barrageof imagesthat

would 'changeconfusingly every secondor so, preventingthe viewer from concentratingon the

words' (Cash,17). Most film-poemsare awareof this problem,which is why many of them

include sceneswithout poetry, interludesconsisting of a collection of imageswhile music is

madeprominent. This gives the viewer a chanceto absorbit all, giving the film a chanceto

reiterateits visual leitmotifs throughrepetition. In my study of the film-poem 'A Maybe Day in

Kazakhstan'inChapter Four, I explain the importanceof sucha technique.

81 On the other hand,it is decidedlypossible to createan imageor seriesof imageswith many layers of meaning.Therefore, the key to successfullymerging film and verseis to makethe imagesas arbitrary, or at leastas multi-faceted,as possiblewhen the opportunity arrives.

Auden'sproblem is not with the limits of the image,but with the single connotationtowards which an averageimage directs, instead of the myriad of possibleimagery inspiredby a metaphoricalpoetic line. Consideralso that he was working within a limited form, the form of documentary.

Auden'sstatements are fairly one-dimensional;one merely hasto watch silent films like Un

ChienAndalou (Bufiuel, 1928),Marcel Duchamp'sAnemic Cinema(1927) or other surrealist works to understandthat the visual image can indeedbe madeto meana numberof things, to lack precisesharpness or clarity. It is surprisingthat in the 1930s,as the modernistmovement was coming to a conclusion,and surrealismwas in its heyday,that Auden would make sucha finite declaration,but he was not a surrealist.In the processof constructingUn ChienAndalou,

Dali and BuRuelwould seekout the 'indecipherable','discarding' logical ideasor stepsof the plot when they would occur to them, in favour of thoseideas which 'hadno possibleexplanation'

(Sitney,4). This claim indicatesthat the spacesin betweenthe imagesin such films are indeed problematic,in that thereis not an elementpresent to link them togetherinto a traceable narrative.Nevertheless, the viewer naturally strugglesto find meaning,and the images themselvessignify a wide rangeof interpretationsin suchfilms. Examplesof the pioneersof avant-gardeworks and someof the most poetic examplesof them will be discussedlater in this chapter.

To his further discredit,Auden lackedthe vision to conceiveof the two conceptionsof poetry and film working togetherin general,claiming that a 'strongsound image addedto a

82 strongvisual imagetends to cancelout both'. He felt that soundin a film had the potential to make 'too many demandson [an audience's]attention' (Mendelson, 512). With thesestatements it is apparentthat Auden did not assumean evolving sophisticationin the audience.Yet, this is also forgivable as an oversight,since Auden was again speakingfrom an authoritative experience,one that no one elsehad previously tried, at least in the public vein. He admitsthat

film be if 'one is bear verseon can admissible necessity... observed- the spokenpoetry must somerelation, whether of similarity, indirect referenceor contrast,to what is seen'(513).This is a basic conceptand indeeda necessity,but without a doubt a bold stepat the time. Graduating from an exceedinglystructured task, it is logical to assumethat Auden'sopinions aboutit would havebeen themselves structured and shornof room for possibility and expansion.It is not entirely Auden'sfault either, since,from all accountsof the ordeal,Auden's collaborators at the

GPO Film Unit did not allow the poet much independence.The Film Unit inhibited Auden, so his opinions of the entireprocess are also as restrained.

In spite of thesedrawbacks, Auden's verse 'combinedhis penchantfor lists'with 'the desire that the peoplewho composeand await the mail be brought into the film'(Weeks, 1995,75).

This was specifically a concern of the film unit's head producer, John Grierson. The commissioningof the poet gaverise to a certain 'humancomponent, an elementwhich British documentary film lacked, according to some opinions (Weeks, 77). The verse catalogues a few examplesof the peoplewho will receiveletters from the night mail train (letters for the rich,

for / The door Letters letters from letters the poor shopat the comer and the girl next ... of thanks, banks,/ Letters of joy from the girl andboy). Theseverses provided characteristicsunseen before in a documentarypiece, and most film-poets and their collaboratorsrecognise Auden's 14 contributionsas valuable.

83 Auden'smajor innovationwas to match the rhythm of his versewith the rhythm of the moving train, 'asthe camerafollows the train's progressalong criss-crossingtracks through valleys and fields'(Hoare, 1997,11). His was an experimentin working with a pre-determined cadenceset by the imagesgiven to him, and 'the tempo of [his] poetry echoesthe rhythm of the train's sound,quickening as the train builds up speedand the cameraseems only just able to keep up with it'(Hoare, 11). Auden would work with setting his verseto match moving imagesagain

in 1962,on the short film Runner,made by the National Film Board of Canada.The film is a

documentarythat doesnot focus on any one athlete,but surreptitiouslysupports a Canadian

runner,Bruce Kidd. Auden'scontribution to the film is called the 'commentary'in the film's

credits and is againjust a handful of verses,but they are often matchedwith tracking shotsof the

runners'sprinting legs, travelling arounda racetrack.For example,there is one memorable

sequencewhere the film cuts to a slow-motion tracking shot of Kidd running, and the music also

slows down to include only a moody bass-line.In this scene,there are threecuts during the

following stanza'sreading, and thoughAuden was not happy with the performanceof the verse,

in a nasalCanadian accent (Mendelson, 513), its matchingwith slow-motion footageof the

runner'slegs is impressive,carefully edited.Crisply shot in black-and-white,the first cut occurs

before any verseis stated,to a long shot of Kidd. The first stanzaof this segmentis as follows:

All visible, visibly moving things

Spin or swing, one of the two,

Move as the limbs of a runnerdo

To and fro, forward and back,

Or as they swiftly carry him in orbit go

Roundan endlesstrack.

84 The secondcut comeson the word 'spin', to a shot of Kidd's legs running in a profiled medium close-up.The third cut, just before 'in orbit go', is also a medium close-upof the running legs, but shot from behind Kidd, so we seethe musclesof his legs flexing and relaxing, the solesof his feet smackingthe track and rising from it, all in slow-motion with the soothingpoetry spoken in the background.This sequencecontinues in much the sameway. Most of the rest of the film consistsof trumpet-ledjazz music set to the runners'rhythms, similar to the matchingof the poetry. At elevenminutes in length, this is not a major work, but it is significant, in termsof rhythm and editing verseto image,and becauseof its similarities withNight MaiL

Until the 1970sand the film work of John Betjeman,other self-containedprojects that involved the applicationof verseto image,whether previously editedmaterial or not, were not well-known, and probably not influential. In addition to other ambitiousfilm experimentsby

Auden, therewere few endeavoursto makewhat could be considereda film-poem by today's standards,even beyond the field of documentary.If rare tangentialexperimental films, made available only through arduous searching, are temporarily ignored, there is a great gap after the

1930s until the early 1970s, and then another gap until 1981, when the work of Tony Harrison first appears.Nevertheless, these rare films do exist and a few of them are worth mentioning in the briefest of contexts,purely becauseI havecome acrossthem while researchingand they shouldbe recognised.It is also importantto do so sincetheir existencedeserves to be more widely known. I will considera few of theserarities in the next pagesof this chapter.

In 1973,English poet JohnBetjeman produced a documentaryfilm with versecommentary called Metro-land', which he called 'a script for television' (215). It is referredto as a forerunner of the Harrisonianmodel by PeterSymes (1995, ix) and is regardedby most specialistsas an early film-poem. Notably, this is the first work of its kind to be shot in colour. In this film,

85 Betjeman'sfree verseis difficult to pinpoint, sinceat times it is utterly prosaicand conversationaland at other times indirect, alliterative and obviously sculptedverse. This raisesa controversialquestion, asking what is poetry, in termsof what definesit as such,which is indeed too large a subjectto broachwithin the scopeof this paper,but Betjeman'scommentary within this film is structuredlike poetry and shapedlike verseon the page.The emergenceof prosaic poetry is a movementwithin the world of poetry itself, and thereforewe can safely determine that Betjeman'smaterial is poetry, but someof the audible signifiers, as he recitesparts of the script in the program,are not as obvious.Betjeman mingles his prosedescriptions of London roadsand suburbswith poetic lines, but the only noticeabledifferences between the two styles of delivery is his textual indentationof the partswe are meantto interpret as pure poetry. For example,in a scenefocussed on Wembley Tower, it is not clear, if we judge the material based solely on performance,where Betjeman'spoetry begins,ends, or where his prosedescriptions take priority. The following lines are intendedas poetry:

It was to be one hundredand

fifty feet higher

Than the Eiffel Tower.

But when at last it reachedabove

the trees,

And the first stagewas openedto

the crowds,

The crowdsweren't there.They

didn't want to come.

Money ran out,

86 The tower lingeredon, resting

and rusting

Until it was dismemberedin 1907.

Immediately following theselines, the script indicatesa changein setting and the layout of the text is not so meticulouslyindented, for a few lines:

This is where London'sfailed

Eiffel Tower stood.Watkin's

Folly as it was called. Here on

this Middlesexturf, and since

then the site hasbecome quite

well-known.

His readingstyle on camerais almostidentical when he is citing either form of writing, so this is decidedlyanother hybrid piece, a true amalgamationof styles and forms. Highly influential,

Betjeman'sMetro-land'bred other experimentsattaching film and poetry, both in documentary form and in other more risque styles of photoplay. Betjeman himself made other films, some of which were discovered long after the poet had passed away. They all focussed on certain locations in England, all in the West Counties, that the former poet-laureate felt connected to for one reason or another, from the seasideresort Weston-super-mare to Marlborough College, where Betjemanspent some uncomfortable years (Lister, 2001).

Scottishpoet DouglasDunn, in what could be a homageto Auden'sfilmic efforts, also made a film-poem aboutthe art of running.The film bearsthe samename as Auden'sCanadian film,

Runner,produced by the BBC in 1977.Of particular note is the film's director, Andr6e

Molyneaux,whose pioneering work with Tony Harrison in the early 1980sis studiedin detail in

87 the fourth chapterof this thesis.it is almosta half-hour in length and containsa substantial

amountof verse as its solitary form of dialogue(all in voice-over).The verseis an artistic and dramatic commentaryon the imagesof athleteswe seeon the screen,most of them enduring intense physical exertion. Molyneaux'sinterest in poetry on film probably beganhere, in what is largely an unknown, rarely cited work. Her work with the BBC Music and Arts Department

exposedher to a great deal of material, but she 'hadseized every opportunity to make films

containingverse, or on the subjectof poetry and poets'(1991,368). Dunn's film was an

OPPOrtunityto work with verseand nothing else,a completelynew innovation at the time, and fitting experiencefor future work with Harrison.

The film's poetry is much more metrical than Bojeman's and bearssome resemblance to that

OfAuden's, in that its rhythm and meter is also often set to match the paceof the imagesof

running legs. Most of it is in tetrarneterbut the poetry'sform varies throughoutthe poem's duration, much like the poem'ssubjects. Impressively diverse, the film-poem alternatesthe pace

and length of its verse,seemingly based on the footageof the runnersthat it exhibits. This film's

Poetrywas written for the availablefilm stock,but presumablyit was written for footageselected

as more suitablethan other material.There are two readersperforming the verse,another innovation that had never beenattempted, and hasseldom been since. There are somemoments in the film which are specifically focussedon one item or person,for which it may be assumed

the choice of footage was more limited. The segmentthat standsout from the rest of the poem is

a section/stanzaconcentrating on CzechOlympic runner Emil Zatopek.It describesthe athlete, praising him and his incredible endurance,but also eulogisinghis inevitable defeat.The poetry also usesrepetition, which would come to be a great assetin future works of film and poetry.

88 The repeatedwords mesmerise,increasing the senseof awe inspiredby the archive footageof this man'sraces. Part of the segmentis as follows:

Zatopekshowed how a runner should lead,

Runningfrom the front in love with speed

Front runner,front runner.

Who is this manwho always wants to lead

Runningfrom the front, is it pride or greed?

Front runner,front runner.

The footageshown is of Zatopekcompeting in different races,keeping up a grueling paceand eclipsing his competitors,sometimes completely lapping them.The sixth line of this stanzais said as Zatopekcrosses a finish line, snappingit just as he passesanother competitor, one full lap behind. Called the 'CzechExpress' or Emil the Indefatigable',his running style was almost unprofessionalin its unconventionality,and his build strangelyscrawny. While he ran 'his head bobbedfrom side to side, his armsflailed in the air and his face becamecontorted, as if he were 15 suffering the severestpain'. The famousAmerican sportsannouncer Red Smith once said that while he ran 'his hatchetface [was] crimson and his tonguelolled out. Dunn's film-poem capturesthe strange,near-dying efforts of Zatopek(and other track starslike him), as he unbelievablydefeated runners whose form was more refined. This work managesto penetratethe viewer, poeticisingthe ability of theseathletes, as well as artfully depicting the shameand sorrow many of them must bear in front of massivelive crowds and television audiences.Indeed it containsfootage of one anonymoussprinter desperatelystruggling towardsthe finish line, his legs wobbling and bendingat excruciatingangles, while the readerchants:

89 His feet, sick of the road

Which had brought him there devotedly,

The roadwhich neverfails to finish,

And in his headwas a voice, the voice of the road

Which said over and over, contemptuously,

'Finish,finish, finish, damnyou'.

The runner finally crashesacross the finish line. Dunn's versefills this film-poem with accurate and emotional,galvanising scenes. It is an underestimatedpiece, one that shouldbe better-known and respected,since its use of poetry is honedto a sharpnessand appropriatenessthat someother works, evensome of Harrison'searlier projects,can only approach.

Dunn would makeone more film-poem to date, Dressedto Yjll'(1992), one of the six film- poemsPeter Symes produced for the Wordson Film series,which is coveredin ChapterThree of this thesis.Dunn alsowrote versepieces that were specifically dedicatedto certain actors,like

Anthony Quinn (Valerio) andJean-Paul Belmondo ('La Route), a kind of visually basedpoetry that entwines scenesfrom a typical film with the actor's movie persona. The poems even incorporate fictional dialogue for the actors and those around him in the poetic 'scenes'.In fact

Philip French,a notedanthologist of poetry aboutfilm termedthe works 'so-calledfilm poems 46 that are like scenariosfor certainactors (1993,14). Runnerproducer Molyneaux would continuefostering her interestin the relationshipof poetry and film with Harrison only two years afterRunner was made,meeting with Harrison for the first time in London, 1979.The continuationof the story of the Harrisonianfilm-poem's evolution continuesfrom that point in

ChapterFour of this study. In this chapter,it is now appropriateto begin the study of the 'other' sort of film that bearsthe nameof film-poem, that which Sitney now calls, out of convenience,

90 the 'avant-garde',because the term is 'not associatedwith a particular phaseof the thirty-year span'he covers(1979, viii).

2.5 Film Poemswithout Verse?:The Influence of Avant-Garde

Significancein the developmentof a movementusually lies in a collection of projects, connectedthrough a sharedand acceptedmethodology that one artist or group of artists produces.In the developmentof the avant-gardefilm-poem, the selectionof major artists is limited to only a handful of consistentproducers of 'poetic'works. The amountof students, artists and professionalfilmmakers experimenting creatively with film is a numberimpossible to determine,because of the amountof work that is unavailablefor the public eye. This is a field most directly affectedby financial issues,where many films that would be releasedwith the help of necessaryfunds are neverbrought to light. The plight of the experimentalfilmmaker is, and hasbeen throughout the history of motion pictures,one of a severelack of economicsupport.

But someartists have succeeded in gaining the respectof the critical culture, regardlessof whethertheir efforts havealso raisedenough capital for them to supportthemselves solely on the basisof their cinematictalents. Many of thesehave also blossomedinto a hazily defined coterie of 'poetic'filmmakers, those auteurs whom have earnedthe title of 'film poet'. Unfortunately, this term hasbeen overused by film critics, and now scarcelymaintains individual meaning.I will now engagewith the terms, 'film-poet', 'poetic film' and 'film-poem', in this light, considering theseissues and what truly constitutesthe poetic in film. This is a hotly debatedissue, one that hasundergone change and alterationat greatlength, and I do not plan to redefineor disallow the useof the terms towardwhat they now signify, sincethat would involve anotherstudy at this academiclevel. But it would be helpful to precisely identify the boundariesof the terms,and

91 suggestlimitations of the intendedscope of each.It would be sensibleto discussa few of the most importantinfluences, or the beginningsof the areaof film that is often referredto as the poetic cinema,or the 'cinemaof poetry' (Pasolini,quoted in Harrison, 1998,xxv).

2.5.1 The 'CinematicConstruction'of Poetry and MontageEditing

In the 1920s,Russian filmmaking was pioneeredand developedby a movementchampioned by a few filmmakerswho shot films accordingto a distinguishablephilosophy. 'Montage'cinema was a cinemaof brevity and abruptness,and its origin was in a seriesof experimentsperformed on celluloid by Lev Kuleshov.Kuleshov taughtat the SateSchool on CinemaArt and becauseof the shortagesof film stock inducedby the governmentduring the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), he tried to edit 'footagefrom different sourcesinto a whole that createsan impressionof continuity' (Bordwell and Thompson,1997,457). Theseand other experimentsby filmmakers like Dziga Vertov, VsevolodPudovkin, and eventuallySergei Eisenstein would spark a national movementof filmmaking and theorising.Eisenstein's film Strike (1925) is said to haveinitiated the movementto the furthestdegree.

The differencesbetween these films and the straightforwardnarratives typical of early

Hollywood were basedon editing. Montagestyle dictatedthat 'a film did not exist in its individual shots but only through their combination through editing into a whole' (Bordwell and

Thompson,458). Today Eisenstein'swritings and films are probably treatedas most influential from the period, but he did not completelyagree with the movementin every case,stating that the juxtaposition of shots'in order to createa concept'wasmost effective. He thought 'the

maximumeffect would be gainedif the shotsdid not fit togetherperfectly, if they createda jolt

for the spectator'(Bordwell and Thompson,458). As usual,within a typical artistic movement,

92 its practitionersdisagreed on specific principles within it, but agreedon fundamentalissues. The creationof movementas a whole, however,must begin with separateimages and individual objects.Many of Eisenstein'sfilms emphasiseone object and its implications,crafting a scene and editing it by splicing the individual imagesof that object togetherto createa whole. There are fine examplesof this techniqueto be found in many of Eisenstein'sfilms; for example,in

October (1927),rapid alternatingshots of two guns and the face of their gunnercreate the impressionof active firing, mimicking the gun'sviolence and speed.The infatuationwith the

ýarticular singular object,and the representationof the generaltheme that ... penetratesall the shot-pieces'(Eisenstein,1938,163), is the basisfor a crucial Montageprinciple, providing 'the most completeimage of the themeitself', which is the key to communicatinga sound,lucid idea.

In TheLessons ofModernism, Gabriel Josipovici writes that 'Freudasked us to look at our

back dreamsand suddenstabs of memory that take us to past events... we all want piecesof things, when put together,to form a meaningfulwhole' (1977,115). When we are given the

'separatepiecesin a Montagefilm, the gapsare often left for the viewer to fill in, and the viewer shapesa 'realisticsignificance when the separatepieces produce... the synthesisof one'stheme'

(Eisenstein,167). Based on thesephilosophies, Montage cinema used the individual shot as the gatewayto the 'mostcomplete image, in varying capacities.The focus on the single object, of the combinationof singularthings to makeone completething, was the introduction for comparisonsto cinemaas the most similar visual medium to poetry. It is like the Freudian sublimationof dreamfragments to form cohesive,sensible and logical memoriesor manifestationsof personaldesires. The fragmentarynature of the solitary images,however, is likened to poetry in anotherway than merely by way of a dream-likequality.

93 In the pamphletI refer to in the introduction to this thesis,Michael Donaghy,poet andjazz musician,writes of the links betweenpoetry and film, citing Eisensteinand a Montage 17 principle. Eisenstein,Donaghy states, 'found the model for his montagetechnique in Haiku', the

Japaneseform of poetry that focuseson the singular action or image,and the specific elements relatedto that image,all in short burstsof threelines and seventeensyllables. He goeson:

A poem'sfocus is often achievedthrough a single object, held like Yorick's skull, in the

poet'shand, a magician'sprop toward which we direct our attentionso that the magic

can take place (1996,4).

Through the single object, that which a poet will use to approachor illustrate an experience,the representationof that experiencecomes through its versification. The verseis 'concernednot with what is occurring,but with what it feels like or what it means'(Deren in Vogel, 1972,4).

The single object of Donaghy'sconcern is a direct link with the single shot by the Montage filmmaker, and a scoreof theoristsand critics haveexpounded on this issue.The Russian

Formalistsespecially found 'the closestanalogue to cinemain poetry' (Williams, 1995,217) and have created,by way of a seriesof famousarticles based on the relationshipsbetween poetry and film, a theoretical school founded on the 'poetics of cinema'.

Viktor Shklovsky,in his landmarkessay 'Poetry and Prosein Cinema'(1927) claims that

'verseis closerto film than prose'(89), finding more than the simple qualities of rhythm to link betweenthe two. Rhythm is not enoughto defendthe full relationshipbetween a poem'stext and a visual one,as rhythm can be found in proseas well as poetry. Prose,writes Shklovsky, often contains'semantic features', and is basedprincipally on a combinationof everydaysituations'

(88), a straightforwardstyle of storytelling. Verse,however, is the most suitableforum for

ambiguity, and it is this captured,illustrated ambiguity that would make an imagepoetic.

94 Therefore,there is a specific image and a quality of ambiguity that an intentionally poctic film must seekto emulate.Yet there is anothervery important link betweenthe two media,as

Harrison,Vertov, Eisensteinand Formalist Yury Tynyanov also agreeupon, spanningdecades of film theory and criticism, as a predominantlyshared characteristic. Tynyanov writes:

[Shots]replace each other just as a single verseline, a single metrical unit, replaces

anotherone on a preciseboundary. Film makesajump from shot to shot,just as verse

makesa jump from line to line (1927,45).

The free flowing natureof versesof poetry and qualities of enjambment(which increasethe pace

of a poem)that are often employedfrom line to line are what Tynyanov herediscusses. As

opposedto the systemsof tight and measuredmetricality that were usedin classicalpoetry,

Montagephilosophy relates itself to free verse,an openform of poetry not adheringto the useof

regulatedrhyme or meter.The naturalbut unpredictablenature of free verse,in which long lines

can be followed by short lines and in which 'the energy [of the language]advanced in bursts'

(Tynyanov,46) is likened to the long shot followed by the short shot. In a parallel vein, Tony

Harrison'sextensive work on film-poems in the 1980sand 1990shas provided him with the

experienceto makethe following conclusion,from a point of view basedon the structureof

poetry:

I realisedthat my own rhythmic preoccupationshad a parallel in what I now think of as

the scansionsof editedsequences. It is not merely the 24 framesper second,nor the

metrical beatsin a verseline, but how they succeedone anotherand build into

gratificationsor disappointmentsof expectation(1998, xxvii).

Montagecinema, in its study of the rhythm of its structure,is very much like the study of

prosodyin verse,the study of versification and metrical movement.Scansion, the art of 'scanning

95 a line to determineits division into metrical feet' (Stallworthy, 1983,856), is a perfectmctaphor usedby Harrison,since the piecing togetherof a Montagefilm is very much like the composition of a line of poetry. The 'scansionof edited sequences'would involve breakingdown a film's scenes,shot by shot, into the metrically patternedand organisedinstances that createnot only the illusion of movementbut the impressionof action.Tynyanov and Harrisonboth speakof a characteristicof film editing that again refers to the all-important spacesbetween shots, in that they are as seamlessand inconspicuousas the jump from poetic line to line (unlessthey are intendedto be conspicuous).In fact, Tynyanov explainshow the jump from one shot to another in a film is not as much abouta connectionbetween them as it is abouta 'differential exchange'

(46) of shots.An exchangeof imageson the screen,whereas one image replacesanother through

18 somelogical or philosophicalconnection, is the basisfor his comparison. This idea is the

'foundationof montage'according to Tynyanov (45) and a further accuratelikening betweenfilm

and poetry.

Shklovskyand Tynyanov also point out the sharedabilities of both cinemaand poetry to

semanticallytransform everyday objects, in termsof changingor altering their perceived

meaning by way of their presentation to an audience. Shklovsky stressesrepetition and 'recurring

framesand imagesand the transformationof imagesinto symbols'as the clearestmethod of

conviction as to why film is 'poeticin nature'(89). The presenceof repetition, and therebythe

processof transformingan object into an icon, is a 'poetic touch', or the addition of a poetic

elementto a film (Williams, 217). For example,in Citizen Kane (Welles, 1941),one of the most

famouscinematic icons is an object, a sled with 'Rosebud'inscribed on it, and the film

transformsthe word and the sled into the psychologicalreasoning behind the motivations of its

protagonist.This word becomesa metaphorfor the thing that CharlesFoster Kane (Orson

96 Welles) could neveracquire; much like the statueof a falcon, a symbol and no longer a treasure by the film's conclusion,represents the 'stuff that dreamsare madeofin TheMaltese Falcon

(Huston, 1941).In this way the cinemabecomes a forum for poetic devices,its mechanicsof editing and cinematographylike the mechanicsthat govern the form of a poem.

Oncethe realistic possibility of soundentered the motion picture industry, theseconcepts of pure image-basedconstruction were further complicated.Montage cinema gave way to other

forms of filmmaking, mostly due to the Soviet government'sintroduction of a new artistic policy

in 1934,which statedthat all films madehad to 'depict revolutionary developmentwhile being

firmly groundedin "realism"' (Bordwell and Thompson,459). Many filmmakers acrossEurope

and the United Stateslearned poetic principles from the films of the Montageera, from other

artistic movements,and from the theoreticalmaterial explaining the poetic natureof cinema.A

new generationof film-poets was developing,and their reasoningexplaining the poetic natureof

film was diversified.

2.5.2 Film-Poetsand the Art of Cinema

PoetDylan Thomas,as part of a panel in a live symposiumon Toetry and the Film'once

was askedif he thoughtpoetry could be 'welded'to the film in someway. His responsewas

strikingly similar to the theories of Soviet Montage filmmakers. He said:

As in a poemone imagebreeds another, I think, in a film, it's really the visual image

that breedsanother - breedsand breathes it (Vogel, 6).

The breedingof imagesis comparableto the 'exchange'ofshots discussed by Tynyanov and

others.However, Tynyanov doesnot meanthat theseshots 'unfold' in a normal, sequentialorder,

but that they reflect eachother in their compositionand incorporationin the schemeof a plot, in

97 that their meaningis compoundedby the relationshipof one shot to another,to the other shotsin the film, and in both of their relationshipsto the narrative.This is the closestcomparison to poetry, sincethe disparateimages in a poemusually have somerelationship to eachother. As demonstratedin the study of Rossetti'ssonnet in ChapterOne, the themeof a poemand its interior imagesmay also relateto the overall structureof the poem, in someway. A film works similarly. Eisensteinrecognised this similarity, and in the making ofAlexanderNevsky,he broke lines of Milton['s ParadiseLost] down "to illustrate how cinematicconstruction could befound in poetry"' (Harrison (his italics), 1998,xxv).

In the previoussection of this chapterthe differencesbetween prose and poetry in cinema were discussed.Shklovsky distinguished between the two cinemas,and inspiredothers to elaborateon his ideas.Pier PaoloPasolini, the Italian poet and film director, suggestedthe idea of a cinemaof poetry, inherentin its language(1965). He claimed that there is an 'inner poetry' to somefilms, and the 'fascinationlies more in the realm of rhythm and image than in diegetic content'(Williams, 1995,216). Pasoliniwas concernedwith form and with the awarenessof the camera'spresence, creating a systemof languageinstead of signs and signifiers representedby

images.He comparedthis systemwith a systemcodified by the languageof words and their more direct signsand signifiers. Many critics were outragedat Pasolinifor insisting that the

languageof cinemais not a symbolic one that representsreality, but that of reality itself (Greene,

1990,98). He claimedthat:

cinemadoes not evoke reality as literary languagedoes; it doesnot copy reality like

painting; it doesnot mimic reality like theater.Cinema reproduces reality: image and

sound!In reproducingreality, what doesit do? Cinemaexpresses reality with reality

(quotedin Greene,98-99).

98 Pasolini is correctin that noneof the other media he mentionssucceed in capturingthe genuinc

(though often pretended)acts and movementsof individuals or charactersthrough the less limited mediumof celluloid as opposedto the actsof characterson a finite settinglike a stage.

Pasolini'sreflections on the natureof cinemawere inspiredby someof the Formalistwritings of the 1920sand 1930s,in fact he was 'in chargeof a book seriesof formalist writings on cinema'

(Greene,110). But somecritics objectedto his generalisations, like 'to make films is to be a poet'

(Stack, 154) statingthat they venturedtoo far into unrealistic and unfoundedinsistence. There are many loopholesin his arguments;critics have found fault with his theoriesand otherslike them sincethey were introduced.Yet, he raisedimportant questionsabout the natureof signsas language,in the cinemaand out of it, in the midst of a period infatuatedwith the theoriesof

serniotics(the 1960s).He thought that words, as opposedto language,are like films as opposed

to cinema;the larger field is unknowable,since it is like a deeperreality, while the individual

words or films are like small 'fictions' within that reality (Greene,100). It is fair to assume,then,

that Pasolinilooked upon the reproductionsof reality in cinemaas poetry, the kind of poetry that

is not verse,that is not relatedto a literary form, but is a quality of art, an essencenaturally

intrinsic within objects and people.

Pasolini'simagination detected poetry in everything,which is a fascinatingbut boundless,

uncontrollableway to view reality. Poetry, especiallythe 'inner poetry'which visual art forms

like film can contain,is language;Pasolini recognised that all forms of acting and performance

were also forms of language.Soon Pasolini theorised that 'all of life is cinema',in that a camera's

is for life it 'needs to be presence not necessary to exist as cinema, only ... a camera reproduced'

(Greene,99). Reality'snatural flow and continuity is like 'a continuousand infinite long take'

(Greene,100) to Pasolini,whose theories began to resemblethose of Soviet thinker Mikhail

99 Bakhtin by the time his famousessay 'Il cinemadi poesia'emergedin the 1960s.They were similar in termsof their discussionsof a 'free indirect discourse'(the natural layering or incorporationof one discoursewithin another)in the languageof cinema(Greene, 111). In this natural embeddingwithin languagethere is an oneiric quality, and a 'universallanguage' in which film directors'create their own grammar,lexicon and syntax'by way of an identifiable

style. Pasolinisaid that 'the cinemaof poetry is the cinemawhich adoptsa particular technique just as a poet adoptsa particular techniquewhen he writes verse'(Stack, 153).This adaptationis

what lies at the centreof the philosophyconsidering a cinemaof poetry, in the form of a

'technicallanguage' (Greene, 115).

Eisenstein, Pasolini, Andrey Tarkovsky, and Jean Cocteau, among others, have all written

well-known piecesdescribing cinema as poetry, somemore scientifically and theoreticallybased

than others.All of theseworks have contributedto a theology that dictatesa poetic naturewithin

film, one that elevatesits relationshipbeyond a correlationwith direct narrativeand novels.Jean

Cocteau'sbook, TheArt of Cinema(1992, first publishedin Franceonly, in 1973),defends his

famousclaim that he 'madeuse of film as a medium which allowed him to show what

describe'(15). Also tumed filmmaker, Cocteau had his own poetry ... could merely a poet private

theoriesabout poetic cinema.There are somesignificant similarities betweenthe ideasof

Cocteau and Pasolini, but Cocteau was clearly a man whose thinking was mostly independent of

outsideinfluence; his poetry 'functionsbetter in the garagethan in a castle'(9). He did not

admire the high culture, the '61itismof "art cinema"' (9), but, like Pasolini,saw that poetry could

in he it 'mechanism inherentin be present all surroundings.Like Pasolini, claimedthat was a ...

things (including the most everydayobjects) that, once released,would operatemysteriously on

the mind'(9). He also, like Pasolini, agreedthat the 'underlying mechanismof cinemais like that

100 of dreams'(9)because the absorptionof a film is almost like the processof dreaming,because we want to "'believe" what we see,even when reasontells us it is impossible'(9). Dream scenariosare themselvesfeatured in Cocteau'sfilms, especiallythose concerned with the figure

Orph6e,who occasionallyrises out of his slumberto perform dream-like tasks,like walking throughmirrors. In OrphJe(1949), deathis constructedas if it happenswhile one sleeps,and charactersthat escapeDeath's clutches awake mystified with their nightmares.

Cocteau'sfilms often incorporatesome actual poetry into their framework aswell. The charactersof his films are sometimespoets, as in Le Sangdun PoJte (1931), Orph6eand Le

Testamentd'Orph6e (1960). In Orph6e,the main character,played by JeanMarais, is basedon the mythologicalfigure Orpheus,who must descendinto hell to retrieve his lost love. There are many scenesin the film that containpoetry, and indeedsome of the versesare literally placed 'in the garage'.In the front seatof a car (which is parkedwithin the garage),Orphde tunes his radio to a station,which at a particular time of day broadcastsindividual lines of poetry. The poet

takesnote of theseand usesthem as his own. When his wife Eurydice hearssome of the lines,

she scoffs at them, and Orph6esays, 'Who knows what poetry isT. Cocteauskilfully maskshis

own philosophiesin his films (he often calls poetry a 'mystery' himself [58]), in symbolic forms

or throughthe circumstancesof his film plots. In addition, the poetic lines from the radio are

meaningfulwithin the story of the film, in that they function as a trap set by Death to ensnare

Orphee.When broken down, someof the lines can also symboliseparts of the film's story or

style, as in the line 'silenceis twice as fast backwards',which is linked to the film's scenesthat

are played in reverse.In fact, at the film's conclusion,when Death sendsOrphee back to the

world of the living, Orph6etravels backwards and there is no dialogue,hence a 'silence'.In this

101 relatively short conclusivesequence, the eventsof the majority of the film are negated,as if they neveroccurred, hence the idea of them happening'twice as fast'.

In a live symposiumbriefly referredto above,a group of filmmakers,writers and poetstook part in a discussionoutlining the relationshipbetween poetry and film, which seemedto degenerate,after a time, into argumentabout the fundamentalnature of film itself and poetry itself (10thOct, 1953).The panelof participantsincluded American avant-gardefilmmaker Maya

Deren,playwright Arthur Miller, poet Dylan Thomasand critic ParkerTyler. Amos Vogel, the

'ExecutiveSecretary of Cinema',organised the conferencein 1953,but its transcriptionwas not

Publishedin printed form until ten yearslater, in the journal Film Culture (Summer,1963). At the conclusionof the discussion,which often grew quite heated,the chairmanof the panel

(Willard Maas)stated that anyonewho wants to seea 'perfectwelding' (14) of film and poetry needsonly to seeCocteau's Blood oaf Poet. Surprisingly, there is no documentedargument with his claim, which is strangeafter the natureof the discussionthat took placebeforehand. This silencecould be due to the panel'srespect for the film, and hopefully not becausenone of its

Othermembers had seenit.

Cocteau's collection of writing in TheArt qf Cinema spans his entire career; it is clear that he liever tired of reiteratinghis affirmations about the differencesbetween poetry and the poetic. He

Venturesto say that they might be 'opposites',because 'poetry is a product of the unconscious.

The poetic is conscious'(38). It often seemsthat Cocteauallows the differencebetween these two words, thesetwo peculiarities,to dependsheerly on perception.He often denouncesthe film that 'tries to be poetic', sincethen the viewer is awareof the attempt.The poet and filmmaker also states:

102 Moreover, is They back back, thepoetic not poetry ... stand to and a great numberof

excursionsinto the poetic contain not the slightestpoetry (38).

This claim may or may not contradictthe Shklovskianidea that 'in poetic cinemaelements of form prevail over elementsof meaning'(Furovskaya, 1989,10), but it considersthat 'inner poetry', that 'relationship[that] is not somethingthat could ever be expressedin words nor would it ever needto be' (Turovskaya,98). This is why Cocteauthe poet repeatedlyused a particular analogy when he was approachedabout his style of filmmaking. He comparedhimself to

Isomeonemaking a table,whose concern is solely to ensurethat the structureis solid'(Cocteau,

8). His concernswith form are his only worries; meaningwill follow in the handsof the audience,the consumersthat use his product.Tarkovsky's biographer, Maria Turovskaya,shares this philosophywith Cocteau,stating that the poetic image and symbolism in the cinemaneeds 'a spiritual effort on the part of the audience,an effort to emphasizeand discriminate,and finally to perceiveas a whole'. Cocteauconcurs, using his table analogy,saying that once it is built:

the mediumsmay come,if they wish: the audience,elbow to elbow in the dark, will

put its handson the table and make it turn and speakby secretmeans, since the words

attributedto tablesat s6ancesare lifted out of our own pocketsand comefrom the

darknesswithin us (41).

This commentstresses meaning over form, in that it is not thejob of the poetic filmmaker to

provide that meaning.The film-poet needsonly to be concernedabout his construction,and the

capturing of the poetry he/sheobserves in the inspiration for and the making of the film: those

qualities of the objects,actors, and the entire mise-en-sceneof the picture that bear that mark of

poetry. As for the poetic, the audiencedetermines its effectiveness,and only after it hasbeen

seencan a film be judged in any degreeof poetic-nessit may or may not maintain. Film-poets,

103 evolving through the yearsover which cinemahas become a Muse' (Cocteau,56), seekthe balance betweenthe poetry ingrainedin everydayobjects and the cinematicconstruction that can be found in poetry.

Even thoughCocteau insists that the literal presenceof poetry is again not his concern,it persists as a complimentto the world of Cocteau'sfilms, a world often concernedwith the supernaturaland magical.His theoriesare intriguingly never communicatedas theoriesbut almost as suppositions,since he consistentlydenounces his own academicmerit. For example,in the journal Filmkunst in Novemberof 1948,Cocteau wrote, 'My only intelligent perceptionhas been to perceivethat I am not intelligent, despitethose who tell me that I am'(38). His uncertaintiesextend to his feelingsabout the natureof poetry as well, since he also wrote, in a

Cannesbulletin (NumberFive, in 1959),'1 know that poetry is indispensable,but I do not know for what' (58). This self-deprecatingstyle of Cocteauis in direct contrastto the self-assuredness of Pasolini, thoughthe two seemto agreeon most points aboutpoetry; one is certainly much more humble in his claims than the other, and one is obviously more theoretically and technically orientated.

