Credits Budget Guide for Decision Makers

Advisors - Mr David Allan - Ms Natalie Fuller (supported by the Australian Volunteers for International Development program) Project Team - Hnin Phwe Phwe Oo, Zam Deih Khual Cartoon illustrators - Cartoon Lailone, Cartoon Salai Suan Pi Donor - The Asia Foundation Organizer - Spectrum - Sustainable Development Knowledge Network Cover and layout design - Cartoon Shwe Lu and SOLiD Media & Printing Services Producer - Spectrum - Sustainable Development Knowledge Network Print run - 1000

Explanatory note: This document was originally written in English and translated by Htin Kyaw Aye into . Due to a high level of interest, it has been reproduced here in English. It contains minor amendments / clarifications to the Myanmar version. Foreword Table of Contents

Myanmar's interest in Public Financial Management Reform (PFM) continues to increase and much Introduction 1 Budget literacy 3 progress has been made. After the "Budget Guide for Growing Citizens" release in 2015 we received Key terms...... 3 many requests for guides to offer more information to decision makers and the public in general. The Reading a Budget...... 5 aim is real impact on people's lives through improved utilisation of state finances. The money in the Assessing a Budget...... 8 budget comes from taxes and it is the role of government to manage it well. Budget transparency improves people’s understanding of how spending will be planned by government to meet the people’s Why is budgeting important? 10 needs. The budget is intimately linked to government activity and projects. Myanmar has now produced Making best use of public funds...... 10 three Union-level citizens’ budgets and is considering production of state and region citizens’ budgets Achieving long-term goals...... 11 in at least three places. Demonstrating good governance...... 13 Controlling spending...... 17 Improving equity and reducing poverty, social and economic vulnerabilities 19 Worldwide interest in openness and participation in public financial management is growing. Informed, actively participating citizens are critical to the overall process of improving accountability. Many What is the budget cycle? 21 countries have shown that good governance is just good economics, delivering broad social benefits Formulation and Approval...... 24 and improved focus on the priorities for public expenditure. A government that truly empowers its Execution...... 27 people will reap rewards of public trust and citizens committed to nation building. Auditing...... 27 Roles of Key Committees...... 29 Reform progress in developing countries can be fragile as the creativity and innovation demanded of Resource Mobilisation 31 transparency, accountability and openness might be viewed with suspicion and resistance. Without State-owned Economic Enterprises...... 32 the necessary openness, progress can be undermined by social unrest, poor accountability, corruption Taxes...... 33 and limited understanding between state and people. Where transparency and participation are Foreign Aid and Loans...... 37 encouraged, cooperation will blossom between governments and informed citizens. Together, transparency, accountability and openness help create a virtuous cycle of governance improvement Resource Allocation 39 and social accountability. Expenditure of funds...... 39 Allocations to States and Regions...... 41 In this way the theory of change is complete - access to information, citizen participation, budget Expenditure by Sector...... 43 transparency and accountability improve lives. Looking Ahead...... 45

Enormous credit is due to the Ministry of Planning and Finance for amazing reforms, ongoing progress Appendix 46 and commitment to transparency and accountability. I also thank The Asia Foundation for project Economic Policy for the Union of Myanmar...... 46 support, the International Budget Project and all involved from the Spectrum team and our many associates in the guide development. Special thanks go to Natalie Fuller (supported by the Australian Further Reading 48 Volunteers for International Development program) for her efforts in the content formulation and project management of this guide.

David Allan Director, Spectrum August 2017. Since 2015-16, the Union Government has produced the Citizens’ Budget, one of the eight key documents recommended under best international practice to aid public understanding of the budget cycle and the key policies – economic, investment, taxation and social – that Introduction influence Budget decision-making. This booklet adds to information available in these Citizens’ Budgets to further strengthen the budget literacy of all stakeholders. It aims to assist decision makers by explaining in simple, easy-to-understand language:

Managing a country’s finances is an exercise in public responsibility in which everyone has a YY The importance of strategic planning linked to policy aims stake. YY The components that make up a budget

From the officials that help prepare the data, to the State and Regional communities that have YY How budgeting can assist in achieving long-term goals

a financial interest, to the Ministers and Members of Parliament who will decide the bottom YY The budget cycle in Myanmar line, and the general public who will benefit from government services, the Union Budget is YY The principles of public participation. an important document.

The Budget is also a manifestation of political will and policy priorities. As such, it provides a Enhancing budget literacy will give people the knowledge and the tools to participate in the valuable indicator of good governance, a feature of all well-functioning democracies. process. People can play a role in choosing how and where the nation’s resources are best allocated to achieve the strategic outcomes that will determine Myanmar’s future prosperity. Myanmar has taken significant strides down the path of good governance in recent times. Key reforms have included: In gaining a clear picture of the Union’s finances and policy priorities, decision makers and, in turn, the public, should develop trust in the process and confidence in the outcomes – both YY Introducing a Medium-Term Fiscal Framework to provide budget and policy critical elements for the sustainability of Myanmar’s public financial management system. continuity

YY Fiscal decentralisation with budgets for the Union Government as well as for the administrations of each of the seven States, seven Regions and Nay Pyi Taw

YY Introducing a formula for state and region overall funding allocation adjustments

YY Establishing a credible and visible budget process and timing

YY Introducing policy as a basis for budget decision-making

YY Improving the transparency and accountability of the handling of public finances.

The process that underpins the budget’s preparation will determine the extent to which stakeholders can engage with it. This engagement, in turn, will be influenced by the extent to which the people involved, or those wanting to be involved, understand not only the process but also the meaning behind the numbers.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 1 2 Budget literacy

Key terms

In order to prepare and interpret budgets, it is important to understand a number of key terms and concepts.

