ResistanceȱthroughȱVideoȱGameȱPlay:ȱȱ It’sȱaȱBoyȱThingȱ ȱ KathyȱSanfordȱ&ȱLeannaȱMadillȱ ȱ ȱ Theȱ maleȱ youthȱ inȱ ourȱ studyȱ usedȱ videoȱ gamesȱ toȱ resistȱ institutionalȱ authority,ȱ hegemonicȱmasculinity,ȱandȱfemininity.ȱȱVideogameȱplayȱofferedȱthemȱaȱsafeȱplaceȱtoȱ resistȱ authority,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ oftenȱ limitedȱ toȱ smallȱ actsȱ ofȱ adolescentȱ defianceȱ thatȱ couldȱlimitȱtheirȱfutureȱabilityȱtoȱengageȱthoughtfullyȱandȱcriticallyȱinȱtheȱworld.ȱȱThisȱ resistanceȱ shapedȱ andȱ reinforcedȱ theirȱ identityȱ formationȱ andȱ supportedȱ theirȱ resistanceȱtoȱtraditionalȱliteracyȱpracticesȱtheyȱconsideredȱmoreȱfeminine.ȱAdultsȱwereȱ absentȱ fromȱ theirȱ play;ȱ henceȱ theyȱ hadȱ noȱ mentorshipȱ inȱ critiquingȱ theȱ worldviewȱ presentedȱinȱvideogames.ȱȱȱ

Keyȱwords:ȱȱmasculinity,ȱidentity,ȱcriticalȱliteracy,ȱalternativeȱliteraciesȱ

ȱ Dansȱ cetteȱ étude,ȱ lesȱ garçonsȱ seȱ sontȱ servisȱ deȱ jeuxȱ vidéoȱ pourȱ résisterȱ àȱ l’autoritéȱ institutionnelleȱainsiȱqu’àȱuneȱreprésentationȱhégémoniqueȱdeȱlaȱmasculinitéȱetȱdeȱlaȱ laȱ féminité.ȱȱCesȱ jeuxȱ leurȱ offraientȱ unȱ espaceȱ dansȱ lequelȱ ilsȱ pouvaientȱ enȱ touteȱ sécuritéȱopposerȱuneȱrésistanceȱàȱl’autoritéȱsousȱlaȱformeȱdeȱmodestesȱgestesȱdeȱdéfiȱ typiquesȱ desȱ adolescents.ȱȱCesȱ gestesȱ risquaientȱ toutefoisȱ deȱ limiterȱ leurȱ capacitéȱ futureȱ deȱȱs’engagerȱ dansȱ leȱ mondeȱ avecȱ sérieuxȱ etȱ enȱ faisantȱ preuveȱ d’unȱ espritȱ critique.ȱȱCetteȱrésistanceȱ aȱ façonnéȱ etȱ renforcéȱ leurȱ identitéȱ etȱ concordaitȱ avecȱ leurȱ contestationȱ desȱ méthodesȱ deȱ littératieȱ traditionnellesȱ qu’ilsȱ considéraientȱ commeȱ plutôtȱféminines.ȱLesȱadultesȱétaientȱabsentsȱlorsȱdeȱleursȱjeuxȱ;ȱlesȱjeunesȱn’avaientȱ doncȱpasȱdeȱmentorsȱpourȱcritiquerȱlaȱvisionȱduȱmondeȱprésentéeȱdansȱlesȱjeuxȱvidéo.ȱȱȱȱ

Motsȱclésȱ:ȱmasculinité,ȱidentité,ȱlittératie,ȱespritȱcritique,ȱlittératiesȱalternatives.ȱ ______ȱ ȱ Youth,ȱ inȱ particularȱ boys,ȱ areȱ findingȱ manyȱ literacyȱ activities,ȱ largelyȱ outsideȱtheȱrealmȱofȱtheȱschoolȱinstitution,ȱthatȱengageȱthemȱandȱsustainȱ longȬtermȱ interest,ȱ e.g.,ȱ videoȱ gamesȱ (includingȱ computerȱ andȱ consoleȱ systems).ȱTheseȱgamesȱprovideȱanȱinteresting,ȱengaging,ȱdynamic,ȱsocialȱ spaceȱforȱmanyȱtypesȱofȱboys,ȱbothȱthoseȱwhoȱsucceedȱatȱschoolȱliteracyȱ ȱ

CANADIANȱJOURNALȱOFȱEDUCATIONȱ29,ȱ1ȱ(2006):ȱ287Ȭ306ȱ 288ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ andȱ thoseȱ whoȱ struggle;ȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ toȱ fitȱ intoȱ anyȱ particularȱ affinityȱ group,ȱ theyȱ canȱ engageȱ withoutȱ interferenceȱ orȱ sanctionȱ fromȱ adults,ȱwheneverȱtheyȱchooseȱorȱwhenȱtheyȱhaveȱopportunities,ȱandȱinȱ waysȱ thatȱ provideȱ socialȱ capitalȱ forȱ makingȱ connectionsȱ withȱ peersȱ inȱ realȬtimeȱ andȱ virtualȱ spaces.ȱ Theȱ lackȱ ofȱ boys’ȱ successȱ inȱ formalȱ schoolingȱ activities,ȱ soȱ frequentlyȱ reportedȱ inȱ publicȱ press,ȱ can,ȱ weȱ argue,ȱbeȱframedȱasȱresistance,ȱbothȱunconsciousȱandȱconscious,ȱagainstȱ meaningless,ȱ mindless,ȱ boringȱ schoolingȱ orȱ workplaceȱ activitiesȱ andȱ assignments;ȱ instead,ȱ theyȱ engageȱ inȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ provideȱ themȱ withȱ activeȱinvolvementȱandȱinterest.ȱVideogameȱplayȱalsoȱservesȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ resistanceȱtoȱstereotypicalȱviewsȱofȱboysȱasȱaȱcategoryȱwho,ȱbyȱvirtueȱofȱ theȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱareȱboys,ȱhasȱbeenȱcategorizedȱasȱunsuccessfulȱlearnersȱ –ȱ videogamesȱ areȱ spacesȱ whereȱ playersȱ canȱ beȱ successfulȱ inȱ theirȱ endeavours.ȱ VIDEOȱ GAMEȱ CULTURE,ȱ GENDER,ȱ ANDȱ NEWȱ ANDȱ CRITICALȱ LITERACIESȱ

VideoȱGameȱCultureȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Kaiserȱ Familyȱ Foundationȱ studyȱ Kids,ȱ Media,ȱ andȱ theȱ Newȱ Millennium,ȱ boysȱ andȱ girlsȱ differȱ inȱ theȱ amountȱ ofȱ timeȱ engagedȱ withȱmedia.ȱGirlsȱagedȱ8Ȭ18ȱspentȱlessȱtimeȱperȱdayȱthanȱboysȱwithȱtheȱ combinationȱ ofȱ mediaȱ surveyed.ȱ Boysȱ spentȱ moreȱ timeȱ withȱ TV,ȱ videoȱ games,ȱandȱcomputersȱthanȱdidȱgirlsȱwhoȱspentȱmoreȱtimeȱwithȱmusicȱ mediaȱ andȱ printȱ materialsȱ (asȱ citedȱ inȱ Newkirk,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 42).ȱ Rowan,ȱ Knobel,ȱ Bigum,ȱ andȱ Lankshearȱ (2002)ȱ reportȱ similarȱ findings,ȱ claimingȱ thatȱ“girlsȱuseȱtheȱinternetȱmoreȱthanȱdoȱtheȱboysȱsurveyed,ȱbutȱtheȱgirlsȱ useȱitȱmoreȱforȱeducationalȱpurposes”ȱ(p.ȱ131).ȱTheȱCanadianȱTeachers’ȱ Federationȱ(2003),ȱinȱKids’ȱTakeȱonȱMedia:ȱSummaryȱofȱFindings,ȱreportȱthatȱ almostȱ60ȱperȱcentȱofȱboysȱinȱgradesȱ3Ȭ6ȱplayȱvideoȱorȱcomputerȱgamesȱ almostȱeveryȱday,ȱ38ȱperȱcentȱforȱboysȱinȱgradeȱ10.ȱForȱgirls,ȱ33ȱperȱcentȱ ofȱgradeȬ3ȱgirlsȱplayȱinteractiveȱgamesȱeveryȱday,ȱbutȱonlyȱ6ȱperȱcentȱofȱ gradeȱ10ȱgirlsȱ(p.ȱiv).ȱȱ Boysȱandȱmaleȱyouthȱareȱfarȱmoreȱinvolvedȱinȱvideogamesȱthanȱareȱ girls.ȱ Byȱ engagingȱ inȱ theseȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ literacyȱ learning,ȱ videoȱ gameȱ playersȱ areȱ keepingȱ upȱ withȱ theȱ changingȱ technologicalȱworldȱfasterȱandȱmoreȱproductivelyȱthanȱschoolsȱare.ȱGeeȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 289ȱȱȱ