Regardless of the form of the film poem that is being discussed in this chapter, the work of thesefilm poets,among a scoreof others,has influenced any blending of film and poetry.

Charlie Chaplin may havebeen praised by many critics as a poet, but Cocteauobserved that he then 'tried to becomeone'(80), which was his downfall. The films of Kurosawa,Mizoguchi,

Bergman,Mayakovsky, the 'RussianDovzhenko', Humphrey Jennings and Tarkovsky are all listed by Tony Harrison,in addition to work by somedirectors discussed above, as excursions into the poetic cinema(1998, xxv-xxvi). In too many ways to mention comprehensively,work by

theseartists bears extensive similarities to the modem-dayfilm poem (in either form, as outlined

104 in my introduction). Yet thereis anotherform of film I havementioned briefly in this chapter: that of the truly avant-gardework that is also referredto as a film poem. A study of thesefilms now begs attention,using a few as examples.

2.5.3 The Avant-Gardeand the 'Film Poem'(Without Hyphenation)

To be avant-gardeis to be a pioneer,an innovator, a perpetuatorof a movement.The term literally meansbefore'a style or wave of popular,practiced technique. The maker of avant-garde films is thereforeliterally like a precursorto somethingthat is expectedto 'catchon, like a new trend. The fact that avant-gardefilms were at one point in history called 'film poems'is an indication of expectation.The term is usually meantto connotesomething simpler, devoid of a senseof 'fitting in', indeedexactly the opposite.The avant-garde,or 'experimental',

'underground',New American'or even 'non-mainstream'film is precisely that: that sort of film which is distinctly non-commercial,an alternativeto a typical 'movie', createdand possibly released with the expectation that it will only appeal to a select audience.

will not be discussingthe field of the avant-gardein detail to explore the qualities and influencesthat havepromoted its evolution,but the characteristicsof the field that have embodiedany logic in the useof the word 'poern'to describefilms within the field. The theories studied in Section22.5.2 above, about film-poets, poetic film and 'the cinemaof poetry', will figure into this discussion,but, for the most part, only in terms of the sharedesoteric reputations that both divisions of film have.It is worth noting that running time is a key factor in dividing thesefilm genres,not inasmuchas avant-gardefilms mustbe shorter,but the fact remainsthat someof the best known works of avant-gardecinema are shorts.In somecircumstances, avant-

105 garde films are extraordinarilylong, which is a factor that helpsto define this type of cinema:the 19 running time, extremein oneway or another,is not fitting for a mainstreamrelease.

In terms of content,avant-garde cinema seeks to undermineconventions of mainstream cinema, in that it confrontsbasic social systemsof understanding.At the heart of any social

system is the feeling that a cross-sectionof society generally agreeson or supportsan idea.

Avant-garde cinemaoften desiresa breakwith a norm or sharedphilosophy, and challenges'the

idea that the individual personalityand social and political relationsamong individuals are

basically rational and understandable'(MacDonald, 1993,3). This destroysthe processof

understandingcharacter motivation in fiction; Un ChienAndalou, for example,accomplishes this

're-mystification'by shatteringthe linear connectionsbetween its images.Director Luis Bufiuel

was a poet before he beganfilmmaking, and the film is namedafter his first collection of poems.

The phrase(translated 'An AndalusianDog) refers to 'thosemodernist Andalusian poets whom

[Bufiuel and Dali] regardedas insensibleto the revolutionary poetry of social contentwhich

Bufluel championed'(Drummond, 1994, ix). The film has also beensaid, by Dali, to be a 'series

of irrational gagsand dreamresidues' and by Bufiuel to 'draw on the free associationsof

uninhibited compulsions'(Drummond, ix-x). Therefore,the film is the perfect prototype for the

avant-gardeformula: it rejectsa social systemof belief, confusesrational association,and also is

inspired by the oneiric memoriesof two artists.This dreamlikequality is what most attracted

poets like Cocteauto the mediumof film, and Cocteau'sfirst film Le Sangdun po&e [Blood of a

Poet] (1930) is most clearly influencedby the surrealistmovement, though Cocteauopenly

disassociatedhimself with their philosophiesin the mid-1920s(Cocteau, 10).

Simultaneously,literally spiraling out of the abstractsurrealist films of the 1920sand the

Dada'movementwas the graphicwork of filmmakers like Man Ray and GermaineDulac. One

106 film by Frenchpainter Marcel Ducharnp,Anemic Cinema(1927), is often highlighted in many discussionsof surrealistfilm and the emergenceof avant-gardecinema. It is a short film that superimposeswords, in the shapeof French 'puns'onto a seriesof 'rotating discs' and 'slowly tuming spirals'(Rees,1999,56). The film createsoptical illusions of depth,which Duchamp experimentedwith in his painting aswell (Sitney, 229). Abstract works like this film, which are usually without a straightforwardstory or plot but are a representationof artistic ideologies, utilised animationand cameraexperimentation to achieveunique results.Film writer Stuart

Macdonald in Avant-GardeFilm: Motion Studies(1993) lists Dulac'sDisque 957 (1928) and

Henri Chomette'sJeux de reflets et de la vitesse[Plays ofReflection and Speed,1925] as of primary importancein the filmic study of 'abstractimagery and rhythms'(3). Man Ray'sLlEtoile de Mer [Starfish, 1928]was anotherexperiment in motion, shape,and rhythm, loosely basedon

a poem by RobertDesnos' (Rees, 1999,43). The starfish of the film engagesin various tasksand

enduresmany hardships,which standas symbolsfor humanaffairs. Again, the film is not a

narrative, but a seriesof snippetsof representation,like most experimentalpieces from this era.

The techniquesand ideasfrom this period would be influential in future films of the avant-garde

class,many of them woven into future films that were termedfilm poemsby certainmembers of

the cinematiccritical culture.

Sitney writes that the Surrealistcinema, and with it much of the avant-garde'suddenly

disappearedafter Bufiuel'sL Age d'Or (1930) to re-emergethirteen yearslater in America,

essentiallytransformed' (229). The graphic experimentsby the French and Europeanartists of

the previousdecades were inspirationalto American filmmakers of the 1940s,1950s andl. 960s, a

time when the term 'film poem'was fashionablyapplied to avant-gardepieces that made language. statementsof somekind aboutart and/or Len Lye, the New Zealand-bornartist and

107 filmmaker, was a practitionerof painting and scratchingshapes and designsdirectly onto the surface of the celluloid, so that the filmed imageswould also have Lye's artwork imposedover them. His works were often called 'poetry-films' and somehave listed him alongsideAuden as a forefather of the modern-dayfilm-poem. Lye was interestedin movement,and instigated alternative forms of movementin film, most notably the jump cut, 'an elliptical condensationof action achievedby elimination of middle shotsso that the figure on the screenseems to jump forward along a prescribedcourse of action'(Sitney, 231). But Lye also managedto capturea poetry within objectsin his films, the kind of poetry describedabove by Pasolini and Cocteau, and he highlighted the energycontained in his subjectswith the use of animation.Sitney explains

that Lye, 'wasmore interestedin expandinga vocabularyof dynamic visual forms'(230) and his

vocabulary was a poetic one. He was also concernedwith the speedand beat of the movementin

his films, andRhythm (1953), one of his later films, completely exploredonly that aspectof

moving photography,since there is little or no manipulationof the celluloid. This film 'showsthe jump assemblyof a Ford in one minutewith hundredsof cuts'(Sitney, 231) and is concerned in with a fluidity that is neverthelessachieved spite of using unconnectedshots. The viewer fills

in the gapsbetween, as he or shemay do when readinga poem. It is a type of cinematography documentaries modem day viewers now seein everydayadverts and on television, fit for a

generationwith a short attentionspan.

Films like theseand othersgrew popularwith a selectaudience, mostly an audienceof poets

film. and adventurousartists interested in the medium of Again, the extent of their numberis

impossibleto judge, as is the capacityof their rangeand scope.However, someof theseworks

have beensingled out as recently as 1998,when filmmaker and BFI archivist PeterTodd curated

a collection of what he termedfilm poems,meant to be seenas a collection of films that

108 'generateassociations, connotations and metaphorsneither the verbal nor the visual text would produce on its own'(Wees, 1999).When the programmetoured, one of the placesit was exhibited was in Manchester,at the Cornerhousecinema on Oxford Street,in November 1998.

The cinema'sNovember brochure explained the motivation for such a collection even further:

How do poetry and film work together?What is a film poem?In an attemptto answer

thesequestions, filmmaker PeterTodd hascurated this programmeof shortsfor the

National Film Theatre, London (17).

The first film in the programmeis Manhatta,which is discussedin the first part of this chapter and the rest of the programmeis an insightful, meticulouslycollected series of films that not only span the last eighty yearsof experimentalfilm, but synthesisespoetry and film in ways that are 20 daring and original. They are all 'inspiredby poetry or are indeedcinematic poems themselves.

Among the films in Todd's showcaseare thoseby poet and filmmaker MargaretTait, a

Scotswomanwhose works are often centredaround a very specific subject.Todd's programme

runs her portrait (1964) of Hugh Macdiarmid,the Scottishpoet. Most of Tait's films were self-

made, in that they were financedby herself, and are describedlike a perfect demonstrationof

Pasolini's 'poetry of the everyday. Ute Aurand, in a reprinted(and translated)obituary in Issue7

of Toem Film Film Poem21discusses her films as thosewhich reach'right to the essenceof

things' (2000,7). He continues:

Her images...are of everydayexperience and on this level are a representationof things

as they are. But the mannerin which they havebeen filmed, in their rhythmic patterns,

their duration,these images offer a vision of the mystery and ambiguity inherentin so-

called commonplaceobjects (7).

109 Tait statedthat in her film portrait of MacDiarmid, she attemptedto 'set'picturesto his poems, and often they were of the poetwriting and reading,but someof the natural imagery we seethat is meant to matchMacDiarmid's poetry is well-exactedto correspondto the flavour of his heavily-accentedverse. 22 Especially towards the end of the film, with a closing shot of churning water, the imagesattempt an approximationof the emotion of the poet'sverse, and almost all critics have praisedTait's attemptsto do sucha thing. Tait said that she thought 'film is essentially a poetic medium'(1997,4). Her 32 films, all scripted,photographed and edited by

Tait herself, truly seem an indication of this.

In Todd's first programme(the secondtoured in late 2000 and early 2001) the other films included American poet Maya Deren'scollaboration with the Czechsurrealist director Alexander

Hammid, Meshesof theAfternoon(1943). Deren's film is considereda stapleof the surrealist movement,as its imagesare without any spokenor printed text, an 'evocationof dream,full of metaphorand simile' (Lambirth, 32). Interestingly,Lambirth's review of Todd's programme

labels Deren's film 'the ultimate film-poem'which is of course an arguable point. The collection

(and also includesa film by director Ian Hugo with spokenverse text by poet Hugo's wife) Anais

Nin and 'colour effects'by Len Lye (BellsofAtIantis, 1952) and Todd's own work, a short (8

min) film called Out (1990).In the tradition of SamuelBeckett, Out insertsa monologueinto the different mouths of threedifferent women,in three surroundings,which causesthe meaningof

the piece to changedramatically each time it is said. Yet, the unknown gemstoneof the literal image, is programme,in termsof a successfulmerging of verseand the one-minuteMile

End Purgatorio (Sherwin, 1991), which was a collaborationbetween poet Martin Doyle and Guy

Sherwin. It is a humorouslook at a mid-life crisis, packedwith quick wit and rapid imagesof

Ishopfronts and other images[that] provoke and externalisethe many themesof conflict'

110 (CornerhouseProgramme Notes and Credits,originally written by Sherwin, 1998).It takesits poetic cuesfrom the Bible, Dante'sInferno andHamlet, all in the spaceof exactly one minute of film.

PeterTodd may have grown awareof the loadedterm he was dealingwith in using'film poem'.His pamphletsand mini-magazines that havebeen released announce new collectionsof films curatedby Todd or new works by Todd himself, but they all introducealternative arrangementsor manipulationsof the words. Toem film', 'cinematicpoem' and 'poetry film' have all beenused, but most often 'film poem'appears,and notably, without a hyphenbetween the words. Critics and commentatorsfocussing on his work, especiallyon his collectionsof touring film poems,have freely adoptedhis terminology. This hasbeen without hesitation,which is worrisomewhen the term has so many other connotations,even if distinguishedby small, almost unnoticeablemarks of punctuation.Yet, the term is usedin the contextof the avant-garde,in that the films are treatedlike membersof an elite group. There are no hard and fast rules for the separationbetween a strictly 'avant-garde'or'experimental'workand a 'film poem'or 'poetry film'according to Todd's selections.Wees writes that film poemsare 'centralto the avant-garde film tradition'yet have received little attention in their own right (1999,2). The question that remainsasks of the differencebetween these films and other avant-gardework: what makes thesefilms 'film poems'and other avant-gardework not so poetic?Todd usesthe terms semi- interchangeably,which is a surprisingtactic for a specifically orientatedpurpose in mind. Todd writes that he soughtto choose'films which explore the natureof film and poetry' (1999,9), but none of Harrison'swork, or any other film-poem definedby the Harrisonianmethod appears in his programmes.But the unequivocalfailure in defining what is and what is not is hardly Todd's fault. 'Film poem' is an overusedterm, with or without the hyphen.

ill One of the documentsthat hasbeen included in the November 1997edition of 'poemfilm film poemI is a startling 'manifesto'of fourteenrules that filmmaker Ian Cottagedevised while working on Blue Scars (1994), a film aboutthe decline of mining. Cottageworked on the film with poet Matthew Sweeney.Todd hints at the tensionthat emergedbetween the two in his interview with myself (Appendix A, 262); Sweeneywas not satisfiedwith someof the techniqueschosen in the making of the film. 23In fact, the thirteenthpoint of the manifestois,

The filmmaker is at liberty to erasethe voice-over from the film if s/hedoes not like the

poem(1).

While this is quite a selfish demand,the fourteenthpoint is,

The poet is at liberty to scratchthe film's negativeif s/he doesnot like the film (1).

This provesthat not all collaborationsbetween filmmaker and poet are harmonious,as it has generallyseemed to me while conductingthis study. In spite of theseobvious tensions,there are somevaluable criteria includedon this list as well, suchas the first point that statesthe poem film must be an 'original creation'andthat 'both poet and filmmaker shouldpush the boundaries of the poem film'(1). These seem like obvious points, barely worth mentioning, but more striking are the tenets included that are in total opposition to the philosophies of Haff ison, which

I will discuss in Chapter Four. Especially in violation of Harrison's thoughts onfilmmaking is point ten: 'the filmmaker must edit the film on their own'. Point sevencites that the filmmaker cannotread the poembefore the filming is complete,while point eight statesthat the filmmaker may not show any rushesto the poet, where 'sketchesand storyboardsare prohibited'(1).

Whereasthis soundslike it might havebeen an adventurousway to shoota film that is supposed to be a ýarallel'effort (Baumfield, 2), one can imagine that most of thesecriterion must be

112 hesitantlyaccepted, since it is apparentthat the list was bitterly devised,if not with a wry sense of reflectivehumor.

In my interview with Todd I askedhim of his definitions of a film poem.Todd's opinions are original, in that he thinks a film poem'sdefinition most dependson an individual point of view, upon a person'sspecific backgroundand experience.A film poemmade by a poet, he says, could be 'somewherebetween the poetry they are writing and visual material' (263). It is this kind of balancethat he imaginescame into effect for most of the films on his touring programme.His grandestdistinction is anotherreiteration along a similar themecovered in this chapter,in that film poemsshould be dealing more with trying to conjureup a mood rather than a narrative'(264). This 'mood'is reminiscentof Pasolini's'poetic'cincma, one that is already existent,rather than one contrived.It existsmore in the minds of audiences,depending on their points of view, and indeedin the interview Todd recalls Pasolinistating somethingalong these lines (265). However,he doesdistinguish between the Harrisonianfilm-poem, terming this style of work 'the literatureside' (267). This literary emphasisis placedin direct oppositionto the film-poem that is basedon individual experience,which is a fictionally basedwork of expression,and this is a division which I feel I have helpedprove as valid. The term 'film poem' is interchangeable,and in fact the popularity of the term could also be a prime reasonbehind why Tony Harrison began calling his works 'flInVpoems' since 1995.

But it standsto reasonthat the use of the term, especiallyif film-poems or film poems blossominto a degreeof popularity, could generateconfusion as to what sort of film is referred to. The authorof one of the reviewsof Todd's first programme,Gareth Evans writes that we should 'not get snaredin definitions' (1999,8), but statesthat thesefilms grew out of and are the

'sensitiveoffspring of the experiinental-avant-animation-undergroundcrowd' and that the poetry

113 within them 'growsout of the seen'(8). The film poem in Todd's view is also a hybrid, a step beyondthe experimentalfilm, the avant-gardeand any other classifiablemovement. As Todd laughingly fails to chastise,film poemsexist in a 'fascinatinglygray area'(269).

Todd'slatest programme (2000-01) includes some films neverbefore seenin the United

Kingdom, at least not with any public fanfare.Maya Deren'swork is featuredagain, this time in the form of a fifteen-minutefilm calledAt Land (1944). For the first time, films by Stan

Brakhage,one of the most prolific filmmakers of the avant-gardecinema, are exhibited.Window

WaterBaby Moving (1959) is a film classedby Sitney as lyrical'(150), and a true personal tribute to the art of Brakhage,with whom Todd has had somecontact? 4 HumphreyJennings, the

British documentarist,poet, and painter, is representedwith a lesserknown short work, Words for Battle (1941), andthe short blurb, by David Robinson,that advocatesJennings' inclusion in the programmeclaims that 'he compose[d]films exactly like a poet'. The film containspoetry by

'Blake, Browning, Kipling and Milton'.

In addition to anotherpiece by Todd himself (Diary, 1998),he includesa film that has eluded this writer until this programme managed to screen it. Sandra Lahire'sLady Lazarus

(1992) is a 'visually woven response'to Plath's poetry readings. The film illustrates scenarios of someof Plath'spoems, many from Ariel (1965), over 23 minutes.The film also interweaves original footageof Plath readingher poetry and relatesan intimate history of the poet, as much an interpretationof her poetic work as it is an exhibition of it. However, Lahire's film is an

adaptationof poetry and unfortunatelyspace has been limited in this thesisto covering mainly

thosefilms which either useor cite poetry, or films basedon original works. Theseand other

tragic omissionsare the subjectof the last brief sectionof this chapter.

114 2.6 Adaptationsof poemson film

Wherecitations of poetry in film are concerned,I havesometimes chosen to look at those sequencesin films that containpoetry, where appropriate,as miniature exercisesin accordance with most of the stylistic habits of the Harrisonian film-poem. The first chapter of this study deals principally with such a subject, but I did not have the space to write a comprehensive study of thosesingular films that adapttheir storylinesfrom a previously existentpoem. Mentioned briefly at the beginningof this chapter,Tennyson's poem 'EnochArden'was adaptedinto a film, apparentlythe first film to do so with a previously publishedwork of verse.Examples of undertakingsof this sort abound,and the areaincludes Shakespearean films and films basedon epicsand mythologies written originally in verse.Shakespeare's verse plays have generated countlessfilms, someof which treat the poetry pivotally, and someof which focus more on 25 action than interpretationof poetic lines. Both long featurefilms and short experimentsare also membersof this multifarious division of the links betweenpoetry and film, ranging from the six- minute short Waterworx by Rick Hancox (1982), which bases its entire set of images around a poemby Wallace Stevens,to feature-lengthadaptations of Browning's The Pied Piper'(the best

known is by JacquesDemy, 1971). In Appendix C of this thesis, my own developing film work with adaptationsof poetry is briefly outlined.

There are many more shorts that base their storylines around a poem than feature-length

films, but thereare intersectionsbetween these adaptations, as shouldbe expectedafter reading

this study. Harrison'swork hasbeen primarily in television, as hasthe work of PeterSymes, so

my only (abbreviated)case study for this breedof film and poetry also inhabitsthe television

realm.The English film writer and director PeterGreenaway is known for his features,but one

115 of his earlier projectsfocussed on Dante'sInferno, called simply 'A TV Dante'(1988), is an amalgamof visual formats.It is probably the ultimate hybrid of a crossbetween verse and video.

This productionis a complexwork. There is an incredibly diversemix of mechanisms within it, extendingfrom the useof a radar screenthat 'detects'sinners as blips'to the useof prosaic'talking heads'that interrupt the poetic narrative,in small boxesin the cornersof the screen,to commenton a relevanttopic. There is a time graph that is utilised at different points in the film, tracking the agethat sinnersare punishedfrom (following Dante'stravels through the nine circles of Hell), and much archivefootage used as well. As excerptsfrom the poetry are recitedby John Gielgud as the voice of Virgil, the film cuts to a wide rangeof relatedimages; for example,when an empresslustful sins are described,the main part of the screenillustrates her sins by using blurred footagefrom an anonymouspornographic film. The film is intensely graphic,and indeedhorrific in many parts,especially as the narrationtakes us deeperinto hell.

Swirling, screamingnaked bodies are torturedmiserably while bathedin red and green luminescence.The facesof peoplehurtling acrossthe screenalso often disturb theseimages, and the occasionalcase study is highlighted,by focussingon one particular sinner.This is very similar to Dante'sown attentionin the epic poem.

Greenaway'sco-director, Tom Phillips, lecturedabout his work on animationfor the film

(for some scenesin Hell) in the Royal Festival Hall in London (October 2000), and stressedhis desireto 'suppressthe erotic', but Greenawaywould haveno artistic limitations placedon his work. ChannelFour's supportfor the work was surprisingly strong,but Phillips saysthat 'those were different days for televisionback then, since Michael Kustow was headof Arts

Programming'(Kustow would go on to becomethe executiveproducer of Harrison's

Prometheus).Finances were the only constraint,and Phillips elaboratelydescribes the crew's

116 resourcefulnessin finding free video footageof a wide variety of material.Apparently, the Dutch havefilm archivesthat anyonecan accessfor no charge,so the crew set aboutsearching for appropriateimages in their libraries. The entire production translateslike a mixture betweenan illustratednews editorial and a surrealpainting depicting supernaturalevents.

Yet thereare thosewho criticise the work for its complexity. ChristopherDunkley's article

Too many imagesspoil the picture'(1990) relishesthe examplethat 'A TV Dante'setsfor the purposeof its argument.It admitsthe film's brilliance and technical 'cleverness,but quickly condemnsthe multi-leveledwork as an 'over-eggedconcoction' (11). The talking heads' interviews,for example,often appearto be speakingjerkily, and that is becausethe film's editors choppedapart the dialoguespoken by the intervieweesand shapedit togetheragain so that it offered almostno pause,no relief, no time for reflection. Dunkley writes:

Older viewers tend to look on with a wry smile and assumethat, just as eight-year-olds

are dab handswith computersand video recorders,so young peopletoday are able to

ingest layers information But highly The all these of at once. that seems unlikely ...

difference,I suspect,is that young peopleare more willing to tolerateimpressionistic

chaoson televisionthat their elders(11).

The ageof the music video and the soundbite, in this case,will probably aid poetry's transmissionto the masses,since, in all honesty,poetry is more suited to a shorteraudience attentionspan. It is usually more compactthan prose,and usually not as lengthy.

'A TV Dante'is confusingand hectic, and perhapsit tries to accomplishtoo much and can be viewed as over-ambitious.In Phillips'lecture, one audiencemember stated that shefound it difficult to take the three elements(images, words and soundtrack)very 'difficult to take in at once'.Phillips, however,responded with an interestingpoint:

117 Is it Well, it's like book. The idea all too much... no, a whole was that you make

televisionas good as a book. You take it down and you look at it again.What you

caughton the first go round was fine, and then you kept somethingelse on the second

That's how it This go, and so on. we treated ... was television that you shouldsee twice or threetimes.

Even thoughrepeated viewings were not always possible,Phillips defendsthe piece and makes its unconventionalityseem commonplace. His claim is also an excusefor the multi-layered,

Harrisonianfilm-poem as well, a genrethat I will study in the next chapter.One thing is certain regarding'A TV Dante': in 1988,it was a daring project to undertakein a time at which poetry was still unprovenon television.The year before had only just experiencedthe scathing

controversy that was Harrison's V., and audiences were still reeling from the wave of profanity

that it launchedat them. Suddenlyimages of nude,tortured bodies stared at them from screensin

their homes,while Gielgud readverse in the background.How was poetry to survive this

blasphemousillustration? It did, it has,and it is still forcing peopleto look and listen.

ChapterThree will focus on the film-poem in the modem sense,considering the work in

which the poetry is written as the film is shot. Using the material covered in the present chapter,

telling of the eventsleading up to the presentstate of the genre, it is hopedthat one will gain a

senseof a specific evolution for this material.

118 CHAPTERTHREE

TBE FILM-POEM

Is there a new art form which combinesqualities traditionally associatedwith poetry

and/orfilm and manifestsitself in the form of one or the other but which could truly

be said to be a unique hybrid of the two? Doesthe film-poem really exist?

- ShanMaclennan and ChristinaPatterson'

3.1 The Types of Film-Poems

What is a film-poem?There havebeen a numberof cinematicworks termedas such.

Descriptively,the expressionalone is probably, at best,vague. The terms Tilm'and 'poem'refer

to diversematerial in the modemworld of literature and artistic study, and contain countless

offshootsand interpretationswithin. To place thesewords togethermight soundlike a reference

to experimentalwork; it is a term that could fit or classify a work that critics would be otherwise

uncertainas to how to define. Is it one or the other (a film or a poern)?Is it a film with poetry in

it, a 'poetic'film, or a film that usespoetry as its principle meansof thematicexpression? Could

it be a poem that is cinematic in nature? These are all valid questions, and some are questions

that the makersof film-poemsthemselves continue to ask today.

Various writers, filmmakersand poetshave sought to dermethe 'film-poem'and make

meaningout of the term, basedon their observationsof the works the words have beenused to

define,and sometimesbased upon their own works. Perhapsthe earliestuse of the term was in

the 1950s,by American avant-gardefilmmakers like Maya Deren,and thosereferring to the

cinematicavant-garde. P. Adams Sitney, in a book consideredto be the 'exPloratorybenchmark'

of avant-gardefilm (Evans,2000,8) claims that 'the term film-poem came,was useful, and gone

119 2 by the late Fifties'(1979). The phraseemerged again, albeit in a different capacity,in the early

1980s,but referring to somethingmuch more specific. This sensewas not usedto describea

'hybrid'form of film (Lambirth, 2000,32) or anothermanipulated phrase to specify beyondthe words 'experimental'or 'avant-garde'(once thoseterms becametrite). This referredto a phenomenonthat was pioneeredby a small group of poetsand filmmakers who soughtto marry verseand film simultaneously,with relatively little previousscript material and/orlocation choices.They attemptedspontaneous creation of film and verse(within reason),calling the results'film/poems'orfilm-poems'. Thesefilms were predominantlydocumentary-like in nature and,at first, madefor television.

But this doesnot meanthat this definition was the correct definition of the term, or the most meaningftil.Today the term 'film poem'is againbeing actively usedto describeexperimental or avant-gardefilms, and not only thosefrom the 1950s.The term is being usedto describefilms producedsince the early days of cinema,from the early 1920s,through the transition from silent films to 'talkies',until the presentday. One writer claims that we should 'not get snaredin definitions' (Evans, 8). Yet, it seemsthat if we are going to use the term, there is an inherent problemlurking within its interpretation,and that problem needsto be conftonted.Considering the many different sensesof the term that exist now, this is to be expected.We shouldnot be

'snared'in seekingclarification but attemptto extricateourselves from the ensnaring complicationsthat may await us when in conversationabout this elusive form of cinema/poetry.

3.2 Tony Harrison and the Film-Poem

The film-poemsthat I will concentratemost thoroughly upon in this chapterdeal most specifically with the latter hyphenated interpretation of 'film-poem'. I will refer to it as the

120 liarrisonian' definition of the term, after the poet Tony Harrison,whom hascmbraced the medium and reinventedit over the last twenty yearswith the aid of a varied but consistently talentedhost of directors,producers and editors.Some of the inspirationsfor Harrisonand other contemporarypoets in an unofficial 'film-poem school'were my concernsfor study in Chapter

Two, The Evolution of the Film-Poem'.In the presentchapter, I will certainlYrefer to someof thesefirst efforts. I shouldmake it clear that this chapteris by no meansa bibliographical accountof every film-poem madeover the last twenty to thirty years,but it insteadintends to relatea distinguishablestory, one that recounts the most significant events in the historyof the developmentof the film-poem. I am attemptingto describethese events with regardto an unofficial 'apex' of this era: the crafting of the genre's first feature-length production: Prometheus

(1998).This is a temporaryhigh point of the genre'sdevelopment, but not its final submission.

The film-poemsthat beganto emergein the 1980s,clearly in many instancesinfluenced by someearly efforts, are primarily Harrison's. Growing out of Harrison's1980s work aresome of the more fully realisedfilm-poems of the Wordson Film series,produced by PeterSymes. The works of Tony Harrison, are so instmmentalin the developmentof the film-poem that it hasbeen my decisionto dedicatethe whole of ChapterFour to his work alone.

In the light of this distinction regardingthe use of the tenn, there is still a pressingquestion: that of the nature of a film-poem in the Haff isonian sense. Let us try to put it simply. These film- poemsseek to uselittle or no prosein their dialogueor voice-over; the text that accompaniesthe filmed imagesis entirely, or at leastprimarily, verse.However, the adaptationof a poem for a film is not what we are discussinghere, since many films exist that havevisually interpreted previouslypublished or existing poems?Harrison's film-poems are particularly original in terms of their conception.In many cases,the poet writes the poetryas thefilin is being shot. Likewise,

121 the filmmakersshoot the imagesas the poetry is being written. This makesfor much confusion,a heapof stock celluloid on the cutting-roomfloor, and many notebooks.Nonetheless, no other form of filmmaking mirrors poetic inspiration in its own production process,or selectsaspects of

editing or mise-en-scenein parallel with poetic composition.In itself problematicand frustrating

to successfullycomplete, film-poems attemptto join verseand film in a way that is both

spontaneousbut (eventually)carefully ordered.It is the initial effort that is the most exciting, and

I havehad the opportunity to ask certain film-poem artists about the stepsin their evolutionary

process.But beforewe discussthe specificsand intricaciesof the modernfilm-poem, we should

study the basics,and in that casewe shouldfirst look at someof the material that emergesafter

the 'first attempts'are studied,now considered'groundwork'.

The short film Manhatta (1921), in which Walt Whitman'sverse is brought togetherwith

shotsof the modemcity, is an exampleof someof this groundwork.Night Mail (1936) in which

W.H. Auden'sverse is usedto accompanythe rhythmic mail train'sjourney, and John Betjeman's

Metroland (1971)were alsopioneers, limited to rare one-off commissions'(Symes, 1992,2).

Thesefilms were distinctly influential, but admittedly scarce.Manhatta is a very primitive film,

simple in its structureand a landmarkwork. I discussedManhatta, Night Mail, and other

influential films in ChapterTwo, sincethey all contributeto the evolution of the modem film-

poem.Though thesefilms and otherslike them were innovative and completely new in their

time, they were technologicallylimited, small budgetedand thereforeskeletal. The films did not

abideby samesort of standardsadhered to by modem film-poems,but helpedin the settingof

thosestandards. They provided excellentbackground for Harrison'swork, which in turn

provided a framework for the film-poems of roughly the last ten years.

122 Among the innumerableand obscurefilms being madewith poetry throughoutthe world today,some more 'mainstream' film-poems have achieved fame among film andpoetry enthusiastsand students.In 1992,six films were commissionedfor BBC2, the Wordson Filin seriesof film-poems.In the Harrisonian,hyphenated sense of the term 'film-poem', these continueto be amongthe finest examples.Independent of Symes,but surely taking cuesfrom his innovationsin film andpoetry, other film-poems beganto spring up in the early 1990s,by many writers. Roy Fisher'sBirmingham's What I Think With (1991) and Blake Morrison's 'Little

Angels, Little Devils'(1994) for ChannelFour's Without Walls seriesare examplesof someof the spin-offs' inspiredby Harrison'swork. It is apparentthat othersunderstood Symcs'opinions.

In his commentaryon filmmaking with Tony Harrison, Symeswrites that there shouldbe:

doubt its draw in, then ...no of verse'sgreat advantageover prose: ability to people and tell them uncomfortablethings without having them turn away; its ability to be

subjective;its ability to transformand illuminate (1991,387).

Since these film-poems were made, many of the participating poets have continued making film- poems,some of the films haveaired a few times, and future projectsare often being planned,by a multitude of film companiesand poets.

This leadsus to a further point aboutthe Harrisonianideal of a film-poem. The subject matterof thesetypes of film-poemsis often a current issuein the news, in world culture, or of historical significance.Therefore most of thesefilm-poems have a documentaryflavour to them, and this is one of the essentialdifferences between them and 'avant-garde'films. In an article aboutMorrison's film-poem, critic JasperRees labels it a 'documentarypoem', a possible synonymfor the Harrisonianfilm-poems, with exceptions.Rees calls the documentarypoem a lends itself Hell's bells invented by genrewhich to the tolling of ... almost single-handedly the

123 dread-tonedTony Harrison' (1994,18).It is true that many film-poems are dark and depressing; perhapsthey are so becausemost of them are trying to convey a message,more of a specific messagethan an averagefilm, mainstreamor not. This quality is more reminiscentof the

eveningnews than of the latestHollywood blockbuster,since it seeksto open the public eye and provide a sharpopinion regardingeach controversial subject. From defencesof SalmanRushdie

to an editorial on the treatmentof children, film-poems are usually seriousin nature.However,

all of the films madeabout these issues, have one thing in common: they use poetry as a more

effective intermediation,replacing prose with a more artistic, yet equally compelling and

descriptive,medium.

Regardingan aspectof the developmentof a film-poem and a theoreticalexplanation of its

roots, a particular excerptof criticism is appropriate.In Narrative SourcesofAlien, Robbie

Robertsonattempts to comparethe difficult and complex tracing of the origins of a film with that

of unearthingthe sourcesfor a poem.He describeshow J. L. Lowe'sThe Road to 'Xanadu'

(1927) is a 'meticulousunpicking of the sourcesfor Kubla Khan and TheRime of theAncient

Mariner in to the forces the (1985, ... an attempt reveal which underlie processof poetic creation' 4 172). Robertsoncontinues to say that unravelling the origins of a film is an entirely different

matter. He writes:

Unlike eventhe most complexpoem, a film is the product not of one person's

experienceand writing, but of the multiple experiencesof a highly trained and talented

teamof professionalsand the final text, as final cut, is achievedonly by a variety of

complexindustrial processes (172).

In that case,the origins and roots of a film-poem must be manifold. The processesinvolved in

creatinga film-poem are thereforemore complex than for a 'normal' film! Ignoring genre-

124 specific requirementsfor a film like Alien (and the needfor designers,artists, and an entire special effectscrew), a film-poem involves two 'master-mindsat work (director and poet) and presupposesa needfor a closeworking relationshipbetween the two, as well as with the likes of an editor, producer,and cinematographer.Robertson anticipates the 'phenomenonof multiple authorshipand thus a whole chain of multiple influences'(172), but this may be the casewith any film. It is stressed,mostly by Symes,that a film-poem's effectivenessand ability to balance poetry and imagesdepend on the original rapport that developsbetween the poet and the director

(or producer/editor).Therefore, private and personalinfluences are to be consideredin the study of the conceptualorigins of a film-poem. Robertsonconcludes the discussionof this issuewith a problematicstatement: 'the multiple authorshipof the image operat[es]as a sourceof multiple

intertextualitiesin which authorshipis everywhereand nowhere'(172). In the caseof a film-

poem, I think the author'spresence is usually felt, especiallywhen the author him/herself

performsthe voiceover,or when the author'spoetry or filmmaker's direction is recognisablein its

style, feel, and/or sound.It would be difficult to defenda statementthat claims that the :film-

poem authoris indeed'nowhere.

3.3 Problems with Poetry: Inappropriate Images?

Not everyonethought that the film-poem, or in fact poetry on television at all, was an

interestingor promising concept.The film-poem is usually a denselyordered item of writing,

and the imagesshould attempt to be consistentthroughout the work. Sadly, this is one of the

most commoncriticisms of film and poetry'smarriage: images and versesare sometimesnot

appropriatelymatched throughout the production (Richards,1986,12). The film-poem should

connectimages and words without unevenmoments, and this requirescIose and patient crafting.

125 In an oft quotedarticle from 1986, Vhy are the imagesnever appropriateall the way through?'by BernardRichards, there is muchdisappointment expressed over how poetryhad beenpresented on television in Britain. At the beginning of the article, he lamentsthat:

the imagesaccompanying the text are invariably unsatisfactoryin varying degrees,

rangingfrom the misleadingand distractingon the one hand,to the innocuousbut

inanely unhelpful on the other. And this complaint has often beenvoiced. In my own

experienceof over 30 yearsof viewing I havenever hearda poem on television that has

had appropriateand compellingimages attached to it right the way through,though on

someoccasions a particular phrasein a poem hasbeen illustrated by an image that

struck me as right (1986,12).

However,Richards elaborates on his opinion later in the article and it is quite clear, from the

only (I)road) possibilitiesthat he lists for the placementof poetry on television,that his

scopeis curtailed and his foresightlimited. He claims that he can only seethree ways of

placing poetry on the screen,and that is either to have (a) the poet readthe poem on film, (b)

a 'vagueand bland, almostneutral image,which operatesas a sort of over-archingemblem',

or (c) to try, as filmmakers,to imitate what they interpret the poet imaginedhim/hersclf

(12). The idea of simultaneouswriting and filming doesnot seemto fit into thesecategories,

and in spite of the occasionalpresence of an 'emblem'in Harrison'swork (and others), it is

clear evento the experiencedviewer that film-poems were somethingnew and

unanticipated,at leastin 1986.

Richardsrefers to the act of viewing poetry on television as listening to poemson TV'

(12), and this is decidedlynot what film-poets are aiming towardsin their productions.It is

interestingto note which examplesof poetry on television Richardsindicates as those

126 inappropriatelyaccompanied by images,and how he setsabout identifying what is wrong.

