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Home , Deathbed conversion, Religious conversion

Forced conversion is adoption of a different un- der duress. The convert may secretly retain the previous beliefs and continue, covertly, with the practices of the original religion, while outwardly maintaining the forms of the new religion. Over generations a family forced against their will to convert may wholeheartedly adopt the new religion. is the act of attempting to convert by persua- sion another individual from a different religion or system. (See proselyte). Apostate is a term used by members of a religion or de- nomination to refer to someone who has left that religion or denomination.

1 Abrahamic

1.1

Main article:

The Conversion of Paul, a 1600 painting by Italian artist Caravaggio (1571–1610) 1.1.1 Procedure

Religious conversion is the adoption of a of be- Jewish law has a number of requirements of potential liefs identified with one particular religious denomina- converts. They should desire conversion to Judaism for tion to the exclusion of others. Thus “religious conver- its own sake, and for no other motives. A male convert sion” would describe the abandoning of adherence to one needs to undergo a circumcision conducted accord- denomination and affiliating with another. This might ing to Jewish law (if already circumcised, a needle is used be from one to another denomination within the same to draw a symbolic drop of blood while the appropriate religion, for example, Christian Baptist to Methodist or blessings are said), and there has to be a commitment to Catholic,[1] Muslim Shi'a to Sunni.[2] In some cases, re- observe Jewish law. A convert must join the Jewish com- ligious conversion “marks a transformation of religious munity, and reject the previous he or she had identity and is symbolized by special ”.[3] prior to the conversion. Ritual immersion in a small pool People convert to a different religion for various rea- of water known as a mikvah is required. sons, including: active conversion by free choice due to a change in beliefs,[4] secondary conversion, deathbed con- 1.1.2 History version, conversion for convenience and marital conver- sion, and such as conversion by vio- lence or charity. Main article: List of converts to Judaism Conversion or reaffiliation for convenience is an insincere act, sometimes for relatively trivial reasons such as a par- In Hellenistic and Roman times, some Pharisees were ea- ent converting to enable a child to be admitted to a good ger proselytizers, and had at least some success through- school associated with a religion, or a person adopting a out the empire. religion more in keeping with the social class he or she as- Some Jews are also descended from converts to Ju- pires to.[5] When people marry one spouse may convert daism outside the Mediterranean world. It is known to the religion of the other. that some Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as

1 2 1 many Arabs, particularly in Yemen. The word “prose- Churches of Christ, and believe lyte” originally meant a Greek who had converted to Ju- is essential to salvation. daism. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman em- pire and Caliph Umar ibn Khattab were issuing decrees 1.2.2 Accepting Christ and renouncing against conversion to Judaism, implying that this was still occurring.[6]

1.2

Main articles: Conversion to Christianity, and List of converts to Christian- ity

Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Chris- tianity. The exact requirements vary between different churches and denominations. The process of converting to Catholicism involves followed by initial participation in the sacraments. In general, conver- sion to Christian primarily involves repentance for sin and a decision to live a life that is holy and acceptable to through faith in the atoning death and resurrection of Christ. All of this is essentially done through a voluntary exercise of the will of the individual concerned. The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: True conversion to Christianity is thus a personal, inter- “One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through nal matter and can never be forced. Converts are almost the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the always expected to be baptized. Gospel, or of absolution, and that for Christ’s sake, are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from Christians consider that conversion requires internaliza- terrors.”[10] tion of the new belief system. It implies a new reference point for the convert’s self-identity, and is a matter of be- “Conversion” derives from the Latin conversiōn-em, lit- lief and social structure—of both faith and affiliation.[7] erally meaning “turning round” and figuratively mean- This typically entails the sincere avowal of a new belief ing a “change in character”.[11] “Change of heart”, system, but may also present itself in other ways, such as “metanoia”, and “regeneration” are among the synonyms adoption into an identity group or spiritual lineage. for conversion.[12] Conversion is, therefore, more than a mere change in religious identity, but a change in nature (regeneration), evidenced by a change in values. Jesus 1.2.1 Baptism demands "metánoia (conversion)" to become a good tree that bears good fruit (Matthew 7:17–18, [Luke 6:43]).[13] Main article: Baptism According to Christianity, a convert renounces sin as worthless and treasures instead the supreme worth of Catholics, and Orthodox denominations encourage infant Christ in Jesus’ sacrificial death and resurrection.[14] baptism before children are aware of their status. In Ro- Christian conversion is a “deeply personal” matter. It en- man Catholicism and certain high church forms of Protes- tails changes in thinking, priorities and commitments: “a tantism, baptized children are expected to participate in whole new direction in one’s life”.[15] confirmation classes as pre-teens. In Eastern , Because conversion is a change in values that embraces the equivalent of confirmation, , is adminis- God and rejects sin, it includes a personal commitment tered to all converts, adult and infant alike, immediately to a life of holiness as described by Paul of Tarsus and after baptism. exemplified by Jesus. In some Protestant traditions, this Methods of baptism include immersion, sprinkling (as- is called “accepting Christ as one’s Savior and following persion) and pouring (affusion).[8] Baptism received by him as Lord.”[16] In another variation, the 1910 Catholic adults or younger people who have reached the age of ac- Dictionary defines “conversion” as “One who turns or countability where they can make a personal religious de- changes from a state of sin to repentance, from a lax to cision is referred to as believer’s baptism among conser- a more earnest and serious way of life, from unbelief to vative or evangelical Protestant groups. It is intended as faith, from to the true faith.”[17] The Eastern Or- a public statement of a person’s prior decision to become thodox understanding of conversion is illustrated in the a Christian.[9] Some Christian groups such as Catholics, rite of baptism, in which the convert faces west while 1.3 Latter Day Saint movement 3 publicly renouncing and symbolically spitting upon Sa- tan, and then turns to the east to Christ “as king and God”.[18]

1.2.3 Responsibilities

In the , Jesus commanded his disciples in the to “go and make disciples of all nations” ([Matthew 28:19], [Mark 16:15]). Evangelization— sharing the Gospel message or “Good News” in deed and word, is an expectation of Christians.

1.2.4 Reaffiliation

Transferring from one to another may consist of a relatively simple transfer of membership, especially if moving from one Trinitarian denomination to another, and if the person has received water baptism in the name of the Trinity. If not, then the person may be required to be baptized or rebaptized before accep- tance by the new church. Some denominations, such as Latter Day Saint baptism ceremony, circa the 1850s those in the Anabaptist tradition, require previously bap- tized Christians to be re-baptized. The Eastern Ortho- dox Church treats a transfer from another denomination than personal ones, as adherents do not believe in original of Christianity to Orthodoxy (conceived of as the one sin. Latter Day also occur only after an "age of accountability" which is defined as the age of eight true Church) as a category of conversion and repentance, [22] [23] though re-baptism is not always required. years. The theology thus rejects . The process of conversion to Christianity varies some- In addition, Latter Day Saint theology requires that bap- tism may only be performed with one who has been called what among Christian denominations. Most Protestants [24] believe in conversion by faith to attain salvation. Ac- and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Be- cording to this understanding, a person professes faith cause the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement op- in Jesus Christ as God, their Lord and savior. Repen- erate under a lay priesthood, children raised in a Mormon tance for sin and a holy living are expected of those pro- family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend fessing faith in Jesus Christ. While an individual may or family member who has achieved the office of priest, which is conferred upon worthy male members at least 16 make such a decision privately, usually it entails being [25] baptized and becoming a member of a denomination or years old in the LDS Church. church. In these traditions, a person is considered to be- Baptism is seen as symbolic both of Jesus' death, burial come a Christian by publicly acknowledging the foun- and resurrection[26] and is also symbolic of the baptized dational Christian doctrines that Jesus Christ died, was individual putting off of the natural or sinful man and be- buried, and was resurrected for the remission of sins. coming spiritually reborn as a disciple of Jesus. Membership into a Latter Day Saint church is granted 1.2.5 Comparison between Protestants only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. Latter Day Saint churches do not recog- This table summarizes three Protestant beliefs. nize baptisms of other as valid because they believe baptisms must be performed under the church’s unique authority. Thus, all who come into one of the Latter Day 1.3 Latter Day Saint movement Saint faiths as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith. Main article: Baptism in When performing a Baptism, Latter Day Saints say the Much of the theology of Latter Day Saint baptism was following before performing the ordinance: established during the early Latter Day Saint movement founded by . According to this theology, baptism must be by immersion, for the remission of sins Having been commissioned of Jesus (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), Christ, I baptize you in the name of the and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Mormon baptism does not purport to remit any sins other Amen[27] 4 1 ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS

Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done shahadah.[29][30] in a baptistry, although they can be performed in any teaches that everyone is Muslim at birth[31][32] be- body of water in which the person may be completely cause every child that is born has a natural inclination to immersed. The person administering the baptism must goodness and to worship the one true God alone, but his recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, or her parents or society can cause him or her to devi- hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there ate from the straight path. When someone accepts Islam are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being bap- he/she is considered to revert to his/her original condi- tized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. tion. While conversion to Islam is among its most sup- In addition to the baptizer, two priesthood holders witness [28] ported tenets, conversion from Islam to another religion the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly. is considered to be the sin of . In several Mus- Following baptism, Latter Day Saints receive the Gift lim majority countries it is subject to the death penalty or of the Holy Ghost by the of a heavy punishments. In Islam, circumcision is a Melchizedek Priesthood holder.[28] custom not mentioned in the . The primary opinion is that it is not obligatory and is not a condition for enter- ing into Islam. The Shafi`i and schools regard it 1.4 Islam as obligatory, while the and Hanafi schools regard it as only recommended. However, it is not a precondi- Main category: Conversion to Islam tion for the acceptance of a person’s Islamic practices, nor Further : , Islamization, does one sin if choosing to forgo circumcision. It is not one of the Five Pillars of Islam or the Six Fundamentals of Belief.[33][34][35]

1.5 Bahá'í Faith

In sharing their faith with others, Bahá'ís are cautioned to “obtain a hearing” – meaning to make sure the per- son they are proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. "Bahá'í pioneers", rather than attempt- ing to supplant the cultural underpinnings of the people in their adopted communities, are encouraged to integrate into the society and apply Bahá'í principles in living and working with their neighbors. Bahá'ís recognize the divine origins of all revealed re- ligion, and believe that these religions occurred sequen- tially as part of a Divine plan (see Progressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding and fulfilling that of its predecessors. Bahá'ís regard their own faith as the most recent (but not the last), and believe its teachings – which are centered around the principle of the oneness of humanity – are most suited to meeting the needs of a global community. In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes ac- Ghazan was born and raised as a Christian, studied , knowledgement of Bahá'u'llah – the Founder of the Faith and converted to Islam upon accession to the throne. – as the Messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of His teachings, and intention to be obedient Al-Baqara 256, List of converts to Islam, Hanif, Islamic to the institutions and laws He established. Activity and Conversion to the Bahá'í Faith carries with it an explicit belief in the common foundation of all revealed religion, There are five pillars, or foundations, of Islam but the pri- a commitment to the unity of mankind, and active ser- mary, and most important is to believe that there is only vice to the community at large, especially in areas that one God and creator, referred to as Allah (the word for will foster unity and concord. Since the Bahá'í Faith has the name of God in Arabic) and that the Islamic prophet, no , converts to this Faith are encouraged to be , is His final messenger. A person is consid- active in all aspects of community life. Even a recent ered to have converted to Islam from the moment he or convert may be elected to serve on a Local Spiritual As- she sincerely makes this declaration of faith, called the sembly – the guiding Bahá'í institution at the community 2.2 5

