A Corpus-Based Approach to the Language of Audio
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UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI FEDERICO II FACOLTÀ DI SCIENZE POLITICHE DIPARTIMENTO DI TEORIE E METODI DELLE SCIENZE UMANE E SOCIALI SCUOLA DI DOTTORATO IN SCIENZE PSICOLOGICHE, PEDAGOGICHE E LINGUISTICHE DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN LINGUA INGLESE PER SCOPI SPECIALI XXIII CICLO TESI DI DOTTORATO The Language of Filmic Audio Description: a Corpus-Based Analysis of Adjectives CANDIDATA dott.ssa Saveria Arma RELATORE COORDINATORE Prof.ssa Giuditta Caliendo Prof.ssa Gabriella Di Martino NAPOLI 2011 1 The language of filmic audio description. A corpus-based analysis of adjectives Acknowledgements 7 Introduction 10 1 Introduction to audio description 15 1.1 For a definition of audio description 15 1.2 What can be audio described? 24 1.3 How is audio description produced? 25 1.3.1 The audio description process 25 1.3.2 Special guidelines for special genres 28 1.4 What should audio description describe? 33 1.5 Short story of audio description in Europe 40 1.6 Research on audio description: the state of the art 53 1.7 Technical delivery of audio description 71 1.8 Norms and legislation: the European Union framework 84 2 The target audience. Blindness and visual impairment 94 2 2.1 Blindness and visual impairment 94 2.2 Facts and figures about blindness 98 2.3 Blindness as a gender-related concern and costs of blindness 103 2.4 How the human eye works 106 2.5 Blindness-related eye pathologies 107 2.6 The development of visually impaired people 117 2.7 Facilitating knowledge acquisition for visually impaired people 121 2.8 Facilitating access to culture for the visually impaired 125 3 Audio description as a research topic 132 3.1 For a categorization of audio description against a translation background 132 3.2 Audio description from a functional approach to translation 141 3.3 Audio description within the framework of ESP 152 3.4 Audio description from the perspective of visual literacy 168 3.5 Audio description between narration and description 179 3.6 Audio description from a didactic perspective 184 3.6.1 Audio description as a tool for literacy 185 3 3.6.2 Audio description in foreign language or translation courses 191 3.6.3 Audio description in academic contexts: designing a course in audio description 198 4 Audio description from a filmic perspective 205 4.1 Cinema from a semiotic perspective 206 4.1.1 Signified and signifiers 209 4.1.2 Signs 210 4.1.3 Codes 213 4.1.3.1 Basic technological codes 215 4.1.3.2 Visual codes 216 4.1.3.3 Graphic codes 222 4.1.3.4 Acoustic codes 223 4.1.3.5 Syntactical codes 225 4.1.4 The level of representation 226 4.2 On the interrelation of hearing and sight in films 230 4.3 Linguistic acts in films and audiodescribed films 236 4.4 Audio description and Narratology 238 5 A corpus-based study of adjectives in audio description 250 4 5.1 The language of audio description in guidelines 250 5.2 The language of audio description as a research topic 257 5.3 Audio description between spoken and written language 267 5.4 Research questions and objectives 280 5.5 Corpus analysis 286 5.5.1 Corpus collection and description 286 5.5.2 Methodology of analysis 328 5.5.3 Analysis of the corpus 338 5.5.3.1 Corpus-based analysis of adjectives 340 5.5.3.1.1 Adjectives as a part of speech 340 5.5.3.1.2 Adjectival list and classification in the AD corpus 346 5.5.3.1.3 Attributive adjectives in the AD corpus 361 5.5.3.1.4 Predicative adjectives in the AD corpus 373 5.5.3.1.5 Comparing the corpus with the BNC 383 5.5.3.1.6 „Unknown‟ adjectives and compound adjectives 406 5.5.3.1.7 Sequences of adjectives 413 5.5.3.1.8 Comparative and superlative adjectives 428 5.5.3.2 Comparing through similes 438 5.6 Conclusions 459 Conclusions 463 5 Bibliography 482 Sitography 517 Filmography 525 Annex 1 527 6 Acknowledgments It was May 2007 when I attended the MuTra Conference in Vienna. I had just finished presenting a paper on real time reporting at the Italian Parliament, and I had left the room for a short break. I remember I was curiously attracted by another room, where I thought I could have a bit of rest. When I entered that room, it was love at the first sight. Joel Snyder, one of the most renowned audio describers globally, was holding a seminar on audio description. At that time, I had almost no idea of what audio description was about. But I felt audio description was one of the most exciting things I had ever seen and heard in my life. I felt it was some kind of missing link in my life. I had no doubt I should start working on audio description. Joel is the first person I shall thank for sharing