He choosestwo films that are explicitly documentaries,which is in generalaccordance with

most film-poems,but they are only seriesdocumentaries about poets. One is aMonitor

productionabout Philip Larkin, and the other a film on GerardManley Hopkins, called To

Seemthe Stranger,from theEveryman television series.Both programmeswere madein

1986,and aired closeto the article's publication. Now, if theseprogrammes were filmed

entirely in verse,using the traditional practicesof film-poets, then perhapsRichards may

havefelt that the imageswere indeed'appropriate all the way through'.This, however,is

he that, 'very has it is the Richards'exactproblem, since states often ... one to unseewhat on

screenin order to try and make senseof the lines'(12). This is the antithesisof a film-poem's

purpose.In the Hopkins programme,he complainsthat while discussing'Pied Beauty', a

poem 'densein images',that it would be nigh impossibleto have met the standardfor

illustration that the poemnaturally demands:

In the recentprogramme, we did not seeon the screen'rose-moles all in stipple upon

trout that swim', we did not see'brinded cows'... and, more interestingly,we did not see

'fresh-firecoalchestnut falls'. And here there is a challengeto the film-maker, and the

possibility of helping a viewer who cannotsee anything for himself, or seesthe wrong

thing (12).

Although theseverses might be unconventionalin termsof their modifying adjectives,the nouns or objectsthemselves (the trout, cows, coal or chestnuts)are apparentlymissing from the images.

Richardshas a point in this case.But this is where the film-poem hasits strengths.Literal

interpretationas well as metaphoricalmatching are commonplacein film-poems, and the skill with which Harrison(who hasalso self-directedmuch of his later work) accomplishesthe

127 matchingis perhapswhat Richardshad beensearching for. Later in the article, he writes, 'there areknottier problems,especially when it comesto the illustration of metaphors:is one to give prominenceto tenor or vehicle?'(13). This is a good questionin any casewhen consideringthe natureof the match of film and poetry. I think that the film-poems of the 1990sachieve a balance of both 'tenor'and 'vehicle',,whereby one doesnot detectthat there is one vehicle carrying the other medium at any one time, but that the two are interdependent.Obviously, one needsto pay closeattention to the film-poem if it is going to function at the optimum level, but this is not an indication of one mediumbeing supportedby the other. In the film-poem, especiallyafter one adjuststo the mood and style of the production,I think one losesmost sensesof disjoint and 6 instead understandsthe copulation of the entire piece.

The next goal (and the next stepin satisfying critics like Richards)is to attemptthe same stylisedand literally appropriatematching of image and versein a poem that is adaptedfor the screen,meaning a poempreviously publishedindependent of any filmic relation. Filmmakers

shouldattempt this and avoid the mere 'talking head'or the fixed image,the drawing or the

photographedwork of art that is supposedto 'summarisethe poetic line. Harrison,by directing

someof his films, shouldbe an inspirationto other poetsto try their handsat direction, sincethat

is probablywhat the film dealingwith poetry would need:more imaginative yet literally accurate

and orderedcohabitation of shot andverse. Some minor attemptswere madeat this in the same

year, in fact, thoughthe resultswere not as well known or successful.

In late 1986,poet Alexis Lykiard Wrotean argumentto combatRichards' complaint7 He

discussesKevin Crooks'eight short films under the heading'Video Poetry'which were

commissionedthat sameyear by Television SouthWest and SouthWest Arts. The films were

meantto be a responseto Richards'comments, attempting a new kind of artistic co-operation.

128 Lykiard was one of the poetsinvolved with the project; his previously publishedpoem was selectedfor placementon the screen.This team of filmmakers and poetsadhered to someof the samekinds of criteria that film-poets now regularly practice. Obviously, the Richardsarticle causeda stir in the minds of somepoets and filmmakers. Lykiard himself writes:

As a poet, I'd rather agreedwith Richards,having myself deploredmost previous

attemptsat televisedpoetry. I recall exasperationor amusementwhen facedwith yet

more talking heads;ludicrously over-literal interpretations;'actorish' voices; self-

consciousartiness of all sorts;and perfunctory or pretentioussnippets tucked away in

non-peakslots (21).

Lykiard's film TheAttractionswas madein close collaborationwith the director of the series

(Crooks),as were the other sevenpieces. This is an essentialpoint, even if the poemswere not

written at the sametime as the filming was being done.Lykiard's poemwas written three years

before the piecewas filmed. Concernedwith the memory's 'selectivedistortion', the 'glamourof

power', andwith sex,violence and death,the poem containssome rather violent imagery itself,

and it was probablyselected for the seriesby the filmmakers for its sensationalvalue. Lykiard

statesthat he could 'seethe poemwith new eyes'after associationwith this project (22). More

importantly, the poet directly satisfiesone of Richards'concerns with accuracyand

appropriation,by claiming his own satisfactionwith the poem'soriginal subjectmatter:

fascination certainenduring taking on ...my at seeing preoccupationsof mine resurface, cinematicflesh, remainsgratifying indeed.... I felt, as did the director, that it shouldbe

perfectly possiblefor poetry to deliver a concentratedand hard-hitting messagein these

often loathsome,violent times (22).

129 At least Lykiard was awareof the pitfalls of poetry on television,and though he is strict in his criticismof pastproductions (see the passage above), his criticismsare genuinely valid, if they arenot intendedto prove Richardswrong. Ironically one of Richards'colleagues at Oxford, Peter

Levi, had beeninvolved in selectingand introducing someof the poemsfor the Television South

West / SouthWest Arts project. Lykiard seemsassured that he had aided in providing some

evidenceto the contrary of Richards'argument, but in his article he humbly statesthat 'whether

or not our particularmarriage of image-to-wordproves cffcctive is of coursefor the viewers to

decide'(22). They were fine attempts,but now it was time to move on to somethingmore

substantial,especially in termsof running time and a senseof 'completeness.A few yearslater,

PeterSymes'name returned to the world of film and poetry.

3.4 Wordson Film

The seriesof six film-poemsfor BBC2 picked up where someof the filmmakers'past

experienceswith Harrisonleft off. Symes,the seriesproducer, writes of the seriesas follows:

Wordson Film was designedspecifically to show that what had beenlearnt on series

like Loving Memory could be developedand expanded[81. The previousfilms had

allowedmyself and Tony Harrison to experimentand learn while we built up a

successfulworking rapport(1992,3).

In this series,Symes worked closely with all six of the poets,and the accompanyingbooklet,

which containsall of the poetry includedin the finished versionsof eachfilm-poem, also

containssome descriptions of what eachpoet was trying to accomplishor express,in the form of

a short prefaceto eachpoem. Symes himself introducesthe booklet with somereflection on the

130 experience.This introductioncontinues to be one of the best articulationsof the processof making a film-poem. Only personalinterviews with the participantsare more illuminating.

In the initial stagesof the proposedproject, therewas much opposition from within the BBC aboutthe series,in fact 'aboutthe idea of poetry on television at all' (Whitworth, 93,40). The

BBC representativeswere confusedabout the motives of the project: 'Did you look at the picturesor listen to the words?It hasbeen tried before and it doesn'twork'. They evenclaimed

that 'poetswere prats and difficult to work with'. (Whitworth, 40). Thesecriticisms were

reminiscentof the famousscepticism met with the introduction of soundin cinemain the late

1920s,where critics believedless in the 'synchronisationof senses'(Eisenstein, in Bordwell and

Thompson,1997,316) and more in the possibility of uncomfortablesensory overload.

But Symeswas able to overturnthese opinions aboutWords on Film by citing the reasons

why it had beentried before and didn't work, at least in termsof Auden andNight MaiL9 He said

that Auden'scareer as a film-maker was indeedbrief since he was required 'to provide versefor

existing film material,rather in the mannerof a composerwriting music' and that 'Auden failed

to mention the necessityof writer and film teambeing able to work closely together'(1991,385).

Symesrepeatedly stressed the importanceof the 'poet'sown creativity' being allowed to 'inform

the filmmaking', sinceotherwise one might just as well use prose.In a mannerof speaking,the

viewing was meantto be similar to the making of the film, in that one did not only listen to the film-poem is words or look at the pictures.Viewing a not only an auditory and visual experience,

but the aim is to wholly engageboth sensesby making the qualities of the production parallel be for films, with eachother. Though this might the case many the presenceof poetry is the film-poems films, extraordinarydifference between and other with its rangeof connotations, limitations rhythms and uniqueforms that eclipsethe of most prose.The poem itself might have

131 worked on paperalone, and the film may havebeen an interestingpanorama without its poetic backdrop,but the two were madeto be together.Symes said he was lucky to chooseHarrison as the poet in his first projects,since he was more than willing to work with the film crew to make surethe film was crafted in accordancewith his vision. His film-poems, including 'Loving

Memory' and The Blasphemers'Banquet', were highly successfuland the television authorities were convinced.Thus the BBC gave Symespermission to proceedwith his proposalfor Words on Film and the project was soonunder way.

The six poetswere Damian Gorman,Jackie Kay, Adrian Mitchell, Simon Armitage, Fred

D'Aguiar, and Douglas Dunn. Due to space confinements, I cannot discuss every one of these

best film- poets'films but will choose two of the as models. I would like to look at Armitage's

influence interpretation poem first, since it is probably the greatest upon the modern-day of the date, genre. His longer film-poem 'Killing Time'(2000), the most recent film-poem to uses many

of the tools pioneered in 'Xanadu'as well.

3.4.1 'Xanadu'andRegional Accents

Armitage's Xanadu'was arguablyone of the best of the six films in the series.'Xanadu'

concernssome of Armitage'spast experiencesas a probation officer and his dealingswith a

notorioushousing development, the Ashfield Valley Estatein Rochdale.Thirty minutesin length

(as are all of the series'films), it is an introspectiveand interpersonalstory aboutsome of the

Estate'stenants and the type of environmentthat they live in. Presentedin a 'deadpan',ironic

in describing style (Feay, 1992,157), Armitage takesa witty stance the precariousEstate's is situation.What is particularly interestingabout Armitage's verse his individual opinion on the

132 Estate'scondition, sinceit usedto be one of his first responsibilitiesin his time as a probation officer. A passagein the accompanyingbooklet to the seriesexplains further:

On returningto the Valley for Wordson Film he finds the clich6s of vandalism,crime

andpoverty that havebuilt up over the yearsin associationwith the estateto be no

longer relevant(Symes, 1992,39).

This film-poem exploresthe imageand reputationof the characteristicallydilapidated housing

estate,and how one shouldmore closely inspectsuch places before immediately disdaining

them.

The most memorablepart of this film-poem is a certain dramatisationwithin it. The Ashfield

Valley Estate'stwenty-six streetsor blocks of flats have namesthat all begin with a different

letter of the alphabet,from A to Z. Symesdescribed Armitage's realisationof this fact as 'a

classicmoment' (interview, 1997).Armitage fictitious city council membersre-enact the

selectionof the namesof theseblocks, and all of the charactersspeak in coupletswhile they

deducethat the twenty-six blocks correspondto the numberof letters in the alphabet.They have

a problem selectinga namebeginning with X, and 'Xanadulis glossedover once significance

with Coleridgeis mentioned,in favour of 'Exford'. Examplesof the coupletsare as follows: ND 2 MAN

This isn't as easyas some o't'others,

there'stwenty-six of theserotten buggers.

RD 3 NIAN

26? Eh, flippin 'eck.

That's sameas lettersin alphabet.

133 Passme that A to Z and a pin,

I'll run throughsections and stick it in,

And whereverit lands,whatever it falls on,

ThatIl be the name,that's what well call 'em.

In the samemanner as Harrison's'miner dialogue'in Prometheus,Armitage's characters speak O colloquially, but areeasily likeable in their rhythmic speechand rhyme! The sourceof the film- poem'sname is found a few lines after thoseabove, while consideringthe problematicletter WI:

ist Nffl

Eh, Eureka!this will do,

It's poetry or something:Xanadu,

an idyllic estateor place' (and I'm quoting)

from Kubla Khan by ST Coleridge.

ND 2 MAN

That's not a poem, that's a song

By Olivia Bloody-Newton-John(44).

Armitage'scouplets keep the atmospherelight and even cheery,but we know that underneaththe

flippant attitudeof thesespeakers is a hint of foreboding negligenceto come.Ashfield Valley is

to fall into great disrepair,and it is the overall carelessnessof the speakerswhich foreshadows

this gradualevent. The namesof the housingblocks are given at randomand without thought,

and Armitage'sfilm-poem suggeststhat the peopleliving in the estateare treatedthoughtlessly

as well. There is much visual supportfor this statement.Armitage's poetry takesus back to the

134 time when the blocks were named,innineteen-sixty something-or-other'(43),which already expressesa degreeof vagueness.

As the segmentis introducedwe seea council chamber,while a table is polishedand papers are neatly piled. We hearvoices and generalcommotion, doors close slowly and drinking water " is set on the table. The cutsbetween shots are abrupt and quick, as are the movementsof any figures within the frame.This createsa businesslikeatmosphere, which is probably what is first desired.Once the doorsclose on the outsideworld, a handpicks up a gavel and order is called. it is interestingto note that the shot of the doorsclosing is at an angle,with the cameracocked about forty-five degreesto the left. This gives the viewer a strongergrasp of the hodgepodge way in which thesecouncil flats were developed.Akin to the hand seengrasping and banging the gavel, thereis minimal physical presenceonscreen until Armitage himself appearsat the table at the scene'send, mouthing the words spokenby the first man. Plasteror ceramicbusts, seemingly seatedaround or abovethe table representthe three council members.When one man is meantto be speaking(in verse)at the start of the discussion,there is a close-upof the bust'sface. But the close-upsare only usedto establishthis technique,since soon the camerabegins a smooth panningof the chamberand its surroundings:the table, coatsof arms of pastcouncilmen, the outsideof the council building or town hall. A key shot in the midst of the discussionoccurs at the sametime as the lines quotedabove are 'spoken'.As 'Eh, Eureka' is said, a medium close-up of one of the drinking glassesis shown.Too much water is then steadily poured into the glass, is and the excessspills onto the table.The camera panningwhile the shotsare filmed. On the word Xanadu', cut to a shot of a stonearch, one of the doorwayson the outsideof the building, looks if camerastill panningat the samespeed. The arch as it is from a castle-likestructure, or from an 'idyllic estate.Then the cameracuts to the inside of the council building again,onto a

135 mediumclose-up of a man'shand, as the secondman states,That's not a pocm'. Still panningat thesame speed, the camera photographs a man's hand tapping hisfingers impatiently in front of a sign on the table that readsTlease Use Table Mats'in cursive lettering. This shot is in direct correlationto the shotof the spilled water two shotsbeforehand. Clearly the poetic lines express a displeasurewith the choiceof Xanadu'and an ignoranceon the part of the councilman,who is unawareof the poetic or historical significanceof the word, and only awareof its statusas a pop song.The sloppinessand generallyunprofessional habits of the councilmenare rcflccted in this scene.The dialogueis alsowritten colloquially, in a Northern Yorkshire accent,which unashamedlyadds to the scene'sair of laziness.Those viewers familiar with the Rochdaleestate shouldbe outragedas this scenefollows othersthat exposethe Estate'sdereliction, showing the

'idyllic' housingdevelopment's abhorrent state. Through the fusion of poetry and image the councilmenare caricaturedas oblivious to the troublesthat they may causethrough their casual

attitude.The first council member,clearly the Head,even expresseshis desirefor quick and easy

solutionswith the lines, 'Greatidea lad, right up my street,/ I'm a great believer in keepingthings

neat'(43). At the end of the scenein the council room, while the cameracontinues to pan, they

selectTxford'to representthe letter Win the housingestate, over 'Xanadu. It is base

thoughtlessnessand stupidity that Armitage exaggeratesin this scene,illustrating a disregardfor 'Xanadu' becomes attentionto detail or circumstance. therefore an ironic title for the entire piece, Khan meaningboth the majesticpalace of Kubla and the unusedname for the housingblock.

The 'paradise'thatis referredto in Coleridge'spoem is of coursemetamorphosed into a parody

but beyond when shotsof the Estateare exhibited, that the fact remainsthat the nameis never The is evenused in its alphabeticalarrangement. name glossedover as 'poetry or something'and

as the segmentdraws to a closewith the camerapanning circularly aroundthe messytable,

136 Armitage himself slouchesin his seat,mouthing the words spokenby the first mythical 12 councilman,'Movin'on then.Any other business?'(44). His disdain is palpable.

Somecritics disliked the tone of the film, referring to its 'persistentwhine' (Last, 1992,28), and indicating the sequencedescribed above as the only valuablematerial. Though the forty- minute film-poem doescomplain about the Estate'spredicament, from its conceptionto its destruction, its stoic remaining inhabitants are the primary focal points of the work. In fact they are given a noble stance. The idiosyncrasies of these people are not condemncd whatsoever, ratherthey are celebratedas interestingand provocative.They are treatedthe sameway that a television documentaryabout war veteransmight treat its participants,those whom had overcomea particular adversity.This film-poem is also a documentaryin disguise,and its points shouldbe takenas seriouslyas a productionwhose commentary was not almost cntirely in vcrsc.

This is the sort of practicefor which most viewers and many critics are not trained.

In Luke Spencer'sbook ThePoetry of TonyHarrison (1994) there is a study of Harrison's film-poemsand their impact upon thosewho have seenthem (114-136).One of Spencer's commentstowards the end of this chapteris aboutwhom elsehas experimented with the process of film-poem-making.Regarding Armitage, Spencerwrites:

It is encouragingto seethat at leastone youngerpoet has takenup the challengeof

in [Wanadul is bruising indictment working this way. ... a evocationand of conditions

on a Rochdalecouncil estate.Original and versatile as this piece certainly is, it would

havebeen less likely to be commissioned,written, produced,broadcast or

Harrison'stelevision incitement (134). published... without work as an and example

137 Spencerdoes not commenton anyof theother poets who workedon theWords on Filin series, or on the presenceof PeterSymes, but he recognisesthe impact Harrison had on the poetic community.

3.4.2 Twice Through the Heart'

'Xanadu'wasonly one of six film-poems in Wordson Film, eachof which contain a similar messageat their heart.The film-poemsoften choose,as their subject,something complicated and controversial that might be difficult to cover in the news over a long period. Some subjects that may be classedas local problemsor minor issuesare well coveredby film-poems. One of the other works in the seriesthat adoptsa notableapproach in its defenseor explanationof such an issueis JackieKay's Twice Through the Heart' It is a heartfelt explorationof one of the most disputedBritish murdercases in the early 1990s,concerned with Amelia Rossiter'sconviction of the murder of her abusivehusband. Kay is the only femalepoet included in this series,and her film-poem containsshocking yet peacefulpoetry, but it surprisingly containsmuch proseas well.

There are interviews, news reports and opinions, all in prose or normal speech, injected into this film-poem, and repetitionis usedto an effective extent as well. Kay's opinions abouther own contributionsto this work describethe writing processvery well, stating:

I was always trying to think in visual pictures,to think of writing somethingthat would

not copy the picturebut add to it or contradictit or work with it in somedynamic way

(personalcontact, 2001).

This commentsuggests that the visuals existedbefore the poetry, but this was not the case.Kay describesthe processof writing the verseas a symbiotic one, 'a real mixture' (personalcontact,

138 2001).This film poemis saturatedwith unconventionaldevices on all levels, yet, critically speaking,it is the film-poem that hascommanded the least attentionin the series.

On a dark and chilling subject,the film-poem hasa threateningand eerie feel to it ftom its outset.The first sequenceof the film, called No Way Out', beginswith a poetic summaryof the eventson the night of the murder; a kind of itinerary of the possiblethoughts of Rossiter, thoughtsthat could haveaccumulated over yearsof abuse.The date appearsat the bottom of the screenin the first shot,of a tabletop:(23d July 1987).The sceneis lit in a blue tint, evoking a dreamyatmosphere. Cut to a close-upof a tap with running water. Cut to a shot of bubblesin the washbasinthat the water splashesinto, followed by a close-upof somekitchen utensilson the tabletop:a rolling pin, a towel. Shadowslengthen on the rolling pin. The camerathen begins to move, slowly panningup the dark blue-greyunderside of the kitchen sink, followed by a pan of a kitchen shelf ladenwith teacups.In the midst of this pan, Kay's voiceoverbegins with, 'You tie the kitchen towel into a garrotte/ There'sno way out, no way out'. After lingering for a moment on a barometer,also upon the shelf, the cameracuts to a medium close-upof a twisted tea towcI, 12 the 'garrotte',upon which the cameraquickly zoomsin, an extremeclose-up. In this forty- includes secondintroduction to the film-poem, which both the wordlessopening shots and the first six-line stanza,the cameraremains fairly easyto follow: entirely static or moving slowly.

The secondstanza begins immediately after the suddenclose-up of the tea towel, with a swirling camera,suddenly out of control. The ominoustone of the first stanzais replacedimmediately as well, with an increasein volume and a note of panic in the reader'svoice.

There arenumerous devices at work in this first sequence,both in the poetry and the

first instances cinematography.For example,the of repetition are usedin the openinglines of this sequence:the line, There'sno way out, no way out' alternateswith other lines of tense

139 poetry over the first threestanzas, appearing nine times. This is similar to the use of repetition at the beginningof Armitage's'Xanadu', in that there is a line presentwhich intendsto pervadethe meaningof the piece,or disturb the viewer with its imagery.Armitage's verses alternately rhyme outsideof the repeatedline but the smell of the cabbage',creating a rhyme schemeof

'ababcbcbddb'andso on, where the Vis 'cabbage'.In contrastto Armitage's very ordered sequence,Kay's rhyme schemein the openingstanzas is erratic, asidefrom the line 'there'sno way out, no way out'appearingevery other line. There are randomhalf rhymes in the first stanza, and full rhymesor no rhymesaltogether in the secondand third stanza,creating a schemethat looks pattern-lessover the threestanzas. Structurally, the openingsequence is not at all predictable.The first stanzahas six lines, while the secondand third have seveneach. Another repetition also occursin the seventhline in eachof the secondand third stanzas.Ultimately, the third stanzaculminates with the two repeatedlines appearingone after another.The irregularity

of thesestanzas adds to the frantic, panicky mood of the piece, provoking emotionsthat someone lines embroiledin a dangeroussituation might feel. The are also fraught with tensionsince we

are listening to a scenarioin which we know a murder takesplace. As the husband('He' in the in poem) approachesthe speakingcharacter theseopening lines, variations of 'he walks towards in met are also repeated.Like the actionsequences a suspensefulfilm, the momentof the worst

tensionis sloweddown in verse.Visually, the scenesare withheld from us. This makesfor a very

disturbing sequenceindeed.

The only soundwe hearbefore the voiceoveris the soundof water running out of a tap.

This soundcontinues throughout the entire scene,making the tone of the film all the more it is difficult unstableand sickening.It is worth pointing out that to rememberif the sceneis only

furnishedwith the soundof the water and the poetry, since the sceneis reminiscentof one that

140 wouldnormally include eerie or impressivebackground music of somesort. It is the musicality of the poetry and of Kay's voice that relinquishesthe needfor any suchmusic. The soundof the running water only ceaseswith the final line of the three stanzascene, which is accompaniedby threeshots of the outsidewall of a small house,one from the left, one from the right, and then centrally focussed.Shot from the ground and with a wide-anglelens, the wall is madeto look imposing,dominating the screen.The last shot of the sequence,with the housein the ccntre of the frame, is unaccompaniedby any sound,a static shot that expressesthat the placewe arc looking at is the place in which the horrible eventoccurred. Its imposition on the viewer and the screenmakes the crime as well as the issueitself seemoverwhelming. In this way, simple shots in a film-poem that are unaccompaniedby verse,but which follow a particularly moving stanza, can be just as effective without any voiceover,special effect or sound.We leavethis opening

scenewith a firm senseof the subjectof the piece, and all of this happensbefore we seethe

openingcredits of the programme.

However, as the film-poem progresses,there is a departurefrom pure poetry, which is not

usually the case in the other film-poems of the series. There are descriptions of the details of the

crime placedinto verse,but it soundslike proseand it is arguableas to whether or not the verses

are really poetry. For example,the first ýpoetic'sequence after the openingcredits is this stanza:

Ethel Amelia Rossiterwas 63 yearsold

When shewas attackedby her husband

On the 23d of July 1987.

During a fight he hit her and attemptedstrangulation.

Shestabbed him twice.

On the 23d of July 1987

141 Leslie Rossiter,her secondhusband

Died in their house,number 3, the Saltings.14

This excerptlooks and soundsmore like a straightforwardnewscast than poetry. However as the film-poem develops,we can guessthat this insertion of prosaictext hasa hiddenpurpose: it is to preparethe viewer for a numberof other non-poeticinterruptions. Quotations from certain individuals associatedwith the caseare scatteredthroughout the piece, sometimesin interview form. In one case,some neighbours stand in front of the cameraon their porch stepsand explain how Mr. Rossiterwas a private man. In another,a solicitor sits againsta black backdrop, television-interview-style,and discussesthe Rossiters'situation. There are a numberof such examplesof a departurefrom poetry as the solitary meansof expression,as there occasionally are in Wanadu%Fred DAguiar's 'SweetThames' and other film-poems. This makesthe film- poem more genericallydiverse, but also introducesodd impedimentsto the work's flow and

effectiveness.Without the consistencyof the presenceof verse,it is not clear what Kay was trying to accomplish.In other examples,the inset of proseseems to be surroundedby poetry; in

Twice Through the Heartthe poetry seemsmore of a colourful addition. Perhapsthis film- poem, as opposedto othersthat havebeen made, is closestto the mainstreamdocumentary. If so,

then the poetry servesas an interestingtool, but it then takeson a few new tendencies.With the

normal speechof many individuals alongsideit, the spokenpoetry in Kay's piece can sound

insistent at times, and often the repetitionthat Kay employs as a poetic device comesacross as

intimidating and redundant.As opposedto the ways in which Tony Harrison haswoven spoken

dialogueinto his verse,Kay's use of multiple segmentsof dialoguethat interrupt the poetry is not difficult as effective and makefor inconsistentand viewing. On the other hand, Kay's subjectis

perhapsone of the most controversialof the seriesand there are careful facts that must be

142 acknowledgedwhen consideringa murder case.Kay herselfcomments on the use of repetition in film-poems in an emailedresponse to my questionsabout her work:

I was thinking that peoplecannot read my words, so they have to be simple. They will

hearthem once.I was very awarethat the medium was television so that dictatcd the

I for film. If style of the poetry... think using repetition works very well the people

didn't catchit the first time, they can catchit the secondII think it works to increasethe

tensionand the rhythm of the whole piece and to say somethingabout violencc itself,

how relentlessand repetitive it is.

Kay's answersalso link the usageof the poetic devicesin the specific verseto the overall themes of the film, in that shecompares repetition to prison life, which is also 'full of repetitions,the same routine repeated again and again' (personal contact, 2001).

In Time Out critic Suzi Feay's review of the series, a few words are dedicated to Kay's work:

Kay's mournful Scots tones barely rise above the hissing of the waves as she

mooches about the seasidetown where the Rossiters lived. The poetic element lifts the

programmeabove an ordinary documentary,enabling a more discursiveexamination of

the issues,but you're left with very little senseof Kay's poetic identity (1992,157).

Perhaps the reason why an 'ordinary documentary' is mentioned at all in Feay's review is because there is a lack of poetic fluidity. Yet thereare other elementswithin Kay's work that demonstrate distinct differencesfrom conventionaldocumentary form. In a further similar vein to Armitage's

Wanadu',the idea of a humanpresence, without the use of an actor or character,is utilised. As

Armitage usedbusts of humanheads and empty chairs to expresshis councilmen,Kay uses horse clothes racksto representthe jury and a clothes with a blue woman'soutrit wrappedaround

it to representAmelia. For the judge's role, sheuses another clothes horse with a robe and a wig

143 placedon top. Thesewere Kay's favourite imagesin the piece,calling theseadaptations the best thing of all'(personal contact,2001). As we get accustomedto thesesights, one easily imagines that there are peopleplaying theseparts, though we only hear their voices. With the use of these specific set piecesand timely cameramovement, the coat racks and clothes-horsescome to life.

This brings us to anotherimportant aspectof the film-poem: what kinds of cameratechniques arc usedwithin them to matchthe merging of verseand image?

In Kay's film, we seeone of the most commoncamera movements that are presentin film- poems.Sometimes, as discussedabove, an inanimateobject is transformedinto a characterthat

Ispeaks'andrequires some way of making communicationobvious to viewers. That object, especiallyin this example,can also reflect upon the themeof the film-poem as well, since Kay herself thought that thejury, representedon suits on hangars,'Visually said so much about how powerlessAmelia would havefelt facing that facelessjury'(personal contact,2001). Ratherthan

use any kind of specialeffect, film-poems allow the poetry to featurecentrally and all other aspectsof the film revolve aroundit. Therefore,when one of theseinanimate objects is meantto indicate its speakpoetically, certaincamera work shouldbe employedto clearly voice or focussing maximise its effect. A slow tracking pan,usually on a stationaryobject, is a tool often is This kind usedin documentaries;in film-poemsthe same true. of tracking shot is usedin Kay's by work to enhancethe illusion of speech the clothesracks. The slow, steadymovement makes The us concentrateharder on the audibleverses. movementalso often appearsto be circular, film-poem, moving arounda fixed centralpoint. In this the camerarevolves around the clothe-

horsethat representsAmelia, while in Armitage'sfilm-poem there is circular movementaround

the council table.A popular cinematographiceffect is also the tendencyto cut from the circular

tracking shot to a close-up,either to somesmaller aspect of an object in the room, or to another

144 figure. To clarify this idea,I will describethe sequenceof shotsthat are usedduring the mock rendition of Amelia's trial, the scenewith the coat racks in 'court'.

The representationof Amelia, while sheis being circularly pannedby the camera,'says' the versesthat are called Vhat Amelia Thinks - part 2'. That shot is interruptedby a brief prosaic interlude, during which we find out that there is evidenceof sexualabuse by her husbandover many years.Cutting back to the courtroomscene, we emergewith the camerafocussed on a close-upof buttonson Amelia's blousewhile she saysthe words, 'Inside I say don't please/ Grit my teeth.Bite the pillow'. The camerathen tracks up Amelia's blouseup to her neck, and the sceneends with anothercut, this one back to her buttons,a symbolic extremeclose-up.

Regardlessof or evenwith the inserteddialogue, this sequenceis very typical within a film- poem. Establishingshots or slow pansoften provide a cinematicsense of location and surrounding.Then the useof cuts is employed,jumping from one shot to the next rapidly. In other words, details are examined closely after we get an introduction to some larger issue. Film- poems tend to expose, and to relish the process of exposure. With that enjoyment, with that carefully planned out system of attack, comes some close attention to almost every element that

frame. makes up a shot, frame or object within the In a film-poem the mise-en-scene swells with significance; there is often no stone left upturned and no detail left occupying space without is some inspection. That is why the film-poem pervasive, both on paper and in cinematic form.

When the two are combined a densework is certainly created.

Twice Through the Heart'may attempt to cover too many aspects of the murder case in its

it is rather short running time. Though a reflection of a court case that was fraught with many justice sources of conflict, ranging from sexism and age to and conspiracy, it itself may have been more effective if it simply focussed on one part of the case. The study might have benefited

145 from a singularanalysis of the trial, or of Rossiter'simprisonment and its effects on her family. It is also very bleak, offering no hopefor Rossiter,and it endsabruptly. It is only after the credits that we learn that one of Rossiter'sappeals was met with a positive response,and that shewas releasedin 1992.

Feay'sreview of the seriesstates that it was 'odd that this project hadn'tbeen attcmptcd before: if poetry is aboutimagery, television is about images'(1992,157)!5 Sheclearly did not think the imageschosen were impressive,stating that the visuals were 'unimaginative'and the photography'drab'(157). Yet, one of the recurring problemswith critics who review film-pocms is the inability to considerthat the visuals are not meantto standon their own, and neither should the poetry be readwithout its visual counterpart.If the visuals are describedas 'boring', perhaps the poetry is not properly synchronised,or worse,misunderstood. Feay's article concludes, it 'tends fears regardingDouglas Dunn's 'Dressedto Kill', that to confirm one'sworst about is is poetry'(157). Perhapswhat is really happening that poetry confronting someof our worst fears.The materialis gritty, the subjectsoften controversial.Some of the visuals are indeed basic; sometimesthe poetry is complex,so a basic imagewould be neededso as not to overwhelmthe viewer with interpretation.Yet, Feay doesmaintain somevalid points: the visual contentcould havedefinitely beenmore creative,more imaginative in someof the works. These were still early stageshowever, and experimentationcombined with a little hesitationon the part her of the filmmakerscould be forgiven. In this way, Feay seemsto answer own questions:this before becauseit is difficult Poetry project had not beenoften tackled a task to master. and television,if they are to work together,need to be finely tuned in to one another,made to match.

No matter how much Twice Through the Heart'skips through somecomplex issues,it is film-poem still a powerful piece.It also includesone aspectof the that has not been commented

146 upon at lengthas of yet in this study,and that is the ideaof the 'commonthread' or the useof one objectas a 'guide'withinthe film-poem. Producers of this kind of materialoften employ an objectto serveas a kind of narratorfor theviewer, a familiar imageto observethat holdsthe film togetherand makes it easierto comprehend.In Kay'swork, theclothes rack rather simply serves this purposefor a portionof thefilm-poem. In Harrison'swork we seeguide after guide, and the later thework, themore eclectic the choice for theguide. But beforesome of the more substantiallybudgeted projects Harrison produced, there was the presence of lessobvious guides in film-poems.Graduating from the Wordson Film seriesfor themoment, I would like to studya little knownfilm-poem from thesame period.

3.5 Roy Fisher and his Brummy Doors

Poet Roy Fisher's Birmingham Is WhatI Think With was also released in 1991. There was

film. To date, Fisher's film- no separate transcript made privately available to accompany this

in festivals has been is poem has been primarily shown and not aired on television, which an injustice since it is a fine film, well crafted and beautifully photographed. In Fisher's collection

Birmingham River (1994), there is much of the poetry used in the film, under the heading 'Six

Texts for a Film', but the film does not follow the poetry word for word, nor vice versa, or in any

borrowsfrom his including specific order. The film also someof previously publishedmaterial,

the poem 'Furnace'.In spite of this borrowing, the film hasmost of the qualities of a film-poem Straightfrom its it intrigues by its it and standsas quite a maverickwork. outset, the viewer; end, interesting film-poems cementsitself as one of the more entertainingand of the availabletoday.

Fisher and director (andpoet) Tom Pickard simply desiredan original forum for their ideas,and

their collaborationon this film was 'a natural one' (Fisher, 1997,5). Pickard'sother documentary

147 films have often dealt with the working-classcities in the Northeastof England and the peopleof thosecities. A nativeSrummy', Fisher has claimed that he hasbeen familiar with Pickard's poetry and film sincethe 1960s,and that they have always worked upon 'similar themes'(5).

The title of the film is takenfrom the first line of the poem that was later publishedas

Talking to Cameras'in Fisher's1994 collection. Talking to Cameras'is a seriesof poemsthat

Fisher wrote abouthis birthplace,and at first glancethey appearnostalgic. However, Fisher

ultimately describesBirmingham 'in termsof provisional metaphors'(Hooker, 29,1996) and he becomesa poet associatedwith landscapes,with the desireto know what lies within them.

Fisher'sfilm minglesurban scenesand shotsof broken-downfactories with scenesof greenery

and running water. Yet, everything,whether natural or synthetic,is spokenabout as if it were a

feat of engineering,whether in verseor straightprose. This is a portrait of not only Birmingham

itself, but of its people,its mindset,its future or what is hopedfor, and about Fisher, his poetry,

and his stylesof thinking that were shapedfrom his surroundings.

Fisher is introducedat the beginningof the film-poem as a 'poet and pianist', as he standson

the streetnext to a blue andwhite door, which he is holding upright. His reputationas a creative,

literate personis set againsta working classcareer, what he describesas the typical outcomefor

the averageBrummy. Fisherspends the duration of the film-poem in exploration mode:

searchingfor various aspectsof the city that haveinfluenced his personality,and taking stock of for what he has seenaround him. This search meaningin the small universeof his childhood

leadsFisher to the doorsof his old homein Handsworth,and it is the actual door to his original

birthplace.Fisher 'borrows'the door in the film-poem version of his soul-searchingpoetry.

148 This door beginsto appearas an endearingreminder of the simplicity of Fisher'ssearch: it is omnipresent,and whimsical in its appearancesthroughout the film. Thedoor travels through the city as if it were Fisherhimself. He writes of the interestingchoice of prop:

Appearingon camerawas lesswelcome; but I managedto persuadethe batteredftont

door of my birthplaceto come out of retirementand standin for me in many of the

shots(1997,5).

In this way, perhapsunwittingly, Fisher madeuse of a film-poem device that has sincebecome somewhatof a standardissue in their making: the 'guide'. Like a reliable companion,Fisher's housedoor travelswith him in a searchthrough someof Birmingham'soldest historical locations,both universallynotable and personally significant to Fisher himself. The door travels through canals,playgrounds, urban districts and other settings,to give the viewer an idea of the

foundationshis city was built upon. The door, with Fisher himself, becomesthis 'guide', or a

kind of leaderto help us work our way throughwhat is by naturea complex piece. In film.

poems,the prop that becomesour visual 'guide' is often an important tool or factor in being able

to fully understandthe levels of the work. We will seethe use of such guides in many film-

poems,especially in Harrison'swork, suchas The Shadowof Hiroshima'(1995) and The Gaze

of the Gorgon'(1992).

For a greatpart of Fisher'sfilm, the door is travelling while poetic lines are being recited on

the soundtrack,carried on the back of anotheractor that we are meantto imagine is the poet. As

Fisherwinds his way throughthe city, the door grows increasinglysignificant, and the poetry

becomesincreasingly synonymous with Birmingham and the significanceof the areaswe travel in interview-style within. Fisher spendsmuch time speaking to the camera,giving his views on

creativity, music (he plays the piano in a jazz quintet) and his origins. Theseprosaic interludes

149 arethen made more intricate by thepoetry that follows them.Fisher's film-poem is muchmore fluid thanmost of thematerial in the Wordson Film seriesbecause his proseis alsopoctic. For example,when Fisheris describinghis childhood neighbourhoodof Handsworth,he describesa forge area,near to the streetwhere he lived as a child. Of course,his parentsalways warned him about going near this area, and Fisher says it was like:

living with your feet danglingover somethingthat would bum them off if you left

them dangling over it too long.