level.[36][37] , (non-violence) as the greatest or virtue, and others.[46] Religious conversion to has a long history out- 2 side India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in Indonesia, 2.1 Hinduism Vietnam, Cambodia and Burma.[47][48][49] Some of , particularly of the schools began seeking See also: List of converts to Hinduism or accepting converts in early to mid 20th century. For Since 1800 CE, religious conversion from and to example, Arya Samaj, Saiva Siddhanta Church, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow their sects of Hinduism, and each has their own religious conversion procedure.[50] In recent decades, mainstream Hinduism schools have at- tempted to systematize ways to accept religious converts, with an increase in inter-religious mixed marriages.[51] The steps involved in becoming a Hindu have variously included a period where the interested person gets an in- formal ardha-Hindu name and studies ancient literature on spiritual path and practices (English translations of , Agamas, Epics, ethics in , festivals, ).[52] If after a period of study, the individual still A initiation to Hinduism ceremony in . wants to convert, a Samskaras ceremony is held, where the individual adopts a traditional Hindu Hinduism has been a controversial subject within Hin- name. The initiation ceremony may also include Yajna duism. Some have suggested that the concept of mission- (i.e., fire ritual with Sanskrit hymns) under guidance of [51] ary conversion, either way, is anathema to the precepts a local Hindu priest. Some of these places are mathas of Hinduism.[38] Religious leaders of some of Hinduism and asramas (hermitage, monastery), where one or more sects such as Brahmo Samaj have seen Hinduism as a non- (spiritual guide) conduct the conversion and offer [51] missionary religion yet welcomed new members, while spiritual discussions. Some schools encourage the new other leaders of Hinduism’s diverse schools have stated convert to learn and participate in community activities that with the arrival of missionary Islam and Christian- such as festivals ( etc), read and discuss ancient lit- ity in India, this “there is no such thing as proselytism in erature, learn and engage in rites of passages (ceremonies Hinduism” view must be re-examined.[38][39] of birth, first feeding, first learning day, age of majority, wedding, cremation and others).[53] Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs span- ning , , , , pandeism, , and among others. Hin- 2.2 Sikhism duism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no central- ized religious authorities, no universally accepted gov- Sikhism is not known to openly proselytize, but accepts erning body, no prophet(s), no binding holy book nor converts.[54][55] any mandatory prayer attendance requirements.[40][41][42] Hinduism has been described as a way of life.[40] In its diffuse and open structure, numerous schools and sects 2.3 of Hinduism have developed and spun off in India with help from its ascetic scholars, since the Vedic age. The Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the reli- six Astika and two Nastika schools of Hindu philoso- gion. There is no specific ritual for becoming a Jain. One phy, in its history, did not develop a missionary or pros- does not need to ask any authorities for admission. One elytization , and they co-existed with each becomes a Jain on one’s own by taking the five vows:[56] other. Most Hindu sub-schools and sects do not actively seek converts.[43] Individuals have had a choice to en- ter, leave or change their god(s), spiritual convictions, 1. Nonviolence (Ahimsa) accept or discard any rituals and practices, and pursue 2. Observing Truth () spiritual knowledge and liberation () in different [44][45] ways. However, various schools of Hinduism do 3. Non-stealing (Asteya) have some core common beliefs, such as the belief that all living beings have Atman (), a belief in theory, 4. Chastity 6 3 OTHER RELIGIONS AND SECTS

5. Non-possession (Aparigraha).

Following the five vows is the main requirement in Jain- ism. All other aspects such as visiting temples are sec- ondary. Jain and are required to observe these five vows strictly.[56]

2.4 Buddhism

Persons newly adhering to Buddhism traditionally "take " (express faith in the Three Jewels—Buddha, Dharma, and ) before a , , or similar rep- resentative. But cultural or secular Buddhists often hold multiple religious identities, combining the religion with some in different countries and eth- nics, such as: Throughout the timeline of Buddhism, conversions of en- tire countries and regions to Buddhism were frequent, as Buddhism spread throughout Asia. For example, in the 11th century in Burma, king Anoratha converted his en- A Scientologist introduces the E-meter to a potential convert. tire country to Buddhism. At the end of the 12th century, Jayavarman VII set the stage for conver- sion of the to Theravada Buddhism. Mass conversions of areas and communities to Buddhism occur up to the present day, for example, in the in India there have been organized mass con- versions. Exceptions to encouraging conversion may occur in some Buddhist movements. In , for example, the most important and widely cited studies of the pro- the current Dalai Lama discourages active attempts to win cess of religious conversion, and one of the first modern converts.[73][74] sociological studies of a .[81][82] The Church of attempts to gain converts by offering “free stress tests”.[83] It has also used the 3 Other religions and sects celebrity status of some of its members (most fa- mously the American actor Tom Cruise) to attract [84][85] In the second half of the 20th century, the rapid growth converts. The requires that all converts sign a legal waiver which covers their rela- of new religious movements (NRMs) led some psychol- ogists and other scholars to propose that these groups tionship with the Church of Scientology before engaging in Scientology services.[86] were using "" or "mind control" techniques to gain converts. This theory was publicized by the popu- Research in the United States and the Netherlands has lar news media but disputed by other scholars, including shown a positive correlation between areas lacking main- some sociologists of religion.[75][76][76][77][78][79] stream churches and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. This applies also In the 1960s sociologist John Lofland lived with [87][88] Unification Church missionary and a for the presence of centres. small group of American church members in On the other end of the scale are religions that do not ac- and studied their activities in trying to promote their be- cept any converts, or do so very rarely. Often these are liefs and win converts to their church. Lofland noted that relatively small, close-knit minority religions that are eth- most of their efforts were ineffective and that most of the nically based such as the , , and . people who joined did so because of personal relation- classically does not accept converts, but ships with other members, often family relationships.[80] this issue has become controversial in the 20th century Lofland published his findings in 1964 as a doctoral thesis due to the rapid decline in membership. Chinese tradi- entitled “The World Savers: A Field Study of Pro- tional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and cesses”, and in 1966 in book form by Prentice-Hall as hence for conversion. The and some Indian : A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that ev- and Maintenance of Faith. It is considered to be one of ery member is a convert. 7

