ResistanceȱthroughȱVideoȱGameȱPlay:ȱȱ It’sȱaȱBoyȱThingȱ ȱ KathyȱSanfordȱ&ȱLeannaȱMadillȱ ȱ ȱ Theȱ maleȱ youthȱ inȱ ourȱ studyȱ usedȱ videoȱ gamesȱ toȱ resistȱ institutionalȱ authority,ȱ hegemonicȱmasculinity,ȱandȱfemininity.ȱȱVideogameȱplayȱofferedȱthemȱaȱsafeȱplaceȱtoȱ resistȱ authority,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ oftenȱ limitedȱ toȱ smallȱ actsȱ ofȱ adolescentȱ defianceȱ thatȱ couldȱlimitȱtheirȱfutureȱabilityȱtoȱengageȱthoughtfullyȱandȱcriticallyȱinȱtheȱworld.ȱȱThisȱ resistanceȱ shapedȱ andȱ reinforcedȱ theirȱ identityȱ formationȱ andȱ supportedȱ theirȱ resistanceȱtoȱtraditionalȱliteracyȱpracticesȱtheyȱconsideredȱmoreȱfeminine.ȱAdultsȱwereȱ absentȱ fromȱ theirȱ play;ȱ henceȱ theyȱ hadȱ noȱ mentorshipȱ inȱ critiquingȱ theȱ worldviewȱ presentedȱinȱvideogames.ȱȱȱ Keyȱwords:ȱȱmasculinity,ȱidentity,ȱcriticalȱliteracy,ȱalternativeȱliteraciesȱ ȱ Dansȱ cetteȱ étude,ȱ lesȱ garçonsȱ seȱ sontȱ servisȱ deȱ jeuxȱ vidéoȱ pourȱ résisterȱ àȱ l’autoritéȱ institutionnelleȱainsiȱqu’àȱuneȱreprésentationȱhégémoniqueȱdeȱlaȱmasculinitéȱetȱdeȱlaȱ laȱ féminité.ȱȱCesȱ jeuxȱ leurȱ offraientȱ unȱ espaceȱ dansȱ lequelȱ ilsȱ pouvaientȱ enȱ touteȱ sécuritéȱopposerȱuneȱrésistanceȱàȱl’autoritéȱsousȱlaȱformeȱdeȱmodestesȱgestesȱdeȱdéfiȱ typiquesȱ desȱ adolescents.ȱȱCesȱ gestesȱ risquaientȱ toutefoisȱ deȱ limiterȱ leurȱ capacitéȱ futureȱ deȱȱs’engagerȱ dansȱ leȱ mondeȱ avecȱ sérieuxȱ etȱ enȱ faisantȱ preuveȱ d’unȱ espritȱ critique.ȱȱCetteȱrésistanceȱ aȱ façonnéȱ etȱ renforcéȱ leurȱ identitéȱ etȱ concordaitȱ avecȱ leurȱ contestationȱ desȱ méthodesȱ deȱ littératieȱ traditionnellesȱ qu’ilsȱ considéraientȱ commeȱ plutôtȱféminines.ȱLesȱadultesȱétaientȱabsentsȱlorsȱdeȱleursȱjeuxȱ;ȱlesȱjeunesȱn’avaientȱ doncȱpasȱdeȱmentorsȱpourȱcritiquerȱlaȱvisionȱduȱmondeȱprésentéeȱdansȱlesȱjeuxȱvidéo.ȱȱȱȱ Motsȱclésȱ:ȱmasculinité,ȱidentité,ȱlittératie,ȱespritȱcritique,ȱlittératiesȱalternatives.ȱ _________________ȱ ȱ Youth,ȱ inȱ particularȱ boys,ȱ areȱ findingȱ manyȱ literacyȱ activities,ȱ largelyȱ outsideȱtheȱrealmȱofȱtheȱschoolȱinstitution,ȱthatȱengageȱthemȱandȱsustainȱ longȬtermȱ interest,ȱ e.g.,ȱ videoȱ gamesȱ (includingȱ computerȱ andȱ consoleȱ systems).ȱTheseȱgamesȱprovideȱanȱinteresting,ȱengaging,ȱdynamic,ȱsocialȱ spaceȱforȱmanyȱtypesȱofȱboys,ȱbothȱthoseȱwhoȱsucceedȱatȱschoolȱliteracyȱ ȱ CANADIANȱJOURNALȱOFȱEDUCATIONȱ29,ȱ1ȱ(2006):ȱ287Ȭ306ȱ 288ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ andȱ thoseȱ whoȱ struggle;ȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ toȱ fitȱ intoȱ anyȱ particularȱ affinityȱ group,ȱ theyȱ canȱ engageȱ withoutȱ interferenceȱ orȱ sanctionȱ fromȱ adults,ȱwheneverȱtheyȱchooseȱorȱwhenȱtheyȱhaveȱopportunities,ȱandȱinȱ waysȱ thatȱ provideȱ socialȱ capitalȱ forȱ makingȱ connectionsȱ withȱ peersȱ inȱ realȬtimeȱ andȱ virtualȱ spaces.