Though the 'somethingwas a forge and the analogyhas quite literal connotations,the poctic qualities of Fisher'scomments bind the film-poem more strongly together,linking proseand poetry through images.

Another interestingaspect of Fisher'sfilm-poem is that all of the instanceswhere he speaks

in proseon cameraare shot in colour, whetherin 'interview format'or not. However, if he speaks

poetry to the camera,he is always shot in black and white, and more brightly lit from the

foreground,surrounded by a black background.It is almost as if he is in a spotlight and is

performing the poetry to an audience,but as soon as we get comfortablewith this picture, the have scenecuts to anothercolour scene,which will somethingto do with the forthcoming lines.

When the screenreverts to black andwhite, it is highly noticeable,drawing more attentionto the

presenceof poetry. Speakingof colours,the black and white film is also more similar to the

image of a printed text, which is logically significant, but also ironic when one discoversthat the film-poem majority of poetry Fisheruses in this had not beenpublished in any book at the time.

When the poetry usedin this film had finally been includedin a publishedcollection, it was

Hooker in his very well receivedcritically. Jeremy notes review of the poetry:

iso Thereis, I think,no urbanpoetry like this in English,not evenin Williams'New Jersey NewYork It is help Fisherhas or CharlesReznikoffs ... with the of a myth, then,that overcome'the demon of fixity andsolidity', the myth thatNature, the sourceof creation, is behind imagination True his Romanticheritage, idea alsothe power the ... to the takes Fisherback to his childhoodand the sourceof themagical view of life (1996,29).

What betterway to illustratethat influence of backgroundupon imagination than to isolateone tangible object from your past andphysically carry it aroundwith you? Fisher not only allows it to becomea part of what is quite a surrealrealisation but also placesthe door in positions it is not normally associatedwith, creatingslightly surrealimages in the process.In the film-poem, we seethe door inside the local civic centre,bouncing through fields, underneathmotorway overpassesand amongthe canalsof Birmingham.Every scenewhere the door appearsis another inkling toward Fisher'spersonal search for identity and it helpsto slowly dispensewith disillusionmentabout his past.This phenomenonis bestillustrated in two simple but pertinent scenes;one with archivefootage of children playing in the streetsof the city, while the other door, consistssolely of one shot: Fisherwalking, with his down an urban street.

The first sceneoccurs only aboutten minutesinto the film and by this time Fisher has identity its already demonstratedthat his film andpoem are about and sources.We move as viewers from a collection of landscapesand buildings to an archive film within the film-poem, in sepiatinted photography,of children on the streetor on suburbanlawns in mid-twentieth century

Birmingham. Fisher statesthese lines as the archive film continues:

But what is it

when you're first set loosein it, with only

151 your nostrils, fingertips,ears, eyes

to teachyou appetiteand danger?

Is it the primal ocean,condemned

and petrified? Is it a giant lagoon in Tartarus

petrified, redeemed,made habitable?

There's one thing certain:

this is the centerof the universe.

Combining the stock footageof the children and theselines of poetry, Fisher makesus seethat we are productsof our surroundings,because no matterwhat our surroundingsor what we becomeor fail to become,every child habitually thinks his own immediateenvironment is the hub of society. There is no placegreater, more influential, more significant in individual development.And if homeis the 'centerof the universe'to the small child, and childhood is the time of our lives when our imaginationsare at their most lively or uninhibited, then it is wise to later in life. Fisher carry some relic of that universe with us chooses the gateway to that universe it his humorousbut with the door to his home,literally carrying through town, to powerful effect.

Fisher'sdoor is with him throughmany versesof poetry in this film, but it perhapsbest

he it standsas an importantmemento while and are travelling down a simple urban street.While background, two children roll a tire acrossthe streetin the the door is carried in such a way that it looks like it is partially floating down the street,on the back of the supposedpoet. Maintaining the senseof the door'ssymbolism, these verses are heardwhile the door bobs down the road,

Closeby Apollo's abandoned

152 incineratorhouse at Delphi,

its columnsgiving the air of

a ruined iron works in the mountains.

I've held my handsto the displaced

Omphalos-stone,the single-centre,

Not of the planet,but of the earth'sshifting

Surface,the live map.

While he has his handsaround the door, we get the impressionthat the door is his 'Omphalos- stone', his oracle,with which he can unravel and comprehendthe intricaciesand roots of his life. from door, It is also clear that Fisher, who occasionally huffs and puffs the strain of carrying the journey. wants to also invoke the hard labour involved with undertakingsuch a

By making this film-poem, Fisher pieces his life together. He is on a mission to discover for why he thinks as he does.The door servesas an aid this mission, a provider of continuum. it door for is no accidentthat, when Fishercarries the the first time in Handsworth,a group of follow him down Like fairy curious children, all Asian, the road. the tale characterthe Pied

Piper, the poet is leadingthem down the samesymbolic road of discovery that he covetsfrom his begin how Birmingham is he childhood. It is at this point that we to understand what thinks

with'.

As indicatedabove, Birmingham is introducedas a city of industry. Shotsof disused

factoriesand warehousesabound, while scenesof labourers,working at various tasksalso

16One indicative Fisher's his pervadethe film-poem. of the most scenes,proving points about

153 background and its influenceupon his ways of thinking, occursimmediately after the scene discussedabove.

We are meantto rememberthat Fisherwas initially introducedas not only a poet but also as a pianist. In the last scene,once the door is set upon the ground so the carrier can rest, piano basedjazz music beginsto play on the soundtrack.During the music, cut to a scenewhere multiple shotsof the partsof a piano are shown,and a piano maker shaveswood and hammers wires in place. It is during this scenethat Fisher describesthe piano and his love for making music, but it is not a story that hascreation at its root. Instead,Fisher describeshis views of

music in an industrial sense,in that when he plays he feels that he is excavatingthe music from

within the !machine'that is the piano.This doesnot provide us with a portrait of Fisher as a

musician, it paints him as a labourerin music, and this is exactly the type of image he wants to being by portray. This segmentof the film-poem showsthe piano put togetherpiece piece, is systematically,while he anticipatesits completion.A mathematicalstyle of thinking what

Fisher meansby Birmingham is what I think with', in that he considersreality in an industrial In context, not necessarilyin a creativevein. this way, we also are treatedto a somewhat is in black schizophrenicportrayal of Fisher.From one perspective the poet and white film, life. From creating versesand his own 'magicalview of the other perspectivehe exists as a from depths prosaic builder, mining his music the of the piano, assimilatinghis life from the door in footage.He in seriesof imageshe and his comeacross, all colour proves to us that even

his creativemode, he cannothelp but be a product of the working-classsociety that he grew up but it is Fisher himsclf. within. The door is thereto guide us, also there to guide and protect

Fittingly, the subjectsfor discussionfollowing the piano sequenceare the canalsand forges of

Birmingham, more productsof pasthuman labour.

154 In this film-poem, naturewalks hand-in-handwith Birmingham'sworking class heritage.

This piece focuseson building or discoveringfoundations, and thosefoundations are personalor communal. Hooker writes that Fisher'sbest poetry 'hasa lot to do with his increasingawareness of Nature not only as a force but also as a spring of imaginativeenergy' (28). Adhering to this criticism, Fisher quite memorablydemonstrates the importanceof awarenessonly a few minutes into the film-poem. He takesan Asian child, who is also one of the new occupantsof his old home, to a site where the bedrockof Birmingham is exposed.He then showsher the kind of rock that it actually is: sandstone,which crumblesto the touch of the hand.Thus, Fisher hints at the ironies held within the ideaof using this stoneas a foundationfor the secondlargest city in

England. In a way, Fisher symbolically undermines his personal quest, but he soon recovers. He

There's bit'. gives some of the crumbled stone to the girl and says your This simple gesture

for firm symbolises the main point of the entire piece, making the search ground all the more

for Fisher. It if foundation is palpable for the viewers as well as never seems to matter the strong knows it is it or weak, but it matters that one where and what consists of.

In Hooker's review, he goes on to cite the importance and prominence of water in Fisher's

for life (28) for In film-poem, poetry, as a perfect metaphor a giving source' and creativity. the it features important we can see how much Fisher values the presence of water, as as an element

in many shots.Never seriouslyscrutinised but often at the forefront of his discussions,water

takes the shapeof an erosiveagent, a historical tool, and a symbol of industrialisation.It gives us helping a senseof the real Birminghamwhile simultaneously to make the city strange.Fisher him Birmingham commentshow his trips to other cities made realisethat was different since it

did not have a centrally locatedriver, as other cities like London or Bristol had.With the

knowledgethat Birmingham'srivers are mostly canals,we realisethat there is unnaturalness

155 aboutthe poet's city. Pickard'sfilm emphasisesthis odd factorin numerousshots. In one particularlyeerie portion of the film, a seriesof tunnelsand archways are shot in thedistance. At first, a red light glaresin the backgroundwhile Fisher speaksof rivers. That light is zoomedin on and suddenlydissolved to blackness,and that blacknessbecomes the inside of one of the tunnels.The camerapans downward to the openingof the tunnel in the distance,white light streamingthrough it. The subsequentshots are of tunnel entrancesas well, eachsteadily moving deeperinto the tunnel,thus making the light in the middle of the shot smallerevery time. The soundof runningwater is heardthroughout the sequence.In this way, the film is madeto look artistic and abnormal,in order to correlatewith Fisher'sfeelings about Birmingham's irregularities.

'Birminghamis What I Think With'was screenedin 1997'sBuxton Fringe Film Festival, and in its programmenotes, Fisher discussesthe original idea for the film-poem'slook. According to the poet, his work was meantto be a kind of 'Day-in-the-Life-of narrativeftamework'(1997,5).

Oncethe film beganto take shapeboth poet and director realisedthis was impossible,since there was simply too much time to cover and too many elementsunder surveillance.But one resolve that survivedthroughout the making of the film was Fisher and Pickard'sdislike of the use of

'talking heads'to recite the poetry. They wantedto make the poetry 'earnits keepby doing a job throughoutthe film'and evenif the poetry was not always directly illustratedby the visuals it was indeedworking hard. In fact, there are only a few sceneswhere the subjectonscreen is straightforwardlyassociated with the subjectcovered in the accompanyingverse. Much of the visualcontent of thefilm doesrequire some work on thepart of theviewer, but oncethe general conceptbehind the line Birminghamis whatI think with' is understood,the restfalls into place.

156 3.6 Film and Poetryafter 1991

Following the first yearsof the 1990s,the making of film-poems seemsto have fallen to

Tony Harrisonand PeterSymes, except for the occasionalemergence of one or two other poets or filmmakersattempting a film-poem. More often, therewere adaptationsof previously existing poetry springingup than new poetry for film-poems, but someof thesedeserve attention.

SandraLahire, whoseshort films have receivedmuch festival attentionand a high degreeof critical acclaim,made Lady Lazarus (1992), which was describedin a pressrelease for the film as 'a visually woven responseto Sylvia Plath'sown readingof her poetry'. Uhire describesher film asfollows:

In this film, my Lady Lazarusis a woman drawn irresistibly towardsPlath's voice. She

becomesa mediumfor Sylvia, as in a seance,as the film travelsbetween Massachusetts

and Camden.

Less of a film-poem and more of an adaptationof Plath'swork with a unique twist, this film cannotbe truly considereda film-poem, but it doescontain elementsof the genre.The main reasonwhy this film shouldnot be includedin the film-poem genreis that it adaptspreviously publishedmaterial rather than demandinga processof simultaneouscreation between poet and filmmaker. SincePlath's death had long precededthis film's making, Lahire, by involving a femalecharacter who is 'irresistibly drawn' to Plath, hasdone the next best thing short of writing new poetry herself.The film also containsfootage of an interview with Plath, given just before her death.The footageprovides 'an anchor'for the film, raw material for the Plath-obsessed

characterto reactto. Lahire had madefour other films beforeLady Lazarus since 1984,when her

first film Arrows was released.What also makesLady Lazarus notableis that it may be the only

film ever to attemptto treat Plath'sverse cinematically. Currently, this film can still be seen

157 travelling on the festival circuit, andwill emergeunder the heading'Film PoemsTin a travelling programmeof short films curatedby London director PeterTodd. The discrepancybetween

Todd's definition of the term 'film-poem' and the senseof the term usedin this chapteris covered throughout ChapterTwo of this thesis.

As stated,besides Harrison and Symes,the film-poem efforts of the 1990swere minimal.

Aside from the world of the experimentalfilm or studentprojects, the film-poems releasedwere either little known or uncommentedupon. I would like to briefly cover the few that were notable from this period at this point.

Without Tony Harrison,Peter Symes continued to usepoetry as his conceptualinspiration.

In 1993,he was executiveproducer for a seriesof five collectionsof film-poems calledPoct's

News. Thesewere only five minutesin length eachand were stuffed betweenBBC2s

Newsnight' and The Late Show' The idea was that three or four poemscould cover that day's top news stories.A poet would write the poem and assistin editing it with footageof them reciting the poemand with footageof the event.John Whitworth was one of the poetswho took The O'Clock part in this series,and his article Nine Muse' is a report on poetry on television at the time, which was 1993- 1994.His piece on the Poet'sNews seriesis like a day in the life of onelsmaking. He writes:

What you heardwas the poem,what you saw was inter-cut news footage.There were

seventeenpoems from ten poetsduring the week, someof them written in the weeks

the day transmission(and ) Such Symes' before, and someactually on of why not? ... was

encouragementand understanding that not one of the poetic team failed to produce

broadcastmaterial, nor was there at any time a shortageof ideasfor poemseven though

158 the week of broadcastingwas the dullest for news I can rememberfor a long time

(1993,41).

Theseshort collectionsof poetry receivedmixed reactionsfrom critics and peers.Whitworth

thinks they went very well, but claims sincehe was involved, he is naturally biasedin his

0 opinion (41). On the other hand,Tony Harrison apparentlyhated these (Symes, interview, 1997)

and wishedthe idea had nevercome to fruition. Poetry on television was still not a popular or

ratings-grabbingevent, and theseshort programsdid not further poetry'sreputation in the world

of television.Speculating whether these programs gave poetry a bad nameis not entirely far-

fetched,since Whitworth, in the samearticle, accountsfor the opinions of various critics and

reviewers.Particularly memorable is the anecdoteabout an anonymoustelevision critic for The

Independenton Sunday,who 'watchedthe programmeswith her face buried in a cushion,[and]

thoughtTennyson would haveturned in his grave'(41). In someinstances, some of the episodes

are quite original, with one poet mappingout the ailmentsof a humanbody as if he was giving

the weatherreport, completewith a chart on the wall and a pointer in his hand.However, a few

of the poemsare too wordy to function successfully,and wind up clouding the issuesin the news

instead of providing an intriguing point of view about them. The most probable explanation for

the failure of this idea is that poetry requirestime to be digested;the averageviewer might need

to hearverse a few times in a row (or at leastfor a period of time lengthier than five minutes,or

less)for it to effectively sink in. Shortbursts of poetry might also work if they are accompanied

by somethingvisually stunningor evensomething whimsical, but having coupletsaccompany

the unfortunatelydull newsfootage is simply not a step forward for poetry and film.

In May 1994,The Independent ran a review of one of ChannelFour's Without Walls

episodes,a 'documentarypoem'by Blake Morrison called 'Little Angels, Little Devils'. In a

159 seriesoften concernedwith sociologicalissues, this program followed the kinds of examplesset by Tony Harrison,in termsof the 'tolling of Hell's bells' (J. Rees,18). The poem is about the problemsthat adultshave had in their relationshipswith children throughouthistory. Morrison attemptsto brighten his voice to make it cheerierthan Harrison'sfamous drone, but, as Reesalso claims, 'you heardHell's bells anyway'(18). Though generalisationsabout time periodsin history aboundin this film-poem and thosetime periodsare summarisedat a surprisingpace, the piece doesprovoke someinteresting thoughts about child rearing,especially when it considers

the way massmedia strives for the attentionof the younger generation.Morrison attackstoday's

advertisingstrategies in looseand accessiblelanguage, while leaving hardly any institution

untouched.Religions, education systems, literary movements:much comesunder Morrison's

critical eye. Even his own family's homemovies are included in one segment,which he doesnot

rememberwith fondnessor nostalgia,but with a feel for distinct boredom.The subject,critical in

nature,is perfect for a film-poem, and Morrison imitates Harrison'sstyle admirably, but fails to

developit further. At least a different voice was heardon a true film-poem sometimein the

1990s,but it is lamentablethat the project did not have more funding than what the ChannelFour

television serieswould allow.

Another adaptationshould be mentionedhere which did causea slight ripple in the world of

film and poetry, and that was theatricaldirector DeborahWarner's television version of The

WasteLand', by T. S. Eliot. It starreddirector and actressFiona Shaw and was releasedin the

spring of 1996.Shaw steals the showwith her 'impassionedoration', and accordingto Variety

magazine,she 'squeezesevery shredof contemporaryrelevance out of Eliot'(Nesselson, 1996,

53). The thirty five minutesit takesto film Eliot's 433-line poem 'goesby in a flash' and

Nesselsonclaims that Shaw'sperformance makes the poemaccessible because she 'revelsin the

160 words and makestheir meaningsclear'(53). The camerawork is controlled, the settingsare simple,and the sections of theepic poem are separated in the film by title cards.This film premieredon the BBC in late December1995, and would be useful as a teachingaid for literatureclasses studying Eliot, but it is simply too obscureto be consideredas part of a movement.At any rate,this work was the last notablenon-Harrisonian film to work closely with poetry until late 1999,when SimonArmitage returnedto the conceptualfilm-poem, and wrote his songfor the millennium, 'Killing Time'.

3.7 Simon Armitage at the Turn of the New Century

Armitage wrote 'Killing Time'without the guidanceof PeterSymes and it is a longer, denser,variable work, basedaround the fear and excitementthat camewith the approachof a new century. It is exactly 1000lines long and is separatedinto twelve sections.It considersthe most pertinentnews events of 1999and their 'connectionswith the pastone-thousand years of history' (Armitage, 2000,1). Consideringits running time (seventyminutes) and its broad scope, this is the most comprehensiveand ambitiousfilm-poem project for television to date.The

influenceof Harrison is still apparent,and theremay a homageto Harrison in the title of the work, which sharesits namesakewith the tide of one of Harrison'spoems from his collection

TheSchool ofEloquence (1978) and Continuous(1981). Harrison's'Killing Timeis a poem also

concernedwith the paceof so-calledprogress and with the processof extinction.

The film beginswith a shot of a man running, while poetry is being recited on the

soundtrack.Immediately we are remindedof Armitage's coupletsin 'Xanadu'since the rhythm of

the poetry is sharpand choppy.The manjogs through countrysideand city streets,and he is

introducedto us with the first prosaicinterlude of the film. A radio disc jockey announcesthat he

161 is the Millennium Man, travelling throughoutthe country collecting objectsthat peoplewould prefer to do without. He will gatherand ignite a bonfire with them to celebratethe passageof time. The jockey explainswhy the man wants to collect theseitems: 'simply becausethey're there'.Fisher's film poemis also coincidentally recalledhere, as the Millennium Man is jokingly comparedto the Pied Piper. The striking difference from Armitage'sprevious film work that is initially visible is his use of prosethat is also mysteriousor poetically relatedto his subjectat hand.His poetry reading,which hasbeen described before as dull and monotonous,is here livelier, but still with edgy bitterness.At the conclusionof the first scene,the man runs off camera,grasping various unwanteditems he hasbeen handed in the street,and the main title of the film-poem appears.

Willing Time'also demonstratesa clear recognitionof what hasworked successfullyin past

film-poem experiments.There is againthe very strong presenceof a 'guide'; in fact, the whole premiseof the film dealswith a symbolic man 'guiding'us through the centuriesand through the

past eventsof recenthistory, as well as through the lives of peoplehe meets.Refugees, a

struggling farmer, and a young man diagnosedwith cancerare amongthose whose lives are

touchedby the coming of the Millennium Man. More noticeablein this work is the presenceof

music, sinceimposing bass tones sometimes tend to govern action onscreen.Particularly

admirable is a short sequencewith scratch animation and music, which recalls work by the 1930s

avant-gardeNew Zealandfilmmaker Len Lye. Cartoonsdance across the screento frantic funk

beats,animated stick figures hop acrossbuildings, and a tiny ice creamvan drives acrossa shot

of ice creambeing scoopedfrom a dish. The poetry binds thesediverse scenes together, making

them relevantto eachother and within the whole, in spite of their strangenessat first glance.

162 A numberof progressivesteps are taken in this film-poem. This was a project with much funding;one can guess that from thequality of thecinematography and editing. The frequent cuts are smoothand the transitionsbetween scenes are unpredictablebut flawless.This work castsprofessional actors for the first time in a film-poem on television, including Christopher

Ecclestonas the Millennium Man and HermioneNorris, from the seriesCold Feet, as the

Millennium Womanthat joins him partway through the film. Charactersare usedin this work,

and they function without completenames. Reminiscent of the charactersin Harrison'sfeature

length film-poem Prometheus,they are namedaccording to their roles. For example,besides the

Millennium Man andWoman, there is a male charactercalled the Time Man'(Keith Allen), who

appearsat certainintervals throughout the film. He lectures about timeor describesits

relentlessness,in sucha way that he becomesakin to a god-like figure, one whosewords are

treatedwith gravity and reverence.In his final delivery be standsin front of a mock student

group, lecturing them abouttheir inevitable associationwith time. His best lines, however,are

probably saidwhen he and the Millennium Man meet in a caf6. Eccleston'scharacter asks him

the time, and amongmany confusingand complex verses,the Time Man answers:

The great geology of time

The gravity of loss

Memory lies heretoo

Memory, the glue

Of time, binding it close.

His poetic monologuestresses the way in which 'time builds up in layers',which is a realistic

summaryfor the entire piece. Yjlling Time'is concernedwith the sheddingof theselayers, so

peoplecan feel free to move on with their lives. The excessthey have accumulated,the bad

163 habits they haveacquired over time, is what Armitage'sverse begs people to dismiss.Numerous individualepisodes are summarised with the stanzaquoted above, including a refugeewoman's loss of her son to gunfire at their home.Some of thesecases are exploredin great depthin this film-poem. The verseasks people to releasethe memoriesof their unfortunatepasts, to breakbad habits,and to recognisethe importanceof ridding oneselfof objectsinfused with bad memories or karma.

Admittedly, most of the film-poem has a distinctly uncomfortablefeel to it. It attemptsto resolvethis feeling at its end,with the final all-relic-consurningbonfire that is constructedin the shadowof the Millennium Dome.The Millennium Man and Woman,who have symbolically passedeach other by throughoutthe first forty minutesof the piece, are united. Shehas joined the Man in his journey and by the end of the film they are a single entity, beginning and finishing eachother's poetic verses.Yet, the resolvethat is attemptednever completelyarrives by its end, sincethis work's striking, violent subjectmatter tendsto linger in the viewer's minds. This film coversnews items over the past year that broke the heartsof millions of people,packing them into poetic movementsthat are aboutten minuteslong apiece.Armitage refers to thesesections above.But after seeingfootage of the war in the Balkans,of the train crashat Signal 109 in

Britain in 1999,and of the massacreat ColombineHigh School in Colorado,USA, in the spanof twenty minutesof poetry, the viewer is severelychallenged to keep his eyesonscreen. The amountof ground coveredis staggering,the numberof painful personalstories overwhelming. It is a good idea to take a break from this film-poem partway through,and it is difficult to achievea senseof resolutionfrom the conclusivebonfire.

On the other hand,a greatand idealistic thing is accomplishedin the work by helping numeroustroubled people rid themselvesof the symbolsof their troubles.Everything is

164 incinerated,from rings, clothes,marriage licenses, chequebooks and mobile phonesto cigarettes, beer can holders,an exercisebike and a Sony Playstation:'it keepsme from doing my homework',says one young boy. In this way, just as someof the donationsequences are meant to impress,the re-enactmentof someof the eventsfrom 1999 are also particularly moving. To illustrate the 1999shooting at ColombineHigh School,Armitage devisesa scenethat contains unconventionalimagery indeed.Instead of guns,there are flowers in the maraudingboys'hands.

There is a reconstructionof the duo'sactions, as they march through a school'shallways, recreationalgrounds and library, relentlesslyshowering flowers and petalson innocentstudents and staff that passthem by or try and avoid their attention.The extendedmetaphor contains detail after detail, which mirror the horrifying eventsat the school.The most ironic quality of the sceneis the poetic commentarygiven by the Millennium Man and Woman,who are supposedly watching this eventon a small screenin their home.They speakof the crime in peacefuland honourableterms, painting the flowery delugein the schoolwith a senseof wartime heraldry.

The idea is so far-fetched,the poetry and onscreenaction seemalmost uneven:

Upstairsin the schoollibrary,

Individuals are singledout for specialattention.

Somewere showeredwith blossom,

Otherswore their blooms like broachesor medals.

Even thosewho turnedtheir backs,

Or refusedpoint blank to acceptsuch honours,

Were decoratedwith buds.

Unseasonablefruits and rosettes,

Sameas the others,

165 By which time a crowd had gathered

Outsidethe school,drawn through suburbia

By the rumours

Of flowers in full bloom.

During the delivery of the abovelines, we first seethe Man and Woman talking to eachother as if they are discussingaspects of the eventthey have both heardabout. Cut to shotsof teenagers, mostly girls, in a schoollibrary, being hit with flowers from all directions,though some 'turn their backs'just at the momentthat the line is spoken.This makesthe film difficult to watch, but

Armitage is perhapsrecalling someof Symes'mostresonant advice aboutfilm and poetry, which was that poetry can show us uncomfortablethings without making us feel the needto turn away.

It 'allowsus to watch'(1995, xii).

There is much to say aboutthis film-poem and it deservescloser attentionthan spaceallows here,but it derivesits roots from the Wordson Film seriesand the work of Harrison, and there will be closerreadings of someof theseworks in later sectionsof this thesis.

We beganthis chapterasking about the natureand definition of film-poems.At this point, the answer should be quite clear: though many will argue and vie for the terminology, a film- poemis usually a documentarystyled film which is shot at virtually the sametime as the poetry for it is being written. The two formats feed off one another and inspire their respective processesof creation.Their formulation is a difficult task to undertake,and quite a lot of proposalsinvolving many poetshave never taken shapedue to the problemsthat film-poems imposeupon their makers.However, they are far from being completelyevolved, and many filmmakers,poets and academicsare now devising further developmentswithin the field. The individual who has developedthe film-poem to the higheststandard, Tony Harrison, is the focus

166 of the next chapter.His interpretationsof the film-poem have led to his own particular terminology and the invention of a sub-genre.I will exploremuch of his work, often in the light of the material studiedin this chapteras well.

167 CHAPTER FOUR

THE FILM-POEMS OF TONY HARRISON

Cinematicsigns are rootednot in logical, rational discourse,but in memory and dreams...In

is becauseit is dreamlike,because it my view the cinema substantiallyand naturally poetic...

is close to dreams.

- Pier Paolo Pasolini'

As you may haveheard, if you've met him, Tony sayshe never dreams,because all his life is

dreaming.

(Film ProducerAndrew Holmcsý

4.1 Verse's GreatAdvantages Over Prose'

As discussedin the previouschapter, film-poems have developedprimarily over the last ten years,after 1990.The artist who hashad the greatestinfluence on this developmentis Yorkshire- bom Tony Harrison (1937-).Harrison was one of the first poetsto understandthe visuality of verseand its natural inclination towardscinematography, its 'filmability. He feels, as he statesin a televisedcommentary for his 2002 film-poem (Crossings) that his film-poems 'give the documentarystyle an organisation,a structurethat it doesn'thave naturally'. As a poet he has harnesseda techniqueintended to provide a medium for ideasthat perhapscannot be properly or effectively expressedwith proseor dialogue,even for ideaswhich are impossibleto express.His finished productis an exampleof art within art: a poemthat is a film. The poem can be recognisedas independentwork without specialfilmic significance,but it shouldnot be: the two forms of expressionare designedto be seentogether.

Haff ison'sverse is suitedfor film; it is rhythmically dynamic,metaphorically rich, powerfully rhymed,and honest.His modeof poetry is a natural link with the film image,since it is often enrichedwith strongimagery itself. Harrison'sstyle lends itself to the honestyand

168 truthfulnessthat is neededwhen dealingwith issuesthat film-poems tend to tackle, issueslike incurablediseases, religious dissensionand death.His is a plain speakingvoice, borneout of an

English region renownedfor its frank and openpeople, with a reputationfor straight,direct talk.

Harrisonwould makeeleven film-poems for television (and one for the cinema)to reflect his strongopinions on theseand other subjectsthroughout his career.

A numberof yearsbefore the Wordson Film project cameinto being in 1992,Peter Symes worked with Harrisonon a few film-poem ventures.In his introduction to Harrison's1995 textual collection of film/poems,Symes writes:

Film is a magicalmedium... What better vehicle for a poet to use?Are not the still

words, combinedinto lines, undergoinga similar process[referring to the processof

filming, which combines24-25 stills per secondto createthe illusion of movement],not

but for What but (vii). for the eyes the ears? more exciting process... to combinethe two

The relationshipsbetween poetry and film are such that Symeshas written at length in two

instancesabout them, clearly excitedabout his work and impressedwith its outcome?Symes'

work with Harrison has covered many subjects and geographically spannedmost of continental

Europe.His collaborationshave been very successful,and have included a four-part serieson

deathand commemorationcalled I-oving Memory'(1986), with four sub-headings,and The

Blasphemers'Banquet' (1989), a defenceof SalmanRushdie, one of the most influential film-

poemsfor the entire genre.After 1990,Symes continued to work with Harrison,producing The

Gazeof the Gorgon'(1992),which dealswith fascism,and Slack Daisiesfor the Bride'(1993),

which is a study of Alzheimer'sDisease. In 1994,Harrison first attempteddirection, as co-

directorwith Mark Kidel for 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'and in 1995 assumedtotal directorial

responsibilitywith The Shadowof Hiroshima. The producerfor thesetwo films was Andrew

Holmes,an independenttelevision producerfor ChannelFour, who alsojoined Harrisonon the

169 most impressivefilm-poem project to date,Prometheus (1998). It standsas the only major- releasefeature-length film-poem ever madeý

The combinationof verseand film appealsto not only thosedirectly associatedwith television.In an essayakin to Symes'abovecomments on the similarities betweenthe structures of films and poems,William Weeswrites:

Through a synergyof expressivewords and images,successful poetry-rilms... produce

associations,connotations, metaphors and symbolsthat cannotbe found in either their

verbal or their visual texts takenalone (1997,1).

Weesrefers to a myriad of works when he refers to 'poetry-films', including experimentalshort

films, but his opinionscan clearly apply to the Harrisonianfilm-poem. Symes'writings reflect

upon the 'inherentmetricality'(1995, vii) of the processof filming, and the natural tendenciesfor

poetsto 'gravitateto television'(viii). Similar to Wees'optimistic views on poetry and film,

Symes,also asksif verseon televisioncan belp us to look at the future' or even 'allow us to look

at our pastand our presentwith unblinking eyes'(viii). At the core of both writers' reflection is

the admittanceof poetry and film's greatresemblance to one another,and their immediateand

surprisingcompatibility.

4.2 Early Experiments with Poetry and Film: 'Stick to the Rhythm'

Long beforePeter Symes was associatedwith Tony Harrison,the poet had alreadymade a

few excursionsinto the world of television and film. In a prematureventure, Harrison was

commissionedto write the lyrics to the songsin GeorgeCukor's The Blue Bird in 1975.Similar

to W. H. Auden'searly (and mostly unreleased)song writing for the GPO Film Unit in the 1930s,

Harrisonwas involved with a large film production,perhaps in slightly over his headas a young

poet.

170 A remakeof the 1940Walter Lang film of the samename, the film failed miserablyat the box office, but was highly toutedas the first majorco-production betweenthe United Statesand

Russia.Both films arebased on the fairy-play by Maurice Maeterlinck,where two children seek

'the blue bird of happiness'(Milne, 1997,89) and searchthrough the pastand future, but find happinessin their own time. Cukor's remakeboasted a cast featuring ElizabethTaylor in multiple roles,Ava Gardner,Jane Fonda and Cicely Tyson, but the songsfailed to rescuethe film from mediocrity. The film did serveone major purposeif not any other: it allowed Harrison to take his first Auden-like stepsin the film world. Cukor himself provided Harrisonwith the introductory steppingstones towards the art of film writing, by sendingHarrison 'contactstrips with scribbled notes'on the back of them (Harrison, 1992,260). The poet would readthe notesand then write lyrics to matchthe spirit of the character'sface on the strip, like he did for one strip labelled 'the broodingpoet'. This processwas very much unlike writing pure film-poems but it gave the poet a tastefor film writing as opposedto writing poetry or dramaticverse. Presumably, Harrison was given thejob basedon the successof his previous dramaticwork, sinceThe Blue Bird is itself based on a play. Later in his career, Harrison would write a poem immortalising this process, paying respectto Cukor in his poem 'Losing Touch' (1992)!

Before Harrisonturned to television,he enjoyedconsiderable theatrical success. His affinity for Greekdrama is well documented,since it is prominentin many of the versesof his film- poemsand Symeshimself hasoccasionally written of its influenceupon their collaborations.

Harrison'sdramatic projects were widespread,but he often worked in theatreslike the West

Yorkshire Playhouse(Leeds) and in othersin Bradford, Blackpool and London. According to

Symes,Harrison's first greatlove was actually pantomime,which Symesbelieves has informed

someof the stylesof Haffison's film-poems (1995,viii).

The influenceof pantomimeis probably bestseen in Harrison'swork without Symes,

especiallyin his live-action musical drama,the film The Big H'(1984). This film was the second

171 of Harrison'sfilm projects,the first being 'Arctic Paradise'(1981). Andrie Molyneux, a BBC producerand directorwho madeThe Big Wfor the BBC's Drama Film Department,produced both films. Her experiencewas primarily in the field of documentaries,and her first encounters with Harrisonand versewere met with a degreeof worry and anxiety (1991,367)ý In keeping with the senseof chronologyheretofore practised in this study, I will begin with a discussionof

Harrison'sfirst experiencewith verseonscreen, in a production that is a film-poem in an evolutionaryphase.

'Arctic Paradise'wasa documentaryproject, basedon the life of a trapperand his family in the far Canadiannorth. Harrison and Molyneux first met in 1979,and a discussionabout

Molyneux'swork on anotherfilm aboutpoet Robert Servicepiqued Harrison'sinterest! Though other poetshad previously implied to Molyneux that 'Service'spoetry wasn't worth a film'

(Molyneux, 367), Harrisonwas 'full of enthusiasm'(367) when the producerfirst mentioned

Service'sname and her work with his poetry. Harrison apparentlythought that work with 'great popularverse'was very positive, and supportedits initial treatment.Molyneux writes:

I was having difficulty convincing someof the actors,even Fulton Mackay who played

RobertService, how important it was to emphasisethe bold, obvious rhythm. They were

trying to breakup the rhythm and read in a more naturalisticway. I blurted out my

worries aboutthe delivery of the verseand was instantly reassured[by Harrison],

'You're right, right, go for the rhythm. Stop them acting, stop them emoting, stick to the

rhythm and you can't go wrong'(367).

This proved influential on Molyneux, regardingboth her independentprojects and work with

Harrison.That sameday as their meeting,Harrison took Molyneux to a productionof his play

ThePassion, where the poetry was spokenby the actorsin the way that Harrison had directed.

Molyneux was convincedthat 'suchstrongly rhythmic readingsense seem[ed] obviously right'

(368), and cites that night as the greatestinfluence upon the rest of her film on Service.

172 Obviously, it also was the beginningof her collaborationwith the poet and the beginningof a careerof poetry and film for Harrison himself.

The first few stepstaken within this field were with much trepidation.Poetry's reputation on televisionwas not positive, in spite of Harrison's(and others) efforts; popular opinion claimed that'versenever works'(Symes, 1991,385). Molyneux was well awareof this apprehension aboutpoetry, from both the perspectivesof the poet and from her peersin television:

The puristshave often attackedfilmmakers for spoiling poetry by trying to accompanyit

with pictures,and often justifiably so, becausethe film-maker'svision of a poemcan

sometimesobscure the poet'svision (368).

Nevertheless,she approached Harrison to write specially commissionedverse for her next film,

believed 'thereis be film if both sinceshe no reason... why verseshould not naturally allied to ...

are createdin unison'(368). This is preciselythe essentialdifference in the craft of a film-poem

versusa 'normal'TV program:how the two fields are matchedand in what contextsor

circumstances.By conceivingthe processfor the combinationof verseand image,Molyneux

sensedhow poetry on television could indeedWork'.

First inclinations,however, were fruitless in termsof true film-poems. Harrison'sinitial

ideasabout making a film basedon the American bird painter and enthusiast,John James

Audubon,were met with interestand much researchby Molyneux. Unfortunatelythe plans to

film fell 'the idea actually makethe through,since proved too rich; ... therewere too many 8 elementsto fit harmoniouslytogether into one film'(Molyneux, 368). Perhapsthe ideas

introducedat thesemeetings served as an inspiration for Harrison'suse of fine art and sculpture

in someof his later film-poems like The Blasphemers'Banquet'and The Gazeof the Gorgon'.

Certainly,the claim of 'too many elements'makes sense here, since the two artistswere already

trying to link two distinctly separateart forms together,and the presenceof a third would

173 probablycomplicate matters beyond their readinessat the time. However, Molyncux's previous experiencewith Service'spoetry led to ideasabout Harrison imitating his style.

While Molyneux shot footageof the Yukon in the summerof 1980,she was 'mindful'of the talks betweenherself and Harrison, and 'took more long developingshots than usual,and some long continuousshots of the gold-fields from a helicopter'(369). Yet, somethingelse was constantlyan issueto bear in mind as well: the constraintsof the film's commissioningprogram.

The BBC's WorldAbout Us was shownto afamily audienceearly on Sundayevening'(371) and sincethe time slot was so accessible,Molyneux knew that shewould not be able to make the unusualprogram that 'Arctic Paradise'wouldhave beenhad Harrisonbeen given more independencewith the project. Thus the presenceof much prose,acting, and a fairly straightforwardstoryline in place of somethingthe averageviewer might find difficult to follow.