4 International law Army, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and other religious move- ments in what it refers to as its canonical territory. Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with The Universal Declaration of Human Jehovah’s Witnesses, but also with some Pentecostals, Rights defines religious conversion as a human right: “Ev- over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a eryone has the right to , conscience law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. and religion; this right includes freedom to change his re- A Jehovah’s Witness, , won the equiv- ligion or belief” (Article 18). Despite this UN-declared alent of $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after human right, some groups forbid or restrict religious con- being arrested for trying to preach his faith from door to version (see below). door. In another case, Larissis v. Greece, a member of Based on the declaration the United Nations Commission the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European on (UNCHR) drafted the International Court of Human Rights. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding Some Islamic countries with Islamic law outlaw and treaty. It states that “Everyone shall have the right to free- carry strict sentences for proselytizing. Several Islamic dom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall countries under Islamic law—, Yemen, include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt, Iran, and Maldives— of his choice” (Article 18.1). “No one shall be subject to outlaw apostasy and carry imprisonment or the death coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to penalty for those and those enticing Mus- adopt a religion or belief of his choice” (Article 18.2). lims to leave Islam. Also, induced religious conversions The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in the Indian states Orissa has resulted in communal riots. in 1993: “The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the 5 See also right to replace one’s current religion or belief with an- other or to adopt atheistic views [...] Article 18.2 bars • Apostasy, or renunciation of religion coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physi- • , adoption of faith before dying cal force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non- believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congre- • Forced conversion against the will of the subject gations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert.” • (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; Secondary conversion that results from a relation- emphasis added) ship Some countries distinguish voluntary, motivated conver- • Moral conversion based on the internalist view of sion from organized proselytism, attempting to restrict morality the latter. The boundary between them is not easily de- • List of converts to Christianity fined: what one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness-bearing, another may consider intrusive and • List of converts to Hinduism improper. Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an arti- • List of converts to Islam cle by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State Uni- • versity's Journal of Law and Health: “According to the List of converts to Judaism Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Je- • List of converts to Buddhism sus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dan- gerous , and its members are appropriate candidates • conversion to Islam by feigning love for . Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that • 'aggressiveness and proselytizing ... are basic to authentic Missionary sent abroad Christianity,' and that and Campus Cru- • sade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Further- more, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a • Islamic Missionary Activity meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves • been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Missionary (LDS Church) Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the • Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults Central Conference of American Rabbis.”[89] • Since the collapse of the former the Russian Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it • , 2010 book by Peter Hitchens takes exception to what it considers illegitimate prose- lytizing by the Roman , the Salvation • Conversion to Islam in U.S. prisons 8 6 REFERENCES

