The Last Eurasian Ice Sheets – a Chronological Database and Time-Slice Reconstruction, DATED-1

Home , Bremanger (village), Fister, Geology of Belarus, Herdla, Ice stream, Jan Mangerud

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The last Eurasian ice sheets – a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1

ANNA L. C. HUGHES, RICHARD GYLLENCREUTZ, ØYSTEIN S. LOHNE, JAN MANGERUD AND JOHN INGE SVENDSEN

Hughes, A. L. C., Gyllencreutz, R., Lohne, Ø. S., Mangerud, J., Svendsen, J. I. 2016 (January): The last Eurasian ice sheets – a chronological database and time-slice reconstruction, DATED-1. Boreas, Vol. 45, pp. 1–45. 10.1111/ bor.12142. ISSN 0300-9483. We present a new time-slice reconstruction of the Eurasian ice sheets (British–Irish, Svalbard–Barents–Kara Seas and Scandinavian) documenting the spatial evolution of these interconnected ice sheets every 1000 years from 25 to 10 ka, and at four selected time periods back to 40 ka. The time-slice maps of ice-sheet extent are based on a new Geographical Information System (GIS) database, where we have collected published numerical dates constraining the timing of ice-sheet advance and retreat, and additionally geomorphological and geological evidence contained within the existing literature. We integrate all uncertainty estimates into three ice-margin lines for each time-slice; a most-credible line, derived from our assessment of all available evidence, with bounding maximum and minimum limits allowed by existing data. This approach was motivated by the demands of glaciological, isostatic and climate modelling and to clearly display limitations in knowledge. The timing of advance and retreat were both remarkably spatially variable across the ice-sheet area. According to our compilation the westernmost limit along the British–Irish and Norwegian continental shelf was reached up to 7000 years earlier (at c. 27– 26 ka) than the eastern limit on the Russian Plain (at c. 20–19 ka). The Eurasian ice sheet complex as a whole attained its maximum extent (5.5 Mkm2) and volume (~24 m Sea Level Equivalent) at c. 21 ka. Our continental- scale approach highlights instances of conflicting evidence and gaps in the ice-sheet chronology where uncertainties remain large and should be a focus for future research. Largest uncertainties coincide with locations presently below sea level and where contradicting evidence exists. This first version of the database and time-slices (DATED-1) has a census date of 1 January 2013 and both are available to download via the Bjerknes Climate Data Centre and PANGAEA (www.bcdc.no; http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.848117). Anna L. C. Hughes ([email protected]), Øystein S. Lohne, Jan Mangerud and John Inge Svendsen, Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, P.O. Box 7803, N-5020 Bergen, Norway; Richard Gyllencreutz, Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Swe- den; received 12th May 2015, accepted 5th August 2015.

Geologists require summaries of accumulated evidence filled and conflicts within the existing evidence that from field data and chronological dates to put new require further investigation. Second, to provide an observations in context and formulate (or re-consider) empirically based reconstruction of changes in the ice- hypotheses and palaeoglaciological interpretations. sheet extent through time, suitable as boundary condi- Numerical-glaciological, isostatic and palaeoclimatic tions for numerical ice sheet, isostatic and climatic models all require empirical constraints on past ice- models (e.g. Tarasov et al. 2012) or alternatively for sheet extent as either inputs or for testing outputs. testing and validating such models. For such purposes Here we present new empirically-based reconstructions the ice-sheet scale is essential, whereas by nature gla- of the growth and decay of the interconnected Eura- cial-geological evidence, collected over decades sian ice sheets (EurIS) comprising the Scandinavian, through diligent efforts of numerous field scientists, Svalbard, Barents Sea, Kara Sea and British–Irish ice typically is highly detailed and often restricted by sheets, for the period 40–10 ka, i.e. during the build-up national boundaries. Assembling such information in to and deglaciation from the Last Glacial Maximum a format that satisfies the requirements of numerical (LGM). As such, this is the first geological reconstruc- modelling and adequately reflects the nuances of the tion of the last deglaciation of the entire EurIS to doc- geological data, and archiving it for future use is ument the underlying chronological data since therefore a nontrivial task. In 2005 we set up a project Andersen’s (1981) monumental paper. The work pre- to establish a comprehensive database of available sented was additionally inspired by the more recent dates and geomorphological observations that could compilation of chronological information and retreat- be used to undertake this task; Database of the Eura- pattern reconstruction conducted for the last Lauren- sian Deglaciation, DATED (Gyllencreutz et al. 2007). tide Ice Sheet (Dyke et al. 2002). This ambitious undertaking has been in progress over Our motivation is twofold; first to depict the evolu- the last decade. tion of the ice-sheet complex in its entirety as a coher- In this paper we present and document the first ver- ent and easily accessible summary of, and test for, sion of the results, ‘DATED-1’. The results include a regional field geology; both to identify gaps to be chronological database and a series of maps of time-

DOI 10.1111/bor.12142 © 2015 The Authors. Boreas published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Boreas Collegium This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 2 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS slice reconstructions of the ice-sheet extent during the cycle. At maximum extension, over half (~6000 km) last 40 ka. We introduce some new procedures for ice- of the combined EurIS margin terminated at the margin compilations from geological evidence com- continental-shelf edge and a similarly long terrestrial pared to other former ice-sheet reconstructions (e.g. margin (~4000 km) stretched across the Russian and Kleman et al. 1997; Boulton et al. 2001; Svendsen northern European plains. Parts of this margin ter- et al. 2004; Clark et al. 2012), namely to integrate all minated into large proglacial lakes dammed by the accountable uncertainties (e.g. in dating results, stratig- ice sheet (e.g. Lunkka et al. 2001; Jakobsson et al. raphy, moraine correlations) and present them 2007). collectively in terms of uncertainty in the ice-margin The ultimate limit reached by ice during the last position. For each time-slice we present maximum and 40 ka has been carefully defined on the basis of till minimum ice-limit positions in addition to the limits deposits, stratigraphy, moraines and other ice-contact that we conclude to be the most-probable or credible landforms at sites across the region (Ehlers & Gibbard ice extension. Both the compiled underlying chrono- 2004; Ehlers et al. 2011; Fig. 1). Although often logical data and our time-slice reconstructions are referred to as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) ice made available for scrutiny as Supporting Information extent, the timing of ice extension to this limit occurred (Tables S1-5, Data S1, S2) and at the Bjerknes Centre at different times for sectors of the individual ice sheets Data Centre/PANGAEA (http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/ and across the ice-sheet complex as a whole (Svendsen PANGAEA.848117). The DATED-1 database has a et al. 2004; Bose€ et al. 2012; Clark et al. 2012). There- census date of 1 January 2013 and it is our intention fore, the line as depicted on Fig. 1 does not represent a that the dataset and reconstructions will be updated synchronous ice-sheet margin. In this paper we use the and revised as new information becomes available. In last (most-recent) peak in global ice volume as the defi- the Discussion we make additional reference to some nition for the LGM (23–21 ka, Clark et al. 2009), post-census literature where relevant. which may or may not coincide with the timing of the maximum achieved ice extent for different sectors of The Eurasian ice sheets the EurIS margin. Geological reconstructions of the entire EurIS Various names and abbreviations have been used for complex have been published (e.g. Andersen 1981; the interconnected complex of ice sheets located on Svendsen et al. 2004) but more frequently reconstruc- the northeastern edge of the North Atlantic during tions of individual ice sheets (e.g. Kleman et al. 1997; repeated glacial cycles, which we refer to collectively Boulton et al. 2001; Saarnisto & Lunkka 2004; Clark as the Eurasian ice sheets (EurIS) (Fig. 1). The lar- et al. 2012) or ice-sheet sectors (e.g. Saarnisto & gest component was the Scandinavian or Fennoscan- Saarinen 2001; Houmark-Nielsen & Kjær 2003; Kalm dian Ice Sheet. We use the former name and 2012; Larsen et al. 2014) have been undertaken. Much abbreviation (Scandinavian Ice Sheet, SIS), taking of the most recent work has been facilitated by the the name from the nucleus of the ice sheet, the increasing use and quality of remote sensing imagery, Scandinavian Mountains (Mangerud 2008). To the digital elevation models, and high-resolution multi- west, ice covering the British Isles was at times con- beam and seismic bathymetry data for landform map- nected to the SIS across the North Sea and formed ping (e.g. Clark 1997; Ottesen et al. 2007; Greenwood the smallest component of the combined EurIS. This & Clark 2008; Hughes et al. 2010; Winsborrow et al. ice sheet is commonly referred to as the British–Irish 2010). Some such reconstructions grounded in regio- or British Isles (or occasionally Celtic) Ice Sheet; nal mapping of glacial geomorphology have focussed here we use the former name and abbreviation (Bri- on ice sheet-scale retreat-pattern dynamics (e.g. Boul- tish–Irish Ice Sheet, BIIS). The ice sheets north of ton et al. 2001; Clark et al. 2012) and ice-flow path Scandinavia are often divided into three main parts evolution (e.g. Kleman et al. 1997; Greenwood & and named based on location. Three names are Clark 2009a,b; Hughes et al. 2014) (Fig. 2). However, commonly used both alone and in different combi- high-resolution studies of discrete sectors or individ- nations, partly reflecting real changes in the centre ual ice lobes from detailed field observations of of ice mass over time; Svalbard, Barents Sea and sediments and geomorphology remain the main lines Kara Sea ice sheets. We refer to this ice mass collec- of evidence for reconstructing former ice-sheet tively as the Svalbard–Barents–Kara Ice Sheet behaviour. (SBKIS). Geological reconstructions have been supplemented The SIS and BIIS were predominantly terrestrially by isostatic and numerical glaciological models that based although the westernmost sector of the SIS have varied in terms of geographic and temporal scope, and up to a third of the BIIS were grounded below as well as mathematical and physical complexity and present-day sea level in fjords and on the continen- resolution (e.g. Boulton et al. 1995; Holmlund & Fas- tal shelf. In comparison the SBKIS was predomi- took 1995; Payne & Baldwin 1999; Siegert et al. 2001; nantly marine-based for much of the last glacial Arnold et al. 2002; Forsstrom€ et al. 2003; van den BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 3

100° W 120° W 180° 140° E 120° E Severnaya Zemlya Taimyr Peninsula Arctic Voronin Trough Ocean St. Anna Trough 70° N Kara Franz Josef Sea

Franz VictoriaLand

Trough

Yamal Greenland Peninsula Barents Novaya Svalbard Zemlya 70° N Sea Greenland SBKIS Sea

Pechora Sea Bjørnøya land a n en yr Low rnø Bjø

Kanin Pechora Finnmark Peninsula

Kola Andøya Peninsula

White Sea Iceland Norwegian 60° N Sea SIS 60° N ain Onega Russia Atlantic Finland ian Pl Ocean Ladoga s Ålesund N Gulf of o r Bothnia w Norway land W Rus N Shetland e

g lf of Fin i Sweden u a G Estonia

n C h a Scotland nn Latvia North Sea e l BIIS Baltic Lithuania Bank Denmark Sea England Belarus 50° N Ireland a e Dogger S h 50° N is Ir Wales Celtic 500 km Sea Germany Poland 0° 20° E

Fig. 1. Map of northern Eurasia showing maximum extent of ice cover during the last glacial period (white lines over Greenland, Iceland and Eurasia taken from Funder et al. (2011), Geirsdottir (2011) and Svendsen et al. (2004) respectively, with small modifications over Britain and Ireland after Sejrup et al. (2005)). Dashed white lines mark approximate boundaries of the three Eurasian ice sheets: SBKIS = Svalbard–Bar- ents–Kara Ice Sheet; SIS = Scandinavian Ice Sheet; BIIS = British–Irish Ice Sheet. Trough-mouth fans that line the continental-shelf edge are shown in orange. In this and subsequent figures, topography and bathymetry is from the GEBCO Digital Atlas published by the British Oceanographic Data Centre on behalf of IOC and IHO (2003), land-sea distribution is as defined by present-day coastlines and sea level, and present-day ice extent over Greenland and Iceland is shown in white. This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk. 4 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

40° E 60° E 80° E A

Franz Josef Land

Novaya Zemlya 80° N

Svalbard Barents Sea

Streamlined bedforms Moraine ridges Bjørnøyrenna Small transverse moraine ridges 0 400 km Fan 20° E 40° E Grounding-zone wedges

1 B 1 Lake Onega Finland

Lake Lagoda

lna i n d F f of G ul

Gulf of Riga N 2 2 Baltic Sea 50 km

0 400 km 20 km

Fig. 2. Examples of landform evidence used to assist reconstruction and interpolation of lines across regions with poor chronological control. A. Sub-marine glacial landforms of the Barents Sea (redrafted from compilation by Jakobsson et al. 2014). Inset map shows detail of moraines, lineations and flowsets identified along Bjørnøyrenna and north of Norway (reproduced from Winsborrow et al. 2010). B. Mapped moraines (red) and summary lineation directions (blue) in the eastern European Plain as mapped by Kalm (2012). White lines delineate maximum extent of ice cover during MIS 2 as in Fig. 1. Inset maps show detail of moraines overlain on digital surface model (reproduced from Kalm 2012). This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk. BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 5

Berg et al. 2008; Hubbard et al. 2009; Lambeck et al. beyond the continental-shelf edge document the timing 2010; Clason et al. 2014). of delivery of ice-rafted debris and deposition of glacial material to trough-mouth fans and the deep ocean, Methods and procedures and therefore provide an additional indirect guide to the extent of ice on the adjacent continental shelf. We use the timing of ice-rafted debris and trough-mouth Compilation of dates fan deposits to assist in placing the ice margin where Dates relevant to the advance and retreat of ice during direct on-shelf evidence and dates are sparse. the last glacial cycle, including those giving insights The DATED database version 1 (DATED-1) has a into the vertical extent of ice, were compiled from the census date of 1 January 2013. Dates published after published literature (journal articles, books, theses, this date will be included in subsequent versions. geological survey reports and maps). We attempt to Despite our best efforts, we expect that some dates include all relevant dates from within the geographic have been missed and appeal to the wider Quaternary area shown in Fig. 1 and in order to reduce redun- community to contact us with missing information and dancy in the dataset do not include confirmatory ages corrections of included data so that we may update considerably younger (in practice ~1–5 ka, depending and improve future versions of the database. on location) than the earliest date for deglaciation at a Each date was entered into an Excel spreadsheet, site. For some stratigraphical sites (e.g. lake cores) we which was used to create an ArcGIS point shapefile include some younger dates that support the reliability (.shp) for incorporation with a Geographic Informa- of the earliest deglaciation dates. We include a small tion System (GIS). Each date is attributed to the number of ages beyond the ultimate last glacial limit source publication and fully documented with informa- that constrain this position. Marine cores located tion relevant to its interpretation in terms of ice

Table 1. Metadata recorded for each date, included in both the database table (Table S1) and shapefile attributes (DATED1_database.shp; Data S1, S2). These metadata form the basis for our quality control assessment and palaeoglaciological classifications of each date.