The partsof the film that Harrison'sverse is usedfor are thereforeslow moving and direct, since both the producerand the poet were 'awareof the needfor the picturesto give the verseroom to

the to to the (369). In theseearly stagesof film- breathe... giving audiencea chance attend words' poem construction,Harrison's penchant for poetic bombardmentand harrowing visual imagery had not yet developed,so it is interestingto view thesemoderately tame initial efforts. Absent alsowas Harrison'snotorious tendency to demandthe proper settingsand shotsin line with his poetic vision. Instead,Molyneux relateshis willingness to rewrite lines or changea rhythm insteadof requeststo recut the film to fit the poetry (370).

Part of the narrativeof this film focuseson an actualman (Roger Mendelsohn)who was a trapperin the winter and a fishermanin the surnmer,living in a log cabin with his wife and two children in the wildernessof the Yukon. His storiesserved as inspirationalraw material for

Harrison,especially his talesof being 'drawn to the North by readingthe poemsof Robert

Service'(369).His characteris enhancedby a man'svoice that speaksHarrison's verses on the soundtrack.Harrison had 'painstakinglyread all the transcriptsof interviewswith the trapperand

174 his wife and the gold-miners'(370)before writing, and their concernsand opinions are interwovenwithin the poetry. A woman'svoice was selectedto readHarrison's verses as well, sinceHarrison envisioned a doublecommentary about the young trapper'slife. The voiceson the soundtracksound old and worn, and seemto watch over the trapper,advising him and his family.

Harrisonchose actors for theseroles, whom were guidedby the poet throughoutrehearsals and the shoot.

In the processof creatingthis film camealso the discoveryof the importanceof the role of the editor in film-poems.The editor for this particular production,Jess Palmer, had worked with

Molyneux before,and notably on documentaryfilms aboutpoetry. The role of the film-poem editor is repeatedlystressed as paramount,equal to that of the poet and director themselves.

Effective editing leadsto effective timing, and when verseis paired with image,timing can be most noticeableand important to an audience.It is this senseof timing that remainsHarrison's

greatestasset; producers and directorscompliment it in many reviews or retrospectivesof

working with the poet. Molyneux recalls:

Being told the numberof secondshe could have,he would write somethingexactly the

right length,tailored to the individual shots(370).

According to her account,it is also clear that the poet had a sharpsense of speedand continuity,

never afraid to vary the tempo of his cutting or even cut against the rhythm of the piece. Together

with Palmer,who 'enjoyedjuggling the film againstthe rhymesand rhythms of the verse'(370),

Harrisonbegan his first real work with synthesisingverse and image.In keepingwith the fairly

mainstreamlook of the piece,Harrison had to abideby the samerules as the rest of the

productioncrew, yet there are elementspresent in this first filmic outing that are still visible in

the poet'sless restrained visual offerings of today.

The rhyme schemeof the openinglines is abab, typical of Service'spoetry, and of Harrison's

aswell. Molyneux statesthat Harrison wrote the verse'in the style of RobertService, but to [her]

175 mind, muchbetter'(369). In 'Arctic Paradise',most of Harrison'sverse is aabb, in rhyming coupletstypical of the poet'slater work, so in that respectit differs from Service.It is interesting to note that this marksa departurefrom much of Harrison'sother poetry from the sameperiod, which was mostly abab,with only the occasionalcouplet presenOThe most striking similarity betweenHarrison's poetry and Service'sis their rhythm. Servicehabitually wrote in iambic beptameter,a highly popularform of versethat often containsinternal rhyme. The poetry has the samefeel as a limerick, with humour or adventureat its core. The internal thyme is on the second and fourth feet of eachline, and usually the rhyme is of an elongatedvocal sound,which slows the intonationof the lines and makesthem soundmore dramatic.For example,the fourth stanza into the film-poem beginswith the woman'svoice:

ComeJune, July, a clear blue sky and the sun up there all day

For this paradise,that winter ice was a paltry price to pay!'

The male trapper'svoice follows with:

No greens,no fruit, just what I shoot and ice-hole fish-lines bring

And one moose can make a year of steak to see us through till Spring.

The words 'July', 'sky', 'paradise,and 'ice'are soft soundingand they complementthe harsh landscapeswe are visually treated to in this film with a degree of irony and calm. Interestingly, theseexact couplets are repeatedat different intervals in the film-poem, reiteratingthe struggle that everydayexistence can be in the Yukon. When repeated,however, the voices are reversed.

The film was very successful,achieving a viewership of 'four and a half million people,the highestfigure that year for the series'(Molyneux, 371). Its greatestachievement though, was paving the road for Harrison in the field of television.His next film, the strangemusic drama

The Big H'(1984) was inspiredby 'Arctic Paradise,and would againunite Harrison and

Molyneux. It would also ignite collaborationwith musical composerDominic Muldowney, who would work with Harrisonon a numberof projectsin the yearsto come.

176 The Big H'focuses on a group of children from the Leedsarea, linking local linguistic dialect that often omits the 'H'sound at the beginning of words with the Biblical story aboutKing

Herod and his insanedesires. The director of the film was Bill Hayes,an experienceddirector of

TV dramaand opera,who was not positive about the project when snippetsof the versewere first shownto him. Harrison'ssubsequent suggestions encouraged Hayes, since now the poet had ideason lighting, costumes,design and other aspectsof the production,all the while editing and rewriting the versein the initial script. The one major visible differencein this film is that it was recordedon videotapeinstead of film, and its crudity is obvious. Making the transition from the expansiveYukon to the small, crampedclassroom could havebeen jarring, but Harrison was preparedto dealwith the transition,using the smaller scopeto broadenhis ideasand hone his televisionexperience.

On the set of this film Molyneux againclaims that Harrison was 'receptiveto alternatives

and very understandingof limitations imposedby the practical natureof television',while at the

sametime very certainabout his own ideas(375). Unlike Harrison'sfuture involvementwith the

process of making his film-poems, he actually left the film site and the editing suites before the

film was completed(but was presentfor all four daysof the shoot).The poet continuedto

suggestchanges on 'neatlytyped postcardsfrom various parts of the world' (Molyneux, 375)

throughoutthe film's post-productionand editing, until the final stages.This kind of arrangement

was only possiblesince the processof videotapeediting, as opposedto working with celluloid, 'is

shorter,more intenseand offers lessopportunity for re-arrangingand re-cutting the material'

(Molyneux, 375). This factor allowed Harrison to make decisionswith Hayesand then pursue

other poetic work to suit his interestsand responsibilitiesat the time.

Writing versein imitation of Robert Service'sstyle must have influencedHarrison

poetically, sincemuch of the versefrom The Big H'is again in iambic heptameter.More

importantly, the samejaunty, energeticrhythm is inherentin the lines written for the charactersin

177 this film. Servicehimself, in his only television interview, said that he never consideredhis poetic lines to be 'poetry',but was satisfiedcalling them 'verse',since he didn't think they were seriousenough to be 'poetry'." Certainly the subjectscovered here are more 'scrious'thanthe adventuresof characterslike DangerousDan McGrew'in Service'sverse. The poetry in The Big

HI praisesthe actsof King Herod, and his ordersfor the Slaughterof the Innocents.More than occasionalreferences to Adolph Hitler and his Herod-like behaviourare madein the film's verse dialogue,but in spite of this, The Big H' is fairly light-hearted.It may be becausemuch of the acting and singing is doneby schoolchildren,and becausethe viewer can sense,as one can with most Christmastelevision specials, that everythingwill turn out all right in the end.

Harrisonwanted to makepoetry 'accessibleto everyone';he wantedto 'movepoetry out of the ghettoof late-nightprogrammes for the initiated, and put it in front of a mainstreamaudience'

(Molyneux, 371). This may havebeen achieved withArctic Paradise',but The Big Wdoes not conform to expectationsof prime-timevisual content.The imagesin this film are sometimes difficult to watch, suchas the animatedpictures of babies'throats being slit. At times the action onscreenis humourousin placeswhere it shouldn'tbe, as in a female History teacher's(June

Watson)transformation into a Herod in her own right, pleadingfor feminine equality, In these daysof freedomthe flogger and flesh-render/ Can also be a Herod of the feminine gender'.

Her questionsare put to the camerain this sequence,and what sheasks should make most

audiencemembers shift uncomfortably.Yet the playful rhythm of most of the verses,coupled with rapid cuts of the camera,provide an atmosphereof knowing fellowship. The cameracuts in

synchronisationwith the rhythm of the lines as well, adding to the fluidity of the entire piece.

One other factor that allows for the film's lighter ambienceis the music, which is just as jaunty as the rhythm of the poetry. The music is reminiscentof the kind playedby a marching

band,or from a soundtrackto a Hollywood Biblical epic film like TheRobe (1953). Dominic

Muldowney'sscore was playedlive in the studio during the film's recording,to be matchedwith

178 the children'smuch-rehearsed singing. As one might easily imaginewith the Biblical epic in mind, the music is drum-based,akin to that of a military drill. Although it often soundstinny and chaotic,the music is a fitting forum for a chaotic and crudepiece.

Originally conceivedas a nativity play, The Big Revolves into somethingmuch more complex than that, somethingthat is probably not averageholiday viewing! ' Someof the themes of the film areviolent, sinceHerod's characters (there are three teachersthat 'transforminto

Herod during the film) repeatedlyorder bloody deeds.Through Harrison'sverse and

Muldowney'smusic, the film stresseshow violent tendenciesare transmittedfrom adults to children and a mob mentality is quickly formed. Rantingteachers in the classroomare changed into King Herod threetimes, 'exhortinghis or her squadto kill all the boy babies'(Molyneux,

376). Within eachgroup of boys is one shortermember who is singledout and reprimanded,in rhythmically potenttones, for not pronouncingthe R soundwhen he speaks.This characteris the onewho is symbolically supposedto representhope for humanity,since his problemswith direction and elocutionlead directly to his lack of enthusiasmin the task of killing' (Molyneux,

376). His role is a blockadeagainst a selfish and unjust order, a defiant act againsta supremebut blinded power. The film-poem endswith a feeling of hope,with the classicbelief that goodness will alwaystriumph over evil, in the mannerof fairy-tales.

There are someproblems with this production,to be expectedwith the first attemptsof an

emerginggenre. As mentioned,this film-poem containssome elements of crudity that can be

overlookedif the programwas simply advertisedas a schoolproject, but it was not; it looks too

much like a high schoolstudent's film assignment.There are sequencesin the film which are

effective,containing provocative lyrics, but they are underscoredby the presenceof sceneswhich

look too amateurishto be taken seriously,and thesedistract from the main point of the film. For

instance,once the squadronsof boys are physically sentto carry out Herod'sorders, they travel

throughan animatedbackground of a town. Possibly,the scenescould be viewed as surreal,since

179 the sizesof the pupils are disproportionateto the size of the drawings,but the effect falls short of surrealism,and simply looks ridiculous. At the sametime, the childishly drawn picturesof babies being brutally murderedare disturbing,while the schoolgirlswho play the distraught'mothers'of the story hold bloodiedbundles and lamentthe day'spassing.

Another problemis the poor articulation of someof the schoolchildren.In direct contrastto the adultsplaying the teacher/Herodcharacters, who were chosenfor their excellentvocal clarity, the children often muffle their lines or do not project their voices enoughfor the listener to adjust to the changein volume or pacebefore their lines are finished. Versesare spokenquickly in this musical, and the attemptto createa thumping,staccato sound to the poetry is thwartedby some of the students'vocalcapabilities. This is an ironic problem, since someof the subjectmatter of the film-poem itself dealswith pronunciationissues, as discussedabove. In addition, sometimes lines are spokenunnaturally, with striking pauses,to fit the deliberaterhythm of the piece, broken in mid-thoughtor idea to matchthe near-incessantdrumming in the background.The versethen feels too measured,and the meaningof the interruptedlines is cloudedand uncertain.

Harrisonusually writes abouthis experiencesand of what he knows, and historically has poeticisedhis worldly concerns.Some of the poet'spersonal issues are easily identifiable due to their presencein severalof his poems,providing a slight degreeof confessionalismin his work.

In The Big H, the first teacherwe are introducedto is a mathsteacher, (Barrie Rutter). Someof the lines he speakscomplain about the stateof the youth of the day, angrily predicting their fates:

Before they grow up squirting aerosols,graffiti-ing our garages,

Rip openthe upholsteryon coup excursioncarriages,

And end up with somelass like thesein monstrousfertile marriages.

Before they grow up to squirt aerosolsthey start to spray

The few words they can spell right or United RulesOW.

180 Vandalismwill prove a popular subjectin Harrison'spoetry. The Big 11'waswritten beforeV.

(1985), Harrison'sfamous profane poem, predating it by over a year, but spraypainting and other forms of vandalismare coveredto a great extent in V. In The Big Hwe can sce Harrison's obsessionwith the issuemore clearly than in his controversiallong pocm from the following year. The similaritiesbetween the two poemsis even more obviouswith the lines:

Let's batter 'em while they're still brats,yes, batter 'em before

They comeand squirt four-letter words all over your front door.

In V. the poet choseto incorporatefour letter words into his poetry, and once it was placedon TV in a semi-styledfilm-poem (1987), the public outragewas well documenteP Obviously the sourcesof V. aremanifold, but we better understandits inspirationsby watching this earlier work.

Other cluesas to the themesof someof Harrison'slater film-poems can be found within The

Big H'. One of the ýnothers'usesthe following lines to justify the slaying of her child:

A mum's 'eart'sas soonas broke:

what motherwants to dream,

her little boy'll be the bloke

who A-bombsHiroshima.

In 1995,Harrison made The Shadowof Hiroshima', a film-poem concernedwith the effect the bombing of the Japanesecity hashad on future generations.Apparently, this subjectwas present in the mind of the poet eventen yearsbefore it was written about at length. It is interestingto note the seedsfor Harrison'sfuture work in his more obscurefilm projects,especially because we are seeingthem visually as well as in print. V. and someof theseother projectswill be discussed later in this chapter.

181 4.3 Developmentwith PeterSymes: 'Of courseit works with death'

After 1985and Harrison'sfilm-poem 'juvcnilia', therewas a lapseof television work by the poet; in fact his only visual output was the play TheMysteries, which was filmed and televiscdin

1985 and 1986.Harrison's popularity was growing, his theatrecontributions were becoming regular, and severalanthologies of his works, both poetic and dramatic,were publishedbetween the years1985-1987. It was not until 1987 that Harrison beganto challengetelevision produccrs again,with clear,detailed ambitions.

ConsideringHarrison's fairly successfulexperiences with Andr6e Molyneux, television seemedto be a field worth conqueringwith poetry, againa place to make poetry 'accessibleto everyone'(Molyneux, 371). The four part series'Loving Memory' (1987) was alreadywell under way by the time Harrisonbecame involved with it, but it seemeda perfect forum to fit poetry back into the 'mainstream'timeslots to reacha massiveaudience. Peter Symes was producing the series,and he wantedto divergefrom ordinary documentary;in fact he felt that it was 'in deep trouble and neededsomething to saveit'(interview, 1997).Thus, five yearsbefore the emergence of the Wordson Film seriesand Symes'experiments with six poets,the producerhad his first experienceworking with verseonscreen with Harrison. Someof the films, however,seem disconnectedor disorganised.In the first and third partsof the series(letters in the Rock'and

The Muffled Bells) thereis much non-poeticcontent, in that there are blocks of ordinary speech mixed betweenthe poetry, much like the scenesdiscussed in ChapterThree about Symes'work with JackieKay and Simon Armitage. The lack of Purepoetry, which Harrison would later insist on, is indicative of the fact that the poet was not involved from the outsetof filming.

Interestingly,the secondand fourth films (Mimmo PerellaNon E Piu'and 'Cheatingthe Void) are thosethat Symesdiscusses most in the two articles he haswritten about 'Loving Memory, which also supportsthe assumptionthat thesewere the most unfinished films at the adventof the

182 poet'sinvolvement. These two films are almost devoid of proseor speechinterludes while the other two partscontain long segmentswith virtually no poetry.

In spite of the poet'sexperience with Molyneux and poetry on telcvision, Harrisondid not ventureforth into this significantly larger budgetedproject without guidance.Harrison 'skilfully adoptsand adaptsGray's Elegy'(Sail, 382) for the four-part series,going so far as to pay homage to the poemby quoting directly from it in the series'secondand third parts.Gray's poem ('Elegy

Written in a Country Churchyard'[1742-50]), is a popular sourcefor gravestoneepitaphs and itself focuseson the way we rememberour dead.Harrison felt that this pocm'smetrc and theme fit the mood that he meantto convey in the television series,and Symcsagreed that it 'provid[cd] the poet with a verseform that he could use throughout'(1995, x). In fact, Harrison'sverses mimic the metreused in Gray'spoem, which allows for the direct quotationfrom the poem in part threeof the series(The Muffled Bells). The transitionsfrom Harrison'sown verseto Gray's is smoothas a result, andmoreover they are a perfect companionto the slow-moving camera pansof churchyardsand tombs.Harrison would continueto use this structurefor most of his future film-poems,as he clairnsin the prefaceto his 1998 film-pocrn Prometheus.14

At first, Symeswas not eagerto work entirely with poetry, as evident from his descriptions of his first meetingswith Harrison:

I had assumedsome poetic content,but he madeit clear that it would have to be all or

nothing - he only wrote verse,and that would be all we would get. I gulped and agreed

(1991,385).

In his introductionto TheShadow ofHiroshima and otherfilm1poents (1995), Symesdescribes

his initial misgivings in greaterdetail:

[Harrison] was no longer interestedin producinga few versesto be tackedonto pictures.

I took a very healthyswig from the wine glassbefore nervouslyassenting. Since no

one I knew had ever attemptedto drive a full-length documentarywith a vcrse

183 commentary,I contentedmyself with the blissful comfort of ignorancc,a comfort that

lasteduntil I returnedto the office to be greetedwith the sort of looks and commcnts

normally associatedwith a bereavement.Only I think I was probably the corpse(ix).

Credit shouldbe given to Symesfor taking such a risk, especiallysince the project was subjectto approvalby his superiorsat the time. Poetry on television was occasional,never announced with much fanfare.Soon after 'hiring' Harrison and providing him with a room 'next door to the film. cutting room'(Symes,1995, x), poetry was suddenlypresent in the studio. Symeshad the vision to allow Harrison'sverse to inform not only the subjectmatter of his films, but to also let it affect the structureof the seriesitself as well.

The film-poemswere to provide an overview of cemeteriesthroughout Europe, focusing on deathrituals in specificplaces, and including interviews with undertakers,gravediggcrs and otherswho work with or are surroundedby the dead.Soon after Harrison'srole became prominent,the interviewsgave way to more original styles of expression;the secondpart of the documentaryseries, 'Mimmo Pirella non E Piu, or Mimmo Pirella is No More'is the best exampleof progress,since poetry is virtually the sole methodof expressionwithin the film. This programmecontains some harrowing footageof grave exhumations,and shotsof the treatmentof year-old corpsesmake for somestartling viewing, but perhapsthe scenesare not as difficult to watch as they shouldbe. After The Big Wand the scenesof mock bloodshedwithin, the poet seemedto grow comfortablewith poetry as a suitablelink with horrific images.

Both Harrison and Symesunderstood the effectivenessbehind linking poetry with 'strange and rathergruesome'images (Symes, 1991,387). At many points in the four-part series,the poetry compelsus to look at unpleasantvisuals, from the rows of skulls inside a massivetomb to

Neapolitanexhumations. It is during thesescenes that the poetry seemsthe most effective in termsof interactionwith the image.Over the exhumation,Harrison speaksthe following lines:

184 Under a blanketwith a yellow cross

He clutchesa crucifix in leatherclaw

And leavesa wife and sisterwith the wounds of loss

That won't heal till they too are "no more".

Symeswrites aboutthis momentin particular, describinghow the first line aboutthe yellow crossis simply descriptive,'supporting what we can see'(1991,387). But Harrison doesnot allow the verseto stop there,states Symes, but injects a more meaningfulclement after the obviousis put forth, one that is not visible (we never seethe supposedcrucifix) and one which further developsthe humanitariantrend that Harrison usesin this scenewith the family of

Vincenzo Cicatiello. The poetry allows us to feel someof the emotionsthat the Cicaticllo family must be feeling as the exhumationtakes place. It is both enlighteningand personalas well as full of uneasiness.Symes writes on this sceneand of the morejarring material in the series:

This sequenceshould leave the viewer in no doubt of verse'sgreat advantage over prose:

its ability to draw peoplein, and then tell them uncomfortablethings without having

them turn away; its ability to be subjective;its ability to transformand illuminate (1991,

387).

This establishesthe film-poem as the kind of medium that is sometimes suited to incorporating disturbingmaterial into its subject,often to make strongerpoints or provide it with a more

'great stimulatinglife of its own. Harrisonwould continueto recogniseverse's advantageover prose'in his subsequentworks, especiallywhen dealingwith difficult visual material.

The seriesclimaxed with 'Cheatingthe Void, which was the most travel-orientatedepisode of the four. Innovationsoccurring throughout the making of the films also culminatedin an artistic high point for the filmmakers involved during the editing of this part of the series.

Working for the first time with a larger budget,more freedomand flexibility, and with an entire

teamof film personnelversus just one produceror director, the poet againrealised his own

185 similarities, in termsof his work's paceand style, to that of the editor. Symescomments on this factor, one that is visible in the films themselves,by discussingthe similarities bctwccn the editor'sand poet's concerns about constructing their respectivepieces:

In both, the creatormanipulates image and rhythm; in both he is conccmedwith

momentum,structure and repetition; and in both there is the sametinkering and fine-

tuning, the samerunning and re-runningof sequenceand of whole until the process

appearsto be working (385-6).

By realising the aboveaspects of film-making that were similar to his own writing, Harrison grew more and more awareof film and poetry'snatural inclination towardseach other. lie also grew more awareof the kinds of techniquesthat were availableto him as a poet, suddenlygiven the magic-boxof film stylistics that could be plunderedin order to best expressan idea in verse.

For example,in 'Cheatingthe Void', fadesare useda few times; in one instanceto accompanythe word 'oblivion'the film fadesto black. Thesetechniques and othersprovide the film with a true senseof the fine-tuning both the editor and the poet value. They also makethe film look modern, professionaland creatively constructed.More stylistic elementswere to follow, as Harrison and the filmmakerslearned which poetic devicesbest correspondedto fades,dissolves, jump cuts and various focal techniques.I will study someof theseinnovations gradually in this thesis,sclecting someof the bestexamples of eachfrom the many film-poems Harrison haswritten.

In a review of the I-oving Memory'series,critic LawrenceSail providesone of the only professionalacademic opinions that exist from someoneuninvolved with the project itself

(1991). " Sail discusses'Loving Memory', but also commentson the entire relationshipbetween film and poetry. His is an excellentearly observationabout the dynamicsbetween the two forms of art, one that exploresmany of the film-poem's individual characteristics,like its brand of

cinematography,soundtrack and content.Sail, unlike other early critics of the synthesisof film

and poetry, doesnot dismissthe two media togetheras 'mutually distracting'(383), but instead

186 recognisesthe 'parallel'betweenthe two and 'the way in which picturesand words fulfil onc another'(383).Sail's critique also includesthe first notation of a specific film-pocm tcchniqueby a critic uninvolvedwith the production itself- he writes of the use of the close-upin the scrics, which 'invit[es] us to considersurface and texture in a way (and, again,at a slow pace)unusual

for television'(3 83). Indeedthe close-upis usedlargely in the series.As Harrison introducesa

subject,the cameraoften cuts to a close-upof that object with a satisfying accuracy,much like a

close-upwould featurein a 'normal' documentary.However, the rhythm of the poetry and the

precisionof the cuts to close-upsmake for an altogetherdifferent effect upon the viewer. The

viewer feels as if he were 'gliding'(383) through the film, and through the numerousplaces the

film itself covers.Cuts become effortless, and are only distinctly noticeablewhen the poetry

breaksto allow a new stanzato begin. When lines are readacross a cut betweenshots, even

betweenphysical locations, the viewer doesnot always detectthe transition. On the other hand

this is somewhatof a problem in film-poems, since it is very easyto lose track of the movement

of a film-poem that coversmuch geographicalground (as in 'Cheatingthe Void, which travels

through Paris, Genoa, Menton, Venice, Milan and Hamburg in forty minutes). The transitions are

often not specifically announced,sometimes only mentionedonce, and if a line or shot is missed,

one can easily be oblivious to where that part of the film-poem is based.Sail calls the film-poem

'adventurous'and 'sprightly', and to a greatdegree he is right, but his commentslead the viewer to

suspectthat if a film-poem is not carefully followed, it is possibleto fail to gain an understanding

of or misinterpretits sensibilitiesand statements,even the subjectmatter of the film itself.

Therefore,the close-updoes provide artistic value, but if one was to evaluatethe practical sense

of a film-poem and its typical spatialor cinematographicstructure, close-ups between shots

would be a critical drawback.

187 Harrisonwas to embarkon many more projectswith Symes,but decidedto first place his experiencesin the world of film alongsidewhat was and probably still is his most famous,most controversialpoem, V. (1987).

4.4 Cursing in Prime Time: V. on TV

If Tony Harrison'sprevious television material escapedthe generalpublic eye,V. was the project that not only gainedhim more of a reputationas a poet, but as a poet that was suddenly much more visible than many of his contemporaries.The televisedversion of his long pocrn generateda greatdeal of controversy,much of which is included in the secondedition of the

individual poemby BloodaxeBooks (1989). The televisedpoem was not purely a rilm-pocm,

meaningthat it did not containa consistentstream of visual interpretationof the lines from

beginningto end. Of course,the film was madewell after the poem had beenwritten, so the main

criterion for the film-poern-makingprocess was not relevantin any case.Nevertheless, this film

is worth discussingsince it drawson many of the techniqueslearned in the poet'sfirst

endeavours.

For the first few minutes,the film appearsto be a standarddocumentary, with Harrison

discussinghis backgroundand inspirationfor the poem. His commentaryis first deliveredin

voiceover,and then directly to the camera,as he walks in the Leedscemetery where his parents

and family areburied. There is nothing exceptionallyartistic or unusualabout the way these

openingscenes are shot.Following his personalintroduction there is a departurefrom the

cemeteryand the surroundingsof Leeds,with the words:

There'sroom for one more body in this graveand it could be mine. When I think about

returninghere to be buried, to be united with the peoplewho are buried herealready: the

butcher,the publican and the baker, I haveto ask myself how what I do, poetry, relates

to what they provided, the basic essentialsof life: bread,meat and beer.

188 In this way, Harrisonprovides the viewer with a blunt, brief explanationof the subjectof his personalpoem, inviting us to considerhis angstabout his familial roots versushis own lcgacy as a poet. This concludesthe justification of V., as the poem'spresentation is prefacedby a spccch by Winston Churchill, and scenesof Adolf Hitler and marchingNazis. Especiallydestructive momentsin warfare are shown,incorporating real footagefrom World War 11,and the scgmcnt concludeswith various expressionsof V for Victory'. These'Vs'are what lead us into the somewhatabrupt commencement of the readingof Harrison'spoem. In a seriesof three shots,a still of a handmaking the V-sign is brought into close up. The quote that precedesthe poem appearshere, by Arthur Scargill."' They quickly fade to reveal the gravesof the Ixeds cemetery in a sinking tracking shot,moving amidst the spokenopening lines of the poem:

Next millennium you'll haveto searchquite hard

to find my slab behindthe family dead,

butcher,publican, and baker,now me, bard

addingpoetry to their beef, beer and bread.

It is clear that Harrisonwanted to easehis audienceinto this long, often shockingpoem, since theselines literally repeatwhat Harrisonhimself discussesin his introductory commentsabout his family and origin. It is likely that his lack of subtlety aboutthis poem'stheme and subjectis presentbecause he wants his point to be explicit, and poetry is not always the most easily understoodmotif on television.He may also want peopleto understandthe justification for the swearwordswithin the poem,so he immediatelyintroduces the audienceto his coarsefamily background,an act of familiarisation. 41 This film-poem interspersesshots that relateto the poetry spokenby Harrisonwith simple

scenesof the poet readingto a small group of people,in a small room with a black background.

The peoplein the audienceare usually in the foregroundof eachshot, and the camera moves

aroundthe room, circling the poet, creatingan active,unsettled atmosphere suitable for this

189 disturbingpoem. The filmed version of 'V. doesnot stop at creatingan interestingsurrounding for the readingof the poem; it is much more than a collection of suitableimagcs highlighting a conventionalreading. It is anotherhybrid form within a hybrid genre,an experimentalpiece that innovatesas it narrates.

RichardEyre, the film's director, calls the poem and film 'a celebrationof the ambiguitiesof what it wouldn't be too grand to call the humancondition' (1989,38). Theseambiguities make the film-poem indeeddifficult to pinpoint, sincethe visual contentof the film is as unpredictable as the emanationof the next curse.Eyre remembersthe outrageabout the poem,and recountsthe

'free publicity'(37) the film receivedbefore it was aired, sincethe censorswere striving to preventit from being shown.Yet he also tells an interestingstory aboutone of the 'disinterested' viewers of the poem:the film's editor (Ray Weedon),who simply claimed that poetry was 'not for [him](37). As discussedabove, film-poets are acutelyaware of the problemsthat poetry presentsin the public eye, and the reputationthat precedesit. One of the goalsmany film-poems set is to makepoetry more palatablefor the averageviewer, as discussedby Molyneux, Symes and others.Eyre relateshow it was a pleasureto study Weedon,the archetypalpoetry-hater:

becomedrawn into the poem so that he felt eachnuance, each rhyme, eachrhythm, each

shift of thoughtwith an ever increasingvividness (37).

The editor was quite takenwith the poem,to the extent that Weedoneventually stated that the work wasTucking amazing'(38).This kind of commentis probably the greatestcompliment for a poet, basedon its source,and could be more highly regardedas a recommendationthan the opinions of astutecritics. " In fact, one editorial aboutthe poemclaims that the 'programme proved most conclusivelythat most poetry is renderedprosaic by visual illustration' (Tookey,

1987,74). In argumentwith this point, it would be more appropriateto statethat the poetry beginsto lose its conspicuousnature as specific, measuredverse, and takeson a lively and more easily consumableair. To say that it becomesprosaic seems to be slightly off the mark, sinceat

190 all times it is clear that we are hearingdistinct poetry with an abab rhyme scheme.However, this opinion is positive, since it advocatesthat the poetry doesindeed succeed when illustrated,no matterhow that illustration is interpreted.

V. is a film that usesa variety of cameraand editing techniquesto illustrate a complicated, dialogical poem.Some of them appearstrange at first, unconnectedto the vcrsc. Rather,the accompanyingverse needs close attentionso that the techniquesmake sense. For instance,at one point in the film, a seriesof words appearonscreen through a numberof media.The graffiti we by now are familiar with is situatedwith neonlights and advertisementsfrom a city square.With the spokenwords 'wherekids use aerosols,use giant signs'there is a shot of somegraffiti that

readsI love you mad girl', andwith the line 'Arms are hoistedfor the British ruling class'there is

a closeup on the word 'ROYAL'from a building's facade.But becausethe word is only onscreen

for aboutthree seconds, and it is nestledin betweenan amalgamof similar word-image

combinations,it is difficult to graspthe immediatesignificance behind the juxtaposition at first

glance.Rather a simple concept,in that the 'ruling class'is indeedthe 'royal'one, it can be lost in

the frantic array of imagesthat are presentedin such segmentO

When readingthe poem Von its own, the frequentswearwords appear to standout

dramatically;therefore a proposalto cinematicallyadopt this poemwas understandablymet with

controversy.Yet, interestingly,the imagesattached to the poem (and the vulgar versesin

particular) seemto dull the impact of someindividual words, making us anticipatewhat will

comenext insteadof dwelling on the profanity. Harrison'sreading is potent,with his familiar

'dreadtones', and it is very possiblethat his style addsa professionalismto the reading,which

makethe swearwordsless offensive and more meaningful.We soon forget (after a few of the

initial curses)that thesewords arebeing usedin prime time at all, but we begin to pay attention

to why they arebeing usedand in what context.The imagesdistract us from the very presenceof

191 the words, and force us to ask why they are there. In spite of '47 expletivesin 448 lincs'(Ilislop,

1987,62), thereis lessof a concernabout 'filth'(Hislop, 62) on television than therearc questionsprobing the purposeof the allegedtrash-talk. More importantly, since the words are in themselvesdramatic and evoke a responsein the viewer/listenerwhen facedwith an image that accompanieswords like 'fuck'and'shit', viewers are compelledto makea judgementbased on observation.While one of the most obscenity-filledlines is readby Harrison,we cut from a shot of him readingto his audienceto shotsof a gang of youths running through the Lecdsccmetcry, with occasionalclose-ups of their spray-cansin use.This is a segmentin which Harrison

employsa techniquehe would finely tune in future projects:the use of anothervoice, this one a

skinheadthat he inventsfor the purposeof argumentationabout social classin this poem.There

are eight expletivesin sixteenlines in this sceneof the film-poem, and Harrison emphatically

enunciatesthe swearwords,sinking to the skinhead'slevel but also displaying his hard-edged

understandingof his character'spoint of view. This sceneis not only polyphonic,but introduces

the most importantconflict of the film, in that the central crisis of Harrison'slife is itself being

debated:is his own heritageitself too much a crippling detrimentto his aspirationsof poetic

ability? Through a twistedjustification of the skinhead's'scrawl', giving it ligher meaning'(V.,

line 211), Harrisonseems to win the argument.By line 282, Harrison enableshimself to reveal

the identity of the vandalisingvoice: it is his own. In a brilliant biographical,introspective study,

Harrison extendsthe V, the 'versus',to signify inner conflict betweentwo warring personalities

inside himself, constructingthe skinheadimmediately as an alter ego.The V-sign containsmuch

meaningin this film-poem, from a simple abbreviation(as in Sheffield Wednesdayv. Sheffield

United) to aV for Victory'symbol, to the YHarrison usesto standbetween classic clashing

notions in British history, symbolising 'divisionsof class,gender, religion, [and] language'

(Morrison, 1987,57)."' A further study of the issuescovered in this film-poem is far too

complicatedto exploreat this point in this thesis,since I havechosen a later piece, Harrison's'A

192 Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'(1994) as the exampleof his work upon which I most duly concentrate.Yet, V. standsas the exploratorybenchmark that pavedthe way for Harrison'sbest material.

4.5 Further Development of the Film-Poem

After the controversyand successof V., Harrisonworked on a numberof dramaticprojects, some of which havenever been performed, but othersstand as important examplesof his own developmentas a writer. In 1989,he wrote and filmed one of his most influential and well- known film-poems, The Blaspherners'Banquet.A defenceof SalmanRushdie, this film-poem was written as an expressionof the frustrationHarrison felt at the public acceptanceof Rushdie's freedom 1991,388- prohibition. Harrisonindeed felt it 'a monstrousthreat to of speech'(Symes, became 9), and luckily receivedan opportunityto write aboutthe issuewhen a slot availableon

BBC1's Byline series,which often 'allows strongopinions to be aired'(Symes,1991,389). As

film-poem in further detail in MA previously noted,I havediscussed this my thesis,which documentsSymes'personal feelings aboutthe project. It was at this point that Symesfelt

Harrison and he were beginningto cooperatemost successfully,reaching an unprecedented began understandingof the 'symbiotic'nature of the material,where they to allow the poetry

Work'for them (interview, 1997). It remains Symes'favourite of Harrison's television work

(1995), surviving throughmuch metamorphosis,including a completeoverhaul of the film's

'Headsin the Sand',based original title and key motif, a seriesof on the religious stoningsthat 1995, had startedto take place in Iran'(Symes, xv).

For a piece that was rushed(in fact the filmmakers spentabout forty dayson it, and by its 1991,394]), it influence completionwere 'exhausted'[Symes, managedto most strongly the

193 processof making film-poems.According to Symes,the constructionof The Blasphemers'

Banquet'inspired powerful realisationregarding the fusion of poetry and film:

It was madewith a passionborn of intenseanger in the ridiculously short spaceof about

eight weeks,on a tight budget(1995, xiv).

Although risky, this flexible approachto film-making offers enormousbenefits: images,

words, music and soundsall contributeto the whole on their own terms,and not as

someweaker accompaniment, so while the verseremains the lynchpin of the whole

operationthe other elementsare never downgraded(1991,393).

The settingof a meal in a restaurantreplaced the original idea for the film's centre-pieceas a dominant conceit,where the banquetwould be attendedby various poetsor writers accusedof blasphemyin their own time. One of the work's primary strengthsis that it createda forum for other elementsof the production,in that the poetry is balancedamongst them. In somecases, the poet'svoice is not heard,preferring 'the image [to] do the work, 'enhancedhere and thereby an occasionaltrick like slow-motionor enlargement,or by a dazzling score'(Symes,1995, xvi).

Symesadmits that this film achievedsomething elusive for all artistry: that speciallevel where the piece beginsto govern itselL In fact, Symesattests that sometimesthe rhythm was for automaticallyselected, even before specific poetry a scenewas written:

Oneparticular shot startson an obscenescrawl paintedon a boardedup door, and

travelsfrom it acrossa wall, over an Urdu notice, along a fence,ending finally on the

domeof an unfinishedmosque. " In the finished film it coversfour quatrains,and allows

an unstoppablemomentum to build up in the versethat then continuesinto the

wonderful meditationon transiencethat lies at the heartof the piece. None of the

quatrainsthat later accompanythis shot had beenwritten when we filmed it, but

neverthelessthe ghostof the metre determinedthe way in which it was filmed. We had

begunto trust eachother (1995,xvii).

194 it is this 'ghost'that filmmakersprobably find most valuable,the senseof timing and level of understandingthat is an intangibleasset in any visual medium of art, especiallyfilm. Once this

determinationhad beenachieved, Harrison and his collaboratorswere ready to take their film- poem-making skills further, creatingthese productions more regularly over subsequentyears.

Harrison'snext works for televisionbecame subjectively bolder over the following years.