6 References [21] Roger E. Olson, Arminian Theology: Myths and Reali- ties (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 18. “Arminian ” [1] More conservative Protestants, especially Fundamental- refers to “evangelical synergism, which affirms the preve- ists, would view a “reaffiliation” to Catholicism as a con- nience of grace.” version to a new religion. [22] See Doctrine and Covenants 68:25-27 [2] Stark, Rodney and Roger Finke. “Acts of Faith: Explain- ing the Human Side of Religion.” University of California [23] See Moroni 8:4-23 Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-520-22202-1 [24] See, e.g., “Guide to the Scriptures: Baptism, Baptize: [3] Meintel, Deirdre. “When There Is No Conversion: Spir- Proper authority”, LDS.org (LDS Church) itualists and Personal Religious Change”. Anthropologica 49 (1): 149–162. [25] See, e.g., “Gospel Topics: Priest”, LDS.org (LDS Church)

[4] Falkenberg, Steve. “Psychological Explanations of Reli- [26] See, e.g., “Baptism”, KJV (LDS): LDS Bible Dictionary, gious Socialization.” Religious Conversion. Eastern Ken- LDS Church tucky University. August 31, 2009. [27] See 3 Nephi 11:25 [5] The Independent newspaper: "... finding religion – is there anything middle-class parents won't try to get their [28] “Performing Priesthood Ordinances”, Duties and Bless- children into the 'right' schools?" ings of the Priesthood: Basic Manual for Priesthood Hold- ers, Part B, LDS Church, 2000, pp. 41–48 [6] http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pact-umar.asp [29] Converts to Islam [7] Hefner, Robert W. Conversion to Christianity. University of California Press, 1993. ISBN 0-520-07836-5 [30] How to Become a Muslim - Meeting Place for Re- verts/Converts To Islam [8] Bromiley, Geoffrey W. “Baptism.” The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D (p. 419). Wm. B. [31] Every Child is Born Muslim Eerdmans Publishing, 1995. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 [32] Conversion to Islam [9] “The Purpose of Baptism.” http://gospelway.com/ salvation/baptism_purpose.php [33] Is Circumcision obligatory after conversion?

[10] Augsburg Confession, Article XII: Of Repentance [34] Considering Converting: Is it necessary to be circum- cised? [11] “conversion, n.”. OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. [35] Circumcision for Converts [12] http://thesaurus.com/browse/conversion [36] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í [13] Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, eds, Theological Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1- Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged in One Volume 85168-184-1. by Geoffrey W. Bromily (Eerdmans, 1985) 101, 403. [37] Momen, M. (1997). A Short Introduction to the Bahá'í [14] Conversion to Christ: The Making of a Christian Hedonist Faith. Oxford, UK: One World Publications. ISBN 1- 85168-209-0. [15] “St. Paul on Conversion” at http://jesuschristsavior.net/ Conversion.html. Accessed November 5, 2013 [38] (2011), Hinduism as a Missionary Re- ligion, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978- [16] BibleGateway.com- Commentaries » Matthew 16 » The 1438432113, pages 31-53 Cost of the Kingdom [39] Gauri Viswanathan (1998), Outside the Fold: Conversion, [17] New Catholic Dictionary: conversion Modernity, and Belief, Princeton University Press, ISBN [18] † Saints Constantine & Elena: Reception into the Cate- 978-0691058993, pages 153-176 chumenate [40] Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991), Hinduism, a way of life, [19] Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Motilal Banarsidass Publ., p. 71, ISBN 978-81-208- Christ’s Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the 0899-7 American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally de- [41] Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Prac- fends Augustine’s “monergistic view.” tices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: “(...) one need not be religious in the mini- [20] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Monergism and Paul mal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ’s or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a 2006), 65. Hindu.” 9

[42] MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, [60] Asia Society - Buddhism in China Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, “a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu.” [61] “World Factbook: Japan”. CIA. Retrieved 15 January 2011. [43] Catharine Cookson (2003), Encyclopedia of religious free- dom, Taylor & Francis, p. 180, ISBN 978-0-415-94181-5 [62] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (15 September 2006). “International Religious Freedom Re- [44] Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in Hindu port 2006”. US Department of State. Retrieved 4 De- Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0- cember 2007. 8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 319- 337; John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in [63] Asia Society - the Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Pub- [64] Buddhism in Korea, Korean Buddhism Magazine, Seoul lishing New York, pp 64-85 1997

[45] Gavin Flood, Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: [65] Asia Society - Historical and Modern Religions of Korea Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-90- 04-17893-9, see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge, pp [66] “Culture of North Korea – Alternative name, History and 881-884 ethnic relations”. Countries and Their Cultures. Advameg Inc. Retrieved 4 July 2009. [46] SS Subramuniyaswami (2000), How to become a Hindu, 2nd Edition, Himalayan Academy, ISBN 0945497822, [67] “CIA The World Factbook – North Korea”. Cia.gov. Re- page 153 trieved 3 November 2011.