DATED ID Unique database identification number

Location Country/sea, region, site name, DATED site number Latitude and longitude co-ordinates: °N, °E (WGS84) Comment on precision of location if not reported from original source, e.g. taken from map

Sample characteristics Site type: marine core, lake core, bog core, section, surface, borehole Elevation (m a.s.l.) Sample depth (m), if applicable

Dated material Sample field number and/or Laboratory ID number Class of dated material: TPM (terrestrial plant macrofossils, including wood), organic (peat, detritus, bulk, mixed, aquatic macrofossils), bone (including teeth, antlers, tusks), shell (molluscs and mollusc fragments), foram (single species and mixed), sand, boulder, bedrock, speleothem Detailed description of dated material: free text Organic material type: terrestrial (T), marine (M)

Stratigraphic context or setting Detailed notes on stratigraphic setting: free text Glacial context class: advance, margin, deglacial, ice free, exposure time (cumulative)

Dating method Radiocarbon (14C, 14C AMS, 14C Conv.), thermal luminescence (TL), optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL), electron spin resonance (ESR), terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN10Be, TCN26Al, TCN36Cl), U series

Quality control Reliability of the age: 1 = reliable; 2 = possibly reliable; 3 = unlikely to be reliable (see Table 2 for criteria)

Ages Uncalibrated radiocarbon age and error (as reported, without correction for marine reservoir effect) TCN age and error (as reported in source) Calibrated/calendar age and error (reported to 1 SD). Radiocarbon ages calibrated to INTCAL13 or MARINE13 (Reimer et al. 2013) as appropriate (on basis of type of organic material: T/M). 10Be and 26 Al TCN ages recalculated using ‘Arctic’ production rate (Young et al. 2013) and Lal/Stone scaling (Lal 1991; Stone 2000). Necessary information to recalculate 10Be and 26Al TCN ages using different production rates additionally collated and recorded in Table S3 Comments on calibration (e.g. beyond calibration curve limit)

Comments Any additional pertinent comments (e.g. reliability of date)

Citation information Source reference (author, year) Compilation reference (author, year) Database reference (for ages also included in other datasets, e.g. BRITICE (Hughes et al. 2011)) 6 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS advance and retreat (Table 1). For dates obtained from Younger Dryas (Bondevik et al. 2006). Some ages from compilations or review articles, citation is made to marine samples were originally reported with correc- both the review article or compilation and the original tions. For example, some laboratories previously source. Several previously or contemporaneously col- corrected for isotopic fractionation in marine molluscs lated datasets were generously provided by other mem- to 0& PDB d13C; in our table this applies to dates bers of the Quaternary community (Gorsdorf€ & from the laboratories at Trondheim (T-), Copenhagen Kaiser 2001; Kalm 2005, 2006; Tornivaara 2007; Wohl- (K-) and Stockholm (St-). This process ‘builds-in’ a farth 2009; Hughes et al. 2011; Hormes et al. 2013) correction for a marine reservoir age of approximately and these compilations are also credited where applica- 410 years compared with standard calculations in ble. Dates from these compilations were fully merged which isotopic fractionation is corrected to 25& into the DATED-1 database, returning to the original PDB d13C (Mangerud 1972). In Trondheim this was sources where necessary to populate columns in the done up to sample T-3000; thereafter standard calcula- table. The shapefile retains all metadata (columns) tions were used but a reservoir age of 440 years was from the spreadsheet within the associated attribute subtracted (Mangerud & Gulliksen 1975) when report- table as fields. In many instances geographical co-ordi- ing the age. All affected ages have been ‘re-corrected’ nates were missing from the original (source) publica- in the database and are reported as conventional radio- tions. Where maps were provided in the original carbon years uncorrected for marine reservoir ages, as publication co-ordinates were either derived by geo- defined by Stuiver & Polach (1977). Ages may there- correcting scanned or digital versions of the figures, or fore differ from the original publications where a cor- by identifying the site on Google Earth to derive the rection was applied. co-ordinates. Where neither co-ordinates nor map locations were given, the co-ordinate information was Recalculation of terrestrial cosmogenic exposure ages derived using the site name and Google Earth mapping software; dates for which the location information is There is presently debate over which production rate likely to be imprecise are flagged. and scaling factors are appropriate when converting terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) concentrations into calendar ages. Latest research indicates a lower Calibration of radiocarbon ages production rate for 10Be for high-latitude locations To maintain consistency within the dataset as a whole than the previously implemented globally averaged we recalibrated all dates using INTCAL13 and MAR- value (e.g. Balco et al. 2009; Fenton et al. 2011; Briner INE13 calibration curves (Reimer et al. 2013) and the et al. 2012; Goehring et al. 2012; Young et al. 2013; OXCAL v4.2 radiocarbon calibration software. OXCAL Heyman 2014; Stroeven et al. 2015). For consistency 10 26 (in common with the alternative CALIB and CLAM cali- across the dataset we recalculated all Be and Al bration software programs) returns calibrated ages as ages with the CRONUS-EARTH online calculator ranges at 68 or 95% probability. Occasionally, due to v2.2 (Balco et al. 2008) using the ‘Arctic’ production the nonlinear nature of the calibration curves, more rate calibration dataset of Young et al. (2013) and than one range is returned accompanied by a probabil- report values using ‘St’ scaling (Lal 1991; Stone 2000), ity estimate for each range. For ease of comparison which gives a reference production rate of with the rest of the dataset, we use the mid- 3.960.15 atoms g1 a1 for 10Be. Authors were con- point half of the total range at 68% probability to tacted to supply any additional information that this represent the calendar age and associated uncertainty. required if not reported in the original sources. The Calibrated ranges at 95% are additionally included as additional data are included in Table S3 to facilitate Supporting Information (Table S2). Minimum radio- future recalculation. In the main table, we include the carbon ages were calibrated using the reported >age calendar age as reported in the original source (where and a nominal associated error of 1 year and are original references give multiple age estimates based on flagged as minimum ages in the database table. In this alternative scaling schemes, we list the ‘preferred’ age paper we report all ages in calibrated or calendar years, of the original authors) and our recalculation. We unless otherwise specified. For reference the conven- chose the ‘Arctic’ production rate because this dataset tional radiocarbon ages are reported in Table S1. includes several sites from Norway (Fenton et al. 2011; For simplicity in our recalibrations we have used a Goehring et al. 2012) located in the centre of our study DR value of 0 for marine samples, corresponding to a area. It also compares favourably with an updated glo- marine reservoir age correction of c. 400 years across bal reference rate for 10Be calculated by Heyman the dataset, which spans both a large geographic area (2014) to assess a compilation of dates from the Tibe- and several thousand years. This is close to the mean tan Plateau to the east (3.990.22 atoms g1 a1, ‘St’ for pre-bomb samples from the region (Mangerud scaling), and a new reference production rate that et al. 2006) and also for the deglacial period, although includes a site in southern Sweden (3.950.10 atoms reservoir ages were as high as 600 years during the g1 a1, ‘St’ scaling) (Stroeven et al. 2015). Using BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 7 solely production rate calibration sites in western Nor- Freden (2009) in our reconstruction and correlation of way (Goehring et al. 2012) the calculated ages are ~4% ice-sheet retreat from the Baltic Sea and across Sweden younger. There is not an equivalent production rate for and Finland. To correct for potential gaps in the 26Al; therefore, we used the reference 26Al production 13 300-year sequence of clay-varves, 900 years have rate calculated from the ‘Arctic’ 10Be rate been added to varve ages younger than 10 300 varve (26.551.01 atoms g1 a1, ‘St’ scaling). In the years ago, based on correlation between the Swedish absence of a simple system for recalculating 36Cl Time Scale and the GRIP d18O record and the new derived ages, these ages remain as given in the original Greenland ice-core chronology GICC05 (Andren et al. sources. 1999; Rasmussen et al. 2006). For simplicity no corrections were made for post-exposure uplift, erosion, submergence or vegetation/snow Consistency and quality control of dates cover. Post-exposure erosion and delayed exposure owing to temporary submergence following deglacia- Our calibration choices for both radiocarbon and tion or snow/vegetation/soil cover will all serve to TCN dates were pragmatic considering the large area reduce the total nuclide accumulation in a sample and under consideration (~6.3 Mkm2), the long time-span therefore lead to anomalously young ages if not cor- of data accumulation (over 50 years) and volume of rected. For an applied erosion rate of 1 mm ka1 dates (over 5000). Ages derived using luminescence (Andre 2002) we calculate a <2% increase for ages 10– techniques are not recalculated. In general lumines- 25 ka and 2.5–4% increase for ages 25–50 ka and thus cence dates are clearly reported in the literature with negligible at our target 1000-year resolution. Typical all necessary background data for a reassessment of changes owing to snow and vegetation cover depend their quality (e.g. dose rates). Calibrated radiocarbon on the setting of sampled material and are likely to be ages are reported as years BP (i.e. before 1950). Lumi- below 4%, but in some cases may be larger (Fenton nescence and TCN ages are reported relative to the et al. 2011). Postglacial emergence of Fennoscandia year of sampling/analysis following standard conven- exhibits a radial pattern decreasing from a maximum tion. We do not impose a consistent datum across total emergence of 310 m on the western coast of the dates derived from different methods as the maximum Bothnian Sea (Berglund 2004) decreasing towards the deviation between datums (and thus any additional ultimate limit of the former SIS. Although changes in uncertainty) is negligible in terms of our 1000-year atmospheric depth (and therefore pressure) due to time-slices and uncertainties due to other factors for postglacial uplift could be significant in some loca- the majority of dates. tions, e.g. close to the centre of the former SIS, relative The resulting database contains a large volume of sea-level records show that for most sites the majority information, acquired over a period of more than of isostatic rebound following deglaciation was 50 years. All available dating techniques have devel- achieved within a few thousand years and before the oped and improved during this time, as well as what is start of the Holocene (Larsen et al. 2012). For simplic- considered to be a reliable age derived using each tech- ity therefore we do not correct for post-exposure uplift. nique. Accurate interpretation of ages from all dating From sites in Norway, Goehring et al. (2008) observed methods rests critically on careful consideration of the age increases as a result of postglacial uplift of 5–10%, geological quality of each sample selected for dating but noted that this predominantly affected older and our ability to accurately decipher its individual (>18 ka) and high-elevation (>1600 m) sites. Finally, history (e.g. of exposure, contamination, transport, we do not attempt to correct for any effect of ice-sheet redeposition, water content, etc.). For this reason we proximity on atmospheric pressure, which could poten- include key metadata for each date as reported by the tially lead to an overestimation of ages at locations original sources (Table 1) and report comments made experiencing strong katabatic winds from the adjacent by the original authors as to the data quality. Unfortu- ice sheet (Staiger et al. 2007). We expect that this effect nately for some dates (mainly older publications) some would only be significant for boulders that remain of this data are unreported, and so there are gaps close (within 10s km) to the ice-sheet margin for sev- within the DATED-1 table (Table S1). These data are eral thousand years. In contrast to the other factors the basis for our reliability assessment of each date, that may have changed over time, this effect generates and palaeoglaciological classifications (see following anomalously old ages. section). We assign each date contained within DATED-1 (including those derived from other regional collations Varve records – The Swedish Time Scale supplied to us) a qualitative quality control (QC) or We additionally incorporate the deglaciation pattern reliability rating according to a defined set of criteria inferred from clay-varve records of the ‘Swedish Time dependent upon the dating technique (Table 2) to flag Scale’ (e.g. De Geer 1935; Cato 1985; Stromberg€ 1985, potentially problematic ages: 1 = all criteria are satis- 1989, 1990, 2005; Wohlfarth et al. 1995) digitized from fied; the age is robust and reliable, 2 = some of the cri- 8 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

Table 2. Age quality control criteria (based on Duller 2006, 2008; Thrasher et al. 2009; Wohlfarth 2009; Heyman et al. 2011; Alexanderson & Murray 2012; England et al. 2013; Reimer et al. 2013). Ages within DATED-1 are given a quality control (QC) rating based on the criteria specific to the dating method used. QC = 1, all criteria are satisfied; QC = 2, most of the criteria are satisfied; QC = 3 no (or few) criteria are satisfied.