Budget A statement of the expected revenue (income) and expenditure (spending) Debt Not the same as deficit. A deficit is the over expenditure for a specific for a certain period of time. An annual budget is for a 12-month period for fiscal year. Debt is the accumulation of years of deficit (less an occasional the financial year – also referred to as the fiscal year. surplus.) The national debt is the total amount a government has borrowed Fiscal year (FY) A country's 12-month accounting period. The fiscal year varies between and, therefore, owes to creditors or back to itself. countries, with many using the calendar year from 1 January to 31 Inflation The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising December. In Myanmar, the fiscal year is from 1 April to 31 March of the over time. As a result of inflation, the purchasing power of currency falls. following year. Gross Domestic The monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within Budget Cycle The period of time required to prepare, implement and audit a financial Product (GDP) a country’s borders in a specific time period. It is usually calculated on an plan for a specific fiscal year. This is described in detail later in this guide. annual basis in line with the fiscal year. Since all countries use the same Audit A review of financial reports or performance activity (for instance of an process to measure GDP, it is therefore an important way of assessing the agency or program) to determine conformity or compliance with applicable relative performance of countries. Various ratios are used to describe a laws, regulations and/or standards. country’s economic performance such as per capita GDP, Debt-to-GDP and Tax-to-GDP. These are described later in this guide. Balanced budget When the total expenditure is the same as the total revenue for that fiscal year. Trade deficit When a country's imports (goods or services coming into the country) are greater than its exports (goods or services going out of the country to Surplus budget When the total expenditure is less than the total revenue for that fiscal another country). Exports earn money for a country, while imports mean year expenses. A trade deficit therefore represents an outflow of domestic Deficit budget When the total expenditure is more than the total revenue for that fiscal currency to foreign markets. year. When this occurs, a government must borrow money to make up the difference. Funds can be borrowed:

YY Externally, through foreign grants and loans

YY Domestically, for instance by issuing government investment bonds to the public.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 3 4 Reading a Budget A budget can also be presented based on the three main budget categories, for both revenue and expenditure, of: Budgets are generally presented by income (where money comes from), and expenditure 1. Current (where the money is going to), and the resulting balance (surplus or deficit). 2. Capital 3. Financial. For example, the table below shows an The 2107-18 FY budget for Union Budget departments/organisations is shown below in this extract from the 2107-18 FY budget format. Note that the total income, expenditure and deficit are the same as the previous showing the estimated revenue and table. But instead of showing who is receiving / spending funds (eg which Union department), expenditure for Union-level departments this table shows the purpose or how the funds are to be used.

/organisations. The estimated expenditure Union Budget Kyats in Billion (20,594 billion kyat) is greater than the Revenue 16,604.597 estimated revenue (16,605 billion kyat). It is therefore a deficit budget, with a Current Revenue 14,455.362 deficit (or shortfall) of 3,990 billion kyat. Capital Revenue 267.455 Financial Revenue 1,881.780 Revenue and Expenditure Targets for Union Organisations and Ministries for the 2017-2018 Fiscal Expenditure Year are shown below. 20,594.165 Current Expenditure Surplus 15,511.087 No. Department/Organization Revenue Expenditure Deficit (-) Capital Expenditure 4,487.777 Kyats in Million Financial Expenditure 595.301 1 State Administrative Organization 4,196 86,031 (81,835) Deficit 3,989.568

2 Ministries 14,836,618 18,942,852 (4,106,234) Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget Current Revenue 3 496,097 345,893 150,204 Current Revenue includes the following items: 4 Cantonment Municipalities 1,207 1,216 (9) 1. Income from selling and processing of goods, and current revenue such as penalties 5 Council 106 26,167 (26,060) and other incomes 2. Tax collected by respective departments and organizations according to existing laws 6 Naypyidaw Development Committee 40,558 39,675 883 3. Local or foreign interests 7 State-owned Economic Enterprises 4. Contributions to state revenue by state-owned economic enterprises 1,147,035 1,137,073 9,962 undertaken outside the Union’s Fund 5. Foreign aid for current revenue. 8 Social Security Board 78,780 15,258 63,522 Current Expenditure

Total 16,604,597 20,594,165 (3,989,568) Current expenditure includes the following items: 1. Yearly salaries, travel allowances, service charges, maintenance fees, transfers, Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget refreshments and other expenses 2. Pensions, bonuses and gratuities 3. Purchasing raw materials, production costs/implementation costs, administrative and research expenses, marketing and logistics expenses, commercial taxes, income taxes and contribution to state revenue by state-owned economic enterprises

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 5 6 4. Expenses for purchasing office machinery, furniture, vehicles and other equipment Assessing a Budget 5. Local interest on treasury bonds and bills and interest on foreign debts. A government budget can be regarded as a picture of a country’s financial health. Capital Revenue

Capital Revenue includes the following items: While prepared at the same time each year, the budget implicitly contains much more than a 1. Selling equipment, receipt of reserve funds from defunct organizations and receipt of static look at the nation’s finances. Behind the numbers are insights into a government’s income from capital expenses aspirations for the country’s growth and development, its spending priorities ranging from 2. Funds from foreign grants for capital expenditure. education to infrastructure, and the ways in which funds will be raised to pay for its commitments.

Capital Expenditure While the budget contains a picture of expected income and anticipated expenditure for the Capital Expenditure includes the following items: year ahead, and beyond, a budget is also a vital tool for ensuring that public finances are 1. Capital investment expenses for projects (for example: construction projects for collected and used in an efficient, effective, transparent and accountable manner to meet factories, schools, hospitals, roads, bridges and irrigation facilities) long-term strategic goals. 2. Maintenance charges for existing equipment, roads, buildings and irrigation facilities The budget should mirror government policies including: 3. Procurement of machines for industries and procurement of vehicles, planes, ships, train engines and passenger trains YY How revenue is raised including the amount of taxes that citizens and businesses should pay 4. Expenses for procurement of office equipment, furniture, vehicles and other equipment YY How money is allocated to achieve key policy goals in areas such as education, health, gender equality and the environment 5. Installation charges and forms of land compensation. YY Controlling the level of national deficit and national debt. Financial Revenue With this in mind, some of the key questions to consider in reviewing or assessing a budget Financial revenue includes the following items: include: 1. Income from local loans YY What are the key strategic initiatives, reforms and policies being introduced? 2. Income from foreign loans YY What are the financial requirements of new policies? Have these been properly 3. Income from investments in organizations costed? Is there the capacity to fund them? 4. Savings. YY Has economic growth met expectations and delivered the revenue streams that were anticipated? Are estimates for projected revenue streams realistic? Financial Expenditure YY Have the possible impacts of inflation been factored in?