(2000)ȱdescribesȱthisȱchangingȱworld:ȱȱ“Ifȱourȱmodern,ȱglobal,ȱhighȬtech,ȱ andȱ scienceȬdrivenȱ worldȱ doesȱ anything,ȱ itȱ certainlyȱ givesȱ riseȱ toȱ newȱ semioticȱdomainsȱandȱtransformsȱoldȱonesȱatȱanȱevenȱfasterȱrate”ȱ(p.ȱ19).ȱȱ “Attemptsȱtoȱassessȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱvideoȱgamesȱonȱyoungȱpeopleȱhaveȱ beenȱ extensive,”ȱ reportȱ Allowayȱ andȱ Gilbertȱ (1998),ȱ “andȱ haveȱ comeȱ fromȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ researchȱ domainsȱ andȱ methodologies”ȱ (p.ȱ 95).ȱ Althoughȱ someȱ studiesȱ (Allowayȱ &ȱ Gilbert,ȱ 1998;ȱ Alvermann,ȱ 2002,ȱ Rowan,ȱKnobel,ȱBigum,ȱ&ȱLankshear,ȱ2002)ȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱconnectionsȱ betweenȱgenderȱandȱvideogameȱplay,ȱmanyȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱtheseȱissuesȱ separately,ȱaddressingȱvideogameȱplayȱandȱlearningȱ(Gee,ȱ2003),ȱidentityȱ developmentȱ throughȱ videogameȱ playȱ (Filiciak,ȱ 2003),ȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ computerȱ gamesȱ (Myers,ȱ 2003),ȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ videogamesȱ (Newman,ȱ 2004),ȱandȱgenderedȱmarketingȱstrategiesȱforȱvideogamesȱ(Ray,ȱ2004).ȱȱ Althoughȱ videogameȱ cultureȱ isȱ stronglyȱ maleȬfocusedȱ andȱ masculinist,ȱ developingȱ aggressiveȱ themesȱ andȱ situationsȱ (Allowayȱ &ȱ Gilbert,ȱ 1998),ȱ oftenȱ childrenȱ andȱ youthȱ areȱ representedȱ asȱ aȱ homogeneousȱgroup,ȱignoringȱissuesȱofȱdifferenceȱconnectedȱtoȱgenderȱ (Kline,ȱ2004)ȱandȱdifferingȱimpactsȱonȱdiverseȱpopulations.ȱȱ

GenderȱandȱMasculinityȱȱ Genderȱasȱaȱsocialȱconstructȱimpactsȱlearningȱbothȱinȱandȱoutȱofȱschool,ȱ dictatingȱwhatȱisȱandȱcanȱbeȱlearnedȱandȱwhatȱisȱoutȱofȱbounds.ȱGender,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ masculinity,ȱ isȱ notȱ fixedȱ inȱ advanceȱ ofȱ socialȱ interaction,ȱ butȱisȱconstructedȱinȱinteraction,ȱandȱmasculinityȱmustȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱ anȱaspectȱofȱlargeȬscaleȱsocialȱstructuresȱandȱprocessesȱ(Connell,ȱ1995,ȱp.ȱ 39).ȱFromȱaȱpoststructuralȱperspective,ȱthereȱareȱmultipleȱwaysȱofȱbeingȱaȱ maleȱ andȱ creating/negotiatingȱ maleȱ subjectivity.ȱ Theseȱ multipleȱ andȱ diverseȱ positionsȱ openȱ upȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ constitutingȱ subjectivityȱ asȱ multipleȱ andȱ contradictoryȱ (Davies,ȱ 1992):ȱ everyȱ individualȱ maleȱ accesses,ȱ performs,ȱ andȱ transformsȱ multipleȱ versionsȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ inȱ variousȱ contextsȱ andȱ atȱ variousȱ times.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ multipleȱ waysȱ thatȱ masculinityȱ isȱ performed;ȱ howeverȱ hegemonicȱ versionsȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ areȱ mostȱ highlyȱ valued,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ performancesȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ thatȱ embodyȱ“theȱcurrentlyȱacceptedȱanswerȱtoȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱlegitimacyȱ ofȱpatriarchy,ȱwhichȱguaranteesȱ(orȱisȱtakenȱtoȱguarantee)ȱtheȱdominantȱ positionȱofȱmenȱandȱtheȱsubordinationȱofȱwomen”ȱ(Connell,ȱ1995,ȱp.ȱ77).ȱȱ 290ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ

Familyȱactivitiesȱandȱvaluesȱtransferȱintoȱschoolingȱpracticesȱwhereȱ notionsȱofȱmasculinityȱ(oftenȱlinkedȱtoȱimagesȱofȱsuchȱthingsȱasȱstrength,ȱ cleverness,ȱ winning,ȱ power,ȱ andȱ status)ȱ areȱ furtherȱ developedȱ andȱ reinforced,ȱ creatingȱ powerfulȱ sitesȱ forȱ genderedȱ messagesȱ toȱ beȱ reinforcedȱ byȱ teachersȱ andȱ youngȱ peopleȱ themselvesȱ (Browne,ȱ 1995;ȱ Sanford,ȱ 2002).ȱ Hegemonicȱ masculinityȱ notȱ onlyȱ naturalizesȱ masculineȱ behaviours,ȱbutȱalsoȱmaleȱdisciplineȱareas,ȱsuchȱasȱscience,ȱmathematics,ȱ mechanics,ȱ andȱ technologyȱ –ȱ thoseȱ areasȱ seenȱ toȱ requireȱ rational,ȱ unemotionalȱengagement.ȱ Malesȱandȱfemalesȱdevelopȱattitudesȱtowardsȱscienceȱandȱmachinesȱ differently,ȱandȱatȱaȱveryȱyoungȱage.ȱAsȱRayȱ(2004)ȱnotes,ȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ theȱcomputerȱasȱaȱmaleȱobjectȱisȱreinforcedȱinȱchildrenȱveryȱearlyȱinȱtheirȱ lives.ȱ Males,ȱ givenȱ machineȬtypeȱ toys,ȱ includingȱ computers,ȱ areȱ encouragedȱ toȱ experimentȱ withȱ them;ȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ receiveȱ trainingȱ (formalȱ andȱ informal)ȱ inȱ usingȱ computers.ȱ Oneȱ youngȱ participantȱinȱourȱstudyȱcommented,ȱ“You’veȱgotȱtoȱknowȱhowȱtoȱmakeȱ whatȱ goȱ whereȱ andȱ stuff.ȱIȱ learnedȱ someȱ ofȱ thatȱ fromȱ aȱ gameȱ manual,ȱ mostlyȱjustȱclickingȱaroundȱ…ȱthat’sȱhowȱIȱlearnȱthatȱkindȱofȱthing,ȱjustȱ trialȱandȱerror.”ȱMales,ȱlikeȱthisȱparticipant,ȱareȱsocializedȱtoȱengageȱwithȱ computersȱandȱvideoȱgames.ȱȱ

NewȱandȱCriticalȱLiteraciesȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱweȱhaveȱdiscussedȱnotȱonlyȱhowȱmalesȱuseȱvideogamesȱtoȱ createȱresistances,ȱbutȱalsoȱourȱconcernsȱrelatedȱtoȱvideogameȱplayȱwhenȱ viewedȱsimplyȱasȱanotherȱformȱofȱ“text.”ȱWeȱhaveȱraisedȱquestionsȱaboutȱ operational,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ criticalȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ learning.ȱ Basedȱ onȱ aȱ socioȬculturalȱ perspectiveȱ inȱ examiningȱ newȱ orȱ alternativeȱ literaciesȱ comprehensively,ȱ weȱ drawȱ onȱ Green’sȱ (1997)ȱ threeȬdimensionalȱ modelȱ thatȱ considersȱ operational,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ criticalȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ literacyȱ andȱ learning.ȱ Operationalȱ literacyȱ “includesȱ butȱ alsoȱ goesȱ beyondȱ competenceȱwithȱtheȱtools,ȱprocedures,ȱandȱtechniquesȱinvolvedȱinȱbeingȱ ableȱtoȱhandleȱtheȱwrittenȱlanguageȱsystemȱproficiently.ȱItȱincludesȱbeingȱ ableȱtoȱreadȱandȱwrite/keyȱinȱaȱrangeȱofȱcontextsȱinȱanȱappropriateȱandȱ adequateȱ manner”ȱ (Lankshearȱ &ȱ Knobel,ȱ 2003,ȱ p.ȱ 11).ȱ Culturalȱ literacyȱ “involvesȱ competenceȱ withȱ theȱ meaningȱ systemȱ ofȱ aȱ socialȱ practice;ȱ knowingȱ howȱ toȱ makeȱ andȱ graspȱ meaningsȱ appropriatelyȱ withinȱ theȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 291ȱȱȱ practiceȱ …ȱ thisȱ meansȱ knowingȱ whatȱ itȱ isȱ aboutȱ givenȱ contextsȱ ofȱ practiceȱ thatȱ makesȱ forȱ appropriatenessȱ orȱ inappropriatenessȱ ofȱ particularȱwaysȱofȱreadingȱandȱwriting”ȱ(Lankshearȱ&ȱKnobel,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ 11).ȱ Criticalȱ literacyȱ addressesȱ “awarenessȱ thatȱ allȱ socialȱ practices,ȱ andȱ thusȱ allȱ literacies,ȱ areȱ sociallyȱ constructedȱ andȱ ‘selective’:ȱ theyȱ includeȱ someȱ representationsȱ andȱ classificationsȱ –ȱ values,ȱ purposes,ȱ rules,ȱ standards,ȱandȱperspectivesȱ–ȱandȱexcludeȱothers”ȱ(Lankshearȱ&ȱKnobel,ȱ 2003,ȱ p.ȱ 11).ȱ Weȱ believeȱ thatȱ asȱ educatorsȱ embraceȱ videogamesȱ asȱ aȱ powerfulȱ learningȱ toolȱ (Gee,ȱ 2003),ȱ theyȱ mustȱ alsoȱ findȱ waysȱ toȱ raiseȱ criticalȱ questionsȱ relatingȱ toȱ theseȱ textsȱ andȱ toȱ disruptȱ unexaminedȱ hegemonicȱmasculineȱattitudesȱrelatedȱtoȱpower,ȱstatus,ȱandȱexclusivity.ȱȱ METHODOLOGYȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱweȱexamineȱvideoȱgamesȱasȱaȱdomainȱthatȱmanyȱboysȱandȱ menȱchooseȱtoȱresistȱtraditionalȱschoolȬbasedȱliteracy,ȱandȱexamineȱhowȱ theyȱ useȱ gamesȱ toȱ resistȱ controllingȱ societalȱ forcesȱ andȱ soȬcalledȱ feminizedȱ spacesȱ suchȱ asȱ home,ȱ daycare,ȱ andȱ school.ȱ Givenȱ theȱ considerableȱandȱgrowingȱinvolvementȱofȱboysȱwithȱthisȱalternativeȱformȱ ofȱlearningȱaboutȱliteracy,ȱtechnology,ȱandȱtheȱworld,ȱitȱisȱcriticalȱforȱbothȱ malesȱ andȱ femalesȱ thatȱ researchersȱ andȱ educatorsȱ examineȱ theȱ implicationȱ ofȱ thisȱ maleȱ immersionȱ intoȱ theseȱ newȱ semioticȱ andȱ technologicalȱdomains.ȱ Inȱthisȱstudy,ȱweȱelucidateȱtheȱcomplexityȱofȱtheȱinterplayȱbetweenȱ genderȱ andȱ videogameȱ play,ȱ toȱ betterȱ understandȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ learningȱdoneȱbyȱmaleȱyouth,ȱandȱtoȱconsiderȱtheȱimpactȱofȱthisȱlearningȱ onȱ themȱ andȱ onȱ othersȱ inȱ society.ȱ Weȱ observedȱ theȱ youthsȱ (predominantlyȱ male)ȱ inȱ thisȱ studyȱ asȱ theyȱ engagedȱ inȱ theȱ literacyȱ practiceȱ ofȱ videogameȱ playȱ asȱ aȱ discursiveȱ tool.ȱ Theseȱ observationsȱ providedȱ aȱ contextȱ inȱ whichȱ weȱ examinedȱ theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ genderȱ subjectivitiesȱthroughȱaȱrangeȱofȱalternativeȱliteracyȱpracticesȱ(Gee,ȱ1992;ȱ Street,ȱ1984).ȱȱ