Focussingmainly on someof the crisesthat personallyinterested Harrison, their subjectmatter

ranged from the excavationof a Gorgon'shead (The Gazeof the Gorgon', 1992) to the political

and social problemsplaguing the newly formed country of Kazakhstan(A Maybe Day in

Kazakhstan',1994), to the fiftieth anniversaryof the bombing of Hiroshima (The Shadowof

Hiroshima', 1995).These pieces adopted a particularly Harrisonian.technique that more fully

evolved in The Gazeof the Gorgon':the use of a 'guide'that acts as a companionthroughout the ' poetry, a visual and poetic escort? A statueof the GermanJewish poet Heinrich Heine is the

guide in this film, much like the burnt outline of a man'(Symes, 1995,xxii), frozen in stonein

Hiroshima, providessuch a servicein 1995'spiece. As the film-poems grew increasinglyintense

and complicated, the use of a character to assist the viewer graduated into a trademark of the

poet'sprecision, and Harrisonwould continueits usagethroughout the rest of his work,

especiallyin 1998sPrometheus.

1993 brought a piece about individuals that suffer from Alzheimer's disease, called 'Black

Daisies for the Bride', which was slightly different from the other works since the versewritten

for the film's performerswas meantto be sung.This film is primarily notablebecause it is a more

precisely honedattempt to 'interweaveperformance with documentary'(Symes, 1995, xxi), in 'Arctic somethingthat was somewhatattempted Paradise,and becauseit was the winner of the

Trix Italia'in 1993for best documentary(Symes, 1995, xxi). The film employsactresses and

actualpatients, and is 'moving evidencethat the rescuingfrom oblivion of individual historiesis

195 inseparable from Harrison'slarger historical 135). still ... and political conccms'(Spcncer,

Harrison'sgift for welding the personalwith the public would continueto developonscreen.

Incidentally, both Slack Daisiesfor the Bride'and The Shadowof Hiroshima'acquircda degreeof critical acclaimthat allowed Harrison'swork to garnerthe level of respectthat invited financial backing,and indeedChannel Four Productionsto grant him over a million poundsto

spendon a production.In his review of the film and volume, critic Mick Imlah describesThe

Shadowof Hiroshima'as a piecein whichverse and image are inventively contrasted,taking

turns to apply the greaterpressure'(1995,18). Harrison's work was now the subjectof much

attention,and his materialwas beginningto eclipsethe marginal or experimental.

I have selected'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'as a film-poem fit for closer study. One reason

for this is becauseit hasbeen virtually ignoredacademically, and anotherreason is becausethe

piece containsmany examplesof the stridesthe poet was making in developinghis film-poems,

before 1998'sPrometheus, his first and only feature-lengthproject of verseand film. A

discussionof the featurewill follow this next section,which I intend to function as an isolated

film-poem. model for the analysis of a Harrisonian

4.6 A Film-Poem Protocol

The most direct mannerof studyingthis style of the combinationof film and poetry is by

choosingone specific film-poem as a prime example,and treating it like a completesynthesis.

An excellentmodel is Harrison's'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'(1994),a film-poem which is a

study and a 'montage'of the modem day former Soviet stateand its prospectsfor the future. It is

directedby both Harrison and Mark Kidel, and editedby Julian Sabbath.Harrison focuseson the

modem issuesand/or problems concerning the country today and creatively expressesthe

confusingnature of the Kazakhpeoples' identity, both in termsof the past and in terms of their

musingsabout the future of the nation. Harrison and the filmmakers accomplishthis by merging

196 powerful and especiallysymbolic imageswith rhythmic (thoughoccasionally predictable) rhyming poetry in iambic tetrameter.The intertextualnature of this material,considering the historical and socio-politicalcontext to the work, makesthe piece a prime exampleof the manifold issuesthat may be confrontedwhen analysinga film-poem. For viewers who know virtually nothing aboutKazakhstan, versus viewers with professionalexpertise, this film-pocm can both illuminate andprovoke. Presented in a familiar documentarystyle, this film-poem is both a newseditorial and a stylistic dramaabout a foreign culture. It is at once an interestingand

absorbingstudy, and the intercommunicationthat the piece managesto maintain with the pcople

of the troublednation is further demonstratedby its inclusion of their dialogue,their actual

voices, in its script of poetry.

Today Kazakhstanis describedas a placewhere many racesand nationalitiesof peoplecome

togetherand form a society,similar in theory to past descriptions,as idealistic as they may have

been,of America. In Kazakhstanthese proverbial adagesare lesspronounced or even absent,but

it is likely that they arereplaced by expressionsof uncertaintyand fear, expressionsthat are

intrinsically uncomfortableor themselveswary of deepermeaning. The truth is that the peopleof

Kazakhstanare unsureof themselvesas an independentnation or culture, and they are also

unsureabout what is noble or sacredabout their past. This is not to say that the Kazakh people

are permanentlyin a stateof aimlessness,like certainKazakhs'nomadic forefathers, but to say

that a theoreticalbattle is being wagedwithin Kazakhstanbetween ethnic and nationalistic (Akiner, notions of identity and or definition 1995,2). Harrison hasbeen able, even as a

foreigner, to ask two questionsthat someeconomists and sociologistsmay be thinking aboutas

well: will Kazakhstanfully and successfullymove towardsa capitalist economyand rid itself of

all tracesof Communismand Soviet rule, and,perhaps more importantly:

Will Kazakhstancontribute to regional tensionsby fostering ethnic confrontation,or

will it succeedin developinga model of ethnic harmony?(Akiner, 3).

197 In 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan,Harrison poses these questions, among others, in a less technical fashion,but by way of poetic understatement.Therefore, there is less of a comparison with a classicAmerican 'melting-pot'but more so with the problematicvision of the superpower as a disjointed land, racially and culturally divided. Perhapstoo much of the nomadiccharacter remains infusedinto Kazakhstan'ssocial mind-set.In any case,it seemsthat many issuesremain somewhat'under surveillance'though not by the KGB, in Kazakhstan.I will now analyse

Haffison's film-poem, sometimesshot-by-shot.

4.6.1 The Opening Shot

Kazakhstanhas officially beenan independentnation sinceDecember of 1991.Since the

Soviet Union abruptly disassembled,Kazakhstan was forced to deal with the destructionof 'the

the Kazakhidentity had beenformed' (Akiner, 62). entire context... within which modem

Haffison poetically and filmically dealswith this study of the developmentof 'Kazakh-ness'by

beginning his film-poem with an establishingshot of a city wall, a grey and ordinary backdrop

devoid of meaning,like a blank canvaswaiting for the addition of colour. Yet, as the camera

vertically scansthe wall towardsits base,we seethat it is old and crumbling. At its bottom, we

come acrossa collection of mementoesfrom the Kazakhstanipast which havealso, it appears,

fallen into disuse:a picture of a Soviet leader,a Russianbook, somefishing nets, and various

Russiantoy dolls and babushkas.This shot and its elementsare a statementof the breakdownof

the country'straditions from the yearsbefore, while also being an appropriatesetting for

Harrison'smelancholic vocals when readinghis poetry:

A city wall not quite surewhere,

no May Day postersplastered there.

Although its May Day no parade

disturbsthe new free world of trade,

198 only the memoryof a choir

and from it one voice rising higher

out of a red doll standing near a

man who bows a Black Sea lyra.

There is much to be said aboutthese opening lines and abouttheir accompanyingimages and soundtrack.The wall is symbolic (the first symbol in a film-poem ladenwith meaningfulobjects) of disintegration,much like the Communistgovernment that the now defunct Soviet Union had championed. The wall is also in a place 'not quite sure where', giving it a senseof randomness, a

items) universality. Yet, at the base of the wall we are shown elements (the toys and Russian indicative of specificnational identity. This plain grey wall is now the relic of a much older

A indeedbegins presenceand/or past evil, a symbol of loss and estrangement. strangescene this film-poem, unsettlingand ironic, sincefreedom's gain is by definition liberating and inspiring. just But no colours of patriotism arepresent (no May Day postersplastered there), the memories few of a hazardouspast (hence the netting), and a children'stoys, possibly representingthe nation's innocencein pastpolitics. To make the scenarioeven more relevant,this film-poem was first broadcast on May 1,1994, 'May Day', the former traditional annual celebration of the

Communistgovernment. This extendedpun in the title of the work expressesan uncertaintyin the minds of Kazakhstan'speople, specifically directedat notions of the primary culture in the

country.

May Day, a day of festival, organisedtraditional celebrationsand military paradesis here

depictedas grey, uneventfuland un-sensational;the peoplein Kazakhstango abouttheir

film, if it So is 'no everydaybusiness on this day throughoutthe as were any other. there parade',

just a market day and a reflection on pastcelebration, the !memory of a choir'. As the film-poem 'characters' progresses,we seehow Harrison's attemptto resuscitatetheir roots and/or revive the by instruments dancing,but celebratorynature of May Day playing musical or every attempt

199 seemsthwarted by someother force or occurrence.This preventionis due to an underlying problem, a private Kazakhstaniplague about which we will soonbe madeaware. Through the ironical usageof the word 'Maybe'for 'May'and the synthesisof the poetry with the image,the extendedmetaphor for this uncertainnation and its presentor former inhabitantsbecomes a type of conceit,used as a tool throughout.This desirefor music or celebrationexpresses torn emotionsas well: the peoplestill want to experiencethe festivities of May Day, but reject the former regime as its source. The 'Maybe'Day is the possibility of that revival, in that someday maybe there shall be a holiday the Kazakbswill celebrateto commemoratetheir own nationality,

culture and independence.

In termsof music, the backgroundtune we hearas the title of this work appearson-screen

(in deepred) is the Socialistanthem The Red Flag', but also known as '0 Tannenbaum',the

GermanChristmas song. The melody maintainsits political significancein this production,and

in this first instance,like many others,it is abruptly cut off, as Harrison'sgravity-laden voice

takesover as the primary soundtrack.However, it is important to note that the anthemsounds

being This detail insight into crackly and tinny, clearly a vinyl record played. provides the

generalpurpose of the film collaborators;the point is to give the viewer a doubledsense of past is hand infamous, hated or historical background: the song on one a presumably Socialist

beloved Christmas Neither lyrics in film-poem, but anthem, and on the other a song. are sung the be in lyrics at a later point the song'stune will used a reworkedoperatic manner, with sung that

reflect one of this work's primary messages.

This techniquepoints directly at a manifold meaningin the use of this particular melody.

Though '0 Tannenbaum'isGerman, reason suggests that this carol, which plays at various times

throughoutthe production,is alsoused to commemoratethe questionableand complicated

Decemberriots'and periodsof aggressionthat occurredin 1986 in Moscow. During thesetimes,

Kazakhstaniyouths expressed public angerand frustration in Red Squareat the removal of the

200 one Kazakhrepresentative member in the Soviet government.Replacing the KazakhFirst Party

Secretary,Dinmukhamed Kunayev, with a Russian,Gunnady Kolbin, was a stepthat incensed the Kazakhstanpeople, and incited a group of studentsto march into the Russiancapital and demandto know the motive behindthe move. When threesenior officials tried to deal with the protesters,the riots beganwith cries of We don't want to talk to you traitors'and barragesof snowballs.Eventually some of the young peoplewere 'takento meet Kolbin', but many of them were not heardfrom again.After this, fights broke out, 'the tankswere brought in and several peoplewere fatally injured' (Akiner, 55). Thus, the seedswere sown for the period of 'violent occurrences'throughout the Soviet Union from 1988-1991,many of them happeningclose to the

Christmasholidays. Today Kazakhs:

feel that thoseDecember days had markeda watershedin Russian-Kazakhrelations; for

all their protestationsof amity and fraternal assistance,the Russiancommunity

remainedsilent when the Kazakhdemonstrators were being subjectedto excessively

rough treatment,as thoughtheir liberal, pro-democracyviews did not extendto

Kazakhstan'(Akiner, 56).

Hence the ironic, but perfectly bi-dimensional usage of a Christmas song and a Socialist anthem that is suddenlyinterrupted, much as the Kazakh (and Russian)holidays were most likely

interrupted during the winter of 1986 (and in succeeding years as well). From a wider

disintegration Communist perspective,this could also further reflect the sudden of the regime, intact 'switching abortedin its struggleto stay with a metaphorical off.

This meaningfulopening scene also providesa first look at someobjects that will appear

Most base,including repeatedlythroughout the film-poem. notableare the props at the wall's the help red dolls and babushkas.The trinkets to assimilatea senseof place and ethnicity after the

introductionupon a plain grey wall. Imagesof thesediverse items, combinedwith the words of

Harrison and somehistorical or contextualknowledge, signify the torn spirit of the modem

201 Kazakh: a persononce taught to obey and follow the strictestof laws who simultaneouslyyearns for the ability to establisha personalidentity and for a stable,powerful nationalgovernment. At once,we are treatedto the first confrontationbetween the ethnic and nationalisticconcerns of the peopleof Kazakhstan.As the cameracuts away from theseobjects, one doll is left to escortus to the next segmentof the film. Gradually,almost ominously,we are introducedto shotsof people and scenesof the market,presumably in Kazakhstan(although we are uninformedas to a particular city or locationwithin the nation). The first representativeof the people,'the lyra man' now makesan entrance.

4.6.2 The Lyra Man and his 'Countrymen'

The first true figure to appearin the film-poem, the 'Iyra man', is just that: a man who plays a lyra, a Greek/Africanstringed instrument that appearsa crossbetween a violin and a guitar. The lyra's relationshipto Kazakhculture is unclear,but the instrumentis usedas a symbol of culture and antiquity, and as a result, of cultural pride. The lyra musician is an ageing, jovial veteran who has the problems of a nation etched into his wrinkled skin. He is a mark of experience, an elementthat is much neededin the film, thoughhe saysonly one word and plays only one tune.

The word is the nameof the nation, and the tune soundsMiddle Easternbut is presumably

Kazakh in origin. He appearsas if he were a streetperformer, providing the diegetic musical backgroundfor the city's peopleas they mill aboutthe marketplace,browsing and playing chess. it is the lyra man who servesas speakerand as audienceguide since Harrison 'seek[s]directions from the man'.This hints at a certainanonymity to the area,since the man'snational identity is unconfirmed.Perhaps he is Greek,like the instrumenthe plays, andjust one of the membersof the many nationalitiescommonly represented in most Kazakh cities.

By way of a seriesof cuts in the market scene,the areaappears extremely crowded yet happy and bustling; the camerais momentarilyforced out of focus againand againby passingwalkers

202 and shoppers.Random shots of a laughing, active peopleare shownwhile the lyra man'stune pervadesthe entire scene. However, a few momentsafter the intrusionof a few tubanotes into the lyra melody (from a tuba,briefly pictured,obviously locatednearby) a shot of a heavy- looking hammermterj ects into the scene.A loud 'clank' causesall of the music to ccase. immediatelyfollowing the suddensilence, an old woman statesstraight into the cameraat us with fearftil eyes.

This scenecould symbolisethe same'failure to unitethat Kazakhstanis itself now experiencing.Since the music crashesto a halt as anotherinstrument (the tuba) entersthe tune of the lyra, perhapsHarrison is comparingthis chaotic music to the plight of Kazakhstanas a nation. Voices', like people,seem unable to really integratewith eachother. Yet sometry, like the potentially Greeklyra musician,by playing an un-Greektune. The attemptto mergehis melody with someother tune,however, fails. The hammer,one half of the hammer-and-sickle emblemof the Soviet flag, also is a symbol of the repressionof Soviet rule. This type of governmentdid not encourageethnic mixing; it thrust everyonetogether, ignoring negativeor Turks, Middle-Easterners positive results. Greeks, Germans, and others, seized from Soviet territories and from the much-travelledSilk Way, were regardedas prisonersof war. By Stalin's ordersthey were shippedoff to be collectivisedin Kazakhstanand other then-Russianplaces.

Consequently,many peoplestoically preservedtheir traditions from before forced integration, and a Kazakh identity or individual tradition would not emerge.No nation can build its own culture when its citizensdo not haveany ties to or relationswith eachother. Of course,and to (or makematters worse, the additionof age-oldclan 'khan) competition amongnative Kazakhs

did not help mattersof integration,but inhibited cultural developmentstill more. This problem

still existstoday as Kazakhstanstruggles to harnessits potential for power and influence in world in politics, being territorially rich natural resources,and often termed'the SaudiArabia of Central

203 Asia'(Sadeghi, 1998).Unfortunately, differences in origin, either through khan or nationality, consistentlyimpede progress.

As a curiousbut appropriateingredient, after the hammer'sclank and the lyra's silcncing, a new, saddirge emergesto accompanythe following scenes.Shots of citizens looking solemnand grave replacethe laughing,lively facial expressionswe had previouslybeen treated to. In tcms of compositionalsimilarity, it is interestingto note that, precedingand succeedingthe shotsof the hammer,all framescontain only individuals. We move, however,from generallyhappy facial expressionsto thoseexpressions connoting despair or depression,yet still on the samepeople.

None of theseshots catch another entire person'sface in its frame. This suggeststhat Kazakhstan, as cinematicallysymbolised, is a nation of individuals who think they standon their own, avoiding or loathing contactand unification with others.Mehrdad Sadeghi, an Iranian businessmanand frequent visitor to Kazakhstan,observes:

It seemsthat Kazakhtribes are still vying for power amongeach other, and since they

havenot learnedto successfullyco-exist with eachother, they certainly havenot learned

to cohabitate well with those from completely foreign cultures (interview, 1998).

All evidenceseems to supportan underlying messageregarding the problemsthat unity and mixing are causingin Kazakhstan,a messagethat is both metaphoricallyand directly statedin this film-poem. Shotsof peopleduring the sadder,slower melody persistas shotsof lone figures, nevergroups of people,and both sequencesof theseshots are connectedto different forms of music. Music will turn out to be a useful transmitterof messagesin this film-poem, as one examplehas alreadyproven, but the problemsof attemptsat harmonywill be even more preciselydemonstrated later in the program.

204 4.6.3 InsertedDialogue

Before any of the abovescenes, however, the lyra man is functional only in that he plays his

tune and statesthe nameof his country. Though he is the only one to play the particular pieceof

music we hearat this point (but not the only musicianto appearin this film-poem), he is not the

only one to say the country'sname. Numerous faces randomly mutter 'Kazakhstan'during this

film, but it is worthwhile noting that place namesare the only insertsof spokendialogue within

this film-poem, the only 'synchronouscontributions from bystandersthat are woven into the

verse'(Symes, 1995, xxi). This is a featurediffering from much of Harrison'sother work, until

2002, and from most other film-poems as well. Harrison must havebeen more resoluteabout

poetry as the solevoice in this piece,since his deliberateinsertion of the nameof the country

insists on his rhyming with it aswell, I seekdirections from the man / who welcomesme to

Kazakhstan!'The spokenplace names, of which most are 'Kazakhstan',stand out a little too

sorely at times, but maybethis is deliberate.In somelater lines, especiallythose that mention

'Georgia'and'Sukhum',the occasionallysuccessive words interrupt the poetic rhythm of the lines

that Harrison is usually cautious to maintain in his voice-overs. Similar examples will be

examinedshortly, but it is importantto note that thesescenes are indeedthe only momentsin

which Harrison'snon-diegetic narration absorbs the diegetic,mingling with the only examplesof

'character' speech.

Numerousother film-poemsby poetssuch as FredDAguiar, Jackie Kay, Roy Fisher,and

Harrisonhimself haveall usedlengthier spoken dialogue and extendedmoments of proseto

enhancetheir poetry, sometimesusing theseprosaic segments as metaphorswithin their works.

At times, the prosemay extendits meaningto becomea symbolic commentaryon the rest of the

film-poem. DAguiar demonstratesthis especiallywell in his 'SweetThames'(199 1), one of the

film-poems in the Wordson Film series,when a sugarrefining process(removing impurities) is

describedby a factory worker in normal speech,but the poet verbally and visually then compares

205 this to the British consulate'sexclusion of unwantedimmigrants. It is a fascinatingtechnique, but we are bereft of anythingsimilar in 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan',in favour of the principal medium of poetry. No interviewsof Kazakhcitizens, no readingsof newspaperarticles about the processof independence,and no opinions are given of the presentsituation in Kazakhstanin prose.Harrison manufactures this almostprose-less piece deliberately,making sureto allow spokendialogue only as a noticeableintrusion and only if it may be Woven' into the poetic lines.

The integrationsometimes works, but at other times soundsawkward, as if Harrison is waiting too long for the Kazakhto speak.This may be the fault of Sabbath'sediting, but in some instancesthe filmmakerscould haveprobably chosenbetter examples,since the speech sometimessounds muddled.

For example,one of the best insertionsof interwovendialogue occurs when a Kazakhman, wearing a Siberianfur hat, concludesone of Harrison'smost melancholycouplets (May Day

haunts / ) 'Kazakhstannnn'.He comesand a man with memoriesof .. with a groaning also preludeshis melodramaticintonation of the word with a searching,lost look directedoff-screen, and as he is aboutto speak,he looks directly into the cameraand, of course,directly at the viewer. His face dissolvesinto a smearof red that soon shapesitself into a few of the many

Soviet ('Red) flags on saleat one of many streetmarket stands.This momentarysuperimposition of the red flags with the man'sface recallsmany famousfilm scenesin which this techniqueis usedto show the character'sassociation with the other object, often usedto chilling effect, as in

Oliver Stone'sNatural Born Killers (1993).Numerous superimpositions during particularly gruesomescenes are used to exhibit the main characters'blood-drenched exploits throughout

Stone'sfilm, and this scenein 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstandoesnot usethis style as explicitly, but it transmitsa similar messagein this film-poem.

ironically, one of the worst examplesof the prosaicoccurs just after one of the best.As the cameraslowly pansthe red flags and banners,dismissed like unwantedclothing, the lines 'Red

206 flags he flogs for what he can/ onceflew high in Kazakhstan'areread by Harrison,and

Xazakhstan'is againsaid on-screen,but this time by a somewhatdubious 'actor'. A flag salesman,significantly youngerthan the former speaker,finishes theselines, but unfortunately the speakersmirks subtly as he saysthe word, and nods his headafterwards. This conveysa negativeand unconvincingimpression of the gravity of this subject;these civilians are not actors.

Though his gesturesmay be nearly imperceptible,the averageviewer's eye is surprisingly aware of detail, especiallyin termsof facial expressionand movement.Therefore, we can say that the usageof inserteddialogue is indeedeffective at times, but at othersmay appearforced, inappropriate,or in this case,slightly rehearsedand almostworthless and ineffectual.Harrison will thankfully perfectthis techniquein his later work; the incorporationof spokendialogue, whetherby actorsor not, is a distinct assetin his 2002 film-poem, 'Crossings'.

The entirework as a whole, however,achieves a fluid momentumin its documentationof the Kazakhidentity crisis, without any specific piecesof quotedmaterial or fact. Interviews or personalanecdotes of citizensand their pastsare surnmarisedby theseutterances of 'Kazakhstan'.

Shotsof people'sfaces tell enoughof a story in their own right, accompaniedby poetic lines like

'Cold dark deportationtrains / still jolt andjudder through their brains'or Vhat sometimes haunts these traders'looks / are dark nights and days in cattle trucks. It seems that politically mindedverse together with a flair for dramatisationis a sufficiently expressivein this film-poem, factual and the useof a proseinterview or piecewould only obstructpoetic messages.

Incidentally, as the words 'traders'looks'are spokenby Harrison, we immediatelysee a few quick shotsof someof the merchantsat the market,one of the many examplesof the superbtiming and in editing that is accomplished this piece.

Sometimesno poetry is usedto expressa thought or an issuein this work. Harrison, in his

2002 'SouthBank Show' appearance,claims that sometimeswhen writing with film, one 'must leavespace for the power of the imagery onscreen'.At this point in the Kazakhstanstudy,

207 Harrison seguesto a montageof the marketplaceby insertinga wordlessseries of shotsand camerapans into the film after the flag seller muttershis innocuousline. A shot of a miniaturc, tambourine-likeinstrument introduces a scenethat is madecohesive by the emergenceof backgroundvocals, a 'choir effect', humming 'Red Flag'. A hand shakesthe instrumentto a marchingtempo; it is uniquely reminiscentof a 'clap-board',which introducestakes and scenes when filming is to begin. This sceneis appropriatefollowing the red flags we havejust seen.The

lo-lipped'Russian babushkas, of all shapesand sizes,are pannedwhile the choir's singing grows

louder, developinginto a peacefulsegment of the film-poem. Eventually, the music dramatically

gives way to more unnervingsound effects and generaldiscord, as a gas mask is found among

the expanseof dolls. As 'Kazakhstan'is whisperedor (more appropriately)wheezed quietly in the

background,we seenumerous masks and then, of all things, a smoking accordionplayer.

The musician'greets' us, then plays his version of 'Red Flag', reworkedfor his instrument.

To complicatethis sequence,two individuals' facesappear in the midst of it that tell us their own

placesof origin. This scenemight seemunnecessary at first, but it could be readto contain much

significance. Immediately before this scene, there is a peace insinuated during the choir's singing,

but the mask and the accordiontune yet againundermine the quiet. We then are again forced to

considerpeople one by one, in the shapeof the two muttering faces,and not as a collective

population,like the choir/rowsof dolls we havepreviously seenand heard.To concludethis

scene,the accordionplayer's shaded eyes are in close-up,but the shot soon fadesinto another

pair of sunglasses,these for saleon a rack somewherein the market.The 'peaceful'poetry-less

segmentconcludes, and we now return to the analysisof current affairs in Kazakh culture.

4.6.4 The Market Montageand the Importanceof Editing

It is in the market that the 'new free world of trade'is being tested,and again ironically, the

goodsthat arebeing sold hereare most indicative of past Soviet masteryof the region. In this

208 long sequence,we are showna montageof shotsof peoplemilling about, looking at the truckloadsof junk for sale.It is obvious that no one is buying anything.Badgcs, uniforms, the red flags: 'anythingand everything'(Sadeghi, interview) is on display, but one of the points this film- poem is trying to make,though not explicitly stated,is that not many of thesearticles will be purchasedby citizensof Kazakhstan,since these are the objectsthey are trying to forget. In much the samemanner as a poemoften doeson its own, the film understatesone of its primary points, leaving it up to the viewer to decidethe meaningbehind the images.These meanings arc much less than obviousto the averageviewer, but Harrison still doesnot explicitly say, 'Peoplewill not buy these goods since they are indicative of the former regime. Instead, his poetry is critical and symbolic, suchas:

And uniforms havebeen sloughed off,

redundantafter Gorbachev,

merenovelties a traderpeddles,

not in Red Squareimpaled with medals

bouncingon breastsas brassbands play

marchersand missiles through May Day

With thesealliterative lines Harrisoninforms viewers of a current philosophyof the Kazakh market.In addition to a further homageto the pastparades of CommunistMay Day, the tokensof

Soviet rule are shownto remainstrictly tokenson the tablesof the merchants,!mere novelties' for tourists or collector'sinterests. His meaningreaches beyond a symbolic level, to refer to the object itself in everydayuse. In this way, Harrison demystifiesthe past and exhibits its implications in the presentday without prose,news footage,or interview.

The uniforms arenot the only objectsacknowledged in this part of the film, as the camera eye and the poetic voice surveymany objects,only someof which are filmed or commented upon. Marks of communismand former regulationwould not be welcome sights in the average

209 householdof a newly independentnation. The goodsremain on the shelvesand tablesat the markets,but retain a purpose.With no intention of selling them to locals, theseitems are placed in the middle of the city, for all Kazakhsto see,so that the peoplemight revel in the glory of their freedom,strengthening their pride in their own nation. Considerthe lines:

The free market, seller/buyer

of tableclothsand Stolichnaya,

hatsmade of Siberianfurs,

and surplusSoviet secateurs

we seeflea-market browsers feel

to test the sharpnessof the steel.

By merely observingand 'browsing'among the objectson sale,the peoplecan instil within themselvesa feeling of thankfulness,a realisationthat oppressionis over. No longer will the flea market be under 'surveillanceby the KGB'or ýolice', as Harrison intonesjust before the above lines. Insteadthe items areplaced about as noveltiesand relics, to be toyed with, scoffed at and possibly left out to rust and eventuallydisintegrate. This interpretationof thesescenes (and of this entire montage)is like a self-reflectivestudy of the attemptmade at an emergingKazakh identity. Harrison is sayingthat the Kazakhpeople will be aided in their searchif they are able to freely touch items from their past.Through transitive means,the aspectof touch may give way to a more substantialunderstanding of patriotism.A realisationof this needfor integration is exactly what the Kazakhpeople need as a nation, and this would help to establishcommunal gratification and serveas a unifying factor for all. Even so, amongthe market table items, a radio blaresout 'RedFlag' again,and a handreaches out to quickly switch it off, again indicating that the items themselvesare enoughof a reminder.

Alternatively, and to accompanyHarrison's probable intention, this sceneis meantto expose a patheticside to thesepeople, who are selling whateverthey can to afford a living. The words

210 'free market',quoted in the abovestanza, are said sarcasticallyby Harrison,hinting that there really is no freedomhere at all, but a struggleto survive. The poet proceedsto spit out a few more phraseslike 'surplusSoviet secateurs',in mockery of Kazakhstan'ssituation. It is clear that the poet doesnot approveof the mannerby which Kazakhsare currently trying to maketheir way, by structuringa nationalidentity out of relics from the past. Harrisonwants to alert the peopleto modernpossibilities, demanding the stoppageof ethnic-mixing paranoia,favouring realisationand developmentof their potential environmentalgold mine.

Like one of Harrison'sprevious film-poems, The Blasphemers'Banquet(1 989), this sequenceuses similar symbolic shotswhich are strung togetherin a way that is akin to Soviet

Montagecinema techniques. The Montagestyle, defined and foundedby Russianfilmmakers like Eisensteinand Dziga Vertov, expressedideas and action by using quick cuts, metaphorically relatedsubject matter, two or more plot lines, and a crowdedmise-en-sccnc. It is no accidentthat a montageis usedin this film-poem, especiallysince Soviet Montagecinema was bom nearthe onsetof the Bolshevik Revolutionin 1917(and 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'considers a modem revolution, however uncertain, but which is full of possibility). As the market browsers look at various items in this lengthy sequence/seriesof stanzas,the poetry perfectly matchesthe imagesof the people.For example,as the lines 'thoughthings to aid the humaneye / take aim, survey,or evenspy' are stated,numerous brief shotsof peoplelooking throughbinoculars and telescopesare shown.It is also relevantto note that this scenebegan with steadypans of rows of sunglasses,focussing on the reflectionsin one particular pair. Reflectionsare usedoften in this film-poem, whetherthey are distortedimages in the brassbell of a tuba or shapesin the lensesof sunglasses,as in this example.People move in strangedirections in the reflection of the lenses, and all the while Harrisonspeaks about the freedomfrom 'surveillance'by the KGB. A themeof voyeurism is well symbolisedduring thesescenes, where sometimesthere is so much to look at

and listen to that there is a needfor a pause,slow-motion effect or shot repetition. RecallingTom

211 Phillips'words abouthis 'A TV Dante',film-poems may not be as effective the first time through, and as one critic writes, 'onewould welcomea repeat'(Saunders, 1996,60).

As mentionedearlier, one of the most prominentobjects that repeatedlyappears throughout this film-poem is a little red doll with a weight and bell in its roundedbase, making it impossible to be knockeddown. It must return to an upright position, though it totters haphazardly.We first seethis doll in the first sceneof the film, at the baseof the wall. At the market, the dolls appear again, wobbling and straightening.In a slow motion shot, on a ghostly close-upof a doll's face, theselines are spoken:

They seem to sell these everywhere

as talismansagainst despair,

theselittle dolls on every stall

no force seemsable to makefall.

The doll, no matterwhat the drop, 11

comeup trilling from her topple,

cling to her song and go on clinging

though Kazakhstan could crush her singing,

collectivisedand forced by rote

to still the lyra in her throat.

The brightly colouredred dolls representthe struggleof the Kazakhpeople to maintain their livelihood and to fight feelingsof absoluteloss and dissension('talismans against despair). The line 'thoughKazakhstan could crushher singing' containsa strong message;the refusal to bond and overlook ethnic differencescould be the country'sundoing. Most of the dolls are identical, and they standpeacefully everywhere but if there are different kinds of dolls, in termsof colour or size, they standtogether with the red ones.Here again,we seean item used as a symbol to unite and solidify a peopleas a culture. Seizing the idea of commonawareness, knowledge or

212 familiarity with something,Harrison indicates the relative easewith which one can surpass problems of collectivisationand being 'forcedby rote'.

Theseare someof the particular lines in this film-poem which are a classicexample of how poetic lines written for film that are left to standon their own truly seemto havesomething missing. PeterSymes writes that we should 'neverforget that this is work that is designedto be seenand heard' (1995,xxiv). If we readthe abovestanza without the image,or without even a descriptionof the intendedaccompanying images, we would probably be unconvincedor confusedabout the meaningbehind them. The stanzabegins with They seemto sell these everywhere'and we arenot told, in the film-poem's script, what 'these'refers to, until a vague

'identification' two lines later. Even with that confirmation, the poetry doesnot standas powerfully on its own. This createsa small problem when the poetic material is publishedalone

in a book. In order to aid the video-lessreader, Harrison places descriptions of the filmic images

in the marginsof his printed texts,but this techniquepales in comparisonwith seeingthe entire

collaborationas it was meantto be seen.The imagesare essentialto fully appreciatethe work as

an evolvedsynthesis of poetry and film.

In addition to the toy dolls'unifying qualities,there are other ways they figure prominently in

this film-poem. The dolls capture much camera attention for numerous scenes.At the base of the

wall in the introductorysequence, the dolls are shot while a choir with 'one voice rising higher' is

described.This 'choir effect'is an importantmotif in this work, until its culmination, when the

toy's presenceand the choir in the backgroundgive way to a humanfemale voice singing words.

The toy dolls are also wide-eyed,and areoften usedas eyeline-matchers.For example,they

watch 'shoppers"marchpast' at the markets,and mirror our own gazeas viewers.They are indeed

like little guides,since the camerafrequently matches their stare.Their 'attention'directs the

cameraas to what to photographnext.

213 Symbolic similarities and parallelsbetween objects and real-life situationsare not by any meansthe only mechanismsat work within this film-poem. Maintaining that this work is an exploration into the history of Kazakhstanand its peopleas much as it is an expressionof concern for them,we are soontransported and privy to the possiblethoughts of an old woman knitting booties. Somebabushkas watch the shoppers''marchpast'and the knitting woman as wc

do. Another one of Harrison'simprovised 'characters',she is referredto simply as 'she'(a further

exampleof the problemof the missing image in the text alone), and Harrison gives her a voice:

Shesees their feet from where she'ssitting

on the pavement, peddling, knitting

And maybeall her bright bootees

will walk to better times than these,

not crashtheir heelsto May Day brass

as medalledsmilers watch them pass,

not keepin step,or form in ranks

and marchas bootsin front of tanks.

And maybe the head that wears this bonnet

won't ever needa gasmask on it

Soundsof marchingfeet interrupt the poetry after 'knitting', a reasonablesemblance of the

knitter's thoughts.We can imaginethe echoof the marching feet also occurring in her head,

reminiscentof the May Day military parades.These were threateningspectacles of power that

were also marks of a holiday, thoughthe holiday is one the culture seemscontent to forget. The

camerathen pulls back from a close-upof her blue bootiesto revealmasses of them. With the

final two lines of this stanza,as sheholds a bonnetin her hands(like a little head),we realise

more strongly that her thoughtshave not beengiven in the first person(in the voice-over) by

shifting voices from Harrison'sto a woman's.Perspective curiously remainsin the third person.

214 This is doneto improve the speculativefeel that is markedly presentin Harrison'sprojectcd musingsfor the old knitter. The old woman'sfull face is not seenuntil the last two lines of the stanzaare read;she remains anonymous until her identity is 'revealed'with the words 'the head that wears'.In spite of thesetwo anomalieswithin this passage,these verses, especially the final couplet of this stanza,are meantto be straightforwardexamples of modernday worries or concernsof typical Kazakhs,and it is no accidentthat there are two more 'maybes'in this stanza as well. The strengthof multiple meaningsand levels to the 'Maybe Day' grow strongerby this point, andwe may add the everydaydoubts and concernsof the peopleinto our formula for

'maybe'.A film-poem'sclose analysis breeds additional levels of meaninglike that of any work, but moreoverbecause the work is both a poem and a film, and we must considerboth media's multiple dynamics.

Matching the spokenword to the image,Harrison reads'gas mask' in the abovestanza and we seeshots of someof thesemasks and gascanisters, strewn amongother tools and workshop items on the encyclopaedicmarket tables.Displaying thesemasks and other symbolsof hard work, struggleand labour offers the viewer a horrific vision of past life for thesepeople, and knitter soon it gets worse. After the harmless old seems to look in the direction of the masks (off. screen),we are told that, The Kazakhstanthese masks came from / was the test site for the

Soviet bomb'. Harrisonthen informs the viewer aboutthe Kazakhpast reality of radiation scares,

in and quickly (within the samestanza) closes on what he terms !metronomes', which are really items is radiation meters.The focus on these both a verbal one and a filmic one:

The metronomethese masks employ

getssold hereas a gruesometoy.

Thesemeters dumped in greatamounts

measureradiation counts.

215 With thesewords comesa shot of many of thesecounters, followed by a close-upof one. These items are the most effective at describingpast horror yet used,since their ticking and beeping soundsresonate with the rhythm of the poetry and the frequencyof cuts. Harrison terms the meters'metronomesfor this reason,aiding his own well-timed voice-overwith a hauntingguide.

More objects,representing the terrifying pastof Kazakhstan,can be found in the market.

While panningand scanningsome old musical instrumentsapparently for sale,the cameranever

managesto fit one entirely into its frame,but we hearsome strange disharmonious sounds

emanatingfrom them separatelyon the soundtrack.We are deliveredfrom this choppy messof

notes by portions of 'Red Flag'played on toy instruments. Yet again, this song returns as a

reminder,this time playedwhimsically. Here Harrison alludesto the song in his voice-over

while a toy xylophoneplayer tapsout the song'snotes, this time clearly stating the significanceof

the tune, The tunewe hearthree browsers play / still hauntsthem though its had its day'. The

musician stopsplaying in mid-verse,interrupting the song yet anothertime. No one can bear to

hear the songplayed in its entirety. Now Harrison'spoetry pausesagain, like an elongated

hordes Soviet caesura, during which we are shown of medallions. Here lies a hidden metaphor, in

that the inability to play the song symbolises an inability to seriously face these objects and hence

Red a tumultuouspast; one of the only ways Flag'can be played at any length is on toy

instruments.These small toys are also 'talismansagainst despair'.