Financial expenditure includes the following items: YY Has the budget considered exchange rate variations, given that devaluation 1. Expenses for local debt repayment will affect exports? Are assumptions about import and export pricing realistic? 2. Expenses for foreign debt repayment YY Are expenditure patterns consistent with government policies? Are sufficient 3. Investment of organizations (investment in financial institutions) funds being allocated to priority areas? 4. Savings (withdrawal from savings). YY Were there unexpected overspends in specific categories or locations? If so, Source: GoM, 2016-2017 Citizens’ Budget were these due to unrealistic forecasting or poor implementation?

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 7 8 Comparing Budgets across years

When comparing budgets across different years, the most recent fiscal year will use a Budget Why is budgeting Estimate. important?

Budget Estimate The Budget Estimate (BE) is the estimated income and expenditure prepared six months ahead of the new fiscal year. It is approved as Union and State/Region Budget Laws.

As details of income and expenditure become clear, recording of finances will progressively Budgeting is a valuable tool for: move to: YY Making best use of public funds YY Achieving long term goals Revised Estimate Revised Estimate (RE) is the updated estimate based on new budget YY Demonstrating good governance allocations, underspent budget items and variations in income estimates. YY Controlling spending The formula for expenditure is RE = BE + Supplementary Grant (SG) - Improving equity and reducing poverty, social and economic vulnerabilities Underspent Amount. YY

Provisional Actual The Provisional Actual (PA) is the updated financial report including Making best use of public funds expenditures from the General Reserve Fund (GRF) and Reserve Fund Government decision makers are responsible for making the best use of public funds – of which are not included in the Revised Estimate, the amount of surrender ensuring that funds are collected and expended as efficiently and effectively as possible. This near the end of the fiscal year and changes in budget items. The formula is particularly important in times of economic hardship. for Provisional Expenditure is PA = RE + GRF - Surrender. Expenditure must The 2008 global financial crisis was the catalyst for re-considering best practices in Public not be larger than BE + SG + GRF + Reserve Fund (optional). Financial Management (PFM). PFM refers to processes, laws and structures used by governments (and sub-national governments) to mobilise revenue, allocate funds, undertake Actual The Actual (A) follows up the Provisional Actual with bank reconciliation public spending and account for funds and audit results. and auditing. A number of best practice codes and tools have been developed by international agencies to Source: GoM, 2016-2017 Citizens’ Budget support governments in achieving more transparent and effective PFM. These include:

The Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability (PEFA) performance framework This is used to assess a country’s capacity to deliver three main budgetary outcomes: aggregate fiscal discipline; strategic resource allocation; and efficient use of resources for service delivery. A review of Myanmar’s PFM was conducted in 2013 using the PEFA framework.

Open Budget Survey This is used to measure a country’s government practices in budget transparency, participation and oversight.

Public Expenditure Reviews (PER) These are used to assess the effectiveness and equity of public spending as well as identify bottlenecks preventing greater spending effectiveness. PER usually relates to a particular sector. Myanmar has conducted a PER for Education and Health, and for Agriculture.

Source: OECD: Budget Transparency Toolkit

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 9 10 Myanmar’s Economic Policy Achieving long-term goals

Achieving long-term goals requires good strategic planning coupled with medium-term bud- The Economic Policy for the Union of Myanmar*, released in July 2016, outlines a long-term geting. vision for inclusive and continuous development, by achieving four high-level objectives of: Strategic planning is a process of identifying: YY National reconciliation and a unified federal democratic union

YY Where are we now? – What is currently working well? What needs to be YY Balanced economic development across the States and Regions improved? YY Creation of opportunities for the emergence of capable and skilled new YY Where do we want to be? – What are the medium-term to long-term objectives generations or goals we want to achieve? How would we know if these were achieved? YY An economic system that can achieve and maintain positive development YY How are we going to get there? – What strategies and actions are needed to outcomes through the participation, innovation and efforts of all citizens. reach our goals?

Twelve specific policy areas describe what needs to be done to achieve these long-term Forecasting revenue and expenditure for more than one year can help decision makers plan economic objectives. This in turn sets the framework for fiscal policies, including policies on how and when to spend available funds to implement the actions needed to achieve desired taxation and expenditure. goals. For example, the long-term vision of improving the education sector can be achieved step-by-step by planning ahead for what needs to be done and how much this will cost. Medium-Term Fiscal Framework (MTFF) Appropriate funds can then be allocated each year in the annual budget. Since 2011 Myanmar has transitioned from incremental budgets towards policy-based budgeting. The introduction of a Medium-Term Fiscal Framework (MTFF) in 2014 allows fiscal Medium-term financial forecasts can be revised as more information is known about the cost planning to extend beyond the annual budget. Projections of the upcoming three fiscal years and effectiveness of policies and actions. Allocations may need to be varied or prioritised over are prepared. others to ensure the most effective use of funds.

The MTFF is updated regularly by a cross departmental team and is used to inform revenue targets, set top-down expenditure ceilings to line ministries, and facilitate intergovernmental fiscal transfers. In 2016, a formula-based system was introduced for allocation of funds to states and regions.

* See Appendix 1 for Economic Policy for the Union of Myanmar

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 11 12 Demonstrating good governance

Citizens have the right to know how their government is collecting and spending public money. A budget makes this visible and transparent. A government can be held accountable for its actions by reporting on how the budget is implemented.