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[78] Wright, Stewart A. (1997). “Media Coverage of Un- • Cooper, Richard S. “The Assessment and Collec- conventional Religion: Any 'Good News’ for Minority tion of Kharaj Tax in Medieval Egypt” Journal of Faiths?". Review of Religious Research (Review of Re- the American Oriental Society, Vol. 96, No. 3. (Jul– ligious Research, Vol. 39, No. 2) 39 (2): 101–115. Sep., 1976), pp. 365–382. doi:10.2307/3512176. JSTOR 3512176. • Curtin, Phillip D. Cross-Cultural Trade in World [79] Barker, Eileen (1986). “Religious Move- History. Cambridge University Press, 1984. ments: Cult and Anti-Cult Since Jonestown”. Annual Review of Sociology 12: 329–346. • Hoiberg, Dale, and Indu Ramachandran. Students’ doi:10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.001553. Britannica India. Popular Prakashan, 2000.

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[81] Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in Amer- • James, William, The varieties of religious experi- ica: African diaspora traditions and other American in- ence: a study in human nature. Being the Gifford novations, Volume 5 of Introduction to New and Al- lectures on natural religion delivered at Edinburgh ternative Religions in America, W. Michael Ashcraft, in 1901-1902; Longmans, Green & Co, New York Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 ISBN 0-275-98717- (1902) 5, ISBN 978-0-275-98717-6, page 180 • Morris, Harold C., and Lin M. Morris. “Power and [82] Exploring New Religions, Issues in contemporary religion, purpose: Correlates to conversion.” Psychology: A George D. Chryssides, Continuum International Publish- Journal of Human Behavior, Vol 15(4), Nov-Dec ing Group, 2001 ISBN 0-8264-5959-5, ISBN 978-0- 8264-5959-6 page 1 1978, 15–22. • Rambo, Lewis R. Understanding Religious Conver- [83] The Foster Report. Chapter 5, “The Practices of Scien- tology;" section (a), “Recruitment;" pages 75-76. sion. Yale University Press, 1993. • Ramstedt, Martin. Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: [84] “Artists Find Inspiration, Education at Church of Scien- tology & Celebrity Centre Nashville.” The Tennessee Tri- A Between Local, National, and bune, Jan 20-Jan 26, 2011. Vol. 22, Iss. 3, pg. 14A Global Interests. Routledge, 2004. • [85] Goodyear, Dana (2008-01-14). “Château Scientology”. Rawat, Ajay S. StudentMan and Forests: The Khatta Letter from California. The New Yorker. Retrieved 2008- and Gujjar Settlements of Sub-Himalayan Tarai. In- 01-10. dus Publishing, 1993. • [86] Friedman, Roger (3 September 2003). “Will Scientology Vasu, Srisa Chandra (1919), The Catechism Of Celebs Sign 'Spiritual' Contract?". FOX News. Retrieved Hindu Dharma, New York: Kessinger Publishing, 2008-12-07. LLC

[87] Schepens, T. (Dutch) Religieuze bewegingen in Nederland volume 29, Sekten Ontkerkelijking en religieuze vitaliteit: 8 External links nieuwe religieuze bewegingen en New Age-centra in Neder- land (1994) VU uitgeverij ISBN 90-5383-341-2 • “Conversion: A Family Affair”, Craig Harline, [88] Stark, R & W.S. Bainbridge The future of religion: secu- Berfrois, 4 October 2011 larization, revival and cult formation (1985) Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California press

[89] Joining a Cult: Religious Choice or Psychological Aber- ration?

7 Further reading

• Barker, Eileen The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? (1984)

• Barrett, D. V. : A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions (2001) UK, Cassell & Co ISBN 0-304-35592-5 11

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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