ParticipantsȱandȱDataȱCollectionȱ Theȱ informantsȱ forȱ thisȱ studyȱ includedȱ twoȱ groupsȱ ofȱ participants/players.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ group,ȱ sixȱ youngȱ adolescentȱ malesȱ attendingȱaȱmiddleȱschoolȱinȱaȱsmallȱCanadianȱcommunity,ȱvolunteeredȱ 292ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ toȱparticipateȱinȱthisȱstudy.ȱThroughoutȱtheȱyear,ȱweȱobservedȱthemȱatȱ school,ȱ bothȱ inȱ classroomsȱ andȱ inȱ lessȱ regulatedȱ spacesȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ hallways,ȱ outȬofȬdoors,ȱ andȱ inȱ computerȱ labs.ȱ Weȱ interviewedȱ eachȱ participantȱtwiceȱthroughoutȱtheȱyear,ȱwhereȱtheȱdiscussionȱfocusedȱonȱ hisȱ useȱ ofȱ andȱ interestȱ inȱ computersȱ generallyȱ andȱ gameȱ playingȱ particularly.ȱWeȱtranscribedȱtheȱinterviews,ȱandȱusedȱtheȱfirstȱinterviewȱ toȱshapeȱtheȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱsecondȱinterview.ȱȱ Ourȱsecondȱgroupȱofȱparticipants,ȱfiveȱyoungȱadultȱmales,ȱreferredȱtoȱ usȱ byȱ acquaintancesȱ andȱ selectedȱ forȱ theirȱ interestȱ inȱ videogameȱ play,ȱ wereȱ observedȱ andȱ videotapedȱ inȱ theirȱ homeȱ environments,ȱ playingȱ videogamesȱbothȱindependentlyȱandȱwithȱaȱfriend.ȱWeȱinterviewedȱthemȱ inȬdepthȱtwoȱtoȱthreeȱtimesȱoverȱthreeȱmonths,ȱwhereȱtheyȱdiscussedȱtheȱ natureȱ ofȱ theirȱ videogameȱ playingȱ andȱ reflectedȱ onȱ theȱ influencesȱ ofȱ videogameȱ playȱ onȱ theirȱ lives.ȱ Asȱ withȱ theȱ firstȱ group,ȱ weȱ transcribedȱ theȱinterviews,ȱusingȱtheȱfirstȱinterviewȱtoȱshapeȱtheȱfocusȱofȱsubsequentȱ interviews.ȱ Bothȱ groupsȱ ofȱ participants,ȱ fromȱ theȱ sameȱ geographicalȱ region,ȱwereȱpredominantlyȱfromȱwhite,ȱmiddleȬclassȱbackgrounds.ȱOurȱ genderȱ asȱ twoȱ whiteȱ femalesȱ mightȱ haveȱ initiallyȱ imposedȱ barriers;ȱ however,ȱtheȱparticipantsȱbecameȱveryȱwillingȱtoȱshareȱtheirȱideasȱandȱ expertiseȱ aboutȱ videogamesȱ andȱ helpedȱ usȱ understandȱ theirȱ specificȱ referencesȱandȱtoȱshareȱtheirȱinsiderȱknowledge.ȱ TheȱinterviewsȱwereȱanalyzedȱandȱcodedȱusingȱNVivoȱtextȱanalysisȱ softwareȱ program.ȱ Theȱ dataȱ wereȱ codedȱ intoȱ categories,ȱ mapped,ȱ searched,ȱsynthesized,ȱandȱanalyzed.ȱWeȱalsoȱconductedȱmanualȱcodingȱ ofȱ themesȱ toȱ supplementȱ theȱ computerȱ analysisȱ whichȱ weȱ sharedȱ withȱ boys.ȱ Toȱ recognizeȱ themesȱ ofȱ significance,ȱ weȱ usedȱ criticalȱ discourseȱ analysisȱ toȱ identifyȱ oppositions,ȱ recurrentȱ keyȱ terms,ȱ andȱ subjectsȱ spokenȱ aboutȱ byȱ theȱ participantsȱ andȱ connectedȱ toȱ theȱ videogamesȱ identifiedȱbyȱtheȱparticipants.ȱ FINDINGSȱ Aȱ significantȱ themeȱ thatȱ weȱ identifiedȱ throughȱ theȱ analysisȱ wasȱ theȱ participants’ȱperceptionȱofȱresistanceȱasȱtheyȱengagedȱinȱvideogameȱplay:ȱȱ resistanceȱ toȱ institutionalȱ authority,ȱ hegemonicȱ masculinity,ȱ andȱ femininity.ȱ Theseȱ themesȱ oftenȱ overlappedȱ orȱ wereȱ sometimesȱ evenȱ contradictoryȱasȱtheȱparticipantsȱtalkedȱaboutȱhowȱandȱwhyȱtheyȱplayed.ȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 293ȱȱȱ

Someȱofȱtheȱformsȱofȱresistanceȱwereȱconsciouslyȱselectedȱ(resistanceȱtoȱ societalȱrulesȱandȱresistanceȱtoȱschool)ȱwhileȱothersȱwereȱnotȱconsciouslyȱ selected,ȱbutȱseemedȱtoȱusȱtoȱbeȱpushingȱbackȱonȱsomeȱofȱtheȱrestrictionsȱ andȱtaboosȱtheyȱfacedȱinȱschoolȱandȱcurrentȱWesternȱsocietyȱ(versionsȱofȱ restrictiveȱmasculinityȱandȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱallȱtypesȱofȱfemininity).ȱ Throughȱdiscussionsȱwithȱtheȱparticipants,ȱweȱlearnedȱwhatȱgamesȱ theyȱplayed,ȱtheȱtypesȱofȱgamesȱavailable,ȱandȱtheirȱoperationalȱcritiqueȱ ofȱtheȱgamesȱ(Lankshearȱ&ȱKnobel,ȱ2003).ȱWeȱobservedȱandȱvideotapedȱ theȱyoungȱadultȱplayersȱasȱtheyȱengagedȱinȱaȱvarietyȱofȱgamesȱ(e.g.,ȱNBAȱ Liveȱ2005;ȱGrandȱTheftȱAuto:ȱViceȱCity;ȱCounterȱStrike).ȱSurprisinglyȱtoȱ us,ȱtheȱgamesȱdiscussedȱbyȱtheȱadolescentsȱandȱtheȱyoungȱadultsȱwereȱ veryȱ similar.ȱ Theyȱ identifiedȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ gameȱ types:ȱ roleȱ playȱ gamesȱȬȱ RPGȱ(FinalȱFantasy,ȱHalo),ȱFirstȱPersonȱShooterȱȬȱFPSȱ(MaxȱPayne,ȱMedalȱ ofȱHonour,ȱJamesȱBond),ȱStrategy/Simulationȱ(Sims),ȱRealȱTimeȱStrategyȱ ȬȱRTSȱ(Counterstrike),ȱMultiȬgenreȱroleȱplay/FirstȱPersonȱShooterȱ(Grandȱ Theftȱ Auto),ȱ sportsȱ gamesȱ (NBAȱ 2005;ȱ Tripleȱ Playȱ 2001,ȱ NHLȱ Hockeyȱ 2002),ȱandȱMovieȱgamesȱ(HarryȱPotter,ȱStarȱWars,ȱPunisher,ȱManȱHunt)ȱ asȱbeingȱgamesȱtheyȱchoseȱtoȱspendȱhoursȱplaying,ȱwithȱtheirȱfriendsȱorȱ onȱ theirȱ own.ȱ Boysȱ andȱ maleȱ youthȱ areȱ engagingȱ inȱ theȱ sameȱ typesȱ ofȱ videogamesȱasȱadults,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ gamesȱareȱ intendedȱ forȱmatureȱ adultȱplayersȱ(CanadianȱTeachers’ȱFederationȱstudy,ȱ2003).ȱȱ