If citizens understand how a budget works they can participate in the budget process. International experience shows that civil society engagement can significantly improve budget processes, decisions and outcomes. Inclusiveness Respect for Openness Openness Inclusiveness self-expression Accountability, transparency and public participation are all the hallmarks of good governance. Pro-actively use multiple Provide full Respect for mechanisms to reach Allow and support information on and be Timeliness out to engage citizens self-expressionindividuals and Accessibility responsive with A Citizens’ Budget is a non-technical and non-state actors, communities, Timeliness respecteach toengagement, the its including traditionally Accessability including those document that provides a clear and Facilitate public purpose of each excluded and vulnerable Allow sufficient time directly affected, to participation in general engagement, it’s groups and individuals, in the budget and simple summary of the budget. The articulate their by disseminating scope, constraints, and voices that are policy cycles for the seldom heard, without interests in their own complete fiscal intended outcomes, public to provide Government of Myanmar has discrimination on any ways, and to choose information and all process and timelines, inputs in each phase; basis including means of published a Citizens’ Budget of the other relevant data, in as well as the engage early while a nationality, race, engagement that formats and using expected and actual range of options is national annual budget for the past 3 ethnicity, religion, they prefer, while mechanisms that are results of public gender, sexual still open; and, where recognizing that there years. State and Region governments easy for all to access, participation. orientation, disability, desirable, allow for may be groups that understand, and to age or caste; and more than one round have standing to could also prepare Citizens’ Budgets. use, re-use and consider public inputs on of engagement. speak on behalf of transform, namely in an objective basis irrespective of their others. open data formats. source.

The Citizens’ Budget is one of eight key budget documents prepared during the budget cycle. Many of these are on the Ministry of Planning and Finance website. Depth Proportionality Sustainability 1. The Pre-Budget Statement Depth Complementarity Reciprocity Proportionality Sustainability Reciprocity 2. The Executive’s Budget Proposal Support each public Complementarity engagement by Use a mix of engagement All state and non-state 3. The Enacted Budget providing all relevant mechanisms All state and non-state Ensure mechanisms entities taking part in information, proportionate to the entities conduct for public public engagement highlighting and 4. The Citizens’ Budget scale and impact of the on-going and regular participation and activities should be informing key policy issue or policy engagement to increase citizen engagement open about their objectives, options, knowledge sharing and 5. In-Year Reports concerned. review of complement and mission, the interests choices and trade-offs, mutual trust over time; increase the they seek to advance, identifying potential institutionalize public effectiveness of and who they 6. The Mid-Year Reviews social, economic, and participation where existing governance represent; should environmental appropriate and and accountability commit to and observe 7. The End-Year Report impacts, and effective, ensuring that systems. all agreed rules for incorporating a feedback provided leads engagement; and diversity of 8. The Audit Report to review of fiscal policy should cooperate to perspectives; provide decisions; and regularly achieve the objectives timely and specific review and evaluate of the engagement. feedback on public experience to improve Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget inputs and how they future engagement. have beenSource: Adapted from GIFT: http://www.fiscaltransparency.net incorporated or not in official policy or advice. Source: Adapted from GIFT: http://www. scaltransparency.net

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 13 14 10 Principles of Budgetary Governance 10 Principles of Budgetary Governance

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) sets out 10 Principles of Budgetary Governance:

1. Manage budgets within clear, credible and predictable limits for fiscal policy.

2. Closely align budgets with the medium-term strategic priorities of government.

3. Design the capital budgeting framework in order to meet national development needs in a cost-effective and coherent manner.

4. Ensure that budget documents and data are open, transparent and accessible.

5. Provide for an inclusive, participative and realistic debate on budgetary choices.

6. Present a comprehensive, accurate and reliable account of the public finances.

7. Actively plan, manage and monitor budget execution.

8. Ensure that performance, evaluation and value for money are integral to the budget process.

9. Identify, assess and manage prudently longer-term sustainability and other fiscal risks.

10. Promote the integrity and quality of budgetary forecasts, fiscal plans and budgetary implementation through rigorous quality assurance including independent audit.

Source: Adapted from OECD: http://www.oecd.org

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 15 16 Controlling spending Debt-to-GDP ratio is the ratio of a country’s public debt (a cumulative amount) to its gross domestic product (GDP) . By comparing what a country owes to what it produces, the debt- Having a comprehensive budget detailing collection and expenditure of public monies is an to-GDP ratio indicates the country’s ability to repay its debt. important tool to ensure wise and controlled use of funds. A low debt-to-GDP ratio indicates an economy that produces and sells sufficient goods and As shown in the examples below, monitoring of income, expenditure, deficit and debt can be services to pay back debts without incurring further debt. undertaken using GDP as a reference point. In early 2016, the Government of Myanmar approved a new Public Debt Management Law. The term Per Capita GDP is also used in budget documents. This is GDP divided by the number of people in the country. An increase in per capita GDP indicates an increase in productivity The law outlines clear objectives for borrowing money, refinancing the Central Bank of and economic growth. Myanmar’s foreign exchange reserve fund and meeting the liabilities for outstanding government bonds.

Union Revenue, Expenditure, Deficit, and Tax to GDP Ratios from Public Debt Sustainability is led by the Treasury Department. 2011-2013 Fiscal Year to 2017-18 Fiscal Year

26.97% 27.03% 26.15% 25.70% 25.76% 26.02% 24.49% 23.71% 22.90% 21.07% 17.46% 18.10% 13.94%

9.99% 7.69% 8.68% 8.03% 6.58% 7.10% 3.65% 4.13% 4.94% 4.37% 3.52% 2.44% 1.22% 1.20%

2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 (actual) (actual) (actual) (actual) (provisional (revised (budget actual) estimate) estimate) Fiscal Year Expenditure to GDP Ratio Revenue to GDP Ratio Deficit to GDP Ratio Tax to GDP Ratio

Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 17 18 Improving equity and reducing poverty, social and economic vulnerabilities Reducing poverty and vulnerability will: YY Support overall economic and social growth

Governments often invest funds in social protection programs aimed at improving the YY Strengthen families’ resilience, including against disasters wellbeing of vulnerable population groups, which ultimately benefits the economic and social YY Strengthen social cohesion in times of peacebuilding and at the onset of rapid wellbeing of the whole community. social transition.

Like healthcare and education, social protection is therefore an investment in a country’s human capital and economic development. Myanmar’s 2014 National Protection Strategic Plan (NPSP) outlines programs for: Social protection programs can include: 1. Maternity and Child benefit YY Social security or insurance to provide financial support in the event of work- 2. Child allowance related injury or unemployment 3. Social pension YY Social assistance through cash or in-kind to vulnerable individuals or households 4. Disability allowance YY Labour market programs that create employment opportunities as well as 5. School feeding program protect workers. 6. Public employment / asset creation and vocational education training 7. Older-person’s self-help groups Investing in universal cash transfers to vulnerable groups can lift people out of poverty. 8. Building of an Integrated Social Protection System (ISPS).