Dating technique Quality control criteria Radiocarbon Known and uncontaminated sample material; sediment-feeding marine mollusc (e.g. Portlandia arctica) 14C Conv (Conventional), receives lower rating 14C AMS Organic content >5% LOI Sample composition: Conv - bulk samples not acceptable; AMS - bulk sample acceptable if age <20 ka Within calibration range of INTCAL/MARINE13 Uncalibrated 14C age determination provided with errors to enable recalibration using the latest calibration curves Multiple and/or stratigraphically consistent ages

Terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide Multiple (ideally three or more, but at least two) samples from the same feature/site TCN 10Be, 26Al, 36Cl Ages are internally consistent and clustered (reduced Chi-square value ~1) Observed spread in ages is similar to expected measurement uncertainty Geomorphological setting is accounted for: erosion, submergence, uplift Data necessary to recalculate ages (10Be, 26Al) using different production rates (Balco et al. 2008) No indication of isotopic inheritance, or if present expected/stated

Luminescence Quartz have a higher rating than feldspar-derived ages TL, OSL, IRSL Single-grain or small aliquot Homogenous sample; preferably aeolian, fluvial, glacifluvial sediments that are likely to have received sufficient exposure. Sample setting considered and accounted for; e.g. water-content history Dose rate information and equivalent dose including errors described in source Multiple and/or stratigraphically consistent ages

Uranium series Chemically precipitated calcium carbonate U-Series Multiple and/or stratigraphically consistent ages

All dating methods Sample considered in situ, i.e. no postdepositional disturbance or reworking Specified error margins Precise ages: errors <10% of age Details of geological and stratigraphical setting given Considered by original authors to be reliable teria are met but not all; the age is probably reliable, ing till, in which case they are classified as Retreat/Ad- 3 = no criteria are met, age is unlikely to be reliable. vance. In some cases a considerable period of time We also take into account comments on reliability may have elapsed between ice cover and the obtained made in the original source, if applicable. Dates flagged age. as outliers or as unreliable by the original authors (or Margin: dated material related to an ice-margin by a later data compilation exercise such as by Wohl- position, e.g. boulder from a moraine crest, shells from farth (2009)) received the lowest rating (3). Dates with an ice-contact delta or from proximal glacimarine sedi- the lowest rating were not used in the ice-sheet recon- ments. struction. Deglacial: dated material records most recent retreat from a location. The site possesses stratigraphic information specifically indicating ice-free conditions clo- Palaeoglaciological interpretation and classification of sely following ice cover, e.g. basal organic material in dates lake cores showing pioneer vegetation, shells in glaci- Each date is classified in terms of its role constraining marine sediments, an exposure age from an erratic either ice-sheet build-up or retreat on the basis of the boulder. stratigraphic context and setting. The classification Ice free: dated material records ice-free conditions system is similar to, but deviates slightly from that used and potentially dates deglaciation and/or ice advance, by Hughes et al. (2011). but no sedimentary properties or stratigraphy indicate Advance: we recognize two types of samples that deposition close in time to glaciation; e.g. organic indicate an ice-front advance post-dating the obtained material lacking demonstrated pioneer vegetation and age; dated material incorporated within till and dated not lying directly above till. This category also includes material from a unit stratigraphically below till. In dates lying beyond the maximum limit of the last many cases these ages also give a minimum age of a glaciation that help to restrict ice extent, e.g. sites with previous retreat, e.g. peat both underlying and overly- continual organic sedimentation throughout MIS 2–3. BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 9

Cumulative exposure time: sample records cumula- sively larger during build-up towards the maximum tive length of exposure at sites that may have experi- limit); i.e. we assume simple linear expansion towards enced multiple phases of exposure and burial beneath and retreat from the maximum limit. We emphasize ice but where burial did not result in total removal of that our goal is a continental-scale ice-sheet recon- the accumulated nuclides from the previous period of struction in 1000-year timesteps that is useful for exposure, i.e. glacial erosion was insufficient to reset numerical modelling. We therefore attempt a spatial the nuclide clock, e.g. samples in block fields or resolution that captures the broad spatial trends only above a glacial trimline. This class applies exclusively and we do not resolve individual mountain glaciers or to ages derived from in situ cosmogenic isotope small ice caps (<500 km2) that likely existed during analysis. both build-up and disintegration of the ice sheet. Before 25 ka, the evidence base becomes sparser, reflecting a decline in preservation potential of date- Ice-margin positions and ice sheet flow-pattern able material, and therefore we reconstruct only four information selected time-slices between 40 and 25 ka to capture In addition to the database of numerical dates and the general trend of ice-sheet evolution during this metadata, we use landform evidence, especially pub- period. lished maps of end moraines and generally accepted correlations of ice-margin positions between individual Treatment of uncertainty moraines, to guide our reconstruction (Fig. 2; e.g. Jakobsson et al. 2014). Generalized flow patterns (e.g. There are several sources of uncertainty in our recon- Kleman et al. 1997) and identified ice-stream locations structions, both temporal and spatial, most obvious (e.g. Ottesen et al. 2007) are used to guide our interpre- being the uncertainty in the individual age estimates. tative decisions concerning the pattern of retreat and Significant uncertainty in the reconstructions derives configuration of the ice sheets. These geomorphologi- simply from gaps in the record, both in the spatial cal signatures thus complement the numerical dates. and age distributions of the available evidence. We Again these data are unevenly distributed in both note for example that although we have more than space and time; we have reasonably good knowledge of 5000 dates in the database, only 1795 (~33%) are con- the ice-divide configuration and evolution of flow pat- sidered absolutely reliable (QC = 1). This is <100 per terns for the SIS (e.g. Kleman et al. 1997) and BIIS 1000 year time-slice if dates were evenly distributed in (e.g. Greenwood & Clark 2009b; Hughes et al. 2014) time, which of course they are not (Fig. 4). Note how- whereas by comparison the geometry of the SBKIS is ever that we only exclude 823 ages (~15%) on the virtually unknown to the east of the central Barents basis of questionable reliability (QC = 3). Further Sea (Bjarnadottir et al. 2014). We use the timing of ice- uncertainty derives from calculation of sedimentation rafted debris delivery to the deep ocean and glacigenic rates and correlation of moraines across geographic debris flow deposition at trough-mouth fans (e.g. Elliot distance. Many instances of conflicting ages and et al. 2001) as supporting evidence for ice-margin earlier interpretations also occur, and we choose to proximity. express this discord as uncertainty where it is not possible to discount one of the conflicting pieces of information. Reconstruction and representation of ice margins We evaluate and integrate all chronological, spatial Reconstruction of ice-extent time-slices progressed in and geological uncertainties and for each time-slice an iterative fashion. We examined regional subsets of after 25 ka from this we reconstruct three ice-margin the dataset in turn, combining the chronological evi- positions; maximum, minimum and most-credible. The dence with the available geomorphological information most-credible line is the ice-margin position that we in a GIS setting. Topographic height and bathymetric consider to be the most permissible based on the total depth data (from the General Bathymetric Chart of the sum of the available chronological and geomorphologi- Oceans, GEBCO) were used as a guide to connect lines cal evidence. The maximum and minimum lines across areas where no information was available. At express the total uncertainty in terms of distance from some locations the resolution of both the chronologi- the most-credible line. Before 25 ka there is an increas- cal and landform data is very high, e.g. the Younger ing degree of uncertainty, which reflects the lower den- Dryas moraines of coastal Norway, whereas in other sity of dates and larger errors associated with older areas, e.g. for much of the continental shelf, there exist dates. Although limited and patchy in distribution very few constraining dates or mapped moraine posi- there does exist valuable information for some ice- tions. The change from one time-slice to the next is not sheet sectors for the period before 25 ka (e.g. Hou- always documented by dates. In the absence of evi- mark-Nielsen 2010) and we combine this into four dence to the contrary, during deglaciation we draw snapshots of the ice-sheet margins at 38–34, 32–30, 29– subsequent margins successively smaller (and succes- 28 and 27 ka. 10 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

No. of dates per site Dating 120° W 180° 140° E 120° E method 1 2 3-5 6-10 11-49

TCN 70° N

U Series

OSL / TL

14C

Swedish Time Scale varve records

70° N

60° N

50° N

50° N 0 500 km

0° 20° E

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of all dates within the DATED-1 database. Proportional circles and colours show the number of dates from each dating method at each site (as defined by unique geographic co-ordinates). Approximate location where the deglacial Swedish varve chronology can be applied is also shown. Note the low density of information for the Barents and Kara seas, Baltic and North seas, the Irish, Scottish and Norwegian continental shelves, and across Finland and the Russian Plain. Dates were compiled from citations listed in Table S1 and at the end of this paper (references included as Supporting Information (Data S1)). This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk. BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 11

600

550

500

450

400

350

300

250

200 No. of dates in DATED-1

150

100

0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 ≥50 Calibrated/calendar age (ka)

Fig. 4. Histogram of ages contained within the DATED-1 database, using a 1000-year bin size. Dates used in the reconstruction of ice-sheet time-slices, i.e. dates with a quality control rating of 1 (dark blue) or 2 (mid-blue). Excluded ages i.e. dates with a quality control rating of 3 (pale blue). This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk.

and 1028 kg m3, respectively, giving an ice-to-water Area and volume calculations density ratio of 0.892 and assume that seawater The total area (in km2) of each ice sheet for each time- replaces ice grounded below sea level. We note that in slice was calculated using the geometry calculator terms of sea-level contribution our calculated volume within ArcGIS 10.2, with all maps projected as North is likely overestimated where ice is grounded below pre- Pole Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area. To give estimates sent-day sea level. For the SBKIS grounded ~210 m of the relative change of each ice-sheet component, we b.s.l. (average depth of the Barents Sea; Jakobsson subdivided the total area into three geographical (2002)) at its largest extent at ~21 ka, we estimate a regions (Fig. 1). To give an estimate of total ice-sheet maximum exaggeration of 1 m. volume, the areas of each individual closed polygon(s) within each region were converted to volume using the Results relationship: The DATED-1 database logV ¼ 1:23ðlogA 1Þð1Þ DATED-1 contains 5477 individual dates from 2505 where V = volume in km3, and A = area in km2. This discrete locations collated from over 900 published relationship between ice-sheet area and volume is sources (Fig. 3, Table S1). The spatial distribution is derived from a logarithmic linear regression of the area uneven; the majority of dates are from coastal loca- and volume of the six largest present-day ice sheets and tions and at the outer margins of the ice sheets. ice caps (Paterson 1994). As the relationship is based Regions presently below sea level have the lowest densi- on relatively few ice masses that exist under present- ties of dates. Nearly 70% of the dates (3756) are derived day climate conditions, it may tend to underestimate from radiocarbon analysis, including 131 minimum volume because colder temperatures of the last glacial ages (i.e. at the older limit of the radiocarbon method). cycle likely sustained ice sheets with steeper surface There are slightly more terrestrial (2012) than marine gradients. Conversely, for ice sheets resting on soft-beds radiocarbon ages (1744). The remainder of the data- and for a thinning and retreating ice sheet composed of base is comprised of dates from luminescence methods many low gradient ice streams the equation will overes- (14%; 787) and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) timate volume and our volume estimates likely become exposure techniques (17%; 904). There are a limited increasingly erroneous as deglaciation progressed, number of Uranium (U) Series ages (30; <1%). The when the ice sheets thinned and started to develop spatial coverage of each dating method is variable more complex ice-flow structures with multiple divides. (Fig. 3). The lower precision of luminescence and To convert the volume estimates to eustatic sea-level TCN dating, compared with radiocarbon, means that equivalent (SLE) we use a global ocean surface area of the ice-sheet margin will inevitably be less precise where 361.6 Mkm2 and ice and seawater densities of 917 we can rely on only these methods. For example the 12 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

-80° -60° 0° 50° 70° 80° -80° -60° 0° 50° 70° 80° 80° A80° 38-34 ka B 32-30 ka 70° 70° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50° 0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 50° 50°

-80° -70° -30° 50° 70° 80° -80° -70° -30° 50° 70° 80° C80° 29-28 ka D80° 27 ka 70° 70° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50° 0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 50° 50° BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 13

Fig. 5. Pre-25 ka DATED-1 time-slice reconstruction. Solid lines indicate limits where there is good evidence for an ice-margin position. Dashed lines indicate limits where evidence is sparse/non-existent and we have interpolated between evidence and/or sites. A. Ice extent during the Alesund Interstadial, 38–34 ka. To represent the large degree of uncertainty for this time period, two possible ice extents are shown. A maximum (black dashed) line depicts a relatively substantial SIS contiguous over the Scandinavian Mountains, and a minimum (black dotted) line depicts ice retreated to the highest peaks in northern and western Norway. B. 32–30 ka. C. 29–28 ka. D. 27 ka. Small ice caps and glaciers (<500 km2) are not shown. Maps are projected as North Pole Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area so that the area of map features is true everywhere, enabling accurate comparison and measurement. This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk. timing of the easternmost terrestrial limit on the Russian 25 ka. For these time-slices the ice margin is shown as Plain is primarily informed by luminescence dating. solid lines in locations where there are good constraints Half (2758) of the dates are younger than 17 ka, for the position and dashed lines to indicate uncer- mainly reflecting the preservation bias of organic sam- tainty and limited evidence. ples for radiocarbon dating (Fig. 4). There are a few ages older than 50 ka (312) included in the database, Development of area and volume with time mainly from luminescence and TCN methods. Although much older than our chosen time frame of The peak in total ice-sheet area (5.5 Mkm2) and vol- study, these ages either provide bounding ages in loca- ume (~9.7 Mkm3, ~24 m SLE) occurred 21–20 ka tions where no other evidence is available, or provide (Fig. 7; Table S5); this largely reflects the evolution of additional information relating to the style of glacia- the SIS, particularly the relatively late timing of ice tion such that it was prudent to retain them within the reaching the eastern terrestrial limit. Both BIIS and database. For example, ‘artificially old’ TCN ages that SBKIS reach their maximum volumes earlier; before 25 are thought to reflect inheritance due to insufficient and 24–20 ka respectively, and appear to maintain a erosion may indicate locations that were covered by size close to their peak for several thousand years. cold-based ice during the last or even multiple succes- Minor fluctuations in the size of the BIIS that occur sive glaciations (Fabel et al. 2002; Briner et al. 2006). throughout the glacial are related to expansion and 25% of TCN-derived ages (226) are thought to reflect retreat of posited ice lobes onto the surrounding conti- inherited nuclides contained within the original nental shelf, the dimensions of which are poorly samples (classified as cumulative exposure time). defined. For the SBKIS and BIIS, the continental-shelf Based on our quality-control criteria (Table 2) 1795 edge is a major limit on growth. Any increase in extent dates (33%) are considered reliable, 2859 (52%) raise requires ice expansion south in the case of the BIIS and some concern as to their reliability and 823 (15%) we to the east and southeast for the SBKIS. The western regard as unlikely to be reliable and exclude from our margin of the SIS was also limited by the shelf edge reconstructions (Fig. 4). Of the total population of and most of the ice-sheet expansion after 25 ka was 5477 dates, 882 are classified as advance, 1301 as degla- along the eastern and southern terrestrial margins. At cial, 334 as defining both advance and retreat (i.e. our 1000-year resolution, the rate of ice-sheet build-up where a date is both above and below till), 2366 as ice (40–21 ka) was almost as fast as the rate of retreat (21– free and 368 as margin. 10 ka) (Fig. 7). Initial retreat soon after 19 ka was dominated by the loss of ice over Novaya Zemlya and the adjacent sea floor. After 19 ka ice loss was DATED-1 Ice-sheet time-slice maps relatively constant but slowed down for both the SIS Our main result is a series of 20 maps of ice-sheet and SBKIS between 14 and 12 ka. Note that the BIIS extent through time from 40–10 ka (Figs. 5, 6). and SBKIS were contributing <1 m SLE after 17 and Between 25 and 10 ka we delineate the ice-sheet mar- 15 ka, respectively, with only the SIS remaining as a gins every 1000 years, and show maximum and mini- significant ice sheet until ~11 ka. The former SBKIS mum lines in addition to our ‘most-credible’ line to was reduced to ice caps centred over the island archipe- represent uncertainty estimates as described above. lagos of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land by 14 ka. Before 25 ka we present four reconstructions of the ice- There does not appear to have been a net total ice-sheet sheet extent (38–34, 32–30, 29–28 and 27 ka) that cap- growth from 13 to 11 ka, i.e. during the Younger Dryas ture the general timing of ice build-up between 40 and (12.7–11.5 ka); despite local and regional evidence for