SitesȱofȱResistanceȱ Weȱexaminedȱtheȱrole(s)ȱthatȱvideogamesȱplayȱforȱmalesȱinȱchallengingȱ existingȱ societalȱ normsȱ andȱ expectationsȱ asȱ theyȱ soughtȱ toȱ defineȱ theirȱ masculineȱsubjectivitiesȱinȱappropriateȱways.ȱPopularȱcultureȱandȱmediaȱ haveȱhistoricallyȱbeenȱusedȱasȱsitesȱofȱresistance,ȱwhetherȱthroughȱmusic,ȱ banners,ȱ graffiti,ȱ orȱ alternativeȱ newspapersȱ (Guzzettiȱ &ȱ Gamboa,ȱ 2004)ȱ andȱ thisȱ useȱ ofȱ popularȱ mediaȱ continuesȱ todayȱ toȱ resistȱ constrictingȱ formsȱ ofȱ educationȱ thatȱ stereotype,ȱ limitȱ learningȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ segmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ population,ȱ andȱ preventȱ meaningfulȱ learningȱ forȱ aȱ rapidlyȱincreasinglyȱglobal,ȱtechnological,ȱandȱdigitalȱworld.ȱVideogameȱ playersȱdemonstrateȱmanyȱexamplesȱofȱresistanceȱthroughȱchallengesȱtoȱ rulesȱandȱstructuresȱimposedȱbyȱexistingȱsocietalȱregulationȱandȱthroughȱ challengesȱtoȱrestrictiveȱidentityȱformationsȱandȱstereotypes.ȱ 294ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ

Threeȱ significantȱ areasȱ ofȱ potentialȱ conflictȱ andȱ resistanceȱ include:ȱ institutionalȱauthority,ȱhegemonicȱmasculinity,ȱandȱfemininity.ȱThereȱareȱ manyȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ students,ȱ particularlyȱ boys,ȱ overtlyȱ resistȱ theȱ hegemonyȱ ofȱ adultȱ authority,ȱ andȱ videogameȱ playȱ offersȱ themȱ aȱ safeȱ placeȱtoȱcontestȱtheseȱpowerȱstructures.ȱ Resistanceȱ toȱ Institutionalȱ Authority.ȱ Whetherȱ purposefullyȱ orȱ unconsciously,ȱyouthȱengageȱinȱpracticesȱthatȱserveȱtoȱresistȱimpositionȱ ofȱ structuresȱ andȱ rulesȱ currentlyȱ prevailingȱ inȱ society.ȱ Theseȱ rulesȱ areȱ challengedȱinȱbothȱprivateȱandȱsocialȱspaces.ȱEvenȱwhenȱspeakingȱtoȱusȱ asȱ researchers,ȱ theȱ participantsȱ seemedȱ moreȱ willingȱ toȱ shareȱ theirȱ expertiseȱ onceȱ itȱ wasȱ clearȱ thatȱ weȱ wereȱ notȱ negativelyȱ judgingȱ theirȱ videogameȱplay.ȱPlayersȱsharedȱtheirȱfrustrationsȱandȱ(eitherȱovertlyȱorȱ subtly)ȱ opposedȱ authorityȱ withinȱ theirȱ culturalȱ groups,ȱ ignoringȱ andȱ reshapingȱ theȱ rules.ȱ Asȱ theyȱ gainedȱ skillsȱ andȱ confidenceȱ inȱ playingȱ games,ȱtheyȱfeltȱmoreȱableȱtoȱresistȱtraditionalȱauthority,ȱrelyingȱonȱtheirȱ fellowȱgamersȱforȱsupportȱandȱunderstandingȱ–ȱofȱtheȱrisks,ȱtheȱmeaning,ȱ andȱtheȱvalue.ȱ“Iȱlikeȱlotsȱofȱvideogames,”ȱsaidȱoneȱyoungerȱparticipant,ȱ “thoughȱ thereȱ areȱ someȱ gamesȱ thatȱ Iȱ hadȱ toȱ defendȱ thatȱ adultsȱ wouldȱ thinkȱareȱstupid.”ȱȱTheyȱreceivedȱimmediateȱfeedbackȱnotȱonlyȱfromȱtheȱ gameȱ butȱ alsoȱ fromȱ theirȱ peersȱ asȱ theyȱ developedȱ greaterȱ skillȱ andȱ confidenceȱinȱplayingȱtheȱgame.ȱȱ Theȱ worldȱ ofȱ school,ȱ followedȱ byȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ work,ȱ offersȱ manyȱ routinized,ȱdullȱtasksȱthatȱdoȱnotȱofferȱtheȱqualitiesȱreportedȱbyȱmalesȱasȱ requiredȱ forȱ meaningfulȱ engagement,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ personalȱ interest,ȱ action,ȱ fun,ȱpurpose,ȱorȱopportunitiesȱforȱsuccessȱ(Smithȱ&ȱWilhelm,ȱ2002;ȱBlairȱ &ȱ Sanford,ȱ 2004).ȱ Instead,ȱ theyȱ facedȱ aȱ worldȱ ofȱ ordinariness,ȱ lackingȱ excitementȱ orȱ purpose.ȱ “Iȱ getȱ boredȱ quiteȱ aȱ bit,”ȱ oneȱ adolescentȱ participantȱ toldȱ us,ȱ “atȱ schoolȱ andȱ atȱ home.ȱ Thenȱ Iȱ usuallyȱ goȱ upȱ andȱ playȱ onȱ theȱ computer.”ȱȱAllȱ theȱ adultȱ maleȱ participantsȱ explainedȱ thatȱ theyȱusedȱgamesȱtoȱ“zoneȱout,”ȱtoȱstopȱthinkingȱorȱengagingȱwithȱrealȱ peopleȱ inȱ theirȱ livesȱ whoȱ haveȱ demandsȱ andȱ remindȱ themȱ ofȱ theirȱ responsibilities.ȱVideogamesȱenabledȱplayersȱtoȱcreateȱfantasyȱworldsȱforȱ themselvesȱwhereȱtheyȱwereȱheroic,ȱactive,ȱandȱrespected.ȱȱ Videogamesȱalsoȱofferȱopportunitiesȱforȱplayersȱtoȱlearnȱinformationȱ inȱ alternateȱ multiȬmodalȱ waysȱ throughȱ playingȱ videogames,ȱ unlikeȱ traditionalȱ schoolȱ learningȱ thatȱ isȱ mostȱ oftenȱ linearȱ andȱ bookȱ based.ȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 295ȱȱȱ

Engagingȱ inȱ Medalȱ ofȱ Honor:ȱ Pacificȱ Assaultȱ allowsȱ youthȱ toȱ gainȱ informationȱ aboutȱ aȱ significantȱ historicȱ event,ȱ butȱ goesȱ farȱ beyondȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ factsȱ becauseȱ adrenalineȱ allowsȱ theȱ playersȱ toȱ feelȱ theȱ experienceȱ throughȱ soundȱ andȱ vibration,ȱ newerȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ videogameȱ play.ȱ Simulationȱ gamesȱ (Simȱ City,ȱ Speedȱ Racing,ȱ Airȱ Strike)ȱ enableȱ playersȱtoȱlearnȱaboutȱvaluedȱworkplaceȱandȱlifeȱskills,ȱsuchȱasȱdrivingȱaȱ car,ȱflyingȱaȱplane,ȱorȱbuildingȱaȱcity.ȱTheȱimmersionȱexperiencesȱthatȱareȱ promised,ȱ engagingȱ playersȱ inȱ theȱ action,ȱ enablingȱ themȱ toȱ feelȱ theȱ exhilarationȱ andȱ theȱ fear,ȱ createȱ aȱ farȱ moreȱ powerfulȱ andȱ memorableȱ learningȱ experienceȱ thanȱ theȱ readingȱ ofȱ aȱ textbook.ȱ Oneȱ youngȱ adolescentȱ participantȱ reported,ȱ “I’veȱ learnedȱ tonsȱ aboutȱ history,ȱ tonsȱ andȱtons,ȱfromȱCivilizationȱ3.ȱYouȱjustȱlearnȱlotsȱofȱstuff,ȱandȱyouȱdon’tȱ reallyȱ thinkȱ aboutȱ it.”ȱȱNotȱ aȱ farȱ stretch,ȱ thenȱ forȱ studentsȱ toȱ beginȱ toȱ challengeȱ theȱ materialȱ (bothȱ contentȱ andȱ format)ȱ beingȱ presentedȱ inȱ school,ȱ andȱ toȱ resistȱ theȱ linear,ȱ uniȬdimensionalȱ approachȱ toȱ learningȱ thatȱisȱsoȱoftenȱusedȱinȱschool.ȱ Videogamesȱ provideȱ manyȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ playersȱ toȱ exploreȱ alternativesȱ toȱ theȱ realityȱ ofȱ adultȱ societyȱ andȱ itsȱ patriarchal,ȱ imposedȱ rules.ȱTheseȱrules,ȱorȱlaws,ȱcreateȱrestrictiveȱstructuresȱthatȱadolescentsȱ yearnȱtoȱresist.ȱAsȱoneȱyoungȱadultȱcommented,ȱ“…it’sȱcool,ȱyouȱcanȱjustȱ exploreȱ…ȱyouȱcanȱflyȱwithȱaȱjetȱpack,ȱbreakȱintoȱanȱairport,ȱgrabȱsomeȱ pizzaȱ …ȱ you’reȱ notȱ limitedȱ toȱ whatȱ youȱ canȱ do.”ȱ Throughȱ videogameȱ play,ȱtheyȱcanȱtryȱoutȱresistantȱandȱdangerousȱchoicesȱandȱexperienceȱtheȱ consequences,ȱ allȱ withinȱ theȱ safetyȱ ofȱ gameȱ play.ȱ Theȱ opportunityȱ toȱ adoptȱ anȱ alternativeȱ personaȱ andȱ toȱ experienceȱ characters’ȱ perceptionsȱ andȱactions,ȱwhichȱareȱoftenȱinappropriateȱorȱillegalȱactionsȱinȱtheȱrealȱ world,ȱ andȱ usuallyȱ haveȱ noȱ consequences,ȱ wasȱ aȱ powerfulȱ enticement.ȱ Oneȱyoungȱadultȱparticipantȱcommented,ȱȱ