Source: Policy Briefer prepared by Social Protection Sub-sector Working Group, May 2016, "Social Protection in Myanmar: the context, relevance and key issues".

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 19 20 Myanmar’s budget cycle

What is the budget Although the fiscal year does not start until April, planning for the budget begins in September cycle? and ends with the passing of the budget law sometime between January and March. The Budget Department, a division of the Ministry of Planning and Finance (MoPF), is responsible for preparing annual budgets for the Union-level departments / organisations, and for each of the 7 States and 7 Regions.

A budget cycle has four stages, each with key processes: The Budget Department works closely with the Planning Department that is responsible for collecting and consolidating the capital budget and reviewing all investment proposals. 1. Budget Formulation: Similarly at the state and region level, capital and recurrent expenditure are managed by the YY Strategic budgeting planning and budget departments respectively. Formulation of annual budgets for Union-level YY Budget preparation departments/organisations runs in parallel with formulation of the annual budgets for each of 2. Budget Approval: the states and regions. Legislative debate and enactment YY They come together at the approval process when the Financial Commission integrates the 3. Budget Execution: Union budget proposal and the State/Region budget proposal into the overall Union Budget. YY Accounting and reporting YY Internal control and audit When compared with the budget for Union-level departments / organisations, state and YY Resource management region revenues and expenditure represent a relatively small proportion of the overall Union Budget. 4. Budget Auditing: YY External audit and accountability. For example in 2017 – 18 FY, the State and Region revenue was only 13% of the total estimated revenue; and only 10.7% of total estimated expenditure.

However the constitutional creation of separate state and region budgets is a way of achieving more bottom-up planning to budgeting and improving transparency.

The Government of Myanmar “attaches high priority to developing a participatory process of local budgeting, which should reflect local priorities and needs while corresponding with national policy directions, by delegating decision-making authority over expenditure compositions (between recurrent and capital expenditure) as well as inter-sectoral allocations (between sectors) under the guidance of local parliaments.”

Source: GoM, Framework for Economic and Social Reforms, Para. 105.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 21 22 Formulation and Approval: Union Level

1 First week of September to Planning and Finance Ministry collects budget proposals from first week of October Union-level ministries and organizations within set budget ceilings for each organization.

2 First week of October to MoPF conducts initial reviews of current expenditures, fourth week of October machinery and other expenditures and Construction Ministry reviews construction-related expenditures.

3 Fourth week of October to MoPF conducts detailed reviews of current, capital and fiscal third week of November budget.

4 Fourth week of November The Vice-President reviews the compiled budget.

5 Second week of December The Vice-President submits the budget to the Financial Commission. 6 Not later than 15 January With recommendations by the Financial Commission, the Union Government submits the Union Budget Bill to the in accordance with the Union Budget Drafting Law.

7 Not later than 30 January Committees from the and the submit reports to the Joint Bill Committee and the Joint Public Accounts Committee.

8 Not later than 15 February After reviewing the bill, the JPAC submits the fiscal review and the Joint Bill Committee submits the legal review of the budget bill. 9 Date and time specified by The bill is approved as amended by the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw in the Speaker line with the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Rules Section (91) on the date and time specified by the Speaker of the Pyidangsu Hluttaw.

10 Not later than 31 March The President signs the approved bill into law.

Source: GoM, 2015 – 2016 Citizens’ Budget Source: GOM, 2016-2017 Citizen’ Budget

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 23 24 Formulation and Approval: State and Region Level Key aspects to consider in formulating and approving the budget:

STATE-REGION ANNUAL PLAN & BUDGET PROCESS FROM FY 2016/17 1. Does the budget circular to line ministries provide adequate guidance on preparing budget estimates?

GENERATING 2. Have line ministries based budget estimates on an analysis of needs and previous PLAN & JUN CAPITAL JUN years’ experience rather than the use of an incremental approach to calculate costs? BUDGET PROPOSALS Have funds for new policies been accurately costed? ■ Reiew current plan progress 3. Are budget allocations aligned with policy priorities? JUL ■ Bottom up process JUL of consultation at Township level 4. Has the advice of communities, their representatives and civil society organisations (varles by sector), been sought regarding community needs and priorities? to identity projects consistent with 5 Yrs AUG AUG Plan 5. What consideration has been given to the specific needs of women and marginalised groups? How might they be impacted (positively or negatively) by the proposed budget? FOR STATE/REGION FOR UNION BUDGET SEPT SEPT BUDGET 6. Do parliamentarians have sufficient time and information to properly assess the ■ Aggregation of Township, District proposal by SR ■ Aggregation of Township, line depts, review & amendment District proposals by SR line proposed budget? Have they taken into account the needs and views of their depts, review & amendment constituents? OCT ■ In some (but not all) cases, submission by SR OCT ■ Submission of proposals to SR Line Depts to SR Govet (but not Hluttaw) for Plan & Budget Depts for review review & input ■ SR Budget discusses with SR Line Depts, adjustment, ■ SR Line Dept submits to Union Ministry Since FY cut-back, etc. (sometimes one time submission, sometimes NOV 2016/17 ongoing process of referral of proposals from NOV

MoPF ■ SR Budget Dept submits to SR MPs etc) Informes SR Govt Govt of ■ SR Govt reviews, amends, ■ Union Ministry reviews all SR submissions, cuts grant aligns with funding ceiling - back and approves in line with its own budget DEC transfer Mid submits to SR Hluttw for ceiling, policy criteria & other considerations DEC November approval (SR depts generally not consulted)

■ SR Govt submits to Union ■ Union Govt submits to Finance Commission, Financial Commission for then Union Hluttaw for approval review, approval JAN JAN ■ Union Financial Commission review, approval

■ Union Govt submits to Union Hluttaw for review, approval FEB ■ Union Ministry informs SR Govt & line depts FEB ■ SR Plan Dept consoildates Union Line dept budgets ofr the SR into Volume 2 of SR Plan law

■ SR Govt then submits to SR ■ SR Hluttaw approves SR Plan Law (incl Vol 2) Hluttaw for review, approval of MAR MAR SR Budget & Plan laws ■ SR Chief Minister signs SR Plan Law

■ SR Chief Minister signs SR Budget & Plan laws

APR APR NEW FISCAL YEAR STATE/REGION PLAN & UNION PLAN & BUDGET BUDGET IMPLEMENTATION IMPLEMENTATION

Source: Shotton et al, 2016, "State and Region Financing, Planning and Budgeting in Myanmar"

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 25 26 Execution Key aspects to consider in executing and auditing the budget: 1. Have goods and services been purchased in accordance with proper procurement Once the Bill of Union Budget has been approved, funds flow to the various ministries that procedures? (see page 44 for more information) have a responsibility to keep spending within their allocated amount. 2. How has the delivery of goods and services been recorded and verified?