Fig. 6. DATED-1 time-slice reconstruction of the evolution of the extent of the Eurasian ice sheets 25–10 ka (A–P). The ice-sheet area is rep- resented every 1000 years. Three lines are shown: maximum (black dashed), minimum (black dotted) and most-credible (solid white line and shaded white area) to represent uncertainty in the data. Note that for some time periods and sectors of the ice-sheet margin the distances between maximum and minimum (i.e. total uncertainty) are over 500 km. Small ice caps and glaciers (<500 km2) are not shown. Ice-sheet outlines shown in this figure are available to download as Supporting Information (Data S1). As in Fig. 5 maps are projected as North Pole Lam- bert Azimuthal Equal Area, enabling accurate comparison and measurement of ice-sheet areas. This figure is available in colour at http:// www.boreas.dk. 14 -120°A 25-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° B 24-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° naL .Hge tal. et Hughes C. L. Anna 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° BOREAS BOREAS -120°C 23-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° D 22-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° h atErsa c sheets ice Eurasian last The 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20°

Fig. 6. (continued). 15 16 -120°E 21-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° F 20-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° naL .Hge tal. et Hughes C. L. Anna 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° BOREAS

Fig. 6. (continued). BOREAS -120°G 19-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° H 18-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° h atErsa c sheets ice Eurasian last The 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20°

Fig. 6. (continued). 17 18 -120°I 17 -140°ka -160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° J 16-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° naL .Hge tal. et Hughes C. L. Anna 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° BOREAS

Fig. 6. (continued). BOREAS -120°K 15-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° L 14-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° h atErsa c sheets ice Eurasian last The 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20°

Fig. 6. (continued). 19 20 -120°M 13-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° N 12-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° naL .Hge tal. et Hughes C. L. Anna 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° BOREAS

Fig. 6. (continued). BOREAS -120°O 11-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° P 10-140° ka-160° 170° 150° 130° 120° 110° 80° 80° 70° 70° 60° 60° h atErsa c sheets ice Eurasian last The 60° 60° 50° 50°

0 500 km 0 500 km

–10° 0° 10° 20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 21 Fig. 6. (continued). 22 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

6 A Area Pre-25 ka time-slice reconstructions Total 5 SIS The SIS that existed during MIS 4 had probably ) SBKIS 2 BIIS almost entirely melted by the early part of MIS 3 4 (60–45 ka BP) (Wohlfarth 2010). Subsequently the SIS

3 re-grew, passing the coast of western Norway at the time of the Laschamp palaeomagnetic excursion

2 (c. 41 ka BP) (Valen et al. 1995; Mangerud et al. Ice sheet area (Mkm 2010). This glacial advance was followed by ice retreat 1 during the milder Alesund Interstadial (38–34 ka). Less is known about the spatial extent of the BIIS 0 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 and SBKIS during this time. In this first version Time-slice (ka) (DATED-1), we present only four time-slice maps for the period before 25 ka based on ~1800 dates, of which 11 26 B ~1500 are >30 ka and predominantly derived using Volume 10 24 Total luminescence and radiocarbon methods. Considering 22 SIS 9 Ice sheet volume (

) SBKIS that samples older than 25 ka have often provided 20 BIIS 8 18 7 erroneous radiocarbon ages, that the typical error 16 6 bounds of luminescence dating are large ( 1000s of 14 12 5 years) and that the potential for short-lived oscillations 10 4 of the ice margin during build-up is high (Houmark- M

8 Km 3 Nielsen 2010), all pre-25 ka lines should be regarded

6 3 2 ) with some caution. Ice sheet volume (m SLE 4 2 1 0 0 38–34 ka. – We present two suggestions for the SIS ice 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 – Time-slice (ka) extent during the Alesund Interstadial, dated to 38 34 cal. ka BP. There are over 40 (mainly AMS) radio- Fig. 7. Area (A) and volume (B) evolution of the Eurasian ice sheets carbon dates from bones and molluscs from the type- c. 38 to 10 ka. From 25 to 10 ka we have drawn three continuous site at Skjonghelleren in western Norway (DATED-1, curves for the most-credible, maximum and minimum lines, respectively. For the more uncertain pre-25 ka period only one best esti- Site 1240), and ages are confirmed by bracketing mate is shown derived from the areas depicted in Fig. 5. Individual palaeomagnetic (Laschamp and Mono Lake) excur- ice-sheet volume was estimated in km3 based on the ice-sheet area as sions (Mangerud et al. 2003, 2010). Finds of reindeer shown in Figs 5 and 6 and converted to m SLE (see Table S5 and antlers indicate that at least a wide coastal area was Methods for details). Contiguous ice-sheet complexes were split into individual ice sheets along the boundaries shown in Fig. 1. Note that ice-free during this period (Sites 1236, 1244; Valen values for the SBKIS between 25 and 15 ka likely overestimate the et al. 1996). The Sandnes Interstadial identified from contribution of this ice sheet to global sea level by a maximum of exposed shallow marine sediments on the southwest ~1 m, as most of the ice sheet was grounded (~210 m) below present- day sea level during this time period. This figure is available in colour coast of Norway is correlated with the Alesund Inter- at http://www.boreas.dk. stadial (Raunholm et al. 2004). Several bulk-sample radiocarbon ages from inland Norway have given Ale- sund Interstadial ages (Sites 1124, 1135-6, 1205, 1269, a significant advance of many of the SIS margins dur- 1278, 1302, 1304, 1307, 1314, 1316, 1318, 1335, 1359- ing this time (Andersen et al. 1995a). Large uncertainty 63, 1370-1, 1374, 1382, 1384, 1394, 1418, 1437; Thore- in defining the position of the ice-sheet margin during sen & Bergersen 1983; Olsen et al. 2001; Wohlfarth the older part of the record is translated into differ- 2010), but for most samples the organic content is well ences of up to 2 m SLE between maximum and mini- below 1% (Olsen et al. 2001) and the samples are mum lines for time-slices older than 19 ka (Fig. 7). therefore vulnerable to contamination and reworking of older organic matter. Although some of these ages Discussion may be correct, most are too uncertain to prove ice- free conditions throughout Scandinavia during this First we discuss the major characteristics of each time- interstadial. Furthermore, several of these samples slice map, with a focus on locations where there are large yielded conflicting ages. The most reliable basis for uncertainties and the timing of key events. Note that we asserting ice-free conditions extending inland during do not cite here all of the supporting data behind each the Alesund Interstadial is from an AMS date from line placement. All references are cited in the accompa- terrestrial plant macrofossils (34.7 ka BP; Site 1205, nying DATED-1 database (Table S1) and listed in the DATED-ID 2380) at Djupdalsbekken in central Nor- Supporting Information (Data S1). Second we describe way (Paus et al. 2011). If correct, these data imply that in detail two of the most uncertain locations. the SIS was small and restricted to the high mountain BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 23 areas (e.g. Arnold et al. 2002; Olsen et al. 2002; Vorren 2001), and so we draw tentative margins centred over & Mangerud 2008; Lambeck et al. 2010; Wohlfarth Svalbard and Franz Josef Land extending beyond the 2010; Mangerud et al. 2011). However, we do not con- present-day coastline. In support of this, a shell consider such a major reduction of the ice sheet to be well tained within till has been dated to 32.5 ka on Dansk- supported by the existing observations, and we there- øya, NW Spitsbergen (Site 2443; Salvigsen 1977; fore present two alternative scenarios; a ‘minimum’ Landvik et al. 1998). A small ice cap is depicted cen- version where ice is restricted to the highest Scandina- tred on Novaya Zemlya slightly larger than the pre- vian mountains and a ‘maximum’ reconstruction sent-day ice cover, but not extending beyond sites with depicting a more extensive ice sheet. In both versions shells radiocarbon dated to 34–30 ka along the coast- the west coast of Norway and most lowland areas of line (Sites 2345-2366; Forman et al. 1999; Mangerud Sweden and Finland were ice free. The proto-BIIS and et al. 2008a). A small ice cap over Scotland is SBKIS are not depicted in our reconstruction. Ice- tentatively depicted after Hughes et al. (2014). rafted debris flux to the west of Scotland indicates that the BIIS was large enough to produce icebergs at times 29–28 ka. – We assume continued growth of the BIIS during MIS 3 (Hibbert et al. 2010), but the precise lim- following evidence for increased ice-rafted debris its of the early BIIS are poorly constrained for this delivery to the Rosemary Bank and Barra-Donegal time period. After initiation around 35–32 ka, the BIIS Fan at 29 ka (Scourse et al. 2009) and ice at the west- was likely small until c. 30 ka based on the available ern continental-shelf edge 28–27 ka (Sites 748–754; terrestrial radiocarbon chronology (Hall et al. 2003; Everest et al. 2013). We use flow-pattern configura- Brown et al. 2007). On Svalbard, it has been calculated tions from Hughes et al. (2014) and Greenwood & from amino acid racemization that the ice-covered area Clark (2009b) to assist in defining the ice-margin posi- was not larger than present-day conditions during tion in this region. The southern SIS margin is shown MIS 3 (~50–30 ka) and relative sea levels were lower retreated from the previous time-slice in southern Den- than present (Mangerud et al. 1992, 1998), a view that mark (Krohn et al. 2009; Larsen et al. 2009b), south- seems generally accepted (e.g. Ingolfsson & Landvik ern Sweden (Houmark-Nielsen 2003; Houmark- 2013). Nielsen & Kjær 2003) and northern Poland (Wysota et al. 2009) largely based on the Danish stratigraphic 32–30 ka. – We correlate evidence for ice advance record (Houmark-Nielsen 2010). Early ice advance across the Norwegian coastline at Alesund after 34 ka into northern Poland followed by retreat is supported (Mangerud et al. 2010) with a documented short-lived by exposure ages of 27–28 ka from erratics located in advance of ice over eastern Denmark dated to between the Suwałki Lakeland, which suggest that nunataks 34 and 30 ka, the Klintholm Ice Stream (Houmark- may have existed during later ice advances in this Nielsen & Kjær 2003; Houmark-Nielsen 2010). The region (Dzierzek_ & Zreda 2007). Close to Alesund the northern and eastern margins of the SIS are highly western SIS margin is drawn inside of the Norwegian uncertain. The few available constraining dates suggest coastline (Mangerud et al. 2010) but elsewhere the ice advance across northern Sweden and Finland after western SIS margin is tentatively depicted close to the c. 34 ka (Sites 1052, 1696, 1703, 1708, 2171, 2176, present-day coastline, and we keep the eastern SIS 2180; Korpela 1969; Kujansuu 1975; Donner et al. margin along the Finnish coastline. Although it is pos- 1979; Hirvas & Kujansuu 1979; Lagerback€ & Roberts- sible that ice had retreated west of the Gulf of Bothnia son 1988) but in Finnmark sand and silt below till has into Sweden, thus satisfying mammoth bone finds been OSL dated to 263 ka (Site 1493), suggesting dated to 28.5 ka along the Finnish coastline (Site that the northernmost tip of Norway may have been 2134) and molars found in glacifluvial sediments in ice free at this time (Olsen et al. 1996). Dates from cen- central Sweden dated to 30 and 29 ka (Sites 1682, tral and southern Finland indicate ice-free conditions 1678; Ukkonen et al. 2007, 2011). until after c. 33–27 ka (Sites 2133, 2154, 2158-9; Ukko- nen et al. 1999). An ice-margin position west of the 27 ka. – The BIIS was at its maximum shelf-edge posi- Gulf of Bothnia is incompatible with ice advance into tion in the west and north and we depict confluent ice eastern Denmark (Klintholm) and evidence for ice cover in the North Sea between the BIIS and SIS (Wil- incursion into northern Poland between 30 and 29 ka son et al. 2002; Bradwell et al. 2008b; Sejrup et al. (Sites 1801, 1807-8, 1814, 1816; Wysota et al. 2002, 2009; Clark et al. 2012). We extend the western margin 2009). Therefore, we draw a dashed line running south of the SIS to a shelf-edge position, although north of of the Baltic Sea, and although we think it likely that the Norwegian Channel this is tentative due to a lack this southern expansion was matched by ice growth to of dates from the Norwegian shelf (Dahlgren & Vorren the east we keep the eastern SIS margin along the Fin- 2003; Johnsen et al. 2012) but is supported by marine nish coastline. Marine cores record ice-rafted debris core evidence for ice-proximal conditions close to the delivery to the continental shelf between Franz Josef shelf edge c. 27.6 ka (Site 50; Rørvik et al. 2010) and a Land and Svalbard 34–16 ka (Site 225; Knies et al. date for ice advance after 27.8 ka south of Lofoten 24 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