his passion so truly and so authentically with students and professionals worldwide. However passion and love were may be not sufficient for a PhD thesis, as I was looking for AD scripts to analyze. One year later, in Barcelona, I met Andrew Salway, whom I had contacted by email some months before, and he encouraged me to keep on researching and writing. But above all, he allowed to me to access the greatest corpus of audio description scripts ever. My warmest thanks to Andrew, because this thesis would not have been written without his collaboration, his comments and help. I understood that carrying out a corpus-based analysis, however, was not just a matter of corpus. Actually, a corpus-analysis required more and more skills. Professor Silvia Bernardini has not only provided me with comments and deeper insights into the matter, both day and night, but has encouraged me to do more, and had definitely been a real „guide‟ through corpus analysis tools, to which this thesis owes a great deal. I also have to say thank you to my tutor, Professor Giuditta Caliendo, for believing in this project and in the innovative value of audio description. Thank you for providing many stimulating ideas and comments. My thanks to Professors Gabriella di Martino, Vanda Polese and Cristina Pennarola for understanding that a PhD is much more than a thesis and for supporting me so warmly over the last year. I have to say a big thank you to Alex Polidoro, who has revised the language of this thesis and has worked day and night to help me. Maybe it could be enough, but it is not. These four years were maybe the most difficult years of my life so far and there are some people whom I would not thank at all. But as soon as I started working on audio description, I felt I should make it more than a topic to investigate. I started audio describing theatre performances and some films, one of the greatest 7 experiences ever. I will do my best to keep on audio describing and helping audio description being used in Italy more and more over the next years. My warmest thanks go to all the blind people that I have met and to all those that have helped me in my accessibility projects. In particular, I have to thank Roberto Ellero who has generously shared his knowledge on audio description and web accessibility. I have to thank my parents and my sisters and above all, my little sweet daughter Rossella, who has definitely got acquainted with audio description and subtitling before the age of four and has always been there with the warmest embrace. 8 Perhaps only in a world of the blind will things be what they truly are. (Josè Saramago, Blindness) 9 Introduction Audio description is a relatively new technique aimed at enhancing the accessibility of different types of audiovisual products primarily to the blind and the visually impaired, using a pre-recorded or live audio track which is inserted into non-meaningful pauses within dialogues in order to „translate‟ into words the visual elements otherwise only accessible to sighted users. Giving the translational inspiration of audio description, in recent times it has attracted scholars from various disciplines (Braun 2007; Orero 2005; Vercauteren 2007), namely Translation, Interpreting and Film Studies. It has started to be taught as an academic discipline in language and translation- related faculties in a few countries (such as the UK, Spain and Belgium). However, the discussion on the position of audio description vis-à-vis Translation Studies and Audiovisual Translation is still ongoing (Braun 2007; Gambier 2004; Hernàndez and Mendiluce 2004; Hyks 2005; Orero 2005). On a more practical side, ITC guidelines (ITC 2000) are rated among the main references for all audio description professionals, both in the UK and abroad, but the applicability of some recommendations - especially with regard to objectivity, linguistic choices and selection of relevant information - is still under discussion (Benecke 2007; Braun 2007; Snyder 2008). Indeed, if a number of articles and presentations have dealt so far with controversial issues in audio description (Braun 2007; Bourne and Jiménez Hurtado 2007; 10 Matamala and Rami 2009), only few research works have been conducted on corpora to find more extensive evidence of the characteristics of the language of audio description (Piety 2004; Salway 2007). In particular, a project called TIWO (Television in Words) has recently analyzed 91 film scripts paving the way for a definition of audio description language as a Language for Special Purposes, given the regular presence of highly statistically evident idiosyncrasies as well as of grammatical and semantic patterns which are rather unusual in general language.