If additional resources are needed beyond what was planned in the original budget, a 3. What quality control processes are in place to ensure funds were expended appropriately for the intended purpose? ‘supplementary’ budget can be submitted approximately halfway through the fiscal year. This is actioned by the Budget Department that issues a circular in June of each year requiring 4. Were projects successfully completed to the expected standard? Union ministries and State/Region governments to review the budget implementation and to 5. Has expenditure been adequately recorded and independently reviewed? formulate a Revised Estimate (RE). This is then submitted for approval by the Union Government and Financial Commission.

Additional funds are limited to projects that were approved in the main budget. Funds are also available in response to emergencies.

Auditing

The Public Accounts Committee (PAC), comprising members from both Pyithu and Amyothat Hluttaws, plays an ongoing role in monitoring and evaluating budget spending to check it is in line with the budget as well as financial rules and regulations.

The PAC also reviews reports on actual spending prepared by the Office of the Auditor-General (OAG).

In most jurisdictions, an independent office reviews the outcomes of the Budget and presents a report to the Parliament. This process should allow citizens to see how public funds are being collected and used and should provide confidence in the integrity of the management of public finances

As part of the national quest to improve budget transparency, commitments have been made to release all 8 key budget documents. For 2017 a summary of the OAG’s audit report has been made available on the MOPF website. The Public Finance Management modernization program is actively implementing reforms to improve the efficiency and transparency of use of public financial resources.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 27 28 Roles of Key Committees

The budget cycle involves a number of key bodies.

The Financial Commission

The Financial Commission comprises the President, two Vice-Presidents, the Auditor and Attorney-General, the Minister of Planning and Finance, the Naw Pyi Taw Council Chairman, and each of the 14 Chief Ministers.

The Financial Commission YY reviews the budgets sent from Union Ministries and the states and regions

YY considers issues on debt ceiling and contributions to be made from the Union to the State and Region budget

YY integrates the Union budget proposal and the State/Region budget proposal into the overall Union Budget

YY recommends the Bill of the Union Budget to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw.

Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Source: Open Myanmar Initiative, 2017, “Parliamentary Research Paper Series No. 2: The Role of Committees in the Assessment of Government Budget” Pyidaungsu Hluttaw forms 17 committees (comprising members of both Pyithu and Amyotha Hluttaws) to review proposed budgets from different ministerial sectors.

The committees report to the Joint Public Accounts Committee and the Joint Planning and Financial Development Committee who further investigate and check the budget proposals of all ministries and government organisations.

Reports from these committees are submitted to the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw for discussion. The Joint Bill Committee checks the wording and legal terms of the budget bill.

Committees then discuss budget cuts and reallocation of the budget. Hluttaw invites ministers, deputy ministers, and other high officials from the concerned ministries and government organisations to justify budget proposals. Final decisions are decided by Hluttaw votes.

If the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw wants to increase total expenditure they must refer back to the Financial Commission. Otherwise MoPF revises the budget according to the Hluttaw decision and sends it back to Hluttaw to enact as a Union Budget Law, with the President’s signature.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 29 30 State-owned Economic Enterprises

About 50% of total Union revenue comes from State-owned Economic Enterprises (SEEs). A new financial system was introduced in FY 2012-13 whereby SEEs that make a profit are Resource Mobilisation required to pay: YY 25% of net profit as income tax

YY 20% of net profit as a dividend to the Union. SEEs cover a wide range of sectors, including natural resources, power, telecommunications The majority of revenue generated in Myanmar is at the Union level. Although States and and industry. Under the SEE financial reform process, SEEs that continue to face a budget Regions are able to generate funds under Schedule 5 of the 2008 Constitution, currently State deficit will be privatised. and Region revenues represent a minority of overall government revenues. The importance of natural resources

At the Union level, the main sources of income are: A major proportion of total SEE activity involves the extraction of natural resources, such as oil 1. State-owned Economic Enterprises (SEEs) and gas, jade, gems, gold, minerals, teak, forest products and hydropower. 2. Taxes 3. Other – including foreign aid and loans. Income from natural resources is vital to boost expenditure in both the social sectors and infrastructure. However, careful use of natural resources is required as many natural resources At the State and Region level, the main sources of income are: are not sustainable. The benefits from extraction and sale of non-renewable resources can 1. Union transfers only happen once, making responsible use and revenues management paramount. 2. Taxes 3. State-operated SEEs. The depletion of natural resources should be matched with an increase in infrastructure as well as human and physical capital, which in turn stimulate economic growth.

Percentage of Union Fund Receipts (estimate) Transparency and accountability of revenue from extractive industries is critical. The Extractive for 2017-2018 fiscal year Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI) process aims to achieve this by publishing what companies pay and what governments receive. Myanmar published its first Extractive 19% Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) report in January 2016. The second and third reports, 42% 39% which need to address the recommendations of the first report, are scheduled for publishing in March 2018.

Receipt of State-owned Economic Enterprises, State-owned Banks, and Central Bank Tax Revenue Other Receipts (Foreign grants and loans)

Source: GoM, 2017-2018 Citizens’ Budget

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 31 32 Taxes Myanmar Government Tax Policy (1) The purpose of tax collection is not just for government expenditure, but also What is a tax? to ensure the right circulation of money through a harmonized budget system

A tax is a fee levied by a government on a product, income or activity. (2) To control inflation (3) To stabilize domestic consumption, investment and saving by the tax system Taxes can be either: (4) To support the stability of commodity prices YY Direct – if levied directly on personal or corporate income (5) To ensure fair distribution of revenue and promote economic development. YY Indirect – if levied on the price of goods or services.