(Site 44; Knies et al. 2001). The southern limit in the added (Ottesen et al. 2002; Dowdeswell et al. 2007). North Sea is tentatively assigned to the Dogger Bank However, the lateral correlation of synchronous ice- following the southernmost extent of tunnel valleys margin positions is in most cases far from unambigu- attributed to be of Weichselian age (after Graham ous and the degree of uncertainty when attempting to et al. 2011). This is ~40 km further north than the correlate between regions is high. Even morphologi- limit shown in Clark et al. (2012) and Sejrup et al. cally distinct moraines are now recognized as laterally (2009). Across Denmark the defined extent of the Kat- time-transgressive (e.g. Bose€ et al. 2012). We do not tegatt Fm is used, although 27 ka is the youngest pos- attempt to show all documented re-advance positions sible age assigned to this, probably short-lived, during retreat as many are likely to occur below our advance (Houmark-Nielsen 2003; Larsen et al. 2009a). 1000-year resolution and instead use the known geo- Radiocarbon dates (from a compiled database supplied graphic pattern of moraines to construct the ice-sheet by Knut Kaiser; Sites 1871, 1875–6, 1880) imply that outlines. the Polish coast was ice free until after c. 26 ka, sup- For example, multiple moraines mark the ultimate porting full retreat if we accept ice advance into north- limit and indicate the pattern of retreat of the southern ern Poland 32–30 ka (Wysota et al. 2009). The and southeastern margin of the SIS across the Euro- youngest advance dates preceding the LGM from pean and Russian plains (e.g. Kalm 2012) and, sup- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are varied but collec- ported by glacial lineations, indicate a lobate ice tively indicate ice advance to this region after c. 26 ka margin influenced by competing ice streams (Punkari (Saks et al. 2012; Lasberg & Kalm 2013). We therefore 1997). Both the arrangement of moraines and existing place the southeastern margin of the SIS north of the dates suggest that retreat was episodic and/or that Baltic coast. Dates considered reliable from mammoth oscillations of the ice front may have occurred. In bones located beneath till imply ice advance across recent years a large number of TCN exposure ages has Finland after c. 27–26 ka (Sites 2154, 2133; Ukkonen been added to the existing radiocarbon and OSL et al. 1999). Although, we treat ages derived from chronology of the southeastern SIS margin (Fig. 3; e.g. bones with caution as many lack stratigraphical infor- Rinterknecht et al. 2006). Yet, the timing of ice mation and may be anomalously young due to advance and retreat, and correlation of moraines, contamination or otherwise erroneous (Wohlfarth remains unstraightforward with many conflicting dates 2010). In some cases it is now recognized that insuffi- (Lasberg & Kalm 2013). The thick and unstable depos- cient pretreatment may explain anomalous bone ages its along this margin combined with permafrost condi- (Ukkonen et al. 2011), as has been demonstrated in tions persisting until the Holocene (Bitinas 2012) mean Britain where bone samples re-dated using ultrafiltra- that the likelihood of post-exposure rotation and up- tion techniques resulted in older ages (Jacobi et al. freezing of boulders along this southeastern margin of 2009). The southwestern part of the Barents Sea the SIS is high, both effects resulting in too-young ages remained ice free based on the youngest age for shell (Heyman et al. 2011; Houmark-Nielsen et al. 2012; fragments incorporated within till and glacially Luthgens€ & Bose€ 2012), in addition to too-old ages reworked sediments from cores within Bjørnøyrenna arising from isotopic inheritance. Available lumines- dated to 261 ka (Elverhøi et al. 1993) and cence ages from this region exhibit considerable scatter 25.90.6 ka (Hald et al. 1990) (Sites 193, 183, 187). and large errors, with many samples giving older ages than their stratigraphic position would suggest, and many are considered unreliable owing to incomplete 25–14 ka time-slice reconstructions bleaching (Raukas 2004; Raukas & Stankowski 2005; For many sectors of the EurIS the detailed local geo- Raukas et al. 2010). Further, some radiocarbon ages graphic pattern of retreat, i.e. the configuration and from Estonia are older than regional correlations sug- orientation of the ice margin during deglaciation, is gest (Lasberg & Kalm 2013). The result is that several well known from end moraines and/or the direction of conflicting morphological correlations of the moraine glacial striae and lineations (e.g. Sollid et al. 1973; systems that have been proposed (e.g. Kalm 2006, Rainio et al. 1995). In addition, the geometry of ice 2012; Marks 2011, 2012; Zelcs et al. 2011; Bitinas divides during ice-sheet evolution and the general 2012) are difficult to resolve. pattern of ice-sheet advance is known in outline in areas where generations of flow-patterns have been 25 ka. – Our maximum line shows the SBKIS, SIS mapped and their relative age has been determined and BIIS connected as an integrated ice sheet, but the (e.g. Kleman et al. 1997; Greenwood & Clark 2009b; minimum and most-credible lines keep the SBKIS and Hughes et al. 2014). In some terrestrial areas the main SIS separated until 23 and 24 ka, respectively, reflect- geomorphic features and patterns have been known for ing the scarcity of dates within the area of coalescence a century (Flint 1971; Andersen 1981; Boulton et al. of these two ice sheets (note ~500 km discrepancy 1985, 2001) and in recent years similar well-preserved between maximum and minimum lines in this time- and highly detailed sea-floor observations have been slice for this sector). In contrast, a radiocarbon date BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 25 within glacimarine sediments resting above till from of this ice mass are highly uncertain due to the low the central part of the northern North Sea (Sejrup density of chronological control, especially over the et al. 1994) suggests an opening between the BIIS and central Barents Sea. The shelf edge remains as a lim- SIS already by 25 ka (Site 126, DATED-ID 1193). Our iting boundary for ice-sheet growth to the west and minimum line follows a scenario of complete break-up so all lines are placed within ~30 km of the shelf of ice cover over the North Sea and our most-credible break. line restricts break-up to the opening of an embayment in the northern North Sea (after Bradwell et al. 2008b; 24 ka. – We draw the maximum line of the BIIS Clark et al. 2012). However, we consider that the per- depicting expansion of ice into the Irish Sea as a pre- sistence of a narrow embayment in the northern North cursor to the advance of the Irish Sea Ice Stream to the Sea for over 5000 years is glaciologically implausible Scilly Isles occurring c.23ka(O Cofaigh & Evans and therefore maintain full ice cover over the North 2007). There is some evidence for retreat followed by a Sea in our maximum lines until 23 ka. Ice is shown re-advance of ice over northern Andøya 24–23 ka close to the shelf edge along the western SIS margin (Vorren et al. 1988, 2013; Vorren & Plassen 2002), pos- but rapid fluctuations of up to 30–40 km may have sibly reflecting fluctuations of the western SIS margin occurred on the Norwegian shelf (Dahlgren & Vorren as it sits close to the shelf edge (Rørvik et al. 2010; 2003; Brendryen et al. 2015) and the BIIS may have Brendryen et al. 2015). Lines for the eastern SIS are started to retreat from the shelf edge (Clark et al. expanded out towards the maximum limit from the 2012; Everest et al. 2013). Bulk basal glacilacustrine previous time-slice but remain far apart (up to sediments from Ærasvatn (Site 1465) on the northern 450 km), reflecting poor dating control on the timing tip of Andøya, only ~20 km from the Norwegian shelf of ice advance across the European and Russian plains edge, have returned radiocarbon ages as old as 26.5 ka (Fig. 3). We follow the interpretation of Lasberg & (Alm 1993). However, in line with more recent results Kalm (2013) for an earlier ice maximum (c. 24.4– from this area we restrict deglaciation of northern 19.6 ka) in the southwestern compared with the north- Andøya to our minimum line only at 25 ka (after Vor- eastern European Plain (c. 19.4–17.8 ka; see later ren et al. 2013). Moraines and marine core data indi- time-slices). As at 25 ka the minimum line is drawn to cate that the ice-sheet margin was located near the accommodate a small number of ‘ice-free’ dates from shelf edge (Egga I) before 24 ka (Vorren et al. 2015). the Polish (Kaiser database) and Estonian (Raukas The highest mountain summits (300–400 m a.s.l.) on 2004) coastlines although many OSL dates from the northern Andøya may either have remained as nuna- southeastern Baltic are regarded as possibly erroneous taks or were covered by non-erosive cold-based ice and have large error bounds (Raukas & Stankowski during the peak of the last glaciation (Sites 1456, 2005; Raukas et al. 2010), and we question the reliabil- 1458–9, 1462, 1466–7; Nesje et al. 2007). ity of these ages in the context of surrounding data. Ice had retreated to the north of Denmark follow- The maximum line for the southern SIS is placed close ing the Kattegatt advance (Houmark-Nielsen 2003; to the Brandenburg and Leszno moraine positions in Kjær et al. 2006b) and ice likely re-advanced across Germany and western Poland, respectively (Pazdur southern Sweden and the southwestern Baltic Sea et al. 1983; Luthgens€ & Bose€ 2011; Bose€ et al. 2012; after c. 25 ka (Kramarska 1998; Kjær et al. 2006b). Marks 2012), but evidence suggests that the ice front This is supported by dates indicating advance across did not advance into Denmark until the following Poland after 25–29 ka (Pazdur et al. 1983), western stage (Houmark-Nielsen & Kjær 2003; Houmark-Niel- Latvia after c. 26 ka (Saks et al. 2012; Lasberg & sen 2010). Kalm 2013) and central and southern Lithuania after c. 25 ka (Lasberg & Kalm 2013). The most-credible 23 ka. – A short-lived advance of the Irish Sea Ice line sits north of the Estonian coastline to accommo- Stream of the BIIS to the maximum position over the date the youngest obtained OSL ages from kame and Scilly Isles is placed in this stage (after Clark et al. delta sediments dated to 212.5 and 236 ka (Sites 2012; O Cofaigh et al. 2012). Dates from trough- 2077, 2085; Raukas 2004), although these dates are mouth fans west of Svalbard and the timing of offshore described as not being in stratigraphical order and ice-rafted debris pulses indicate an ice margin close to the large error bounds on these dates renders them the shelf edge for the northern and western SBKIS almost useless for constraining our reconstruction at (Andersen et al. 1996; Landvik et al. 1998; Kleiber a 1000-year resolution. The timing of ice advance et al. 2000) and SIS west of the Lofoten Islands into Russia is imprecisely dated and we maintain a (Rørvik et al. 2010). After 23.5–22.4 ka lake sedimen- large distance between minimum and maximum lines tation is continuous in Øvre Ærasvatn (Site 1463, 43 m in this region. a.s.l.) and Endlevatn (Site 1464, 36 m a.s.l.) on Ice masses over Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya and Andøya, indicating that the northern tip of the island Franz Josef Land are shown as an integrated SBKIS, was finally deglaciated at the latest by 22 ka (Vorren although the precise eastern and southern boundaries et al. 1988, 2013, 2015; Alm 1993). Ice started to 26 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS advance again into northern Denmark, the maximum dence that places the western SIS margin advanced on position is placed along the Main Stationary Line, and the shelf (Elliot et al. 2001; Dahlgren & Vorren 2003; the minimum encroaching over the northern tip based Rørvik et al. 2010) and the southern and eastern SIS on the timing for the Mid-Danish till c. 23–21 ka (Lar- margins close to their maximum extent at this time sen et al. 2009b). Maximum and most-credible lines (Larsen et al. 2006; Lasberg & Kalm 2013). Radiocar- are placed at, or close to, the maximum limit in Ger- bon dates in support of this retreat are predominantly many and Poland and uncertainty in the precise timing from bulk samples (the majority of which we rate as of ice expansion increases from west to east, as in the QC = 3 and therefore ignore) and the available OSL previous time-slice. We no longer keep the minimum ages differ by as much as 4000 years depending upon line north of the Estonian coastline, thus using the old- the water saturation history of the samples. The avail- est error bound for the constraining OSL ages dated to able dating is imprecise (mean 22.31.7 ka) and the 212.5 ka (Raukas 2004). There exist no dates on the event, if it existed, is regarded as short-lived (Johnsen timing of ice advance into the Kara Sea towards Tai- et al. 2012). On the balance of evidence we consider myr; however, we tentatively place the ice margin in such a dramatic retreat of the western SIS margin, up this time-slice at the maximum ice-extent position to 150 km inland of the Norwegian coastline, at a time (Polyak et al. 2008). when the eastern SIS margin was close to the ultimate limit unlikely, but not impossible. Therefore, we 22 ka. – In the Irish Sea the ice front is stepped back accommodate it in the minimum reconstruction for reflecting rapid retreat of the Irish Sea Ice Stream (e.g. this single time-slice only; the line is drawn within the Chiverrell et al. 2013). We maintain a connection limit of dates supporting the retreat that we give a QC between the SIS and BIIS in the southern North Sea, rating of 2 or 1 (Sites 983, 1269, 1271-3, 1276–8, 1285, although the persistence and existence of the postu- 1305, 1311–3). lated ice dome that this requires remains unconfirmed. In the northern North Sea the postulated embayment 21 ka. – In the absence of evidence to the contrary we is widened to represent the uncertain distance of make small changes for most of the ice-sheet sectors retreat eastward before the documented Tampen re-ad- between 22 and 21 ka. We do not, in this first version vance (22–19 ka) (Sejrup et al. 1994, 2005). Minimum of DATED, reconstruct surface elevation of the ice and most-credible lines are placed at the Main Station- sheets but, based on exposure dating of mountain sum- ary Line in Denmark (Houmark-Nielsen 2004, 2008; mits, by 21 ka the BIIS had started to thin (Ballantyne Larsen et al. 2009b). The maximum and most-credible & Stone 2015). Lowering of the SBKIS surface in lines are close to the maximum position in northeast northern and western Svalbard may have commenced Poland, Lithuania and northwest Belarus (Lasberg & even earlier (~264 ka, Hormes et al. 2013). The SIS Kalm 2013) with only the minimum line kept west of margin is shown expanded in the maximum and most- central Latvia (Raukas et al. 2010) and southeastern credible lines into the northern North Sea from the Estonia (Kalm 2005). Separation between the lines previous stage (Tampen Re-advance 22–19 ka; Roko- increases towards the east, reflecting a low density of engen et al. 1982; Rise & Rokoengen 1984; Sejrup dates and large errors on available OSL dates (e.g. et al. 2015). Across Germany there is uncertainty in Raukas 2004; Kalm 2005). The margins of the SBKIS the timing of retreat from the maximum limit, with a remain similar to the previous stage with the exception wide range of ages presented for mapped and corre- of the maximum line where a lobe of ice extends out to lated moraines (Luthgens€ et al. 2010; Luthgens€ & Bose€ the northeast impinging onto the Taimyr Peninsula. 2011); we place all lines between the Frankfurt and This is based on two shell dates from melt-out till indi- Pomeranian limits in Germany and western Poland. cating ice advance onto the Peninsula from the west All lines are close to the ultimate limit across north- after 23 ka (Site 2342; Alexanderson et al. 2001); see eastern Poland, Lithuania and northwest Belarus (Las- later discussion. We follow Polyak et al. (2008) for the berg & Kalm 2013). The ultimate MIS 2 ice-sheet limit shape of this lobe, which is reduced from that shown in in mainland Russia was reached after 22 ka based pri- Svendsen et al. (2004). marily on OSL dates (Kjær et al. 2006a) and we place The western minimum margin of the SIS is shown the maximum line at (and step the minimum and most- inland of the present-day coastline. In central Norway credible towards) the ultimate limit in the Russian the line is ~350 km east of the maximum and most- Plain based on ice-dammed lake sedimentation dated credible lines, which remain close to the Norwegian to 21–20.9 ka (Site 2225; Lysa et al. 2001, 2011). We shelf edge. This minimum line is to accommodate evi- use the ultimate limit for this sector as mapped by Lar- dence mainly from bulk radiocarbon dates but also sen et al. (2014), which is slightly more extensive than OSL ages for a substantial retreat of the SIS during shown in Svendsen et al. (2004). MIS 2 (Olsen & Hammer 2005; Johnsen et al. 2012; Kolstrup & Olsen 2012). This evidence clearly is in 20 ka. – Available data show that the BIIS was retreat- conflict and difficult to resolve with some marine evi- ing at almost all margins at this time (Clark et al. 2012 BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 27 and references therein). In addition, high-altitude 2009b). We follow Lasberg & Kalm (2013) and place TCN ages and flow-pattern evidence indicate that the most-credible and maximum ice margins at the retreat was preceded by lowering of the ice-sheet sur- ultimate limit in the southeastern European Plain. We face (Ballantyne et al. 2006; Glasser et al. 2012; disregard two radiocarbon dates from mammoth Hughes et al. 2014). Glacigenic debris flow sediments bones found in southern Sweden that give ages of from the North Sea Fan (Sites 145–7) indicate that the c. 19 ka (Site 2134; Ukkonen et al. 1999), as the bal- calving front of the Norwegian Channel Ice Stream ance of evidence indicates they are likely to be erro- was close to the channel mouth until c. 19 ka (King neous (Ukkonen et al. 2011) although not rejected et al. 1998) and had retreated south of the Troll core following our quality control assessment. Using the (Site 132) at 60.6° N by 18.5 ka (Sejrup et al. 1994). ‘Arctic’ production rate some ‘deglacial’ 10Be expo- However, recently published TCN dates for final sure ages from boulders and streamlined bedrock deglaciation of the islands of Karmøy and Utsira, from the island of Bornholm, south of Sweden (Sites located ~300 km up-flow at ~59.3° N, suggest that the 789-90, 794-5, 799-800, 805-6; Houmark-Nielsen et al. ice stream had retreated all the way back to these 2012) give ages of 19.8–17.1 ka (two ages using 36Cl islands by c. 20 ka (Svendsen et al. 2015) but these of 21–23 ka are assumed to overestimate the true new dates are not included in the DATED-1 database age). Similarly some boulders (Sites 1622, 1612, 1610, because of our 1 January 2013 census date. The timing 1593, 1578–9) from the Halland Coastal Moraines, of retreat from the Norwegian shelf is poorly con- southwestern Sweden, return seemingly anomalously strained; we therefore depict the minimum line along old ages (15–19 ka; Larsen et al. 2012). The older the mid-shelf but keep the maximum and most-credible range of these dates appears to conflict with evidence lines close to the shelf edge in this time-slice. Retreat for ice re-advance over southern Denmark and is from the Main Stationary Line (Denmark) com- older than both dates that imply deglaciation of the menced, indicated by proglacial sediments dated to southwestern Baltic Sea c. 17 ka (Kramarska 1998) 20–19 ka (Larsen et al. 2009b). Dates constraining the and the youngest age estimates for the Pomeranian ice timing of the Pomeranian limit across Germany and margin over Germany (Luthgens€ et al. 2011). Intrigu- Poland return a large spread of ages (Luthgens€ & Bose€ ingly, the apparently overestimated TCN ages from 2011); sandur deposition at this margin in northeast the Halland Coastal Moraines correspond to a hand- Germany is dated to 21.7–18.1 ka using OSL ful of shells radiocarbon dated to c. 19 ka previously (Site 1759), suggesting an older age than implied by considered to be contaminated with old carbon (Sites some TCN (c. 13–21 ka) and radiocarbon (c.16–19 1592, 1595; Passe 1992). We draw the minimum line ka) ages for this margin (Rinterknecht et al. 2005, only north of Bornholm in the following time-slice 2012; Houmark-Nielsen et al. 2006; Heine et al. 2009; and step the margin back towards the island here. Marks 2012). There is no equivocal evidence for signif- Exposure ages indicate deglaciation of northern Ger- icant retreat followed by a re-advance to the Pomera- many and Poland between 17.2–13.6 and 20.7– nian position and we keep a separation between the 12.4 ka, respectively (Rinterknecht et al. 2006, 2012). lines to reflect this uncertainty. The range of returned This large spread of ages probably reflects inheritance ages strongly supports the interpretation of the issues and postdepositional rotation of boulders in an ‘Pomeranian moraine’ as a suite of time-transgressive unstable postglacial landscape incorporating dead-ice features. All lines remain close to the ultimate limit on and mobile sediments (Luthgens€ & Bose€ 2012). The the Russian Plain, but separation is maintained SBKIS started to retreat from the western shelf edge between the lines owing to the large error bounds (Elverhøi et al. 1995; Cadman 1996; Landvik et al. on the available OSL chronology (Demidov et al. 1998; Rasmussen et al. 2007), and we depict deglacia- 2006). It is probable that the lobes of ice that extended tion of Novaya Zemlya in our minimum reconstruc- this far east had a very low surface profile (Larsen tion as a precursor to the following time-slice. et al. 2014). 18 ka. – The SIS and BIIS are shown as fully sepa- 19 ka. – By 19 ka the Irish Sea was deglaciated (Tel- rated in all but the maximum reconstruction. Based on fer et al. 2009). The Norwegian Channel Ice Stream the balance of available OSL dates constraining the probably started to retreat from the shelf break west Bobrovo till, the eastern margin of the SIS is at the of Norway c. 19 ka (King et al. 1998) or a little ear- maximum limit in our most-credible line, comprising a lier (see later discussion) and we step the margin in thin, highly lobate margin terminating into ice- the channel back from the shelf edge. Sectors of the dammed lakes (Demidov et al. 2006; Larsen et al. southern SIS margin appear to have experienced 2006, 2014; Lysa et al. 2011, 2014; Fredin et al. 2012). minor (10s km) oscillations of the ice front as the The timing of deglaciation on Novaya Zemlya is not margin retreated back from the ultimate terrestrial well dated (see discussion below), but two radiocarbon limit; ice re-advanced over southern Denmark (e.g. dates (Sites 2356, 2346) from the southwestern Young Baltic advance; Kjær et al. 2003; Larsen et al. coast suggest deglaciation occurring before c. 18 ka 28 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