Harrisonnext beginsthe longeststanza of the film-poem, and thereforethe longest

collection of relatedscenes, with the alliterative couplet, 'Pavementpeddlers trading trash/ From

Communism'sfatal crash'.These lines begin a bitter poetic rant. Harrison is clearly critical of the

is goodsthat are sold in this market; one remindedof the Biblical story of JesusChrist destroying

the goodson salein the templeon an otherwiseholy day (Matthew 21:12-13). In the shapeof the from cameralens, Harrison'sobservant eye travels around table to table and mocks many objects

throughpowerful comparisons.From an electronicMickey Mouse gameto statuesof Lenin

216 (,mummified/in philosophicalformaldehyde) and movabletoy figures of Dr. Trotsky (who 'goes on making toasts/to glasnostand the gulag ghosts), Harrison discoversmanifold relevancein harmlessitems. An extendedmetaphor of the mythical Greekship theArgo is also introducedin this stanza,a foreshadowingof an important event soonto come.This segmentof the film-pocm focuseson equatingthe tradersat this market with the lost and doomedArgonauts from the

Greek myth. Timing is essentialin this long stanzaas Harrison movesfrom object to object with much speed,forcing the camerato captureall of the imageshe himself capturespoetically. lie

endsthis pervasivemockery with the words:

The foundered Argo's former crew

now peddlinghere on pavementsnew,

maroonedin free flea-marketforces

with no sightsfixed on future courses,

what new horizonsdo they scan,

these castaways from Kazakhstan?

At the conclusionof this questionbegins a veritable ? art Two' to this film-poem, since thcn the

film shifts from terming these merchants as actual Kazakhs to terming them as ex-Kazakhs,

in days. peoplewho havefled from the country former After certain individuals say namesof

placesnear and aroundKazakhstan, we are takento Athens, Greece,where 'democracybegan /

two millenia and a half ago'. A reflection in a tuba showsthe ruins of the Acropolis, and we hear

the lyra playing again.This changein settingdoes not causeany major shifts in viewer

identical. The is, perception,mainly becausesome of the charactersand props are point Harrison been for long confesses,that the marketwe had studying so was not in Kazakhstanat all, but

Greece.Though we may havebeen misled, it is clear that Harrison hasdeliberately compared the

two places,playing on the fact that not only would the viewer not havebeen able to tell the

difference,but neitherwould Kazakhsthemselves. No specific location was ever identified.

217 Recalling the first line of the piece, 'A city wall, not quite surewhere', we can directly perceive that there is a problemwith identity in Kazakhstan.We might havebeen surveying any market in

EasternEurope, within reason.The absenceof indicative architecture,foods, and evenbuildings or streetswith Kazakhnames on them is now madeapparent, since the Grecianmarket we are in now looks the sameas the former. We also now realisethat the only potentially Kazakh items we saw were Russian;items that were imposedupon them for sixty years,and the items could havc been placedon markettables anywhere, even in a studio.This film-poem is manipulative,but it manipulateswith a seriousspecific purpose.

4.6.5 The Turn, or the Moments of Truth

The next scenesin this film-poem mark a turning point in its narrative,much like the moment of further affirmation or of reversalthat takesplace in a sonnet,known as a 'turn'. The film-poem herere-adjusts its principal messages,and quickly concludesto inform its audienceof its true purposes.A changeof settingfrom an undefinedone to an exact location (Athens) attemptsto mergethe peopleof both placestogether. By selectinga city of Greeksand calling them 'oncedeportees to Kazakhstan',Harrison refersto the populationmigrations that took place

in the history of Kazakhstanitself. At first, therewere high migrations of peopleto the country,

but once the Bolsheviks took power in 1917, many of those who once sought entry into

Kazakhstanthen madehaste to leave.People were literally caughtwithin the bordersof the

expandingRussian empire, and could not escapethe Soviet regime.These people were from

many places,but the Greeksin this film, onceRussian, are descendantsof thosepeople or

experiencedthis hardshipauthentically; they are at least representationsof the peoplewho

survived the ordeal.Now it seemsthat thesepeople had to learn 'to feel like Greeksagain,

though Greeksstill call them Sovietmen'. Russianssent any previously emigratedGreeks in

(like Georgia), other areasof the Soviet Union to Kazakhstanin efforts to collectivise them and

218 instigate unity. As we haveseen, these efforts supremelybackfired, causedmuch distress,and presentedthe problemsthis film-poem investigates.

Democracy, presented at first as a solution to Kazakhstan's identity crisis, becomes a last resort in Greece.It is clear that thesepeople have not found peaceor fellowship in their true homes, sincethe 'Greeksstill call them Soviet men'. Harrison'sreference to theArgo now also makesmore sense,as the Greektale is one that endswith the crew maroonedand/or exiled. As all of the nightmarishmemories of the past are eulogisedby Harrison'swords (Torcedout of

Georgia and displaced/ from fertile farms to barrenwaste), someof the 'characters'that serveas examplesof Soviet Greeksare revisited.Again, the miniature tambourine-likeinstrument shakes on-screen,and introducesus to the next segmentof the film-poem. This segmentcontains a montageof people'sfaces, which dissolveor fade into black and white still photographs,or vice versa. Even the 'Iyra man'is exposedas a memberof one large photograph'sentourage, one of a group of peopleholding up a Sovietbanner. Throughout the black and white photo montage,a new approachis usedto synthesiseword and image:lines are sung rather than spoken,not by

Harrison, but by a femalevocalist. This technique,reminiscent of a conceptualmusic video,

imperfections in complements the film-poem well, regardless of the the singer's voice. The tune

'Red Flag, lyrics fit sung is another alternative version of the changed to the content of the

photographsand their inhabitants.

At this point, Harrisonfinally shifts the tone of his poetry from depressingand mournful to

bright and hopeful,on as much of a positive note as can be expected.Hope for the future of

Kazakhstanamplifies the musicality of the piece.The dreamsof democracyand for a senseof

belonging are 'not quite dimmed'.To tell the story of the people'sdetermination to work towards

/ 's future democracy', a Maybe day and that maybe the of the tubasreturn, this time with twice

the force, Two Soviet tubas,silver, brass/ Strugglethrough the May Day mass'.We are also

be remindedthat it is still May Day, and normally paradeswould occurring. While the tubasare

219 seenin the crowd from a distance,they look like bizarre guns protruding over the headsof the populace,a symbolic restorationof the 'bazookas'and 'missiles'that may have oncebccn visiblc during a Soviet May Day parade.The tuba-carrierssoon join other marchingmusicians, who carry a variety of instruments.They make their way to the Parthenonand Acropolis, a former forum for democracy.In the background,the lyra tune returnsas backgroundmusic to 'march'to.

A new figure is introducedat this point in the production:a young blonde girl, dressed mostly in red, leadsthe procession,a live version of the red dolls usedin this piece. Carrying one of the miniature tambourinesin her small hands,she establishes the beat for the marchersand for the lyra's tune. This tune is further manipulated while the procession travels to the Parthenon, led most of the way by this propheticchilV' The cameraintermittently follows theseGreeks, barely managingto keepthem in its line of sight. Oncethey reachthe building, which is conspicuously under construction,they play a fanfaretogether, to symbolisesome great accomplishment.

Finally, musiciansare indeedplaying together,a feat not accomplishedsince the beginning of this feature. Their music symbolises their hopes for rebuilding, a spontaneouscollaboration.

This band, still led by the youth, is happily playing together, when they are suddenly interrupted by soundsof pulleys and cablesbeing stretched.The scenecuts to a large stonebeing hoistedby a crane,simultaneous with theselines, 'Not marble,but millenia weigh / on cablesthat'll maybe fray'. Echoing Shakespeare(Sonnet 55, which also considersthemes of impermanence),Harrison depictsthe problemsof the insertionof democracyinto thesepeople's lives. Since the block is hoisted 'off the ground',this expressesthe readinessto build, but since it remainsaloft, swaying

'it into slightly, this expressesan uncertaintyof placement: goes which structure?WhereT. With

this idea still hovering,our little guide in red suddenlydisappears from the group of transfixed

in musicians,to magically reappear the Theatreof Dionysuswith the lyra player, whosetune is On floor restoredto its original form. the of the Theatreare a seriesof 'the people'sflags of

deepestred / spreadfor tenderfeet to tread'.The girl, now barefoot,cautiously makes her way

220 towards the lyra man,who sits at the oppositeend of the theatre,directly acrossthe scarof red that stainsits floor. The line 'thepeople's flags of deepestred'also is the first lyric of 'Red Flag', which refusesdismissal even in the presenceof this young hope for the future.

4.6.6 The ConcludingScene

The last sceneexpresses the questionablefuture for the peopleof this film. Greeks,one of

Kazakhstan'smany ethnic groups,are as uncertainas the rest of the population,but at least they are back on their homesoil where the experienceof democracyis familiar. The young independentnation is taking its first steps,like the young girl, attemptingto define itself. The old lyra man smilesas he looks on, and the girl dancesto his tune when she reacheshim.

Yet theremay be too many memoriesremaining. Kazakhstan is a placewhere peopleare still hauntedby the spectreof Russianrule, andwhere 'tribesare versusRussians, as well as other tribes' (Sadeghi,interview). Thesepeople, once Stalinist prisonersof war, are now back in

Greece'andare attempting, 'pieceby piece',to re-shapetheir lives. As the young girl picks up one of thesememories (a solitary red doll), holding it in her palm as shesits on the stepsof the

Theatre,she gazes at the constructionmachines that are still holding fragmentsof a future governmentbuilding aloft. Theselines are sung during the closing sceneof this film-poem:

From Kazakhstannow back in Greece

I dreamthe maybe,piece by piece.

I dreamwith openeyes and see

the marbleof maybe... maybe.

The struggleto return to normalcy is reiteratedby the concludingverses, claiming that the instrumentsplayed previously in unisonwill be returnedback into flea-markettrade'. A stunning

is back from craneshot of the city of Athens pulled the girl in the Theatre.It holds the Theatrein the forefront of its frame,without its red scar,fading to black as 'May Day eveningfalls'.

221 4.6.7 ConclusionsRegardingA Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'

This film-poem accomplishestwo things through its trickery. At first, we are madeto believe that its marketsare Kazakh,and that we are exploring the national identity crisis that is currently being experiencedin Kazakhstan.Though we are not told of any city in which to base ourselvesas viewers and readersduring (roughly) the first twenty minutesof the film, the purposeof the mysterioussetting is madeknown to us at the 'turn' in the poem, and the correspondingpivotal scenein the film. Through a synthesisof settingthat actually doesnot essentiallychange, another concern emerges as the film-poems'primary topic: the rebuilding of the shatteredlives of the displacedGreeks, in Greece,Kazakhstan, or whereverthey now reside.

Whether or not many viewerswill understandthis dual messageis uncertain,but after study these themesclearly comeforth. This misty quality of the messagewithin seemsto hint at a needfor

simplicity in an averagefilm-poem, if they are to be effective piecesat all. I will seekfurther

clarity in a study of Harrison'sfeature length project,Prometheus.

4.7 A Summary of the Styles of the Film-Poem

Many cinematic techniques are used in 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'that brilliantly

devices. is correspondto conventionalpoetic It throughthese techniques that we are able to in film-poems.Well-timed understandthe importanceof time matching of words and moving

imagesis essentialto 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'sinceoften charactersand objectsare

introducedsimply as 'he', 'she',or 'it'; as they are spokenabout in versetheir identity would be

image is light altogetherveiled. The clarifying, meaningful requiredto shed when the poetic

image is not obvious,and in a film-poem the reverseis valid as well. Somesay that this limits

the ability of the poemto illustrate the minds of thosewho readit on its own. Philip Larkin, in a

'gentlerejection slip' to televisionarts producerTony Cashregarding a proposition to film one of

Larkin's poems,wrote 'that his versealready contained all the imagesand music it could need'

222 (Cash, 1990,16). A similar requestwas madeby Ted Hugheswhen readinghis poemsfor an 'Off the Page'televisionepisode in 1986,stating, I don't want any other photographsto come between my words and your memories'.This is not to say that films must always contain a specific single image to accompanya line of verse.When film-poems are concerned,the processof writing and filming occursat virtually the sametime, and thereforethe image that accompaniesthe poem is also the imagethat probablyinspired the verse,or is naturally and hermeticallylinked to it in some indigenousway. Therefore,film-poems are not limiting the potential to conceiveimages for poetry, but they are displayingthe result of a true homogenyof the image and the word, including the sourceof inspirationon both sides.

The close-up,the cut, the dissolveand fade, focussing,tracking shotsand other film devices are all usedto illustratepoetry's verbal impact and purpose.A Harrisonianfavourite is the pan, through which it is possibleto study a large group of objects,like in the marketsof 'A Maybe

Day in Kazakhstan.Without panning,we would be as spectatorsin a gallery of stills, especially in a shot that catchesmany objectsin frame. Motion often matchesthe rhythm of the verse, allowing the viewer to becomean active participantin an art that is always changingand fostering multiple meanings.Panning is an effective way of setting a pacefor poetry or to communicatepoetic rhythm to the audience.It is surprisinghow well 'cinematictechniques correspondto poetic devices'(Symes,interview, 1997).Varieties of cuts, for example,often accompanysimiles or metaphorsin the poetry; slow-motion photographyor close-upsthat follow the cut often placegreater emphasis on the comparison.Dissolves or fadesoften signify the end

between of a stanzaand the beginningof a new one,or occur specific sectionsof the poem.This in film-poem: levels relationshipis the deeperintertext the of otherwisehidden meaningare devices. exposedonce film devicesare relatedto poetic Intertextuality is achievedby not only the in but presenceof both film and poetry onework, also by the interactionsbetween the two (Abrams, mechanisms.They are 'alwaysalready' 1993,281) in place and are the site of

223 interaction betweenthe worlds of film and poetry as separatewholes. PeterSymes probably best describesthe naturalsimilarities between film and poetry in his introduction to TheShadow of

Hiroshima and otherfilm1poems when he comparesthe twenty-five 'flickering imagesthat go to make up one single second'of film to the 'still words, combinedinto lines'of poetry (vii).

Movement and meaningare achievedin both media onceeach item is madepart of a system.

This relationshiphelps to createthe mutual dependencepoetry and film maintain, since each device usedby one mediumis a mirror for a deviceof the other. In film-poems, the relationship is no longer merely theoretical,but is madepalpable and visible by the applicationof the devices with eachother. By far the most ambitiousof this processof applicationwould be a feature length production,crafted not for televisionbut for the cinemascreen.

4.8 The CinematicFilm-Poem

Poetsas diverseas Harrison,Auden, Blake Morrison, and JackieKay have all madeforms of

film-poems for television,shorter than feature-length.However, to attestto the contemporary

film-poetry during nature of this material,Harrison completed two works of the writing of this

degree.One of theseis the feature-lengthPrometheus. It was releasedin mostly avant-gardeor

for Channel Four Films. It non-mainstream cinemas and was made sets a precedent virtually

film-poem (and, importantly, film in unseen before in the history of the more general) with its

length, releaseand uniquestyle. Before available(1997-98) it was only known that its plot would

involve the ancientmythical figure Prometheusemerging out of isolation and seeing,in today's

done fire for he his freedom. world, what humanityhad with the which sacrificed own Upon

study, the film considersmuch more than that.

Prometheusinvolves a journey, as many of Harrison'sworks do, through parts of Europe

from failure 'free-market' where there is againstrife stemming the of a economy.The god

Hermes(Michael Feast)searches for a working classthat will cursethe original giver of fire, and

224 he finally finds them in Romania,who pelt and stain the statueof Prometheuswith carbon,in exchangefor cash.Hermes (or Mercury in Romanmyth) is a perfect presencein this film. Ile is the god of roads (much of the film is spent transporting a statue through European highways on a flatbed.truck), commerce(pertaining to the film's concernwith trade) and eloquence(Feast's lines are often concernedwith the beautyof expressionin poetry versusprose), and ironically, theft (an inverted interpretationof the first Prometheanpilfering). Hermeschallenges the efforts of the working class,and is the heraldfor Zeus and his hatred,explaining to the audiencehow

Zeus detestshumanity for abusingfire. Prometheusis a political statementas well as a layered autobiographyfor Harrison(Holmes, 289). It is a study of the working class'habitsthroughout

Europe, and is not afraid to praiseor condemnnationalities, based on their reactionsto the massivegolden representationof the thieving Titan. Harrison himself, in the prefaceto the published screenplayof the film, writes of the literary evidenceof Prometheusas the hero of the

North England I proletariat, 'the patronof technologyand the smokestacksof the ... of where grew

up, inhaling the sulphurousfumes of the Prometheangift'(1998, xvi).

In a bizarre but interestingtwist in the history of the film-poem genre,Prometheus invokes a

subject that was also addressedin the one of the first explorationsin joining versewith image.

Auden's involvementwith the GPO Film Unit documentaryCoal Face (Cavalcanti,1935, and

producedby John Grierson)centred on coal mining and industry, and its versewas intendedfor a

female chorus.Auden wrote only one stanzafor this piece; its openinglines are:

0 lurcher loving collier black as night,

Follow your love acrossthe smokelesshill.

Your lamp is out and all your cagesstill.

The song appearsnear the end of the film, like Auden'sverse for Night Mail, and this film famous documentary. appearedone year earlier thanthe mail train Coal Face is an artful eulogy

for the plight of somelost miners.It is worth noting that much versewritten for film has centred

225 on industrial subjects,and this ironic link betweenan early work and a contemporaryone creates one relevantfull circle. In anotherhearkening to the pastworks of film and poetry, Harrison himself hasreturned to the original roots of film and poetry, writing a Night Mail for today:

'Crossings'(2002), a film-poem that againfocuses on the Royal Mail delivery train but in a modem sense.' The short film encompassesmuch of Harrison'smaturity as a film-maker, and I will briefly discussit following my commentaryonPrometheus.

A major differencebetween the featurefilm and Harrison'stelevision pieces is that this film

is presentedwithout the auraof a newsitem or a documentary.The subjectis similar to that of an

editorial, sinceit is deconstructedby a seriesof opinions,clear stanceson specific issues.But

Prometheusis a fictional film, a dramapresented in verse,where there are actorsplaying

characters,not filmed civilians, andmuch of the verseis in dialogue,not in voice-over

commentary.Prometheus is also a film-poem without the poet'sactual voice within it ('All of his

words are in the mouthsof actors.He's written in character'[Holmes, 287]). This is a sharp

difference from Harrison'sother work, where his voice was the mainstayof the piece, varied as

the material might have been. Harrison would merge the vocal stylistics of his older film-pocrns

with the techniqueslearned in Prometheusin 'Crossings'.Much of my discussionof Prometheus

will quote from a personalinterview with the film's producer,Andrew Holmes.This entire

interview is Appendix B of this thesis.

Prometheusstill invokesthe presenceof a 'guide',but Harrison has developeda new

interpretationof that quality of film-poems.This time the guide is the characterHermes, who

directly affectsother characterlives. The film is extraordinary,and very different from anything

that has ever beendone before (Holmes,281). Also producerfor The Shadowof Hiroshima'and

'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan',Holmes calls the film'an incredible feat of writing(281) which is

Earlier (some looked like quite an accuratedescription. scripts of which a telephonebook'

[Holmes, 281]) would haveproduced a film that ran for at least four hours,which might provide

226 some idea of the amountof versethat was scrapped,so Harrison was hard at work creating voluminous amountsof couplets.Harrison hasapparently learned to be quite callous with his own material, cutting his coupletswithout hesitationin many cases.This time writing for charactersthat representhis concerns,the film's versefocuses on the decayof 'modem, Eastern-

Europeanand Westem-European industry, and socialism'(Holmes, 283), ideasthat Harrison relates to becauseof his interestin the plight of miners in Britain over the last twenty or thirty years. Indeed,many of the charactersinPrometheus are miners or ex-miners,and the first image we seein the film is of a clusterof smoulderingcooling towersfor a coal-fired power station, and of a newspaperheadline that reads'Last Yorkshire pit to closetomorrow: 3,000job losses'.

Clearly, the poet'sconcerns are still not strayingfrom the working class,whether his forum is television or cinema.This recallsmaterial coveredin V. and its coverageof the miner's strike,

during which V. was composed(Dyer, 1987,63). We soonare given proof of Harrison'sstance,

introduced is Old Man (Walter Sparrow) Michael as the next characterwe are to the who curses

Heseltine (a Tory MP that supportedthe closing of the pits) in the secondscene of the film.

Prometheus,with his likeness'right arm outstretchedin the film, 'hascome to embodythe

tyrannically restrainedchampion of the downtroddenand oppressed'(Harrison, 1998,viii).

But mostly, Prometheushearkens to anothertheme covered in Harrison'scontroversial 'four

letter TV poem' (Deansand Jenkins,1987,40), in that it involves a child's relationshipwith his

he feels he is intellectually his This is working classparents, who eclipsing through education. V. (and Harrison's describedby Hugh very similar to a major themeof much of other poetry),

Hebert in The Guardian (17'hOctober, 1987) as 'a long, meditative,sometimes quite moving

to his dead the his piece about the poet'srelationship parents,about way work with words relates (49). In Prometheus, Boy (Jonathan to his father'swork as a baker' a young namedJack

Waistnidge)protests against his Dad's(Steve Huison) angry resentmenttowards his assigned

homework,which is to readthe Greekmyth aboutthe Titan who stole fire from the gods for the

227 good of mankind.Jack's father, upset about losing his job as a miner, endsup throwing pagesof the book on the fire, and 'clouts'his son on the head.Jack fiees his homeand his father, and his

Mam (Fem Smith) chasesafter him. Holmes confirms the personalinvolvement Harrison has with thesecharacters by statingthat the characterof the Boy is 'really Tony as a child' and the

Boy does 'what Tony himself did as a young boy, when he studiedclassics' (287).

In theseintroductory sequences, conversations between Jack and his miner Dad and the Old

Man (also known as Grandad)and his wife (Grandma)are the only examplesof prosaic dialogue that take place in the film. The only poetry presentbefore the sceneof the familial squabble, twelve minutesinto the film, is the openingquatrain by Hermesand the Boy's readingof his homework, excerptsfrom PrometheusBound by Aeschylus.After Hermes'silver statueappears

in near the colliery, wherethe boy hasfled and which his father works (this day being his last),

the rest of the major dialoguein the film is in versecouplets, rhymed aabb. It is as if Hermes,as

he points his caduccus(a rod with an emblemat the end) enchantsthe charactersof the film with

the ability (or curse)to speakconsistently in rhyming poetic lines. Hermes'role is a manifold

one, since not only doeshe observeand commenton the other figures in the film, but he also his 'narrating'. speaksto the camera,explaining motives and He alsoplays the Tallyman' of the detest colliery, whom the minersall and slanderas they walk past him in an early scene,and he in At his plays other brief roles working environments. times complicatedand erudite narration but Hermes does have servesto indeedclarify, at others simply not enoughtime to expresswhat inspiration.One Hermes'lines are complex ideas,borne from a wide rangeof must study a few

times to absorball aspectsof their meaning.

Thosefamiliar with Harrison'swork are at a great advantageover thosewho are not when

first Prometheus images watching this film. Within the twenty minutes, containscertain and in There is brassband, down subjectsthat are familiar the poet'swork. a marching the streetto last day industrial band commemoratethe pit's as a serviceable site; this recalls the makeshift

228 marching nearthe conclusionof 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan',which also had an industrial inspiration at its heart.Prometheus also usesthe exact samemotif of a reflection in the bell of a brass tuba. Another exampleof a familiar subjectis touchedupon when Hermesrefers to pronunciation in his fourth speech:

And why, you might ask, shouldgods come

into this world of Ee-by-gum".)

Thosedropped aitches help disguise

the fact I've flown down from the skies.

Hermes' speechis appropriatesince it explainshow he, as a god, has falsified his true nature in

front of the humans('and, Zeus help me, speakingprosel/I meanan immortal, Hermes,me, / not ). it Harrison's spouting properpoetry! Yet also recalls concernswith proper enunciation,covered

in The Big HI, V., andmany of his poems,like Them & [uz]'and The Queen'sEngfish'. '

Harrison studiedclassics and is a notabletranslator, producer and scholarof Greek dramaand

life is inherentin for myth, so this aspectof his work and the very choice the subjectmatter.

These themesbecome particularly recognisableafter studyingHarrison's poetic and filmic work delivered in any amountof detail, andwith them are a seriesof the poet'sprinciple messages, discussin many of which I haveattempted to this thesis.

Beautifully shotby Alistair Cameron,this film containsstunning landscape cinematography,

detailed the impressive in Europe.Close- as well as exquisitely shotsof someof most sculpture Zeus,his (that day to ups and tracking shotsof statuesof eagle cameevery gougeout

Prometheus'liver while he was chainedto a rock) and of various locationsin EasternEurope are

5Much like the in the 'film-poem consistentlyvisually arresting? someof examplesstudied images trackedin to the iambic tetrameter protocol' above,the are steadily many cases match of

Harrison'sunfailing couplets.However, Prometheus also containsscenes that are surprisingly

boring in film. There frequent to static, and may seem a prosaic are shotsof charactersspeaking

229 the camerain still mediumor long shots,and in theseinstances the shot duration is uncommonly long by modem films' standards.Yet, becausethe figures are speakingpoetry, the length of the shots only becomesnoticeable after an especiallylong lingering of the camera.The rhythm of the lyrics distractsus from the more practical side of observation,and the poetry enablesus to understandand acceptanother uncommon element present in this film: the amountof shots,

especially close-ups,that lack dialogue.There are somesequences in this film that are

unaccompaniedby any form of speech,whether poetry or prose,and they are filled with diverse

images. For example,in the scenementioned above, where Hermes'statueappears at the colliery,

there are only threelines of incidentalspeech during five minutesof a rather important scene, 'justify'. This happens in which the poetry that follows will attemptto occasionally this film; the imageinstead verse explains the purposeof the previous of appearingat the sametime. This

differs from the previousfilm-poems of Harrison, in which the poetry most always commentson

the imagesas they appear.In explanation,Holmes claims that someof the poem 'waswritten

before it was filmed, so 'an enormousamount [of the screenplay]is predeterminedbecause it is

(289). We speech, either to camera or to other characters' see elongated sceneswithout any

dialogue throughout the film, such as when the thirty-foot tall statue of Prometheus travels

formed from during through Germany after being the miners'bodies or the strangely placed ?6 'pilgrim scene'involving a Jewish man lighting a candle at Auschwitz Most often, the verse

it happens, in the dialogue that still comments on activity onscreen as especially shape of poetic

the characters speak. in film, In a revolutionary interpretation of verse's presence some of the characters speak

they find themselves performing poetry about the process of rhyming, as and matching speech

forty into the film, the discover that they with rhyme. Roughly minutes miners cannot speak

similar rhythm: normal sentencesunless they rhyme and contain

230 MINER 1

Have you noticedsummat?

MINER 2

What?

MINER 1

Every time

we makea sentenceit endsup wi'a rhyme!

MINER 3

I'm not joining in, I'm not, old son.

MINER 5

Exceptsomeone'll complete what you've begun!

MINER 1

An tbanniest thing of all's like when

we talk in bloody rhyme like I did then.

I don't like it. It's more than bloody queer

spoutingbloody poetry like King Lear.

The Yorkshire dialect that is includedin the poetic speechof the characters,especially the miners for and the Old Man, makes a very convincing and genuineenchantment. It provesthat these interested people, who are clearly working-classand stereotypicallynot in suchart, are obviously lives. Then Holmes not in control of their own speech,or again, claims that:

There is not much characterinteraction in Prometheus,mostly it is a collection of

monologues,with different charactersmusing on their own lives, or discussingthe state

of the world, eitherwith the camera,addressing the camera,or almost to themselves

(289).

231 Even thoughthis is probably true for the most part, the film still greatly differs from the poet's previousefforts, sinceit is performedinstead of narrated,a work of virtual fiction rather than a documentaryor docu-drama.

Another sophisticateddevice Harrisonweaves into his film in the use of a film-within-a- film. As the Old Man defiantly smokesa cigarettein a disusedmovie house,11crmcs appears to him on the grimy screenin front of him, regardinghim condescendinglyand reactingto his protests.Hermes speaks to both him and us, and wheneverhe is shownon the secondscrccn, in a shot over the shoulderof the Old Man, he is portrayedin black and white. The useof the derelict cinemaprovides yet anotherlevel to an alreadycomplicated film, and allows the poetry to be directedat both the Old Man and the viewer.

Prometheusis visually shockingand powerful, which relatesto one more tool that is harbouredby the genre.Recall Symes'claim,that film-poems have the ability to show people

'uncomfortablethings without having them turn away' (1991,387).Prometheus contains some disturbingimages of a woman,Mam/lo, treatedlike a cow in an abattoir (and thereforekilled).

Most unsettlingis that the film endswithout any clear hope for future peace,liberation or acceptanceof a conquestover fire or overrule.In the last five minutesof the film, all of its principal charactersdie, exceptJack. Hermes, who hastaken on the role of the 'enemyof the people'throughout the film, fakeshis death,causing the Old Man to inadvertentlyburn down the picture househe sits in. The fire he 'sets'on the screenin front of him spreadsto destroythe statueof Prometheusand the Daughtersof Ocean,who havealso travelled throughoutEurope on

Hermes'quest.The sudden,sadistic but ambiguousending of the film should stun audiences, representedby the old man in the cinemaseat. 'Grandad'represents Harrison as an old man himself (Holmes,293), who lamentsthe demiseof socialismas he passesaway with a final puff of cigarettesmoke. Hermes and Zeus seemto triumph, because,even thoughHermes does not stealfire back for the good of only Olympus:

232 Zeusparticularly glorifies in fiery destructionand smoky pollution, and Mankind's

slower deathby poisoningthe earthwith factoriesfuellcd by Prometheanpower

(Harrison,1998, xvii).

Harrisoninvokes this ironic twist to the benefitsafforded to man by Prometheus'gift, and the smoky landscapeswe havebeen watching throughoutthe film seemall the more terrible.

Somecritics haveinterpreted Prometheus as a defenceof smoking,which is by far not the case.In an article from the 9' November,1998 issueof TheSunday Times, John Harlow describesthe film unilaterally, consideringonly the scenewhere the Old Man asksthe public to light up with him, and not the negative aspectsof smoking that his character portrays. His smoking is only a metaphor for the initial thieving of the flame from the gods, which

Prometheus,according to the myth, hid in a 'fennel stalk' (Paddington, 1998,25). Though there is some praise of the allure and taste of cigarettes and tobacco in the film-poem (I'd love to rerun every bit / of bloody film where fags get lit), there is much more condemnationof the act of smoking.The Old Man, for one, dies after an onscreenexistence of obviously painful hacking andwheezing, and his grimy, unhealthyappearance, sitting alone in a derelict cinemaamidst a seaof burnt out stubs,is not romantic or appealing.Critics such as Harlow haveclearly !rnissed the point'(Paddington,23). The ancientGrandad yet managesa few pro-smokingstatements, thoughthey are cloudedwith sorrow and guilt ('thoughI know l! rn bloody croaking,/ the lifelong joy I've had from smoking). The point of his carcinogenichabit, however,is more aboutthe art of defiance,or the very tradition of defiance(smoking in a cinema),than it is aboutdefending smokingitself. His tiny rebellion is clearly relatedto the initial theft of fire; it is a microcosmof the myth and an inspirationfor the poetic argumentthat takesplace between himself and Hermes for most of the film. Fittingly, the Old Man's face is superimposedwith the face of the statueof

Prometheus,and, as the screenplaynotes, he hasbecome an 'aspectof Prometheus'(Harrison,

1997,123) by the end of his character'slife.

233 Harrison'sintroduction to the screenplay(Tire and Poetry', 1998) discusseshis inspirations for the film, which first outline his initial poetic musingsas a child in front of the fire (vii). In true Harrisonianstyle, the poet tracks his interestin fire, in the aestheticbeauty of light raging in a dark place,to the light of the cinemascreen in a darkenedtheatreP His project is a fusion of two of his great 'obsessions'(fire and poetry), his messagesconveyed through a highly symbolic, multifarious medium.A good summaryto Harrison'slifelong researchis a couplet spokenby the

Old Man, just beforehe expires,'Fire and poetry, two greatpowers / That mek the so-calledgods' world OURSV.Though Prometheus ends on a bleak note, with Jack running homepast the collapsingcooling towersof the colliery, Harrison tells us, at the conclusionof his prefaceto the screenplay,that 'poetryrises out of its own ashesand continuesits ancientdream in front of fire'

(xxix). Fire, thoughtby many to be the inspirationbehind man'scapability for inner thought, the sourceof all ponderingand the ultimate muse,is thwartedwith the closing of the mine, but ' retainsa degreeof hopein the shapeof a fire-engineobsessed boy.

4.9 Conclusions about the Haffisonian. Film Poem

Though there is not a great amount of disturbing material in 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'or

Prometheus,many film-poemscan justifiably contain gruesomeor shockingimagery, since viewers are drawn to the rhythm of the verse,expecting rhyme and matching image.Withfilm- poems,people are consistentlycompelled to watch still more. If a way to spark the interestof the public massescan be discovered,in order to allow this division of film and poetry to reachits full potential,we could be studyingthe ancestorsof a future visual and lyrical phenomenon.

Harrison'scontribution to the genrehas been definitive and accordingto Holmes,complete, since

Harrison 'keepson sayinghe's never going to make anotherone(302). After working with

Harrison on a numberof productions,and when askedwhat his definition of a film-poem is,

Holmesresponded by sayingthat it is:

234 Completeintegration of the versewith the film process.Either can comefirst, or they

can both spring spontaneouslyto life at the sametime (290).

Harrison'spoetic ability to inspire thosefilmmakers aroundhim with the realisationof the similarities betweenpoetry's craft and the productionof a film is a benchmarkin the world of art today. He is 'in completecommand of the medium'(Holmes, 290) and hasreached a pinnacle with his feature-lengthwork. His discoveriesextend from the understandingthat 'poetrycould enterthe world of peoplein documentarysituations' to the realisationthat poetry can also be utilised to conveycharacter motivation and thought (Harrison, 1998,xxiii). Other filmmakers will presumablylearn from his substantialmaterial and further developpoetry and film's relationshipin the Harrisonianideal, and/orbeyond it.

Yet, Harrisonobviously reconsideredPrometheus as his final film-poem project. In March of 2002,Harrison's latest film-poem, 'Crossings',was broadcast.It is shorterthan any of his past projects,with a running time closeto twenty minutes.A collaborationwith SouthBank Show director David Thomas,it is a modem commentaryon the journey of the overnight mail train and a fitting conclusionto this chapterand entire study, linking Harrison'sgroundbrcaking film career with arguablythe most influential work of film and poetry. Regardingthe impact ofNight Mail

(1936),Harrison states:

I sawNight Mail when I was in my late teens,I think, and for me it was important

becauseit was the first time I'd ever heardpoetry and film together.That for me was

unique and it stayedin my mind since I saw it, always thinking I would like to do

Verse film to be " that... and seemed uniquelyrelated. In the preludeto 'Crossings,Harrison describeshis techniquein making film-poems and its differencesfrom Auden'swork, which was set to a film that was alreadycut. Tart TIwo'of the programme,almost entirely consistingof Harrison'sdiscussion, outlines the processof Harrison's

construction,and highlights the easewith which the poet can now speakinto a microphonein the

235 editing suitewhile editor Tony Webb runs images.Harrison is pictured sitting alongsideWebb, watchingthe monitor and deciding 'if shotsneed extending, some other imageneeds to comein,

[or] a cut needsto comeon the rhyme'and so forth. Harrison 'plays aroundendlessly'with the

combinationsof his words and images,and sometimeswrites more versein the suite.

When Harrisondescribes how he approachesresearching his subject,he talks of a 'hunt for

images'thatis undertakenwith eachnew film. He 'neverhas a script' and waits until he 'sees

somethingand [his] hair standson end'. In the discussionswithin this chapter,Harrison must

haveseen many objectsand items that madesuch an impression,like the items on the market

tablesin Greeceor Kazakhstan,or the cooling towersin Sheffield that were usedto illustrate the

destructionof the Prometheancollieries. Harrison speaksof the processas follows, in the most

illuminating discussionof his work habitsto date:

I will go to the places.I will think aboutthe subject.I will think aboutthe visual

imageries.Then well shootbut I don't write a poem and then sendit out to a crew to

illustrate it. I neverhave a script. The whole processis organicfrom the beginning.I

actuallylike the senseof creativeserendipity, this ability to find link betweenthings

suddenly. It's a kind of creative chaos. But I'm collecting images that I like I'm

collecting a ragbag of things I feel might be useful, guided by the sound, guided by the

by It's like Zen just rhythm, guided the visual world we're exposedto ... somehow;you

commit yourself to being opento find things.

In Harrison'sreconnaissance for the 'Crossings'project, he experiencedmany momentsof

'serendipity'and the suddenawareness of links. For one, in the post office, Harrisonparticularly

noteshis coming acrossthe button marked'Culler, which rejectsinferior material from better

quality post and separatesit from the masses.He immediatelylinked this with the farm animals

culled from the countrysideduring 2001'sfoot-and-mouth crisis in Britain, sincethe mail train

travelsthrough much of the land the animalsinhabit. Another exampleis his discoveryof the

236 Royal Mail's nicknamefor the night train, the 'Lady in Red, and Harrison termsthe train and its weighty cargo'an instrumentof fate'. He links the red culling button with the red train with, 'the button'sthe shadeof the shiny new livery / of the lady in red, who awaits their delivery'.

'Crossings'seeks to makethe mail train's delivery processintensely personal, by inventing individual situationsand systematicallycommenting on them. Harrison'scouplets cover many people'splights, from a homelessboy (Angus) living in a cardboardbox under a train trestle

(thereis a letter slot cut in the box's side) to a woman waiting at a railroad crossingwho discussesher anxiety aboutreceiving the resultsof her HIV test on her mobile phone.The verse is narratedby Harrisonat times, in his familiar voice-over,and at other times recitedby actors, similar to thosein Prometheusor Armitage's XCillingTime'. The poetry is skilfully balancedin this work, which containsno prose,but incorporatesalmost all of the dynamicsHarrison has previouslyused. There are examplesof versesbeing finished from his voice-overby actors onscreen.There are specific representativecharacters for Harrison'sthemes, and there are other voicesthat sometimesinterrupt Harrison's,like the heavily accentedvoice that is meantto be that of one of the late-nightpostal workers, who commentson her job sorting the mail. Harrison's verserapidly commentson various lifestyles for Britons, from clubbing women to dog-betting old agepensioners, as the train rumblesthrough the country from London to Scotland.Guardian reporter Peter Lennon writes:

does letter 11 in is Harrison not miss the pain and panic a can create: ... one of thosesacks/

a thin little letter with the weight of an axe." This refers to an HIV diagnosis.In fact, he

hasa more intimate relationshipwith the material throughout(2002,4).