Source: GoM, 2017 – 2018 Citizens’ Budget Why are taxes important?

Taxes are an important mechanism for governments to generate funds to finance public infrastructure and services. Collection of Taxes

The Internal Revenue Department (IRD) and the Customs Department, under the Ministry of The Myanmar government’s tax policy aims to increase revenue from taxes as tax yield is Planning and Finance, are primarily responsible for collecting Union level taxes. lower than many other countries. Under Schedule 5 of the 2008 Myanmar Constitution, States and Regions can collect a range of taxes. The majority of these taxes are collected at the Township level through the General Administration Department (GAD).

Source: Dickenson-Jones et al, 2015, "State and Region Public Finances in Myanmar"

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 33 34 Taxes levied in Myanmar

Due to tax reforms, the total amount of revenue from taxes has increased significantly since 2010. There are five major categories of taxes:

(1) Tax levied on inland production and public consumption YY Excise duty

YY Commercial tax

YY Licence fees on imported goods

YY State Lottery

YY Taxes on transport

YY Stamp duty

(2) Tax levied on income and ownership YY Income Tax

(3) Customs Duty

(4) Other-including tax levied on state-owned properties YY Taxes collected on land

YY Water tax

YY Embankment tax

YY Tax collected on extraction of forest materials

YY Tax collected on the extraction of minerals materials (excluding minerals for raw industrial materials and decorative stones)

YY Tax on fisheries

YY Tax levied on rubber

YY Tax collected on the production of oil and natural gas Source: Data from GoM, 2017– 2018 Citizens’ Budget YY Tax on minerals and gemstones

YY Tax collected on communication services

YY Tax levied on electricity generated by water resources that are provided free of charge (5) Special Commodities Tax (effective from April 2016) Applies to goods previously listed as ‘special goods’ under the Commercial Tax category. For these goods, tax is levied on landed goods if imported. Otherwise tax is levied on the higher of either sales proceeds or estimated selling price as set by the IRD.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 35 36 Foreign Aid and Loans Myanmar Sector Coordination Groups

The GoM receives overseas aid and loans via various Union-level ministries and organisations. To improve aid effectiveness, the GoM has formed the Development Assistance Coordination Unit (DACU) to ensure close and effective coordination of development assistance to all Revenue from foreign aid and loans has increased significantly since FY 2013-2014. sectors.

The budget estimate for 2017-18 FY identifies expected revenue from grants of 618,920,667 Ten Sector Coordination Groups have been established, replacing the previous system of 17 kyats and 1,753,658,957 kyats in loans. Sector Working Groups.

Operating Expenditures linked to Foreign The Foreign Economic Relations Department (FERD) within the Ministry of Planning and Grants and Loans for each Fiscal Year Finance (MOPF) serves as the DACU Secretariat. Kyats in Billion 2,000 1,754 1,500 1,264 768 1,000 462 461 619 500 134 87 174 330 - 2013-2014 2014-2015 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 (actual) (actual) (provisional actual) (revised estimate) (budget estimate)

Fiscal Year ForeignGrant Foreign Loan

Source: GoM, 2017– 2018 Citizens’ Budget

Source: Foreign Economic Relations Department, MOPF

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 37 38 Funds are primarily expended by government departments / organisations at the Union level.

However, Schedule 2 of the 2008 constitution gives states and regions responsibilities for Resource Allocation expending resources in the following sectors: 1. Financing and Planning Sector – including investment in Myanmar from state and region funds, development of local plans and loans to small businesses 2. Economic Sector – including economic, commercial and cooperative matters (provided they are consistent with Union laws) Expenditure of funds 3. Agriculture and Livestock Breeding Sector – such as the protection of agriculture against disease, the use and production of fertilizer, slaughterhouses, livestock Governments need to allocate resources carefully, to ensure public funds are used in the most breeding and fresh-water fisheries effective way to achieve longer-term strategic goals. This inevitably means having to prioritise 4. Energy, Electricity, Mining and Forestry Sector – including small-scale and medium- expenditure between sectors, as well as from one year to the next. scale electricity production and distribution, salt, salt products, gemstone cutting, village firewood plantations and recreational centres Governments allocate funds to key sectors such as: 5. Industrial Sector – which includes cottage industries and industries not prescribed by law as being the responsibility of the Union government 6. Transport, Communication and Construction Sector – such as ports, jetties, pontoons, roads and bridges (as managed by the region or state) and the running of private vehicles within a state or region 7. Social Sector – including traditional medicines, social welfare works, preventative measures against natural disasters, stevedoring, theatres, cinemas, museums and libraries 8. Management Sector – such as town, housing and other development matters.

However, because of the administrative structure of ministerial departments, the division of responsibilities between the Union level and States and Region level can be unclear. Source: Dickenson-Jones et al, 2015, State and Region Public Finances in Myanmar

Myanmar Government Expenditure Policy (1) To increase spending on education, healthcare and social welfare

(2) To prioritize the spending that benefits the public immediately Allocation of funds in Myanmar is guided by the Government’s Expenditure Policy. (3) To scrutinize and permit the structure and recruitment of staff (4) To identify priorities and postpone the projects that are not necessarily urgent (5) To undertake procurement systematically (6) To analyze and accept foreign grant receipts and loans (7) To increase spending on rural development, electrification, potable water and irrigated water.