(Serebryanny et al. 1998). We show the SBKIS as to the Fladen 2 position in the maximum line only. In retreated from Novaya Zemlya in all reconstructions, contrast, the southwestern SIS margin had retreated leaving a remnant ice cap in the maximum reconstruc- onshore at Jæren, southwestern Norway by 17–16 ka tion only. The pattern of retreat is poorly constrained (Sites 903–4906; Knudsen 2006). All lines are placed in the eastern Barents Sea and we maintain a separa- close to the western Swedish coast based on dates con- tion between the lines here. We consider that the large straining the Halland Coastal Moraines to between 17 but poorly dated ‘Admirality Bank Moraines’ are and 16 ka (Lundqvist & Wohlfarth 2001; Larsen et al. partly bedrock features (Gataullin & Polyak 1997) and 2012). This is supported by recent (post-DATED-1 are too big to have been formed during the most recent census) ages for the Goteborg€ moraine <16 ka (Anjar deglaciation, and so we ignored them (also omitted in et al. 2014). We use mapped margin positions (Saar- a recent review by Jakobsson et al. 2014). Exposure nisto et al. 1995; Uscinowicz 1999; Saarnisto & Saari- ages from western Svalbard indicate lowering of the ice nen 2001; Demidov et al. 2004; Kalm 2012) to guide surface due to thinning after c. 18.5 ka (Site 2437; placement of the lines in the Baltic Sea and east of Landvik et al. 2013). Poland. In northernmost Norway deglaciation of the coastal plateau above ~300 m is indicated by exposure 17 ka. – By 17 ka the BIIS was restricted to Ireland dating (Sites 1501, 1504; Fjellanger et al. 2006). and Scotland, although the North Sea Lobe is depicted Although, marine evidence supports extensive ice running down the eastern coastline of England (Eyles remaining offshore north of Norway (Ruther€ et al. et al. 1994). In the northern North Sea we follow the 2011) at this time, and basal lake radiocarbon dates Fladen 1 re-advance moraine dated to 17.5 ka by support later deglaciation of northernmost Norway Sejrup et al. (2015) in our maximum line. The Skager- c. 14 ka (Sites 1507-9; Romundset et al. 2011). Only in rak is deglaciated and all lines are close to the Halland our minimum reconstruction is the SBKIS separated Coastal Moraines along the southwest Swedish coast from the SIS as the timing of separation is imprecisely (Larsen et al. 2012). Over Denmark the maximum line defined from the current data. Seabed geomorphology follows the limit of the Bælthav Ice Stream incursion demonstrates that separation of the SIS and SBKIS and it is known that the ice margin here terminated progressed as ice retreated along Bjørnøyrenna (Bjar- into proglacial lakes (Houmark-Nielsen & Kjær 2003). nadottir et al. 2014) and was accompanied by ice The SIS is depicted starting to retreat from the maxi- streaming along the northern Norwegian coast (Wins- mum limits across the Russian (Lunkka et al. 2001; borrow et al. 2010). The pattern of retreat from the Demidov et al. 2006) and Eastern European plains eastern Barents Sea is as yet undefined, although there (Lasberg & Kalm 2013). Shells within till (Rokoengen is some indication of late-stage ice flow from an ice & Frengstad 1999) and shelf moraines (Nygard et al. centre located close to the central bank of the Barents 2004) indicate fluctuations of the western SIS margin Sea (Bjarnadottir et al. 2014). on the Norwegian shelf during retreat. The connection between the SIS and SBKIS is maintained, based on 15 ka. – A number of radiocarbon dates demonstrate mapped ice-flow directions from the western Barents that the SIS had largely retreated within the Norwe- Sea (Bjarnadottir et al. 2014). Several ice streams were gian coastline, and some of the highest peaks (over in operation in the southern Barents Sea and around 900–1000 m) may have existed as nunataks after 16– Svalbard. It is probable that the ice-sheet margin re-ad- 15 ka (Goehring et al. 2008). The maximum extent of vanced multiple times during retreat and separation of the eastern SIS follows the Haanja and Luga mor- the SBKIS and SIS (e.g. Winsborrow et al. 2010; aines in Russia (Demidov et al. 2004; Kalm 2012) Ruther€ et al. 2012; Bjarnadottir et al. 2014). The tim- and the North Lithuanian moraine (Kalm 2006, ing of separation of these two ice sheets is poorly dated 2012). The minimum line follows the Sakla and and we depict separation occurring across three time- Otepa€a€ moraine positions (Kalm 2012). The SIS and slices 17–15 ka. The margin positions in the eastern SBKIS are shown as separated in all three reconstruc- Barents Sea remain speculative. tions. In the north the SBKIS retreated back towards the central Barents Sea, Svalbard and Franz Josef 16 ka. – Moraines on the Norwegian shelf indicate Land. Lines around Svalbard follow Klitgaard Kris- that the western margin of the SIS oscillated during tensen et al. (2013) and Hogan et al. (2010) and the retreat from the Norwegian shelf, e.g. the Bremanger minimum line is drawn so that Bjørnøya is addition- advance (<18–16 ka; Nygard et al. 2004; Sejrup et al. ally deglaciated. Ice is depicted close to the western 2009), which has been correlated with a second ice coastlines of Svalbard (Forman et al. 1987; Svendsen advance into the northern North Sea by the BIIS (Fla- et al. 1992; Landvik et al. 1998) and Franz Josef den 2 dated to 16.2 ka; Sejrup et al. 2015). Here we Land (Forman et al. 1996; Lubinski et al. 1996, 2001; follow Clark et al. (2012) and show the BIIS as discrete Landvik et al. 1998). Marine sedimentation com- ice masses on Ireland, Highland Scotland and Shet- menced c. 15 ka (Polyak et al. 1995; Landvik et al. land in the most-credible and minimum lines, and close 1998; Sites 173, 175, 182) and after 14.4 ka (Ruther€ BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 29 et al. 2012; Sites 189–192) in the eastern and western Younger Dryas/Loch Lomond Stadial (e.g. Bradwell Barents Sea, respectively. et al. 2008a). Over Scotland our lines show ice cover restricted to the western Highlands, although it is likely 14 ka. – For the BIIS we use the limits of the Wester that there were also several small ice caps and glaciers Ross re-advance moraines in western Scotland (Everest in the Southern Uplands and Scottish Islands (see Gol- et al. 2006; Bradwell et al. 2008a; Ballantyne et al. ledge 2010 for a review) and in Ireland, Wales and 2009). The SIS is shown retreated from the entire west- northern England. In western Norway we draw all ern coast, from the northern tip of Norway (Romund- lines inland of the mapped Younger Dryas re-advance set et al. 2011) to the southern tip of Sweden (Johnsen moraines (Mangerud 2000, 2004; Mangerud et al. et al. 2009). We depict continued retreat of the eastern 2011) but place the maximum and most-credible lines margin of the SIS, but note that the rate of retreat here close to the Tautra Moraine in Trøndelag (Reite 1994) is poorly constrained, and may have been more rapid, and Tromsø-Lyngen moraines in northern Norway with local and regional re-advances of the ice margin (Andersen 1975). Numerous local glaciers beyond the (Kalm 2006). Lake Onega was deglaciated c. 14 ka SIS limit in western (Sollid & Reite 1983; Larsen et al. based on varve counts (Saarnisto & Saarinen 2001). 1984) and northern (Andersen 1968, 1975) Norway are The SBKIS had separated into two over Svalbard and not shown. Around Oslofjorden we use the Onsøy Franz Josef Land, and the Barents Sea is shown as Moraine located shortly distal of the Ra Moraine deglaciated, although note that there are very few con- (Sørensen 1992). We follow the accepted Younger straining dates (Landvik et al. 1998, 2005; Klitgaard Dryas extent across Sweden (Lundqvist & Wohlfarth Kristensen et al. 2013). 2001). There is uncertainty in the position of the ice front over the Baltic Sea, although all Baltic States were likely ice free before 13.3 ka (Lasberg & Kalm Younger Dryas time-slices 13–12 ka 2013) and the freshwater Baltic Ice Lake had devel- The SIS at the end of the Younger Dryas (~1.6 Mkm3 oped before c. 13 ka (Bjorck€ et al. 2002; Donner 2010; or 4 m SLE) was comparable in volume to present-day Grigoriev et al. 2011; Saarse et al. 2012). In the east estimates for the Greenland Ice Sheet (~2.85 Mkm3 or the SIS is depicted close to the Finnish-Russian border 7 m SLE). Moraines attributed to the Younger Dryas and we use the Salpaussellka€ I and Rugozera moraine cold period (12.7–11.5 ka; Lohne et al. 2013) have positions as the minimum and the Pandivere and Neva been mapped almost continuously around Scandinavia margins as the maximum lines at 13 ka (Donner 2010; and provide the means to reconstruct precisely the Saarse et al. 2012). The most-credible line follows the marginal extent of the SIS during this time period Palivere line across Estonia (Fig. 8). By 13 ka ice was (Fig. 8; Andersen et al. 1995b). Across Norway mor- close to the coast in southern Svalbard (Salvigsen & aines have been established as documenting a re-ad- Elgersma 1993; Mangerud & Landvik 2007). vance of the SIS although in some areas the moraines were formed at the start of the Younger Dryas and in 12 ka. – In our 12 ka time-slice we show the ice mar- other areas towards the end of the stadial; i.e. up to gin as it was at the end of the Younger Dryas. In west- 1200 years apart (Andersen et al. 1995a,b). Addition- ern Norway all lines follow the mapped Herdla- ally, lateral moraines are found along many fjords and Halsnøy moraines (Lohne et al. 2012). In Trøndelag valleys in western Norway, providing opportunities to the most-credible line follows the Hoklingen Moraine reconstruct the ice thickness for this time period. position and around Oslofjorden the As Moraine (An- Across Scotland numerous moraines have been dersen et al. 1995b). Elsewhere along the Norwegian mapped, correlated and attributed to a re-advance (or coast the maximum line follows the mapped moraines re-growth) of ice during this period, locally termed the and the most-credible line is drawn slightly inland of Loch Lomond Stadial (Sissons 1979; Lowe et al. 1999; this position. Across Finland we follow the Salpaus- Bradwell et al. 2008a). Over Britain we use the Loch sellka€ I and II for the maximum and most-credible Lomond Stadial ice limits from Clark et al. (2004) and lines, respectively (Donner 2010). Both the minimum Golledge (2010) and depict similar ice-sheet limits in and most-credible lines sit close to the Kalevala Mor- Scotland in both our 13 and 12 ka time-slices. In order aine in westernmost Russia. Much of the low-lying to maintain a consistent 1000-year resolution in southern islands of Franz Josef Land and outer fjords DATED-1 we do not specifically make a Younger of Svalbard were ice free by 12 ka (Forman et al. 1996; Dryas time-slice; instead, our time-slices at 13 and Landvik et al. 2013). 12 ka loosely follow the known ice boundaries. Small (<500 Mkm2) ice caps and glaciers outside the limits of Post-Younger Dryas time-slices 11–10 ka the main ice sheets are not shown. After 12 ka the SIS ice sheet margin was likely very 13 ka. – There has been a long discussion on whether crenulated and split into lobes and valley/fjord glaciers; Scotland was fully deglaciated before the start of the we do not depict the detail of this ice margin. Meltwa- 30 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS

0° 20° E 40° E

Tromsø-Lyngen 12 ka 70° N

Pääjärvi

Kalevala Belomorsk <12.2 ka >12.2 ka

Rugozero (Rukajärvi) Tautra Pielisjärvi 12.7 ka Hoklingen 11.6 ka

Salpausselkä II ~12 ka Salpausselkä I ~12.3 ka Salpausselkä III <11.6 ka

Ås-Ski 11.6 ka MSM Ra Herdla 12.6 ka 11.6 ka Billingen Skövde ~12.6 ka

0 200 km

20° E

Fig. 8. Moraine positions attributed to the Younger Dryas (12.5–11.7 ka) extent of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet (after Andersen et al. 1995a; Rainio et al. 1995; Lundqvist & Wohlfarth 2001; Mangerud 2004; Donner 2010; Pasanen et al. 2010; Mangerud et al. 2011; Lunkka et al. 2012; Olsen et al. 2013). Although the ice margin can be traced across Scandinavia, available dates show that the moraines are not synchronous and dating precision for the age of the moraines varies. In some places multiple stages have been mapped. MSM = Middle Swedish Moraines. This figure is available in colour at http://www.boreas.dk. ter channels are found almost at the summits of the the SIS, i.e. the ice sheet had no accumulation area and highest peaks in the inland mountains of Norway and was climatically dead, with all ice flow occurring due Sweden (1500–2000 m a.s.l.). Such channels are only to the existing surface slope (Mannerfelt 1940, 1945; formed below the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) and Gjessing 1966). We postulate that the ELA moved thus demonstrate that during deglaciation the ELA above the top of the ice sheet soon after the Younger was located higher and probably above the summit of Dryas/Holocene transition. The implication for our BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 31 reconstruction is that there was not only a retreating unknown; there may be a considerable age difference ice margin, but the entire ice sheet also melted down from south to north. Dates for final deglaciation of the vertically, revealing mountain summits close to the SIS from the Scandinavian Mountains are sparse, the centre of the ice sheet (Linge et al. 2006, 2007; available dates suggesting deglaciation commencing Goehring et al. 2008) and splitting the ice sheet into shortly after c. 10 ka (Lundqvist & Mejdahl 1995; numerous individual ice masses, thus creating a more Rubensdotter & Rosqvist 2009; Bakke et al. 2010; irregular ice margin than shown in our reconstructions Moller€ et al. 2013). The final demise of the SIS pro- at 11 and 10 ka. Above the marine limit the possibility gressed rapidly and deglaciation of Scandinavia was to precisely map the ice-marginal retreat disappears as likely complete by 9 ka (Lundqvist & Mejdahl 1995; these higher elevation areas are almost devoid of end Nesje et al. 2004; Harbor et al. 2006) or slightly earlier moraines or other marginal landforms. In western (Fabel et al. 2006). Norway ice-marginal deltas showing the retreating Glaciers on western Svalbard were smaller than pre- margin are commonly found below the marine limit, sent-day glaciers here (Svendsen & Mangerud 1997) but their location is often determined by topography and we have depicted all Arctic islands as ice free in the rather than climate, and continuations of the margin minimum and most-credible reconstructions and use a as lateral moraines at higher elevations are very rarely simplified version of the present-day glacier limits found. Therefore, correlation from fjord to fjord is dif- (GLIMS 2005, updated 2012) for the maximum recon- ficult and to a large extent dependent upon radiocar- struction. bon dates of which there are too few for robust correlations. The last remaining glaciers were probably The most ambiguous sectors located on the floors of deep valleys near the former ice divide. Thus, final deglaciation did not occur as a Despite the wealth of geological information that exists retreat of the glaciers towards the highest mountains there remain problems when attempting to produce and present-day glaciers of Norway and Sweden. maps of former ice-sheet extent at 1000-year resolution across the entire area covered by the EurIS; as appar- 11 ka. – Scotland was rapidly deglaciated following ent from the distances in each time-slice between our the Loch Lomond Stadial (Lowe & Walker 1976; most-credible line and bounding maximum and mini- MacLeod et al. 2011). Svalbard, Franz Josef Land and mum lines, respectively. However, two areas stand out Novaya Zemlya were also possibly fully deglaciated at as the most uncertain and will be discussed below, this time (our minimum reconstruction shows no ice namely the eastern Barents-Kara Sea and the North on these islands by 11 ka), with any remaining ice Sea. In both these regions geomorphological evidence restricted within the present-day coastlines (Forwick & of the ice-margin patterns is sparse or missing and Vorren 2009, 2010; Baeten et al. 2010). Over Finland there are few dates. we take the Central Finland End Moraine and Sal- paussellka€ III margin positions for the most-credible Eastern SBKIS. – Greatest uncertainty in both the and maximum lines, respectively, at 11 ka. In western timing and style of glaciation of the EurIS is in the Norway the Eidfjord-Osa and correlated moraines are Kara Sea and eastern Barents Sea. The western Bar- well dated to 11 ka (Mangerud et al. 2013) and around ents Sea sea floor (Andreassen et al. 2008, 2014; Wins- Oslofjorden we use the Aker Moraine position. borrow et al. 2010; Ruther€ et al. 2011, 2012; Bjarnadottir et al. 2013, 2014) and the area around 10 ka. – After 11 ka ice-margin positions along the Svalbard (Landvik et al. 2005; Ottesen & Dowdeswell Swedish Baltic Sea coast are precisely dated by the 2006, 2009; Ottesen et al. 2007, 2008; Dowdeswell varve chronology (Stromberg€ 1989, 1990, 2005). et al. 2010; Hogan et al. 2010) are now well mapped in Together with directions of the youngest glacial striae terms of glacial ice-flow lineations, end moraines and and in some places (De Geer) moraines a well-defined grounding line wedges, which provide precise informa- ice margin can be mapped documenting retreat from tion about the pattern of ice flow and ice-margin the Baltic Sea region (Stromberg€ 1989, 1990; Donner geometry during ice recession and there exist some 1995). It is well established that the last, more-or-less radiocarbon dates. In contrast, geomorphological data contiguous SIS was located along or close to the earlier for the eastern Barents and Kara seas are almost non- ice-divide position, south of the main watershed in existent, and there are extremely few accurate ages for southeastern Norway and east of the watershed in any glacial margin (Fig. 2A). We highlight two main Sweden. This is shown by the youngest glacial striae unresolved issues; the maximum extent of the eastern and the many ice-dammed lakes created between the SBKIS and the style and timing of glaciation over ice divide and the water divide during the down-wast- Novaya Zemlya. ing of the ice surface (Lundqvist 1972; Bertling & Sol- The maximum achieved extent of the EurIS in the lid 1999). However, the age relationships between the Kara Sea shown in Svendsen et al. (2004) has to a many lakes – and thus the ice remnants – are large degree been confirmed by more recent investiga- 32 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS tions (Dittmers et al. 2008), but the northeastern relates to the more extensive glaciation established to extension of the ice sheet onto the Taimyr Peninsula have occurred during MIS 4 (Svendsen et al. 2004; remains problematic. It is clear that the ice front did Moller€ et al. 2015). not reach the islands of Severnaya Zemlya, which It is generally assumed that the major glaciations of hosted only local glaciers not larger than today the Barents-Kara Sea were initiated by expansion of (Moller€ et al. 2007, 2015). In contrast, it has been glaciers on the islands surrounding the Barents Sea proposed that the northwestern part of the Taimyr onto the adjacent sea floor and eventually merging to Peninsula was inundated by a glacier advance from create a shelf-centred ice sheet, a scenario we also the Kara Sea shelf (Alexanderson et al. 2001, 2002; assume in our depiction of ice build-up 40–25 ka. The Svendsen et al. 2004). This interpretation relies on primary ice divide shifted from the islands towards the two AMS radiocarbon dates (Site 2342, DATED-id central Barents Sea and remained there until the final 5423–4; LuA-4817, 23 642341 and Lua-4597, deglaciation, when the ice sheet split into several 23 500310 cal. years BP) from mollusc shells domes and retreated back towards the major islands (Alexanderson et al. 2001) collected from melt-out till again, mirroring the ice-sheet build-up. For Svalbard draped over remnants of glacier ice correlated to a and Franz Josef Land this is an accepted interpreta- belt of ice-marginal features, named the North Tai- tion, supported by observations (Ingolfsson & Landvik myr ice-marginal zone (Kind & Leonov 1982). These 2013; Landvik et al. 2014). However, the glacial evolu- dates implicate an eastward ice advance across the tion of the eastern SBKIS is still poorly constrained, northern Kara Sea reaching the peninsula sometime especially in the vicinity of Novaya Zemlya. It is not after 23 ka. Although the near-identical ages for the clear if Novaya Zemlya was inundated by the shelf-cen- two molluscs lends credibility to the ages, viewed tred Barents Ice Sheet or if a persistent satellite ice against the background of other data we find the dome was located over the islands throughout the last extension of a ~450 km-long ice lobe from the SBKIS glaciation. problematic and question this interpretation. First, The postglacial marine limit around the entire archi- ice advance reaching the mainland would have pelago of Novaya Zemlya is <15 m a.s.l. and is dated blocked northbound fluvial drainage from the conti- to 6–7.5 ka BP (Zeeberg et al. 2001). This contrasts nent, creating an ice-dammed lake as in previous strongly with the situation on Svalbard where the high- glaciations (Mangerud et al. 2004; Svendsen et al. est relative sea level everywhere was reached several 2014), but traces of such a lake have not been found thousand years earlier, and in eastern Svalbard was up (Svendsen et al. 2004). Rather, there is evidence that to 100 m a.s.l. (Forman et al. 1995; Landvik et al. present-day fluvial drainage prevailed throughout 1998). Zeeberg et al. (2001) concluded that there was a MIS 2 with the deposition of aeolian sediments and thin satellite dome over Novaya Zemlya and postu- formation of ice wedges in many areas close to the lated a late deglaciation in line with marine shells and present-day sea level along the Russian coastline (e.g. peat dated to 9.4–12.4 cal. ka BP (Sites 2365, 194, Vasil’chuk & Vasil’chuk 1998). Second, and perhaps 2357; Serebryanny & Malyasova 1998; Forman et al. more significant, based on glaciological considera- 1999; Zeeberg et al. 2001). We consider these ages as tions we find it remarkable that the postulated safe minimum ages for deglaciation, but in the time- advance, which terminated well inland on Taimyr evi- slice reconstructions presented here we propose that dently did not encroach into Severnaya Zemlya. Novaya Zemlya was deglaciated as early as c. 18 ka. Existing radiocarbon dates (Sites 2370, 2373–5, c. 30– Two 14C dates (Sites 2346, 2356) from the west coast of 24 ka) indicate that mammoths were grazing on Sev- Novaya Zemlya have yielded ages of c. 18.5 cal. ka BP ernaya Zemlya at this time and there is nothing to (Forman et al. 1999). According to the descriptions of suggest that the ice sheet was located in the near the investigators both samples were taken from terres- vicinity of these islands (Moller€ et al. 1999, 2007, trial peat lenses below silt and clay not covered by till. 2015). Furthermore, two radiocarbon dates on terres- One sample was found close to present-day sea level trial peat obtained from the sea floor to the north of suggesting a low relative sea level at the time of the the Taimyr River estuary suggest that this area has peat formation. We cannot exclude the possibility that been ice free since before 19 ka (Site 198; Bol- the dates are anomalously old due to contamination, shiyanov et al. 1998). In our time-slice reconstruc- and no details of the sample preparation were given. tions we depict ice reaching the Taimyr Peninsula for However, if the peat formed as late as 10 000 14C years the maximum limit in the 22 ka time-slice reconstruc- BP, then the samples must be contaminated with as tion only; our minimum and most-credible recon- much as 65% nonfinite-aged C in order to generate the structions leave the Taimyr and adjacent part of the reported ages (Geyh & Schleicher 1990), which in our Kara Sea shelf entirely ice free since 40 ka. We sus- opinion is unlikely. Further support for early deglacia- pect that the dates (Site 2342) from Taimyr underesti- tion of Novaya Zemlya comes from amino acid analy- mate the real age of these molluscs, i.e. that the sis of marine molluscs. Palaeo-temperature modelling corresponding ice advance is older than 23 ka and of shell racemization indicates that during the MIS 2 BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 33 glaciation the archipelago was covered by warm-based et al. 2005) and indicate that the ice-stream front had ice that lasted for an integrated time of only 3000 years retreated ~220 km (the Troll core) southwards along after 30 ka (Mangerud et