ȱ“Youȱtakeȱstreetȱracingȱthat’sȱillegalȱandȱyouȱtakeȱnewȱcarsȱandȱyouȱsoupȱthemȱ upȱ andȱ youȱ makeȱ themȱ lookȱ allȱ flashyȱ andȱ crazy…ȱ andȱ youȱ raceȱ themȱ onȱ theȱ street,ȱ swervingȱ inȱ andȱ aroundȱ otherȱ carsȱ andȱ thingsȱ likeȱ thatȱ –ȱ it’sȱ slightlyȱ rebelliousȱorȱwhatever,ȱbutȱI’dȱlikeȱtoȱseeȱwhatȱthat’sȱlike.”ȱȱȱ Theȱ playersȱ assumeȱ authorityȱ asȱ theȱ gameȱ characterȱ andȱ therebyȱ givesȱtheirȱindividualȱconsentȱforȱtheȱactionsȱandȱattitudesȱthatȱtheyȱroleȱ playȱ(Leonard,ȱ2004).ȱPlayingȱgamesȱthatȱtransgressȱsocietal,ȱfamily,ȱandȱ schoolȱ rulesȱ andȱ normsȱ enablesȱ aȱ freedomȱ toȱ experimentȱ withȱ andȱ 296ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ challengeȱ existingȱ restrictionsȱ that,ȱ whileȱ providingȱ safety,ȱ areȱ alsoȱ limitingȱ andȱ dull.ȱ Tryingȱ onȱ resistantȱ thoughtsȱ andȱ actionsȱ isȱ highlyȱ appealingȱtoȱourȱparticipants.ȱ Theȱ technologyȱ ofȱ videogamesȱ allowsȱ playersȱ toȱ cheatȱ byȱ downloadingȱ codesȱ orȱ findingȱ glitchesȱ inȱ theȱ game.ȱ Oneȱ participantȱ explainedȱ thatȱ playersȱ useȱ cheats1ȱ becauseȱ “atȱ theȱ momentȱ they’reȱ soȱ angryȱ orȱ frustratedȱ withȱ theȱ gameȱ thatȱ theyȱ justȱ wantȱ toȱ goȱ ahead,ȱ orȱ theyȱwonder,ȱWow!ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱsoȱgreatȱifȱIȱhadȱthat.”ȱȱByȱusingȱcheats,ȱ andȱ engagingȱ inȱ aȱ communityȱ thatȱ understandsȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ cheatsȱ andȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ them,ȱ playersȱ canȱ bandȱ togetherȱ toȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ andȱ mainstreamȱ rulesȱ asȱ aȱ community,ȱ usingȱ theirȱ socialȱ connectionsȱtoȱsucceedȱatȱtheirȱgameȱplay.ȱȱ Manyȱ videogameȱ storyȱ linesȱ encourageȱ playersȱ toȱ resistȱ society’sȱ expectations.ȱFromȱstealingȱcarsȱtoȱkillingȱenemiesȱorȱrandomȱpeople,ȱtheȱ gameȱallowsȱplayersȱtoȱplayȱoutȱscenariosȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱneverȱactuallyȱ do:ȱ“It’sȱkindaȱfunȱtoȱdoȱbecauseȱit’sȱnotȱsomethingȱthatȱyouȱwouldȱdoȱ everyday,ȱobviously.”ȱȱVideogamesȱallowȱplayersȱtoȱforegoȱtheȱrulesȱofȱ theȱrealȱworldȱandȱengageȱinȱaȱnewȱfantasyȱfrontierȱwhereȱtheyȱcanȱbeȱ mavericks,ȱableȱtoȱignoreȱrulesȱthatȱothersȱhaveȱtoȱabide.ȱWhenȱplayersȱ stateȱthatȱtheȱreasonȱtheyȱplayȱvideoȱgamesȱisȱtoȱescape,ȱtheyȱsuggestȱthatȱ theyȱareȱnotȱhavingȱtoȱthinkȱcriticallyȱaboutȱwhatȱtheyȱplay:ȱ“Iȱdefinitelyȱ playȱitȱtoȱgetȱintoȱtheȱroleȱandȱforgetȱaboutȱotherȱthings”ȱandȱ“Iȱjustȱgoȱ andȱplayȱitȱandȱspaceȱout”ȱareȱanswersȱfromȱourȱadultȱparticipantsȱasȱtoȱ whyȱtheyȱplayȱvideoȱgames.ȱThisȱattitudeȱallowsȱthemȱtheȱrightȱtoȱignoreȱ stereotypes,ȱ prejudices,ȱ orȱ otherȱ usuallyȱ conflictingȱ messagesȱ thatȱ theyȱ wouldȱ otherwiseȱ notȱ beȱ allowedȱ toȱ (orȱ evenȱ wantȱ to)ȱ participateȱ with.ȱ “It’sȱ likeȱ aȱ feelingȱ ofȱ power,ȱ butȱ it’sȱ sadistic,”ȱ oneȱ adultȱ participantȱ explained,“Youȱreallyȱenjoyȱit,ȱlikeȱkillingȱsomeone,ȱblastingȱthemȱinȱtheȱ headȱ…ȱmaybeȱit’sȱcauseȱyouȱcan’tȱdoȱit,ȱit’sȱsuchȱaȱforbiddenȱthing,ȱbutȱ likeȱtheyȱmakeȱitȱsoȱrealȱandȱpowerful,ȱlikeȱinȱaȱgameȱyouȱcanȱhaveȱtheȱ abilityȱtoȱsmokeȱpeopleȱcontinuously.”ȱȱAnotherȱparticipantȱcommented,ȱ “Iȱdon’tȱknowȱwhyȱIȱenjoyȱit,ȱIȱimagineȱmyselfȱlivingȱinȱViceȱCityȱ[Grantȱ Theftȱ Auto]ȱ justȱ doingȱ missionsȱ andȱyouȱ canȱ killȱ peopleȱ andȱstealȱ carsȱ andȱjustȱdoȱbadȱstuff.ȱYouȱdoȱallȱtheseȱthingsȱthatȱyouȱdon’tȱnecessarilyȱ wantȱ toȱ do,ȱ butȱ itȱ givesȱ youȱ soȱ muchȱ power…”.ȱ Toȱ succeedȱ theȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 297ȱȱȱ participantsȱengagedȱinȱtheȱrulesȱofȱtheȱgame,ȱevenȱifȱtheȱrulesȱdidȱnotȱ matchȱsociallyȱconstructedȱvaluesȱorȱrules.ȱ Resistanceȱ toȱ Hegemonicȱ Masculinity.ȱ Westernȱ societyȱ hasȱ respondedȱ toȱexpandedȱandȱalternativeȱgenderȱpositionsȱwithȱaȱrigidȱhomophobicȱ stanceȱregardingȱmasculinity.ȱYoungȱmalesȱtodayȱareȱfacedȱwithȱaȱfierceȱ policingȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ masculinity,ȱ andȱ theȱ rulesȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ areȱ enforcedȱ inȱ manyȱ overtȱ andȱ subtleȱ ways.ȱ Beingȱ aȱ maleȱ whoȱ doesȱ notȱ exhibitȱcharacteristicsȱofȱphysicalȱstrength,ȱindividuality,ȱandȱmachismoȱ canȱ findȱ theȱ worldȱ dangerousȱ andȱ lonelyȱ spaceȱ (Connell,ȱ 1995;ȱ Frank,ȱ Kehler,ȱ &ȱ Davison,ȱ 2003;ȱ Kehler,ȱ 2004;ȱ Martinoȱ &ȱ PallottaȬChiarolli,ȱ 2001).ȱVideogamesȱprovideȱplayersȱwithȱspacesȱinȱwhichȱtoȱexperimentȱ withȱ identity:ȱ toȱ safelyȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ masculinitiesȱ currentlyȱ prevailingȱ inȱ society,ȱ orȱ conversely,ȱ toȱ demonstrateȱ theirȱ heterosexualȱ masculinityȱ andȱ resistȱ connectionsȱ toȱ theȱ feminine,ȱ andȱ toȱ challengeȱ societalȱexpectationsȱofȱappropriatenessȱregardingȱattitude,ȱappearance,ȱ orȱbehaviour.ȱByȱadoptingȱrolesȱthroughȱwhichȱtheyȱcanȱexperimentȱwithȱ theirȱ identityȱ formation,ȱ theyȱ canȱ expandȱ theirȱ senseȱ ofȱ selfȱ andȱ understandȱ theirȱ worldȱ fromȱ newȱ perspectives.ȱ Oneȱ adultȱ participantȱ negotiatedȱhisȱidentityȱasȱheȱdescribedȱaȱgame,ȱ“InȱHalo,ȱIȱreallyȱlikeȱthatȱ itȱisȱshootȱ‘emȱup,ȱnotȱthatȱIȱamȱaȱkiller,ȱbutȱyouȱknow…ȱIȱjustȱlikeȱthatȱitȱ isȱgoȱandȱshoot,ȱshoot,ȱandȱkill,ȱkill,ȱkill.”ȱȱ Inȱ anotherȱ interview,ȱ anȱ adultȱ maleȱ participantȱ wasȱ askedȱ whatȱ characteristicsȱofȱmaleȱvideoȱgameȱcharactersȱheȱadmired.ȱHeȱresponded:ȱ “I’dȱlikeȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱbigȱbody,ȱaȱsixȬpackȱnotȱanȱ8ȱpack!