Source: GoM, 2017 – 2018 Citizens’ Budget

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 39 40 Allocations to States and Regions Step 2 The total pool is then divided among states and regions according to their relative average States and regions rely heavily on financial support from the Union. Financial assistance is ratios for the six criteria. This provides the estimated total transfers for each state and region. provided via: 1. Sharing of Union tax revenues Step 3 2. Grant transfers. From the estimated total transfer amount, the state / region share in commercial / special goods tax revenue is subtracted, and the difference is the amount to be provided. Sharing of Union tax revenues Source: Shotton et al, 2016, "State and Region Financing, Planning and Budgeting in Myanmar "

States and regions receive a proportion of taxes collected at the state and region level: 2017 – 2018 Union Budget distribution to States and Regions YY 15% Commercial Tax In the budget estimate for 2017-2018 FY, K1,707.580 billion is appropriated to supplement the YY 15% Special Goods Tax budget deficits of States and Regions. The percentage to each State / Region is shown below. YY 5% of Individual Income Tax

YY 2% Stamp Duty (levied on conveyances, gifts and mortgage deeds)

Grants transfers

The Union also transfers funds via grants to the states and regions. These are often referred to as ‘deficit grants’ to make up the shortfall in income less expenditure.

While the total amount funded by the Union equates to the total state and region deficit, grants are allocated to individual states and regions based on a formula.

This formula is based on six indicators: Development needs Fiscal constraints 1. Total population 1. Per capita GDP 2. Poverty 2. Per capita taxation 3. Area 3. Urban population as percent of state population

A three-step process is used to calculate the allocation for each state and region:

Step 1 YY For the three development needs criteria, the value for each criterion is divided by the average value for all states and regions for that criterion.

YY For the three fiscal constraint criteria, the inverse of the value for each criterion is divided by the average value of the inverse for all states and regions for that

criterion. Source: Data from GoM, 2017– 2018 Citizens’ Budget YY The average value is then computed across each of these six ratios.

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 41 42 Expenditure by Sector Procurement

Allocations to various sectors should be aligned with government policies and priorities. Procurement is the process of finding, agreeing terms and acquiring goods, services or works from an external source. Shown below is the percentage of budget allocation to Union organisations and Ministries for the 2017 – 2018 FY (out of total Union budget). Tendering or competitive bidding can be used to select a provider that offers the best price, taking into account aspects such as quality, quantity, time and location.

In April 2017, the Government of Myanmar introduced revised tender procedures for use by the Union, Regions and States for construction, procurement, lease and sale.

These procedures are designed to: YY Prevent wasteful use of the Union Fund

YY Control corruption

YY Ensure fair competition without monopoly and collusion under anyone or any group

YY Promote transparency and accountability

YY Ensure the efficient use of funds benefiting the public and the Union.

Source: Data from GoM, 2017– 2018 Citizens’ Budget

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 43 44 Looking Ahead Appendix

Economic Policy for the Union of Myanmar This guide aims to inform decision makers and other key stakeholders about one of the most Vision important decisions that the government makes each year – how to raise revenue and spend it on goods and services to benefit the Myanmar people. The economic policy of the Union of Myanmar is people centered, and aims to achieve inclusive and continuous development. It aims to establish an economic framework that It complements Spectrum’s "Budget Guide for Growing Citizens" designed for youth and the supports national reconciliation, based on the just balancing of sustainable natural resource general public. mobilization and allocation across the States and Regions.

The process of developing the annual budgets for the Union Government and State and Region Objectives Administrations may appear to be a complex one. However, with knowledge and understanding 1. To support national reconciliation and the emergence of a united federal democratic of that process, there are ways in which stakeholders can be engaged, and in turn influence union budget outcomes. 2. To achieve balanced economic development across the States and Regions 3. To create opportunities for the emergence of capable and skilled new generations for Spectrum hopes this guide will make an effective contribution towards achieving the many the benefit of the country goals for Myanmar’s development. 4. To establish an economic system that can achieve and maintain positive development outcomes through the participation, innovation and efforts of all citizens.

Policies

YY Expanding our financial resources through transparent and effective public financial management

YY Improving the operations of state-owned economic enterprises, and privatizing those state-owned economic enterprises that have the potential to be reformed, while promoting and assisting small and medium enterprises as generators of employment and growth

YY Fostering the human capital that will be needed for the emergence of a modern developed economy, and improving and expanding vocational education and training

YY Prioritizing the rapid development of fundamental economic infrastructure such as electricity generation, roads and ports, and establishing a data ID card system, a digital government strategy, and an e-government system

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 45 46 YY Creating employment opportunities for all citizens including those returning from abroad, and giving greater priority in the short term to economic enterprises that create many job opportunities

YY Establishing an economic model that balances agriculture and industry, and supports the holistic development of the agriculture, livestock and industrial Further Reading sectors, so as to enable rounded development, food security, and increased exports

YY Asserting the right of individuals to freely pursue the economic opportunities they choose, so as to enable private sector growth in line with a market economy system; formulating specific policies to increase foreign investment; Giles Dickenson-Jones, Lauren Dunn, Cindy Joelene, S Kanay De, and Mai Betty (2016), and strengthening property rights and the rule of law “Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations in Myanmar: Current Processes and Future Priorities in Public Financial Management Reform” YY Achieving financial stability through a finance system that can support the sustainable long-term development of households, farmers and businesses Giles Dickenson-Jones, S Kanay De, and Andrea Smurra (2015), “State and Region Public YY Building environmentally sustainable cities, upgrading public services and Finances in Myanmar” utilities, expanding public spaces and making greater efforts to protect and conserve our cultural heritage Jasmine Burnley (Oxfam), Melani Hilton (ActionAid), Poe Ei Phyu (Oxfam), Nilar Tun (Care) YY Establishing a fair and efficient tax system in order to increase government (2016), “A Case for Gender Responsive Budgeting in Myanmar” revenues, and protecting individual rights and property rights through enacting laws and regulations OECD (2017), "Budget Transparency Toolkit" YY Establishing technical systems and procedures to support intellectual property rights that can encourage innovation and the development of advanced technology Open Myanmar Initiative (2017), “Parliamentary Research Paper Series No. 2: The Role of Committees in the Assessment of Government Budget” YY Identifying the changing and developing business environment both in ASEAN and beyond, so as to enable our own businesses to situate themselves to take Roger Shotton, Zin Wint Yee and Khin Pwint Oo (2016), “State and Region Financing, Planning advantage of potential opportunities. and Budgeting in Myanmar: What are the Procedures? What are the Outcomes?”

Budget Guide for Decision Makers Budget Guide for Decision Makers 47 48 Budget Guide for Decision Makers 50