al. 2008a), although the the channel by 18.5 ka (Sejrup et al. 1994). Operation presence of cold-based ice would permit a longer ice- of the ice stream concurrent with ice-free conditions in covered period. The low marine limits around Novaya the northern North Sea to the west of the Norwegian Zemlya are also consistent with our interpretation, Channel is enigmatic (Clark et al. 2012). Although namely that deglaciation took place at an early stage confined to the prominent Norwegian Trough, there is when global sea level was still near the LGM low-s- no present-day analogue for an ice stream unbounded tand. by slower-moving ice along one lateral flank. New Based on an overall assessment we consider the most 10Be exposure ages (published after the census date for probable interpretation to be that an ice cap grew over DATED-1) from islands (Utsira and southern Novaya Zemlya before the islands were inundated by Karmøy) located ~400 km upstream along the former an eastward expansion of the SBKIS during MIS 2, path of the Norwegian Channel Ice Stream suggest and that the islands became ice free soon after c. 19– that the islands were deglaciated by c. 20 ka (Svendsen 20 ka. Early deglaciation of Novaya Zemlya can be et al. 2015), i.e. 2000 years earlier than suggested by explained by precipitation starvation of the eastern lee- the marine radiocarbon chronology. This age discrep- side flank of the SBKIS, an idea supported by the fact ancy is unresolved, but assuming that the reported that glaciers on Severnaya Zemlya (Moller€ et al. 2007) exposure ages are accurate Svendsen et al. (2015) sug- and in the Polar Urals (Mangerud et al. 2008b) gest that an ice-free embayment opened up across remained very small during the MIS 2 glaciation. almost the entire northern North Sea including the Norwegian Channel as early as 20 ka. In the south- North Sea ice cover and the Norwegian Channel Ice western North Sea, radiocarbon and OSL dates from Stream. – There is now little doubt that the SIS and eastern England implicate ice presence along the coast- BIIS were connected and that grounded ice existed in line after 22 ka (e.g. Bateman et al. 2008, 2011) for the North Sea during MIS 2 (Graham et al. 2007, which Clark et al. (2012) proposed two alternative 2009; Sejrup et al. 1994). However the nature and tim- interpretation scenarios. One scenario accepted full ing of this connection remains in question as there is deglaciation of the North Sea after 25 ka followed by both limited chronological control and pattern infor- advancement of the North Sea Lobe eastward out of mation, especially in the southern part of the North northern England before turning southeast to follow Sea (Hughes et al. 2011; Clark et al. 2012). The few the coastline to Dimlington (a well-documented fea- radiocarbon dates available from below till in the ture of the BIIS; Boston et al. 2010; Evans & Thomson northern North Sea indicate complete ice cover with 2010; Bateman et al. 2011; Davies et al. 2012; Roberts coalescence of the BIIS and SIS sometime after 33 ka, et al. 2013). The alternative scenario restricted break- and dates above till that glacimarine (ice-free) condi- up of ice to the northern North Sea at 25 ka and pro- tions existed in the vicinity of Fladen Ground after posed a persistent ice dome in the southern North Sea. 25 ka (Rise & Rokoengen 1984; Sejrup et al. 1994). We note that such an ice dome would require the local Based on these dates an early separation of the BIIS equilibrium line to be very low and should give and SIS has been proposed, either by the opening up imprints on the relative sea-level evolution of coastli- of a long and narrow embayment in the northern nes surrounding the North Sea. Both models rely on North Sea (Bradwell et al. 2008b) or complete separa- the expansion of the North Sea Lobe to explain the tion of the two ice sheets (Sejrup et al. 2005, 2009, presence of ice-dammed Glacial Lake Humber (near 2015). We depict these alternatives for the most-credi- Dimlington) at c. 17 ka (Bateman et al. 2008), ble and minimum lines, respectively, from 25 to 18 ka. although such a large ice lobe is hard to envisage as the However, glaciologically we find it unlikely that a long majority of evidence indicates that the BIIS was narrow embayment into an active ice sheet should have restricted to north and west Ireland and Scotland by persisted for several thousand years. Partial or full this time. In the DATED-1 time-slices we use the two deglaciation of the North Sea as early as 25 ka is also proposed scenarios of Clark et al. (2012) to define our difficult to reconcile with other dates from both the minimum and most-credible limits in the North Sea western and eastern side of the North Sea and evidence region 25–18 ka. for former ice-flow geometry (although limited), and we therefore keep full ice cover in the North Sea in our Recommendations and requests maximum line until c. 23 ka. In the eastern North Sea, the large Norwegian The collation and archiving of data required by this Channel Ice Stream is known to have operated during project leads us to make a number of recommenda- the last glacial cycle (Sejrup et al. 1994). Radiocarbon tions and requests for future reporting of chronologi- dates from marine cores constrain the last operation of cal data. Dates should always be reported with the ice stream to 20–19 ka (King et al. 1998; Nygard geographic co-ordinates of the sampling site (not 34 Anna L. C. Hughes et al. BOREAS simply a map or location name). Ideally co-ordinates References for DATED-1 database for terrestrial and marine samples should be reported in decimal degrees and the WGS84 projection. For The database was compiled using the following sources TCN dates all data necessary for recalculating the referenced separately at the end of the online version of ages on different production rates must be reported. this article and in the Supporting Information (Data S1): DATED is an ongoing project and the database will Aa & Mangerud (1981), Aa & Sønstegaard (1997), be updated on a rolling basis, with periodic release of Aaris-Sørensen (2006), Aaris-Sørensen & Liljegren updated versions of both the database and time-slice (2004), Aaris-Sørensen & Petersen (1984), Aaris-Søren- reconstructions. Therefore, we encourage reporting of sen et al. (1990), Aarseth et al. (1997), Aarseth & errors and missing data from DATED-1 to us and we Mangerud (1974), Aaseth (1990), Aboltin s et al. welcome published criticism and alternative interpre- (1975), Ahlberg et al. (1996), Aldhouse-Green (2000), tations. We anticipate that both the database and Aldhouse-Green & Pettitt (1998), Alexanderson et al. maps will become a valuable resource for researchers (2001, 2008, 2013), Alexanderson & Murray (2007, and welcome suggestions for improvements and devel- 2012), Alm (1993), Andersen (1960, 1968, 1975, 1981), opments for future versions. Andersen et al. (1979, 1981a,b, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1995, 1996), Andersson et al. (1999), Andreassen et al. (1985), Andreev et al. (2001), Andren et al. (2000), Conclusions Anundsen (1972, 1977, 1978, 1985), Anundsen et al. (1983), Anundsen & Simonsen (1967), Arppe & Karhu • To January 2013, over 5000 individual dates have (2006, 2010), Arslanov et al. (1970, 1975, 1986), Arsla- accumulated in the literature that constrain either nov (1971, 1975, 1987, 1993), Aseyev (1974), Ashworth the build-up, retreat or both of the EurIS during the (1972), Atkinson et al. (1986), Austad & Erichsen last glacial cycle. (1987), Baeten et al. (2010), Bakke et al. (2005a,b, • Evaluation of the collated dates, considered 2010), Ballantyne & Hall (2008), Ballantyne et al. together with geomorphological evidence for ice- (1998, 2006, 2007a,b, 2008, 2009a,b,c, 2011), Ballan- sheet margin positions and flow-pattern configura- tyne & Stone (2009), Banys et al. (1991), Barker et al. tion, facilitated a series of map reconstructions doc- (1969), Bartley & Morgan (1990), Bateman (1995, umenting the build-up and retreat of the EurIS 2001, 2008, 2011), Baxter et al. (1969), Beckett (1981), during the last glacial cycle (40–10 ka). The maps Bennike et al. (1994, 2006), Berger et al. (2004), Berg- demonstrate both what is confidently known and ersen et al. (1991), Berglund (1979, 1995a,b), Berglund what remains uncertain according to the available et al. (1976, 1994), Bergsten & Nordberg (1992), geological evidence and provide a new basis on Bergstrøm (1975, 1984, 1995, 1997, 1999), Bergstrøm which to compare evidence from disparate regions et al. (1992, 2005), Birkenmajer & Olsson (1998), Bir- and against numerical modelling results. nie et al. (1993a,b), Bishop et al. (1977), Bishop & • The combined EurIS reached a maximum areal Dickson (1970), Bitinas (2007), Bitinas et al. (2002), extent of ~5.5 Mkm2 between 21 and 20 ka. The Bjelm (1976), Bjune et al. (2004, 2005), Bjorck€ et al. SIS was by far the largest ice sheet, comprising over (1998), Bjorck€ & Digerfeldt (1982, 1986), Bjorck€ & 50% of the total area throughout the last glaciation Hakansson (1982), Bjorck€ & Moller€ (1987), Blackburn and reached its maximum size up to ~3000 years (1952), Blake (1975, 1989, 2006), Blaszkiewicz (1998, later than the smallest component, the BIIS and 2002, 2005), Bluszcz & Pazdur (2003), Blystad (1981), ~2000 years later than the SBKIS. The BIIS and Blystad & Anundsen (1983), Bolshiyanov et al. (1998), SBKIS were grounded below present-day sea level Bondevik & Mangerud (2002), Bondevik et al. (1995, across substantial proportions of their former beds 1999, 2006), Bos et al. (2004), Boulton (1979), Bowen at their maximum extents. (1994), Bowen et al. (2002), Braaten & Hermansen • Individual ice sheets of the EurIS reached their (1985), Bradwell et al. (2008), Bramer (1972), Brande maximum limits asynchronously. (2003), Brauer et al. (2005), Brown et al. (2007), • This compilation has revealed many unresolved Browne & Graham (1981), Browne et al. (1977), instances of conflicting evidence leading to some Browne et al. (1983a,b), Bruckner€ (1996), Bruckner€ & large uncertainties. The largest geographical areas Halfar (1994), Bruckner€ et al. (2002), Buckland (1976, of uncertainty have a low density of dates and pat- 1982), Buckley & Willis (1969, 1970), Bugge (1980), tern information, both in space and time (e.g. the Burleigh et al. (1982), Butomo (1965), Bøe et al. marine sectors and the eastern margins of the SIS (2007), Bose€ (1979), Cadman (1996), Carter (1993), and SBKIS). The timing and mode of coalescence Caseldine & Edwards (1982), Catt (1987), Cepek and separation of the ice sheets are especially poorly (1965), Cherdyntsev et al. (1969), Cimiotti (1983), constrained, and in all time-slices before 15 ka there Clark et al. (2009a,b, 2012), Clark et al. (2004), Col- are sectors of the ice margins where uncertainties houn et al. (1972), Colhoun & Synge (1980), Coope & exceed 500 km. Brophy (1972), Coope & Joachim (1980), Coope & Lis- BOREAS The last Eurasian ice sheets 35 ter (1987), Coope & Pennington (1977), Corner & Hulme & Durno (1980), Hyvarinen€ (1973, 1975), Haugane (1993), Corner et al. (1999, 2001), Council Haggblom€ (1982), Hakansson (1969, 1970, 1974, 1976, for British Archaeology (CBA) (2000 (updated 2008)), 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988), Idland (1992), Craig (1978), Currant et al. 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Mangerud and devel- scoured outcrops (Abisko-Riksgransen€ area, 68°N). Geografiska oped into a project proposal together with J. I. Svendsen, who has Annaler, Series A 84, 139–150. been project leader since the start in 2005. The database was initially – Andreassen, K., Laberg, J. S. & Vorren, T. O. 2008: Seafloor geomor- compiled by R. Gyllencreutz, 2005 2011. Responsibility for mainte- phology of the SW Barents Sea and its glaci-dynamic implications. nance and updates was handed from R. Gyllencreutz to A. L. C. Geomorphology 97, 157–177. Hughes in 2012. We thank Mikael Berglund, Chris Clark, Sarah Andreassen, K., Winsborrow, M. C. M., Bjarnadottir, L. R. & Greenwood, Anne Hormes, Volli Kalm, Knut Kaiser, Veli-Pekka Ruther,€ D. C. 2014: Ice stream retreat dynamics inferred from an Salonen and Barbara Wolfarth for providing their carefully compiled assemblage of landforms in the northern Barents Sea. Quaternary regional datasets. 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H. & Valen, V. 2002: Extent and This work has received funding from the Norwegian Research Coun- dynamics of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during Oxygen Isotope cil through several projects: Impact of changing freshwater flows and Stage 3 (65,000–25,000 yr B.P.). Quaternary Research 57,38– thermohaline circulation and European Climate (under the RAPID 48. programme), The Ice Age development and human settlement in Baeten, N. J., Forwick, M., Vogt, C. & Vorren, T. O. 2010: Late northern Eurasia (ICEHUS, project no. 176048), Eurasian Ice Sheet Weichselian and Holocene sedimentary environments and glacial and Climate Interaction (EISCLIM project no. 229788/E10). activity in Billefjorden, Svalbard. Geological Society, London, Spe- DATED is a contribution to the activities of the Bjerknes Centre for cial Publications 344, 207–223. Climate Research (BCCR), and we are grateful for their long-standing Bakke, J., Dahl, S. O., Paasche, Ø., Simonsen, J. 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