ȱ...ȱI’dȱlikeȱtoȱbeȱ built;ȱIȱdon’tȱwantȱtoȱbeȱaȱdrugȱdealer,ȱkingȱofȱtheȱcity.”ȱWhenȱheȱwasȱ asked,ȱ“Whatȱaboutȱsavingȱtheȱgirl?”ȱheȱanswered,ȱ“Thatȱwouldȱbeȱneatȱ ….ȱI’veȱoftenȱhadȱdreamsȱaboutȱthat,ȱmeetingȱaȱgirlȱbyȱdoingȱsomethingȱ courageous,ȱ youȱ know.”ȱ Anotherȱ adultȱ participantȱ commentedȱ onȱ hisȱ desireȱtoȱbeȱaȱhockeyȱplayer.ȱ“Iȱdidn’tȱeverȱplayȱhockey;ȱIȱdon’tȱknowȱtheȱ rules.ȱButȱinȱtheȱgameȱI’mȱalwaysȱtryingȱtoȱstartȱaȱbodyȱcheckȱorȱstartȱaȱ fightȱ…ȱIȱlikeȱallȱtheȱsillyȱthingsȱlikeȱhowȱtheȱglassȱbreaksȱwhenȱyouȱdoȱaȱ bodyȱcheck.”ȱȱȱ Videogamesȱ provideȱ aȱ wayȱ toȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ hegemonicȱ masculinitiesȱ inȱ aȱ safeȱ space,ȱ toȱ playȱ outȱ alternativeȱ personas,ȱ suchȱ asȱ personasȱ ofȱ menȱ ofȱ colourȱ orȱ ofȱ females.ȱ Inȱ reality,ȱ notȱ allȱ malesȱ areȱ strongȱandȱmachoȱ(andȱmayȱnotȱwantȱtoȱbe),ȱbutȱtheyȱmayȱwishȱtoȱtryȱonȱ 298ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ theȱ personaȱ ofȱ aȱ ruggedȱ heroicȱ figureȱ whoȱ rescuesȱ theȱ weakȱ fromȱ dangerousȱ situations.ȱ Byȱ usingȱ onȬlineȱ forumsȱ andȱ Internetȱ gameplay,ȱ subjectivitiesȱcanȱbeȱdisguisedȱandȱtrans/reformedȱinȱmyriadȱways.ȱOneȱ participantȱtalkedȱaboutȱaȱfriendȱwhmoȱheȱdescribedȱasȱaȱ“veryȱfairyȱtaleȱ typeȱ ofȱ person,ȱ similarȱ toȱ theȱ Everquestȱ typeȱ ofȱ thing.ȱ He’sȱ kindȱ ofȱ creative,ȱ andȱ likesȱ imaginaryȱ typesȱ ofȱ stuff.”ȱȱThisȱ friendȱ wasȱ ableȱ toȱ engageȱinȱtheȱvideogameȱasȱaȱcharacterȱwhoȱdidȱnotȱdisplayȱtraditionalȱ masculinityȱtraits,ȱyetȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱgameȱitȱwasȱsafeȱforȱhimȱtoȱdoȱ so.ȱHowever,ȱhisȱalternativeȱmasculineȱpersonaȱmightȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱasȱ safeȱtoȱperformȱinȱreality.ȱ Asȱ suggestedȱ earlierȱ inȱ thisȱ article,ȱ theȱ mediaȱ andȱ theȱ publicȱ haveȱ categorizedȱ boysȱ asȱ regularlyȱ experiencingȱ failureȱ inȱ school,ȱ ofȱ underȬ performing,ȱ andȱ ofȱ beingȱ lessȱ literateȱ thanȱ girls.ȱ Videogamesȱ provideȱ spacesȱ whereȱ boysȱ canȱ dominateȱ andȱ createȱ anȱ alternativeȱ senseȱ ofȱ success.ȱTheyȱareȱfindingȱmanyȱactivitiesȱthatȱengageȱthemȱandȱsustainȱ longȬtermȱ interest;ȱ videogamesȱ provideȱ anȱ interesting,ȱ engaging,ȱ dynamicȱsocialȱspaceȱforȱmanyȱtypesȱofȱboysȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱfitȱintoȱ anyȱ particularȱ category.ȱ Videogamesȱ alsoȱ allowȱ forȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ additionalȱsocialȱspacesȱwhereȱboysȱfromȱvariousȱsocialȱgroupsȱ(athletes,ȱ trades,ȱ academics,ȱ rebels)ȱ canȱ belong,ȱ resistingȱ imposedȱ societalȱ rolesȱ andȱ positions.ȱ Byȱ creatingȱ fantasyȱ personasȱ forȱ themselves,ȱ heroicȱ powerfulȱfiguresȱableȱtoȱrescueȱinnocentȱgirlsȱandȱgarnerȱtheȱrespectȱofȱ theirȱ peers,ȱ theyȱ resistȱ theȱ traditionallyȱ stereotypicalȱ waysȱ theyȱ areȱ viewedȱinȱsociety.ȱAdditionallyȱtheyȱdevelopȱskillsȱthatȱareȱvaluedȱinȱtheȱ workplace,ȱ givingȱ themȱ futureȱ socialȱ capitalȱ throughȱ whichȱ toȱ beȱ successful.ȱȱ Byȱconnectingȱtoȱcommunities,ȱfaceȬtoȬfaceȱorȱonȬlineȱcommunities,ȱ andȱengagingȱinȱextensiveȱroundsȱofȱplay,ȱplayersȱgainȱskillsȱinȱmanualȱ dexterity,ȱ abilityȱ toȱ readȱ multipleȱ screensȱ orȱ textsȱ simultaneously,ȱ andȱ makeȱ quick,ȱ accurateȱ decisionsȱ basedȱ onȱ informationȱ provided.ȱ Theseȱ operationalȱ literaciesȱ referredȱ toȱ earlierȱ inȱ thisȱ articleȱ (Lankshearȱ &ȱ Knobel,ȱ2003)ȱteachȱtheȱmostlyȱmaleȱplayersȱhowȱtoȱuseȱmanyȱfunctionsȱ ofȱcomputers,ȱtoȱmakeȱrepairsȱandȱadjustmentsȱtoȱprogramsȱandȱglitches,ȱ toȱ makeȱ accurateȱ predictions,ȱ andȱ toȱ applyȱ theirȱ knowledgeȱ toȱ newȱ situationsȱ–ȱmostȱimportantly,ȱtheyȱgainȱaȱconfidenceȱinȱtheirȱabilityȱtoȱ useȱ computersȱ effectively,ȱ notȱ justȱ videogames,ȱ butȱ manyȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 299ȱȱȱ computers.ȱ Thisȱ confidenceȱ enablesȱ themȱ toȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ schoolȱ literacies,ȱchoosingȱinsteadȱmodesȱofȱliteracyȱthatȱsupportȱtheȱparticularȱ typeȱofȱmasculineȱpersonaȱtheyȱhaveȱselectedȱforȱthemselves,ȱandȱmakeȱaȱ commitmentȱ toȱ thatȱ selfȬselectedȱ identity.ȱ Asȱ Geeȱ (2003)ȱ comments,ȱ “Suchȱaȱcommitmentȱrequiresȱthatȱtheyȱareȱwillingȱtoȱseeȱthemselvesȱinȱ termsȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ identity,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ toȱ seeȱ themselvesȱ asȱ theȱ kindȱ ofȱ personȱ whoȱcanȱlearn,ȱuse,ȱandȱvalueȱtheȱnewȱsemioticȱdomain”ȱ(p.ȱ59,ȱitalicsȱinȱ original).ȱ Andȱ ifȱ theyȱ areȱ successful,ȱ thenȱ theyȱ willȱ beȱ valuedȱ byȱ andȱ acceptedȱinȱthatȱaffinityȱgroup.ȱȱ Rejectingȱ Femininity.ȱ Oneȱ wayȱ thatȱ maleȱ gameȱ playersȱ useȱ videogamesȱ asȱ aȱ formȱ ofȱ resistanceȱ isȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ clearlyȱ nonȬfemaleȱ identity,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ muscular,ȱ big,ȱ andȱ dangerousȬlooking.ȱ Althoughȱ itȱ isȱ interestingȱ toȱ tryȱ onȱ differentȱ personas,ȱ evenȱ thoseȱ ofȱ females,ȱ itȱ isȱ personallyȱdangerousȱtoȱassociateȱoneselfȱwithȱtheȱfeminine.ȱOneȱyoungȱ adultȱ maleȱ participantȱ explainedȱ howȱ sometimesȱ aȱ friendȱ ofȱ hisȱ mightȱ chooseȱtoȱbeȱtheȱprincessȱinȱaȱMarioȱBros.ȱgameȱandȱtheyȱwouldȱallȱteaseȱ him.ȱ “Weȱ startedȱ callingȱ himȱ princess.”ȱ Thisȱ adultȱ participantȱ isȱ aȱ footballȱplayerȱinȱrealȱlifeȱandȱheȱattemptedȱtoȱmasculinizeȱhisȱinterestȱinȱ videogames;ȱheȱcomments,ȱȱ