Harrison'strain touchespeople's lives in the ways Auden'smight have if he was given the free will to write versefor longer portions of the original film. In his introduction to the piece,

Harrisondescribes his motivation for writing the new verse,which often cites Auden'swithin his own:

237 That wonderful imagewhere a 'jug in a bedroomgently shakes':we don't seethat, that's

only in the words. You don't haveto seeit, becausethe word sayseverything. But I

to that life, jug I hopeI wanted seesome of of the gently shaking,and the people... can

find people,faces, expecting their mail, worrying about their mail, longing to hearftom

a lover, fearful to hearfrom a creditor.

'Crossings'isa film aboutthe train's crossings,but also aboutthe lives it crossesevery time it makesits journey; 'you crossin time', saysHarrison, 'you crossbridges and you crossbetween

individuals' (Lennon,4).

While the original Night Mail endswith a musical flourish and a glorification of the postal

service'sindispensability (Tor who can bear to feel himself forgotten), Harrison'sends with a

senseof foreboding.Over an editedmontage of shotsof letters and envelopessliding through

slots,Harrison slowly states,'Millions of letters through GreatBritain's doors,/ Panic,pain,

pleasure:which will be yours?'The cacophonousmusic by Richard Blackford that accompanies

Harrison'slines, and entire piece,is reminiscentof that usedin 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'in

that it intervenesoften suddenlyand is almostindustrial. The final lines, however,are statedover

silence,as a letter falls over the lens of the camera.Cut to black.

The poet's latest piece is certainly a step taken forward, using new recording techniques to

match verse and image, but it is also a testament to Harrison's work as well as Auden's, merging

so many of the qualitiesof his previousfilm-poems from the last twenty years.Lawrence Sail

calledNight Mail Harrison's'ghost trainin his early review of his film-poems (1991); Harrison

hasrevisited those ghosts with a learnedstyle. Symescalled HarrisonAuden's 'successor'in 1995

(xxiii), and now thereis a direct link with Auden to prove sucha claim. To concludethis

discussionof Harrison'smaterial, I againquote Harrison at length, on the subjectof the selection

of his language,from the preludeto 'Crossings':

238 My feeling aboutthe kind of languagethat I've developedfor film poetry is that you're

alwaysaware that you haveto keep interest.Therefore, you can't bunch your imagery

becauseyou havea lot of imagery on the screen.You've got to be fairly clear;

accessible,but you haveto make your versework in a different way than it would if it

were simply designedfor the page,where it doesall the work. Here, you'rewriting with

film in So leave for order to create... aflIm-poem. you've got to always space the power

of the imagery;just as you have to allow room for music to take words and allow it to

makethem into this third creation,which is neither music nor poetry.

Film-poemscannot be madeusing languageor poetry that can appearon the pageas easily.They are a specificbreed of artistic creation.Harrison's contributions to the welding of film and poetry are highly influential and world-famous.His are a large portion of the existent 'versesin the celluloid'.

239 CONCLUSION

Modempoetry has been deeply influenced by film. Modemfilm hasnot sufficiently

returnedthe compliment.

- JamesBroughton, 1952,126

Perhapsthe new digital editing has madeit possibleto experimentmuch more with the relations

betweenpoetry and film.

- Tony Harrison, 1998,xxiv

The Present State of the Evolution': Notes for the Future of Film and Poetry

Poeticfilm and the film-poets, as well as the avant-gardeworld of film, were contributorsto the modem-dayinterpretation of the film-poem in all of its forms. Tony Harrison'spreface to his

Prometheusscript lists someof the poetic and cinematicmovements that haveplayed an integral part in the formation and developmentof his work. In the 1990sHarrison's work continuedto flourish, while producer/directorPeter Symes devised the seriesWords on Film, a collection of six film-poemsthat are the most closely adherent,in termsof the Harrisoniandefmition of the film-poem, to a true collaborationof poet and film-maker. Various other projectshave been significant in this phase(roughly from 1986-1993),the closestthing to a heyday the film-poem movementcan claim, until Harrison'sepic feature-lengthPrometheus (1998) cameinto the spotlight.This film is the bridge to future feature-lengthfilm-poems, and with the adventof

2002's'Crossings', is apparentlyan influenceon poetry'sappearance on television aswell.

I wish to statethat I will not draw any major conclusionsregarding a definitive and permanenttheory aboutthe natureof film and poetry. The firmest conclusionI can make about their relationshipis that it is an uncertainone, full of corollariesand extenuatingcircumstances

240 and misusedor manipulatedexamples. But there is a distinction that I soughtto haveclearly outlinedin thesecond chapter of this work, in thatthere is a differencebetween 'poetry'and the

ýoetic'in cinema.To restate,there is a languageof cinemathat is called 'poetry'by someand that involves the capturingof an essence,a quality, a degreeof artfulnesswith the camera,even if it is shooting,or especiallyif it is shooting,a randomeveryday item. The filmmaker himself determinesthis areaof poetry; it dependson his/her skill, perceptionand appreciationfor such characteristics.The observationsof that poetry, in fact the natureof a poetic quality to the overall finished film, is not a mechanismthat a filmmaker or poet can track or insert into his work. That is the work of the audience,who must be receptiveenough to feel that essence,to detectits split from a mainstreamexpressiveness. That is the natureof the 'poetic': to infect the viewer with a senseof somethingquite different from what they are usedto, to defamiliarisethe common.

Viktor Shklovsky'swork is hererelevant, whereas he discussesthe mutual abilities of both cinemaand poetry to transformthe meaningof everydayobjects by way of their presentationto an audience.It is the captured,illustrated ambiguity within an object or subjectthat makesits imagepoetic (1927,88).

There is a further discrepancyin the use of the term 'film poem'or 'film-poem' as I have also demonstrated.The film-poem or film/poem of Tony Harrison and PeterSymes is one that heavily involves both filmmaker and poet in most aspectsof film production;it is a simultaneous collaborationof writing, shootingand cutting. The film poemsof PeterTodd's touring programmesare thosethat are linked to the avant-gardearena of cinema,indefinable themselves but very much identifiable to some.They are films that might contain someverse, but which mainly depict a themeor story through a cinematicallymetaphorical means, using imagesas

241 thosemetaphors, using cinematicdevices as poetic devices,using symbolismitself in whatever capacityit needsto do so.

In 1952,poet and filmmaker JamesBroughton, himself a director of the Todd-ian'film poem,devised an interestingand playful manifestocalled 'Odd Birds in the Aviary: SomeNotes on Poetryand Film'. The list is dense,sweeping, and coversmany aspectsof poetry and film, but thereare somepoints that Broughtonmakes which are accurateand poetic in their own right. His work seeksto clarify but in reality it probably mystifies and makesthe idea of poetry in film

His ideas in likened 'the for how seemgrandiose. of poetry cinemaare to essenceof experience... we really feel and dream'(126).He states:

A poemis a film.

A poemis intendedto be looked at, and to be heard

It is both imageand language,vision and music.

It hasmovement and form, a progressionand a meaning.

And it is to be remembered,and looked at again(126).

Though Broughton'sdemands are intenseand overwhelming,they are also in alignmentwith

many of the opinionsof Pasoliniand Cocteau,with the Montage'writers and with film-poets

today, especiallyin termsof film-poemsor film poemsneeding repeated attention. Published in

Sight and Sound,this piece is a popularreference for thoseconcerned with film and poetry.

Not everyoneagrees that poetry and film are indeednotably synonymous.In an explanation

of Shklovsky'swork, critic F.W. Galan (who specialisesin Formalist theory) statesthat:

There is nothing in the filmic chain that correspondsto stresses,syllables or word

boundaries- or indeedto words themselves.Consequently, cinematic rhythm, the film's

metrical course,is bound to remainbroad, indistinct, unmeasurable(1984,101).

242 Galan'sclaim seemsto ignore the stepstaken by Auden in his matchingverse with image,timed with a stopwatchin thoseearly days.I would arguethat certain kinds of film cuts or editing

techniques,like the fade or Whitewash',can correspondto stresses,that cinematicrhythm can be

measuredand matchedby a measurablepoetic rhythm, as Harrison hasdemonstrated with his

film-poems,and that words themselvescan find their visual equivalentin appropriate,

correspondingindividual shots.Galan's points arevalid if one choosesto look at the cinemain

termsof a whole medium,an entity that is purely visual and technical,but this is probably not an

open-mindedapproach.

In spite of certainmisgivings, poetry is becominga widely usedmedium in today'smedia. It

was easierto keepup with the developmentsin film and poetry, with the eventssurrounding

their intersectionand with the films reputedto containa poetic element,for example,when I

beganthis study in 1997.But in the last threeto four yearspoetry has flourished in ways that are

difficult to keepabreast of. Movementsof film and poetry are emerging,especially in America,

where a 'Cine-Poetry'Festival happens every year in SanFrancisco, initialised by poet and

filmmaker HermanBerlandt. The Festival is dedicatedto showing the most poetic of new avant-

gardefilms, and any material that clearly links the fields together.The Festival has also recently

beguna tour, and seeksinstitutionalising in other cities as well, accordingto periodic emails

from one of the movement'sorganisers, George Aguilar.

Yet again,poetry is not a new developmentin cinema.It is consistentlytreated as such

becauseits inclusion is not regularity, but is repeatedlyviewed as a specialelement to a

production.While it is indeeda specialelement, poetry's attemptto gain the favour of the mass

public might lie in the endeavourto get the commonperson to acceptits presenceand

acknowledgeits obviouspopularity. The numberone box office hit in the spring of 2001, and

243 indeedfor all timefor Britishfilms, wasBridget Jones's Diary (Maguire),based on thepersonal- journal-structurednovel by HelenFielding. Even in this comedy,starring Ren6e Zcllweger,

HughGrant and Colin Firth, thereis poetry,with Grantquoting lines by Keatsjust beforehe falls headfirstinto a lake.It is not asnoticeable or perpetualas Harrison's original verse, but it is present,and directorsseem no longer 'frightenedof poetry, as Spanishdirector Victor Erice said in an interview with The Guardian (V April, 1993,quoted in Harrison, 1998,xxv). Modern films now include poetry without hesitation,from comedieslike MaybeBaby (Elton, 2000) and

PatchAdams (Shadyac,1998) to romanticdramas like 11Postino (Radford, 1994) to war films

like HamburgerHill (Irvin, 1987).

Poetryis also appearingmore often in specialprogrammes to celebratenational affairs. In

2000, the Royal Mail, to commemoratethe adventof the next millenium, commissionedtwelve

poets,one for eachmonth, to write versethat celebratedthe particular qualities associatedwith

eachmonth of the year. In tandemwith the project are twelve poetry films madewith school

children acrossthe UK. The one-minutefilms, simply constructed,are based on original verseby

the children and the poetsand on the locationsselected for the Millenium Stampsby the Royal

Mail. I was able to attendLondon's Royal FestivalHall's Poetry InternationalFestival, 6-14 Oct

2000,where the films were exhibited.The programmewas called 'Shootingthe Messenger:

Poetry on Film'and someof the films were reminiscentof Len Lye's work, while otherswere

unfortunatelyincomprehensible. It was an ambitiousproject, and probably a valuable,fun

experiencefor the children involved. Among the poetsworking with the children were Matthew

Fitt and Anton Hecht, and Hecht hascontributed to someof the film poemsin Todd's last touring

programme(2000) aswell. The Festival also includedTom Phillips'lecture on 'Animating Dante'

244 and a lectureby film directorAnthony Minghella (Poetry and Film), which I discussbelow.

Poetry, it seemssafe to say, is happeningin films all aroundus.

But poetry on televisionis still not as widespread.Harrison doesnot have a regular programmededicated to showingfilm-poems and poetry still only rarely appearsin prime time.

Harrison's'Crossings'was broadcast at 10:45 on ITV on a Sundayevening, albeit versusThe X-

Files'on BBC1, but still was surely not a top ratings-grabber.Daisy Goodwin, a BBC editor and the 'organiserof the Nation'sFavourite Poem Poll' observesthat poetry is still lacking in its presentationon TV:

Televisionis a brashmedium and if it's going to work it can't do poetry in hushed

If is television I believe that it tones... poetry to appearon at all, and passionately should,it needsto show that it hasa popular following (1996,39).

This is a valid point, and Goodwin explainsthat poetry shouldmove beyondthe conventional

'poetry performances'that most peoplethink aboutwhen they considerpoetry on television, which is admittedlyunresourceful. Film-poems are a hopeful segueinto an areaof accessibility, with promisesof further developmentafter works like 'Killing Time', Armitage's 'Millenium poem',reached many viewers.Prior to Goodwin, RobertHanks, quoting publicist Max Clifford, pointedout someof the problemswith poetry'simage as well, on National Poetry Day in 1994:

Most men, if you're talking aboutthe masses,think you'd haveto be either gay or

extremelyeffeminate to write poetry. So you've got to get over thesemis-conceptions

and give peoplea popular hero they can associatewith (23).

This 'hero'still waits an unveiling, but Armitage could be a likely candidate,if thereneeds to be one. If his poemspreserve their brash,bold tone, if they continueto face pressingand popular

245 issues(and if his police work, in a rougherarea of England,is popularised)perhaps the masses mighttunein.

Yet, Armitage himself has expressedmisgivings aboutcertain poetic intersectionswith film:

But far and away the worst flicks are thosethat dabblein poetry, with poetry 'cast'in the

sameway an actor is, usually in a seriousor sensitiverole. Recentculprits, among

many, are the wretchedDead Poets'Society and the truly crummy Tomand Viv. Add to

this most actors'apparent mission in life is to murder poetry by performing it when it

only needbe said, and the picture is a bleak one. Even the rendition of Auden's 'Funeral

Blues',recited during Four Weddingsand a Funeral, was, to be honest,ordinary, but

presumablyrevived suchunstoppable praise because of the lack of decentcompetition.

Film of the book - ho hum. Film of a book aboutpoets - shudder(1998,83-4).

Armitage makessome valid points (and a 'film of a book aboutpoets'is a strangeproposition) but poetry needsto 'breakout of the ghetto'(Hanks,23), and move into the mainframeof media broadcasting.Everyone usually likes music in someform, and the film-poem's constructionis not unlike someconceptual music videos,which are very popularwith the massesindeed. Poetry shouldimitate the successof that medium,where words and music often come togetherto a powerful effect, and weaveitself into the popular realm of televisionwith more regularity.

More and more directorsin film arebecoming interested in poetry, like Oscar-winning director and 'poetry fanAnthony Minghella [TheEnglish Patient (1996), The TalentedMr.

Ripley (1999)]. Minghella's Truly, Madly, Deeply (1991) employsPablo Neruda'spoetry (as did

II Postino in 1994) and the director feels that poetry and cinema 'arealmost the samething'

(2000). In Minghella's 2000 lectureon 'Poetryand Film', he statesthat poemsdescribe images, which are clearly styles of cinematography,like location shots,close-ups, developing shots,

246 tracking shotsand overheadshots'. He discussestheir similarities, againrecalling Pasolini,to dreams,'in the realm of mysteriesand secrets'.Minghella feels that poetry and film are obvious comparisons,and that the links betweenthem haveonly begunto be discovered.Yet he still admitsthat 'theworst thing one can say to get funding for a film in the USA are the words "art film"'. In that case,poetry hasnot entirely escapedthe 'ghetto'yet.

Indeedpoems describe images similar to cinematicsigns. The subjectmatter of poetry is completelyreliant on imagery.However, what of poetry that is inspiredby the world of cinema?

This is anotherlink betweenfilm and poetry not fully coveredin this thesis:the poetry that exists aboutfilms and film stars.French and Waschin's TheFaber Book ofMovie Verse(1993), The

Picture Dancing on a Screen(ed. Anthony Slide, 1988),and Lights, Camera,Poetry!: American

Movie Poems,the First Hundred Years(ed. JasonShinder, 1996) are all books specifically containingverse inspired by hundredsof films and movie icons. From RobertFrost to e. e. cummings,from Carol Ann Duffy to Allen Ginsberg,poets have composedpoems based on their experienceswith the big screen.I shall closethis thesiswith the final stanzaftom a poem, included in French and Waschin's anthology, by Douglas Dunn: 'I Am a Cameraman'(386-7). It is a humbleadmittance to the struggling reputationpoetry still maintainson the screen.Poetry in film may be progressing,blossoming like it hasnever blossomed before, but it still has a long way to go.

Life flickers on the frame like beautiful hummingbirds.

That is the film that always comesout blank.

The painting the artist can't get shapesto fit.

The poemthat shrugsoff every word you try.

The music no one hasever heard.

247 ENDNOTES:INTRODUCTION (pp. 1-11)

1 Quotedfrom an online review of TheMonkey's Mask, 4 Aug 2001.

2 From my interview with Holmes (1998),Appendix B of this thesis,pg. 295.

3 The brochureis called 'Cross-Cuts'and was releasedin conjunctionwith the 'Literature EducationProgramme'at the SouthBank Centrein London. The Poetry International Festivalfor that year was devotedto a study of the film-poem, and PeterSymes contributedto that issue,incorporating his essayfrom the introduction to his collection of Wordson Film scripts,with new critical material.The pamphlet'sarticles, by a host of authors,ask many questionsabout the existenceand definition of the film-poem.

4 Seein particular RichardEyre's short piece in Tony Harrison'sV. (the 'New Edition: with PressArticles', 1989,pp. 37-38) and almost all of PeterSymes' accounts, which are listed in my bibliography, as well as Harrison'spreface to the screenplayof his Prometheus(1998), pp. xxviii-xxix.

5 SeeAppendix B, 'An Interview with Andrew Holmes' for a hint at difficulties of working with Harrison,as well as Andr6e Molyneux's piece in Bloodaxe'santhology on Harrison(1991), 'Cutting His Teeth:working with Tony Harrison onArctic Paradise and TheBig H (pp. 367-376).

6 Ron Shelton,for example,uses poetry to a very successfulextent in Bull Durham (1988)but neveragain approached its incorporationin future work to date.

248 ENDNOTES:CHAPTER ONE (pp. 12-65)

1 Toetic film'has had much more written aboutit as a phenomenon.For the most thoroughconsideration of poetic film in this thesis,see Chapter Two, "The Evolution, or ? re-history'of the Film-Poem",throughout Section 2.5. 21 do not suggestthat eachexample of a poemin a film requiresa viewer to researchand readthat poemon its own eachtime. My subsequentstudy of Rossetti'spoem is an exercisemeant to shedlight on the possibilitiesintrinsic in the filmic techniqueof citing poetry. Repeatedreadings are certainly not the norm, nor expectedfrom an average viewer. 3 This version of the poem is taken from Rossetti'sSelected Poems. Ed. and introduction by C. H. Sisson.London: Routledgeand KeganPaul, 1984,pg. 35. 4 Spillane'snovel Kiss Me Deadly was publishedin paperbackformat in 1952. 5 PerhapsMeeker said his lines incorrectly and he shouldhave said But if it's the thought it's deadbecause she's dead', but the filmmakers obviously preservedthis take. 6 Theselines are takenfrom Whitman'sLeaves of Grass: The Collected Writings of Walt Whitman.Reader's Edition. Ed. by Harold W. Blodgett and Sculley Bradley (London: University of London Press,1965). It containsthe poem in its original completeform. In someeditions, especially Everyman editions of Whitman'sverse, some of the lines from 'I Sing the Body Electric', amongother poems,are omitted, presumablybecause of their sexuallygraphic nature. 7 Theselines are the 55h and 56h from ThomasGray's Tlegy Written in a Country Churchyard',and Annie is uncharacteristicallyunsure of the authorof the lines. Shesays shegets Gray mixed up with anotherpoet, her first uncertainquotation in the film. It is perhapsinteresting, but not particularly relevant,that this confusionhappens after she getstogether with Crash,the man shereally wantedthroughout the film. 8 This is only the caseif a poemused in a film is not one that is particularly well known, sincewhen a film usesa famouspiece, it would generallybe inviting much more criticism upon itself. This is obviously becausepeople have their own setsof images attachedto poems,and a romanticor specific imageof certainpoets, and poemsthat are selectedfor usein a film will have specific imageschosen to accompanythem, robbing the viewer of his or her previously self-inventedmental visualisation of the poem and its verses.This continuesto be one of the most popular criticisms of the adaptationof poetry to works of film. ' Incidentally, the characterof Miss Giddens remains famously anonymous in James' novel. Sheis simply known as 'the governess. 10This sceneoccurs approximately 43 minutesinto the film. The author of the poem is William Archibald, who co-wrotethe screenplaywith Truman Capote.Archibald also wrote a play of the samename (performed on Broadwayin 1950),from which the screenplayfor this film is 'partly culled'. The poem is lifted from that play, adaptedfor the screen(Chase, 1998,5).

249 11In termsof music that is presentin films, where the lyrics are importantor at least significant to plot or characterdevelopment, we can usually assumethat the samekind of rationalecan be appliedto films of this type as I haveused in this thesis.Song lyrics on their own, reador reiteratedin a film, can presumablybe treatedin the sameway as poetry in film, with a few exceptions.However, when music is involved as well, as in Say Anything... (Crowe, 1989)and its pivotal use of PeterGabriel's 'In Your Eyes', a completelydifferent, and much more obviousdynamic is at work. Music has an audible advantagein stirring emotionsand communicatingfeelings; poetry seeksto accomplish this with a naturalmusicality to it, and through careful combinationsof words. 12jo offers a clarification of the lines, and her explanationprovides some insight to her character,which up to this point had beenfrivolous and silly. Shesays, 'Basically the poemsays that love binds us togetherand we're like, totally in sync, but it's a drag becausecircumstances keep us apart'.While shesays these words, the cameracuts to Eliza sitting acrossthe table from her, looking increasinglymore uncomfortableand nervousas the possiblerealities of this letter, if it was indeedaddressed to Louis, hit home. 13Carl inaccuratelystates that Marvell (1621-1678)is a predecessorof Shakespeare,who died in 1616. 14In early June,2001, the actressKelly McGillis appearedon ThisMorning with Richard Madely andJudy Finnegan,on which sheclaimed that the film was all in verse.On the Internet,at , there - is a websiteabout the film and its genesis. 15Betjeman's film-poems are studiedin ChapterTwo, Section2.4 of this thesis. 16In anothersegment of the film, Aldrich's work is particularly remembered,since Mickey's poemsare closely analysedin a desperatesearch for more clues.

250 ENDNOTES:CHAPTER TWO (pp. 66-118)

1This quoteis from a letterto William Allingham,dated January, 1855, and appears in BernardRichards' article 'Why arethe imagesnever appropriate all theway throughT Listener115 (1986): 12-13.

2 Notethat the inclusion of poetryin film studiedin this chapterdoes not only consider documentaryfilm.

3 It is perhapsdifficult to imaginein themodern-day world of video,but oncefilms had playedin theatresin the first daysof cinema,they were almost impossible to view again. Many films ranfor no morethan a week,and once that period was over, the film was retiredand stored away. Many historians of film havewritten on the changein the mindsetof thepresent generations of cinemagoers,who now know thatthey will not have missedthe film foreverif theydo not go to seeit while it is on generalcinema release. RichardMaltby quotesan early film posterfor Chang(1927): 'See it today,tomorrow andTbursday. Then Chang will be goneforever!! '(1996,147).

41will studysome important Harrisonian 'tableaus' throughout Chapter Four of this thesis.

5 Stephensonand Debrix cite a story of the effectsof the first close-upsused in a film (a comedyby Griffith which is unspecified)on a well-educatedSiberian girl visiting Moscow. Shesaid that shethought the first film shehad ever seenin her life was horrifying, because'human beings were torn to pieces,the headsthrown one way and the bodiesthe other. They go on to say that 'when Griffith showedthe first close-ups,and a hugesevered head smiled at the audience,there was panic in the auditorium' (65).

6 Griffith is also listed as a 'supervisor'on EnochArden's credits (). It is 40 minutes,or four reels,in length.

71 do not considerthis film as a self-containedfilm-poem becauseit is more loosely basedon the poemby Tennyson.The seamanArden returnshome after a long absenceto find his wife marriedto anotherman, but cannotbear to destroyher happinessin spite of his love for her. The versedoes not literally appearin the film.

8 The film-poem and its modemtenets will be studiedthroughout Chapter Three.

91Guides'are particularly useful in film-poems and we will be referring to their activities, whether they are literal ushersor metaphoricalaccompaniments, in various film-poems throughoutthis thesis.

10Lindsay lists Ezra Pound,Richard Aldington, John Gould Fletcher,Amy Lowell, F.S. Flint, and D. H. Lawrenceby name,and saysthere are 'others'.It would have madesense to include Whitman on this list, but Lindsay was speakingin termsof a recentmovement at the time.

251 11The texts written for the decommissionedfilms arepublished in Mendelson'stwo volumesof TheComplete Works of W.H. Auden(1988,1993). They would havebeen availablefor consultationfor thoseinterested in seeingwhat the 'forefather'of film- poetrydid not succeedin completing,so they canstill be regardedas an influence. Harrison,Symes, and others list thepieces as significant models in their explanationsof inspiration.

12Auden went so far as to resort to the useof a stopwatchto 'fit it to the shot on which it commented'(Mendelson, 1988,513). Harrison also usesthis impedimentto explain Auden'sdoubts about how poetry and film work together(1998, xxiv).

13The secondseries of programmeswas organisedaccording to theme,rather than aroundone poet as in the first series.Among the poetsillustrated were many of whom are associatedwith film projects,including Auden, Betjemanand Philip Larkin in the first seriesand Rossettiand Harrison in the secondseries.

141 havewritten more on Auden'swork on Night Mail, as well as on other projectsfor television,in my MA dissertation,The Art of the Film-Poem: Linking Poetry'sEngine' and the Image'(1997).

15No authoris cited for this observation,but it is found on a websitedevoted to top athletes,at . Red Smith'squote is also found on this page.

16French is the co-editorof TheFaber Book ofMovie Verse(1993), an anthology of poetry basedon films, actors,film institutions,cinemas, film-making and television. It is a valuableand impressive,sobering collection. These two poemsby Dunn, amongothers, are includedin this collection.

17'Cross Cuts', an issuedated Sunday P November,which containsmaterial dedicatedto the study of poetry and film. Donaghywas one of the poetsinvited to the discussion betweena collection of poetsand filmmakers in Juneof 1996.

18As mentionedearlier, surrealismsought to break with this standard,in that the surrealistfilmmakers asked why imagesshould be connectedin any way. The randomnessof the surrealfilm's ordering is usually only connectedthrough psychological evaluation,examining the inspiredroots behind seeminglyunconnected images. See SalvadorDali's 'dreamsequence'in Alfred Hitchcock'sSpellbound (1945) to observethe actualpractice of this evaluation,used in the film to solve a murder mystery and also explain an irrational 'fear of stripes'.

19For example,I am thinking of Andy Warhol's film of his friend John Giomo sleeping for hourson end (Sleep,1963,5 hrs 21 min), or Warhol'sEmpire (8 hrs, 5 min) with footageof the Empire StateBuilding in New York shot from early eveninguntil late at

252 night. Also particularly notableis an eight-hourso-called film poemby Canadian filmmaker Bruce Elder,Lamentation (1985).

20This quoteis from a flyer advertisingTodd's collection.The programmetoured around the world, but one screeningin Bristol appearedas the early eveningevent at the 11Trojections' Weekend of Poetry and Film", May 2000. "Projections"included Harrison's work, and films by JeanVigo, and lain Sinclair, as well as material by local Bristol artists.It is importantto note that work by Harrison and the avant-gardefilms in Todd's programme,among the other material,were exhibitedin the sameevent, under a singular heading.The weekendwas presentedby "Poetry Can", a 'PoetryDevelopment Agency' and a group called "PoetryWorks 2000".

21This is a photocopiedmagazine that is releasedsporadically by the South London Poetry and Film Societyand by PeterTodd, this specific issuefrom June2000. Todd has occasionallysent me theseissues, as well as articlesand material relating to many of the subjectsand films we have discussedin numerouse-mails, and in the interview that is a part of this thesis.I am deeplygrateful to him for this.

22Tait's piece appearedin PoemFilm Film Poem,Issue 1, November 1997.It was reprintedin an issue(Number Four, 2000) that accompaniedthe touring programmeof Todd's 'Film Poems'.Tait's article is called, confusingly, 'Film - Poemor Poem- Film: A few notesabout film and poetry'(4-5).

23Nicholas Baumfield, in the sameissue of Todd'smagazine, reports that the poet wanted to use a local student'svoice to readthe verbal text, but Cottagestaunchly desired an actress'voice,'knowing that clarity, pace,and productionquality would result'(2).

24An amusingcopy of a postcardBrakhage wrote to Todd is included (on page six) in his latestprogramme notes for Film Poems2 (October,2000). In it he statesthat the films Todd choseexemplify his own standardof topics for his films: birth, sex and death.The ProgrammeNotes double as Poem Film Film PoemIssue 8.

25Shakespearean films are important in a study of poetry and film, but prove too diverse for this thesisand deservemuch attentionin a specifically tailored critical study, like Shakespeareon Film by JackJ. Jorgens(1991).

253 ENDNOTES:CHAPTER THREE (pp. 119-167)

1This quoteis from the Sunday,3 November1996 of CrossCuts, a pamphletissued as part of the LiteratureEducation Programme at the SouthBank Centrein London.

2 Sitney'sbook, VisionaryFilm: TheAmerican Avant-Garde 1943-78, is known as an 'insider directory' (Evans,8) for thosestudying avant-gardefilm.

3 Films that adapta previously existing poemfor the screenby filming it, as one would do a novel, are partly discussedin ChaptersOne and Two, but are not the primary focus of this thesis.

4 By John LivingstoneLowes, a study of S. T. Coleridge'sinspirations for his best-known work.

5 The processesthat Robertsonrefers to as important to considerin a study of the origins of a film are the inspirationsof different membersof the film crew, including the scriptwriters,original authors(both of which are identical to the poet in a film-poem's case),visual designers,set designers,production designers, and the director. I would also not hesitate,as I often state,to stressthe importanceand contributionsof the editor and cinematographer.

6 SeeChapter Four, Section4.6, for the breakdownof a film-poem I explore in detail, 'A Maybe Day in Kazakhstan'whichgives one an idea of this successfulpairing by blending the filmic imagesand the spokenpoetry particularly well.

7 'Marrying imageto word', found in the August/Septemberissue of theArts Express,p. 21-22.

8 'Loving Memory'(1986) was a film-poem divided into four parts, all focusing on cemeteries in Europe. These programmes were some of the most intense film-poems ever filmed, since footage of grave exhumations, set to poetry, was particularly effective. I have written about'Loving Memory'in my MA thesis, TheArt of the Film-Poem: Linking Poetry's 'Engine'and the Image.

9 Most critics, apparentlythose outside the BBC, think thatNight Mail was a landmark film eventand that it indeedwas not a failure. It at leastkeeps surfacing as an influential piecefor many different types of British films, not all of them film-poems or documentaries.

10See discussion of Prometheusin ChapterFour, Section4.8.

" This is listed as SceneFive in the text for the film-poem in the Wordson Film collection.

254 12This techniqueof circular panningaround an empty table with bustsreplacing real-life charactersor historical figures is usedto much the sameeffect in Harrison'sTile Blasphemers'Banquet(1989), with Harrison himself seatedat the table. It is an effective devicefor the film-poem.

13A 'garrote'is usedfor strangulation;originally the word referredto a particular sort of iron collar usedin executionsor robberies.Robbery is often associatedwith this word, which deepensthe meaningof Rossiter'sown abuseat the handsof her husband.

14The original documentprints theselines in italics.

15Clearly, though,this projecthad indeedbeen attempted before, as Harrison'sfilm- poemsof the 1980sprove, as well as earlier projectslike Auden'sNight Mail and such work. Feaywas simply unawareof the material.

16Apparently it was difficult for Fisherto fmd 'surviving industrial scenesas foul and imposingas thoseI'd grown up with, and [1] wishedwe had a budgetto shootin Eastern Europe'.At leastthis is a positive statementabout the appearanceof Birmingham today.

255 ENDNOTES: CHAPTER FOUR (pp. 168-239)

' Quoted from Pasolini'sHeretical Empiricism. Ed. Louise K. Barnett. (1988,169) and Pasolini on Pasolini: Interviewswith OswaldStack (1969,153). 2 From my interview with Holmes,Appendix B of this thesis,page 302. 3 Symeshas written abouthis early collaborationswith Harrison in 1991in Bloodaxe's Critical Anthology of Tony Harrison,edited by Neil Astley: an essaycalled 'Blasphemyand Death:on film making with Tony Harrison'(pp. 384-94).His secondpublished work about their cumulativecreative output servesas the introduction to Harrison'spublished collection of film-poem scripts,The Shadow ofHiroshima and otherfilmlpoems (London: Faberand Faber,1995), pp. vii-xxiv. 4 For original information from Holmesabout these projects see my interview with him, Appendix B, pgs 281-305. 5 'Losing Touch' is publishedin the first issueof Projections, 1992.It appearsas Chapter10 and is subtitled 'In MemoriamGeorge Cukor, died 24 January1983'. The poem is preceded by a brief descriptionof Cukor and Harrison'srelationship, and is accompaniedby two photos:contact strips of the poet and the director on set. 6 Molyneux'smisgivings are very similar to Symes'initial uncertaintiesabout verse, experiencedin his openingmeetings with Harrison regardingthe appearanceof 'Loving Memory'(1991,385ý 7 Molyneux produceda documentaryabout Service called'Songs of a Sourdough:Verses from the Yukon'(1980) that incorporatedfacts aboutRobert Service's life with photographs, narrationand one or two dramatisationsof a few of the episodesin Service'spoetry. The story of SamMcGhee, one of Service'sfamous characters, is a five or six minute segmentof the film that is very similar to the contentof a film-Poem,but of coursethe versehad been written beforehandand it is only a small part of the documentary. 8 Harrison'spoems from this period canbe found in TheSchool ofEloquence,Part Three (1978). 9 The majority of the poemsin Harrison'sSelected Poems (1987) have an abab rhyme scheme,including his famousV', but by 1995his film-poemsbegan to use the aabb rhyme schememore often (with the exceptionof the early 'Loving Memory'series). SeeThe ShadowofHiroshima and otherfilmlpoems (1995) for the printed versionsof theseworks. 10These lines are italicised in Harrison'soriginal script, which follows Molyneux's article in the 1991Bloodaxe anthology (377-381). 11This portion of the interview appearsat the end of Molyneux's 'Songsof a Sourdough'. 12The Big H'was first aired on Boxing Day, 1984. 13For example,some lines from V. are: This graveyardstands above a worked-outpit. Subsidencemakes the obelisksall list.

256 One leaningleft's markedFUCY, one right's markedSHIT sprayedby somepeeved supporter who was pissed(9). 14 Harrison usesand mimics both 'the quatrainof Gray'sElegy and the quatrainof Fitzgerald'sRubaiyat of Omar Khayyam,as well as octosyllabiccouplets' (1998, xxiv). 15 Sail's article is titled Harrison'sIntemo: Loving Memo?y' and is reprintedin Bloodaxe Critical AnthologiesI. - TonyHarrison. (pgs.382-383). Originally, the review was published in the journal PoetryReview, 77: 3 (Autumn 1987). 16 Miners'leader Scargill was a hero of the working class,and his words appearedin the SundayTimes, 10 January1982: 'My father still readsthe dictionary every day. He saysyour life dependson your power to masterwords'. 17 A good sourcefor the rangeof opinionsthat the broadcastingof the poemwas able to inspire is the Duty Officer's Report'for ChannelFour Television that is included in the SecondEdition of V (1989),pgs. 70-72. Reactionsextend from the entirely 'disgusted'to the most 'moved'and appreciative. 18This sequenceoccurs 22 minutesinto the film. 19 Poet and editor Blake Morrison, the authorof the piece on V. entitled 'Harrison'selegy in a city graveyard'(24 Oct, 1987,The Independent), is indeedthe authorof his own television film-poem, 'Little Angels, Little Devils'(1994), which I cover briefly in ChapterThree, Section3.6 of this study. 20 Graffiti and derelictionoften complimentsHarrison's verse, as poetry aboutit is a perfect union betweenhis own 'cultured'personalvision and his more colloquial, 'common' backgroundand upbringing. 21 1 discussthe mechanicsof the use of a guide in works by Harrison,Armitage and Kay throughoutChapter Three. 22 This scenemight be relatedto the Biblical verse 'And the wolf shall lie down with the lamb, the leopard lie down kid And little lead and shall with the ... a child shall them'Isaiah 11:6, which is aboutfuture world harmonyespecially among naturally diverseor enemy cultures. 23The descriptionof Harrison's'Crossings' is given by Melvyn Bragg, presentedof The SouthBank Show.This was first broadcaston Sunday10 March, 2002. 24Poems from TheSchool ofEloquence and Other Poems(1978), which are best collectivisedin the secondedition of Harrison'sSelected Poems (1987). 0 According to myth, Prometheuswas eventuallyfreed from his chainsby Hercules,who also shot the eagledown with arrows.The statueof the eaglein this film is in Tatabanya, Hungary, and is known as the Tural'monument (from the screenplayPrometheus, 1998,66). 26 Again, Harrisonusually directshis subjectsat the 'horrorsof the twentieth century'.None of his film-poems ever addressedone of the most glaring: the Holocaust,so it seemslike he placesthis scenein the film as a homageto the incident. 27This is a conceptHarrison introducesus to by way of a Germanhistorian, Wolfgang Schivelbusch,who wrote that 'in the dark, light is life' and that one 'can lose himself [in the

257 - cinemascreen] in the sameway that he can submergehimself in contemplatingthe campfire or a candle'(xxii). 28Harrison quotes a propositionby GastonBachelard that suggests'it is from brooding before flamesthat early man developedhis interior life' in part (i) of his prefaceto the 1998 screenplay,'Fire and Poetry' (vii). 29All quotescome from Harrison'scomments on TheSouth Bank Show,as documentedin Endnote23, unlessotherwise indicated.

258