ȱ“Iȱdon’tȱthinkȱmanyȱgirlsȱareȱtooȱinterestedȱinȱplayingȱaȱgameȱofȱDeadȱorȱAliveȱ andȱseeingȱanotherȱgirl’sȱscantilyȱcladȱbodyȱbounceȱaroundȱlikeȱitȱis,ȱthatȱkindȱofȱ stuffȱappealsȱtoȱguys.ȱIt’sȱonȱmoreȱofȱaȱprimalȱlevel,ȱjustȱkindaȱlikeȱoneȬonȬoneȱ combat.ȱItȱreallyȱturnsȱguysȱonȱforȱsomeȱreason.”ȱȱ Heȱ differentiatesȱ malesȱ fromȱ femalesȱ inȱ thisȱ sexualȱ way,ȱ andȱ includesȱhimselfȱinȱthisȱmasculineȱdescription;ȱheȱisȱnotȱsureȱwhyȱmalesȱ areȱ drawnȱ toȱ theseȱ primalȱ interestsȱ butȱ isȱ notȱ inclinedȱ toȱ questionȱ hisȱ theoryȱorȱhisȱparticipationȱinȱthisȱworld.ȱ Aȱsimilarȱexampleȱofȱresistanceȱwithinȱtheȱroleȱplayingȱgamesȱisȱtheȱ typeȱ ofȱ avatarsȱ (gameȱ characters)ȱ thatȱ playersȱ selectȱ toȱ becomeȱ inȱ theȱ videogames.ȱ Theȱ selectedȱ characterȱ isȱ oftenȱ theȱ strong,ȱ independentȱ rebel,ȱsuchȱasȱinȱMaxȱPayne,ȱallȱtheȱGrandȱTheftȱAutoȱgames,ȱManȱHunt,ȱ andȱ Counterȱ Strike;ȱ oneȱ adultȱ gamerȱ describedȱ theseȱ charactersȱ asȱ “notȱ reallyȱ dependentȱ onȱ anyoneȱ else,ȱ veryȱ likeȱ ‘Iȱ amȱ goingȱ toȱ doȱ thisȱ myȱ way.’”ȱ Theȱ players’ȱ desireȱ toȱ shapeȱ theirȱ identityȱ asȱ rugged,ȱ independent,ȱ andȱ strongȱ precludesȱ themȱ fromȱ makingȱ choicesȱ ofȱ charactersȱ whoȱ seemȱ weak,ȱ dependent,ȱ andȱ feminine.ȱ Thisȱ sameȱ 300ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ participantȱ talkedȱ aboutȱ Maxȱ Payneȱ asȱ aȱ characterȱ heȱ admired.ȱ “He’sȱ kindȱofȱaȱdarkȱandȱlonelyȱcharacter,ȱveryȱdarkȱandȱdevious,ȱandȱheȱtalksȱ withȱkindȱofȱaȱlowȱdeepȱvoiceȱandȱhe’sȱveryȱmasculineȱandȱheȱusuallyȱ getsȱwithȱoneȱwomanȱinȱtheȱstoryline.”ȱȱ Althoughȱchoiceȱofȱcreatingȱvideogameȱcharactersȱhelpsȱtheȱplayersȱ toȱ experimentȱ withȱ diverseȱ subjectivities,ȱ againȱ theȱ hegemonicȱ masculinityȱ modelȱ loomsȱ largeȱ inȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ gamesȱ theȱ participantsȱ reportȱ playingȱ regularly.ȱ Asȱ theyȱ negotiateȱ theirȱ senseȱ ofȱ selfȱ throughȱ variousȱ videogameȱ characters,ȱ weȱ worryȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ reinforcingȱ theȱ binaryȱthatȱrelegatesȱfemalesȱtoȱsubordinateȱpositionsȱandȱdoesȱnotȱallowȱ anyȱ spaceȱ orȱ opportunityȱ forȱ aȱ criticalȱ readingȱ ofȱ theȱ genderȱ positionsȱ offeredȱinȱtheȱgames.ȱ DISCUSSIONȱ Thereȱisȱnoȱquestionȱinȱourȱmindsȱthatȱvideogamesȱencourageȱresistanceȱ toȱschoolȱvalues,ȱparentalȱauthority,ȱandȱsocietalȱexpectations,ȱandȱpartlyȱ becauseȱofȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱresistanceȱareȱhenceȱaȱmajorȱattractionȱforȱ youth.ȱVideogamesȱareȱfun,ȱandȱthisȱisȱpartlyȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱperceivedȱ asȱ dangerous,ȱ enteringȱ forbiddenȱ territory.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ doubtȱ thatȱ videogameȱ playersȱ areȱ developingȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ learningȱ principlesȱthroughȱplayingȱgames,ȱasȱsuggestedȱbyȱGeeȱ(2003),ȱinȱrelationȱ toȱ textȱ design,ȱ intertextuality,ȱ semiotics,ȱ transferȱ ofȱ knowledge,ȱ orȱ probingȱ andȱ identifyingȱ multipleȱ approaches.ȱ However,ȱ weȱ areȱ notȱ convincedȱthat,ȱasȱGeeȱclaims,ȱthereȱisȱsignificantȱlearningȱaboutȱculturalȱ models.ȱ Weȱ didȱ notȱ findȱ evidenceȱ thatȱ learnersȱ wereȱ thinkingȱ consciouslyȱandȱreflectivelyȱaboutȱculturalȱmodelsȱofȱtheȱworld,ȱorȱthatȱ theyȱwereȱconsciouslyȱreflectingȱonȱtheȱvaluesȱthatȱmakeȱupȱtheirȱrealȱorȱ videogameȱworlds.ȱTheȱresistanceȱthatȱweȱhaveȱobservedȱinȱoneȱareaȱofȱ theȱ players’ȱ livesȱ didȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ leadȱ toȱ resistanceȱ ofȱ imposedȱ stereotypicalȱandȱpotentiallyȱharmfulȱbeliefsȱandȱattitudes.ȱResistanceȱtoȱ hegemonicȱhypermasculinityȱinȱgameȱplayȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱleadȱtheȱ playersȱ toȱ challengeȱ genderȱ stereotypes,ȱ orȱ presentȱ themselvesȱ toȱ theȱ worldȱ inȱ alternativeȱ representationsȱ ofȱ masculinity.ȱ Andȱ althoughȱ resistanceȱ toȱ anythingȱ feminineȱ enablesȱ maleȱ playersȱ toȱ developȱ theirȱ ownȱ subjectivity,ȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ causeȱ themȱ toȱ beȱ moreȱ awareȱ ofȱ theirȱ privilegedȱpositionsȱofȱpowerȱorȱtoȱrespectȱdifferenceȱinȱanyȱsignificantȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 301ȱȱȱ way.ȱWeȱareȱconcernedȱthatȱtheȱresistancesȱmadeȱpossibleȱbyȱvideogameȱ playȱ servesȱ onlyȱ toȱ reifyȱ theȱ traditionalȱ stereotypesȱ andȱ cementȱ themȱ firmlyȱinȱplace.ȱ Thereȱ is,ȱ perhaps,ȱ aȱ placeȱ toȱ encourageȱ resistanceȱ onȱ aȱ moreȱ consciousȱ andȱ responsiveȱ levelȱ throughȱ videogameȱ play.ȱ Isȱ itȱ possibleȱ thatȱ spacesȱ forȱ criticalȱ questioningȱ canȱ beȱ identifiedȱ andȱ takenȱ upȱ inȱ relationȱtoȱtheȱimages,ȱactions,ȱattitudes,ȱandȱvaluesȱbeingȱpresentedȱatȱ hyperdriveȱ speedsȱ throughoutȱ theȱ durationȱ ofȱ aȱ videogame?ȱ Asȱ weȱ beganȱtoȱseeȱinȱourȱinterviewsȱwithȱyoungȱadultȱmales,ȱthereȱisȱaȱplaceȱ forȱ themȱ toȱ criticallyȱ examineȱ theirȱ motivationȱ andȱ attitudesȱ asȱ theyȱ engageȱinȱgames.ȱCriticalȱquestions,ȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱposedȱbyȱRowanȱandȱ colleaguesȱ (2002),ȱ canȱ helpȱ toȱ shapeȱ resistancesȱ thatȱ changeȱ theȱ world,ȱ ratherȱthanȱmerelyȱplayingȱwithȱtheȱworldȱasȱitȱexists.ȱ x Whoȱ andȱ whatȱ areȱ included?ȱ Whatȱ groupsȱ ofȱ peopleȱ areȱ includedȱorȱexcluded?ȱȱHowȱdoȱyouȱknow?ȱ x Whatȱdoȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱincludedȱgetȱtoȱdo?ȱWhatȱrolesȱareȱtakenȱ byȱmen/boys,ȱwomen/girls?ȱȱWhatȱevidenceȱdoȱyouȱhave?ȱ x Whichȱ peopleȱ andȱ rolesȱ areȱ valuedȱ andȱ howȱ isȱ thisȱ communicated?ȱ x Whoȱ hasȱ control?ȱȱWhoȱ hasȱ accessȱ toȱ power?ȱ Whoȱ exercisesȱ power?ȱWhoȱactsȱindependently?ȱWhoȱinitiatesȱaction?ȱ x Whatȱareȱvariousȱpeopleȱrewardedȱforȱandȱwith?ȱ x Inȱwhatȱwaysȱdoesȱtheȱinclusionȱorȱexclusionȱreflectȱtoȱyourȱownȱ life?ȱ x Whatȱareȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱthisȱrelationship?ȱ x Whatȱalternativesȱareȱthere?ȱ(pp.ȱ117Ȭ118)ȱ Theseȱ typesȱ ofȱ questionsȱ enableȱ engagementȱ withȱ andȱ purposeȱ forȱ resistance,ȱ encouragingȱ videogameȱ playersȱ toȱ lookȱ beyondȱ theȱ superficialȱqualitiesȱofȱaction,ȱspeed,ȱandȱexcitementȱtoȱaȱconsiderationȱofȱ moreȱ fundamentalȱ levelsȱ ofȱ meaningȱ andȱ valueȱ thatȱ includesȱ issuesȱ ofȱ power,ȱcontrol,ȱandȱdifference.ȱȱ CONCLUSIONȱ Popularȱmediaȱhasȱhistoricallyȱbeenȱusedȱasȱsitesȱofȱresistance,ȱthroughȱ undergroundȱnewspapers,ȱgraffiti,ȱandȱmusic.ȱAndȱitȱisȱbeingȱusedȱtodayȱ 302ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ toȱ resistȱ constrictingȱ formsȱ ofȱ educationȱ thatȱ stereotype,ȱ limitȱ learningȱ opportunities,ȱ andȱ preventȱ meaningfulȱ learningȱ forȱ aȱ rapidlyȱ andȱ increasinglyȱglobal,ȱtechnological,ȱandȱdigitalȱworld.ȱTheȱspeedȱatȱwhichȱ literaciesȱareȱbeingȱchallengedȱandȱreshapedȱdefiesȱinstitutionalȱsupportȱ andȱknowledgeȱfromȱmaintainingȱtheȱpace.ȱChildrenȱcreateȱconnectionsȱ whenȱ theyȱ learn:ȱ “Ourȱ experiencesȱ inȱ theȱ worldȱ buildȱ patternsȱ inȱ ourȱ mind,ȱ andȱ thenȱ theȱ mindȱ shapesȱ ourȱ experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ (andȱ theȱ actionsȱweȱtakeȱinȱit),ȱwhich,ȱinȱturn,ȱreshapesȱourȱmind”ȱ(Gee,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ 92).ȱ Geeȱacknowledgesȱ thatȱ theȱharmfulȱsideȱofȱpatternedȱthinkingȱcanȱ leadȱ toȱ prejudicesȱ orȱ stereotypes.ȱ Ifȱ videogamesȱ areȱ aȱ mainȱ areaȱ fromȱ whichȱplayersȱgainȱknowledgeȱaboutȱaȱcertainȱtypeȱofȱperson,ȱsetting,ȱorȱ eventȱ thenȱ knowledgeȱ isȱ heavilyȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ limitations,ȱ biases,ȱ andȱ valuesȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ videogames.ȱ Itȱ isȱ theseȱ potentiallyȱ harmfulȱ effectsȱ thatȱ causeȱ usȱ toȱ drawȱ onȱ Lankshearȱ andȱ Knobel’sȱ (2003)ȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ includesȱ aȱ criticalȱ dimensionȱ ofȱ literacyȱ andȱ learning,ȱ andȱ toȱ recognizeȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ furtherȱ researchȱ intoȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ videogameȱplayingȱinȱtheȱlongterm,ȱbothȱforȱboysȱandȱforȱgirls.ȱ Throughȱ anȱ examinationȱ ofȱ theȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ resistanceȱ toȱ traditionalȱauthorityȱandȱidentityȱformationȱthroughȱvideogameȱplay,ȱweȱ canȱseeȱtheȱmultipleȱtypesȱofȱliteracyȱlearningȱthatȱareȱpossible.ȱPlayersȱ areȱdevelopingȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱusefulȱoperationalȱknowledgeȱthatȱcanȱbeȱ usedȱasȱsocialȱcapitalȱinȱtheȱworkplace.ȱAsȱdiscussedȱpreviously,ȱtheyȱareȱ gainingȱaȱconfidenceȱinȱusingȱnewȱtechnologies,ȱaȱbeliefȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱuseȱ andȱ createȱ programsȱ effectively;ȱ theyȱ areȱ becomingȱ accomplishedȱ atȱ makingȱ speedyȱ decisionsȱ andȱ reactions,ȱ developingȱ aȱ newȱ levelȱ ofȱ manualȱ dexterity,ȱ andȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ read/processȱ multipleȱ piecesȱ ofȱ informationȱ(textȱorȱscreen)ȱsimultaneously.ȱ However,ȱ asȱ Geeȱ (2003)ȱ pointsȱ out,ȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ potentiallyȱ harmfulȱ effectsȱ ofȱ suchȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ subversiveȱ andȱ localizedȱ resistanceȱ asȱ videogameȱplayȱaffordȱthatȱalsoȱneedȱtoȱbeȱinterrogated.ȱEducatorsȱandȱ researchersȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ culturalȱ andȱ criticalȱ literaciesȱ thatȱ mayȱorȱmayȱnotȱbeȱaddressedȱthroughȱtheȱextensiveȱvideogameȱplayȱthatȱ isȱcurrentlyȱinȱvogueȱwithȱmanyȱboysȱandȱyoungȱmen.ȱResistanceȱtoȱtheȱ videogameȱ representationsȱ ofȱ gender,ȱ race,ȱ andȱ sexualȱ orientationȱ areȱ generallyȱ uniȬdimensionalȱ andȱ highlyȱ stereotypical;ȱ theseȱ canȱ serveȱ toȱ reinforceȱsocietalȱprejudicesȱthatȱmaintainȱhegemonicȱpatriarchalȱpowerȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 303ȱȱȱ structuresȱandȱunderstandingsȱifȱtheȱvariousȱtypesȱofȱresistanceȱavailableȱ toȱgameȱplayersȱareȱnotȱrecognizedȱandȱencouraged.ȱMoreȱthoughtȱneedsȱ toȱ beȱ givenȱ toȱ considerationsȱ ofȱ appropriatenessȱ relatedȱ toȱ specificȱ contexts,ȱ indeedȱ appropriatenessȱ ofȱ valuesȱ andȱ respectȱ forȱ diverseȱ perspectivesȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱencouragedȱandȱsupported.ȱȱ Inȱourȱobservationsȱofȱvideogameȱplay,ȱweȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱspeedȱofȱ decisionȱ makingȱ andȱ actionȱ takingȱ inȱ videogamesȱ mitigatesȱ anyȱ reflectiveȱelementȱofȱtheȱgameȱbeyondȱhowȱtoȱwinȱ–ȱduringȱgameȱplayȱ thereȱ isȱ oftenȱ littleȱ opportunityȱ toȱ considerȱ alternative,ȱ moreȱ complexȱ issuesȱ andȱ decisions.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ opportunityȱ toȱ learnȱ andȱ experienceȱ historicalȱ eventsȱ inȱ multipleȱ modes,ȱ butȱ spaceȱ andȱ encouragementȱ toȱ reflectȱuponȱwhichȱofȱtheseȱperspectivesȱholdsȱmoreȱevidenceȱofȱethicalȱ andȱmoralȱtruthȱisȱalsoȱimportant.ȱ Clearlyȱ evidentȱ inȱ discussionȱ withȱ theseȱ videogameȱ playersȱ isȱ anȱ elementȱ ofȱ criticalȱ literacyȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ technicalȱ andȱ technologicalȱ qualitiesȱofȱvideogames,ȱinȱrelationȱtoȱtheȱrealismȱofȱvisualȱcomponentsȱ ofȱ theȱ games,ȱ andȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ comparisonsȱ withȱ otherȱ modesȱ ofȱ interaction.ȱ Theȱ participantsȱ areȱ highlyȱ articulateȱ aboutȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ theȱ gameȱthatȱfunctionȱwell,ȱglitchesȱinȱtheȱgames,ȱandȱvisualȱelementsȱofȱtheȱ game.ȱHowever,ȱweȱareȱconcernedȱaboutȱaȱlackȱofȱdemonstratedȱcriticalȱ thoughtȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ alternateȱ worldviewsȱ andȱ perspectivesȱ onȱ socioȬ culturalȱissues.ȱAsȱLankshearȱandȱKnobelȱ(2003)ȱsuggest,ȱȱ ȱ toȱparticipateȱeffectivelyȱandȱproductivelyȱinȱanyȱliterateȱpractice,ȱpeopleȱmustȱbeȱ socializedȱintoȱit.ȱButȱifȱindividualsȱareȱsocializedȱintoȱaȱsocialȱpracticeȱwithoutȱ realizingȱthatȱitȱisȱsociallyȱconstructedȱandȱselective,ȱandȱthatȱitȱcanȱbeȱactedȱonȱ andȱtransformed,ȱtheyȱcannotȱplayȱanȱactiveȱroleȱinȱchangingȱit.ȱ(p.ȱ11)ȱ ȱ Ifȱplayersȱareȱnotȱcriticallyȱengagedȱinȱtheȱliteraciesȱofȱvideogames,ȱtheyȱ willȱnotȱbeȱableȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱtransformativeȱandȱactiveȱproductionȱ aspectsȱofȱmeaningȱmaking;ȱratherȱtheyȱwillȱbeȱlimitedȱtoȱexistingȱinȱandȱ engagingȱwithȱliteraciesȱasȱtheyȱareȱcreatedȱbyȱothers.ȱThereȱwillȱbeȱlittleȱ roomȱ forȱ playersȱ toȱ considerȱ theȱ originsȱ ofȱ theȱ games,ȱ whoȱ createsȱ theȱ charactersȱandȱtheȱcommercialȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱgames,ȱandȱtheȱvaluesȱthatȱ areȱsubtlyȱ(orȱovertly)ȱbeingȱperpetuatedȱandȱencouraged.ȱ Bothȱ educatorsȱ andȱ researchersȱ needȱ toȱ considerȱ whetherȱ theȱ resistanceȱtoȱauthorityȱandȱtoȱidentityȱshapingȱenablesȱfutureȱcitizensȱtoȱ 304ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ engageȱ criticallyȱ inȱ theȱ world,ȱ orȱ whetherȱ theirȱ resistanceȱ isȱ limitedȱ toȱ smallȱactsȱofȱadolescentȱdefiance.ȱIsȱtheȱnatureȱofȱtheirȱresistanceȱlimitedȱ itselfȱ toȱ theȱ individualȱ orȱ selfȬselectedȱ affinityȱ group,ȱ orȱ doesȱ theirȱ engagementȱinȱoppositionalȱinteractionsȱengageȱtheȱbroaderȱworld?ȱȱDoȱ videogamesȱdesensitizeȱplayersȱfromȱmoralȱandȱethicalȱresponsibilityȱforȱ theȱ world?ȱ Doȱ videogamesȱ supportȱ concernȱ forȱ environmentalȱ andȱ ecologicalȱ realitiesȱ thatȱ continueȱ toȱ consumeȱ theȱ humanȱ andȱ naturalȱ worldȱorȱdoȱtheyȱprovideȱescapesȱfromȱtheseȱglobalȱissues?ȱ Further,ȱhowȱareȱschoolsȱdevelopingȱtheȱincreasedȱsophisticationȱinȱ operationalȱ literacies,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ creatingȱ opportunitiesȱ forȱ studentsȱ toȱ engageȱwithȱculturalȱandȱcriticalȱliteraciesȱthatȱareȱsoȱnecessaryȱforȱtheȱ twentyȬfirstȱ century?ȱȱHowȱ areȱ schoolsȱ understandingȱ andȱ addressingȱ theȱknowledgeȱcapitalȱthatȱwillȱbeȱneededȱbyȱourȱfutureȱgenerationsȱforȱ beingȱ successfulȱ inȱ anȱ increasinglyȱ technologicalȱ andȱ changingȱ world?ȱȱ Theseȱ areȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ concernsȱ thatȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ takenȱ upȱ byȱ educatorsȱ andȱ researchersȱ asȱ theyȱ attemptȱ toȱ gainȱ deeperȱ andȱ broaderȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ videogameȱ learningȱ andȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ resistance.ȱ ȱ NOTEȱ

1ȱCheatȱisȱaȱcodeȱaȱplayerȱcanȱenterȱintoȱtheȱgameȱtoȱmakeȱplayȱeasier.ȱ

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