ȱ Theȱ lackȱ ofȱ boys’ȱ successȱ inȱ formalȱ schoolingȱ activities,ȱ soȱ frequentlyȱ reportedȱ inȱ publicȱ press,ȱ can,ȱ weȱ argue,ȱbeȱframedȱasȱresistance,ȱbothȱunconsciousȱandȱconscious,ȱagainstȱ meaningless,ȱ mindless,ȱ boringȱ schoolingȱ orȱ workplaceȱ activitiesȱ andȱ assignments;ȱ instead,ȱ theyȱ engageȱ inȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ provideȱ themȱ withȱ activeȱinvolvementȱandȱinterest.ȱVideogameȱplayȱalsoȱservesȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ resistanceȱtoȱstereotypicalȱviewsȱofȱboysȱasȱaȱcategoryȱwho,ȱbyȱvirtueȱofȱ theȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱareȱboys,ȱhasȱbeenȱcategorizedȱasȱunsuccessfulȱlearnersȱ –ȱ videogamesȱ areȱ spacesȱ whereȱ playersȱ canȱ beȱ successfulȱ inȱ theirȱ endeavours.ȱ VIDEOȱ GAMEȱ CULTURE,ȱ GENDER,ȱ ANDȱ NEWȱ ANDȱ CRITICALȱ LITERACIESȱ VideoȱGameȱCultureȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Kaiserȱ Familyȱ Foundationȱ studyȱ Kids,ȱ Media,ȱ andȱ theȱ Newȱ Millennium,ȱ boysȱ andȱ girlsȱ differȱ inȱ theȱ amountȱ ofȱ timeȱ engagedȱ withȱmedia.ȱGirlsȱagedȱ8Ȭ18ȱspentȱlessȱtimeȱperȱdayȱthanȱboysȱwithȱtheȱ combinationȱ ofȱ mediaȱ surveyed.ȱ Boysȱ spentȱ moreȱ timeȱ withȱ TV,ȱ videoȱ games,ȱandȱcomputersȱthanȱdidȱgirlsȱwhoȱspentȱmoreȱtimeȱwithȱmusicȱ mediaȱ andȱ printȱ materialsȱ (asȱ citedȱ inȱ Newkirk,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 42).ȱ Rowan,ȱ Knobel,ȱ Bigum,ȱ andȱ Lankshearȱ (2002)ȱ reportȱ similarȱ findings,ȱ claimingȱ thatȱ“girlsȱuseȱtheȱinternetȱmoreȱthanȱdoȱtheȱboysȱsurveyed,ȱbutȱtheȱgirlsȱ useȱitȱmoreȱforȱeducationalȱpurposes”ȱ(p.ȱ131).ȱTheȱCanadianȱTeachers’ȱ Federationȱ(2003),ȱinȱKids’ȱTakeȱonȱMedia:ȱSummaryȱofȱFindings,ȱreportȱthatȱ almostȱ60ȱperȱcentȱofȱboysȱinȱgradesȱ3Ȭ6ȱplayȱvideoȱorȱcomputerȱgamesȱ almostȱeveryȱday,ȱ38ȱperȱcentȱforȱboysȱinȱgradeȱ10.ȱForȱgirls,ȱ33ȱperȱcentȱ ofȱgradeȬ3ȱgirlsȱplayȱinteractiveȱgamesȱeveryȱday,ȱbutȱonlyȱ6ȱperȱcentȱofȱ gradeȱ10ȱgirlsȱ(p.ȱiv).ȱȱ Boysȱandȱmaleȱyouthȱareȱfarȱmoreȱinvolvedȱinȱvideogamesȱthanȱareȱ girls.ȱ Byȱ engagingȱ inȱ theseȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ resistȱ traditionalȱ literacyȱ learning,ȱ videoȱ gameȱ playersȱ areȱ keepingȱ upȱ withȱ theȱ changingȱ technologicalȱworldȱfasterȱandȱmoreȱproductivelyȱthanȱschoolsȱare.ȱGeeȱ RESISTANCEȱTHROUGHȱVIDEOȱGAMEȱPLAY:ȱIT’SȱAȱBOYȱTHINGȱ 289ȱȱȱ (2000)ȱdescribesȱthisȱchangingȱworld:ȱȱ“Ifȱourȱmodern,ȱglobal,ȱhighȬtech,ȱ andȱ scienceȬdrivenȱ worldȱ doesȱ anything,ȱ itȱ certainlyȱ givesȱ riseȱ toȱ newȱ semioticȱdomainsȱandȱtransformsȱoldȱonesȱatȱanȱevenȱfasterȱrate”ȱ(p.ȱ19).ȱȱ “Attemptsȱtoȱassessȱtheȱeffectsȱofȱvideoȱgamesȱonȱyoungȱpeopleȱhaveȱ beenȱ extensive,”ȱ reportȱ Allowayȱ andȱ Gilbertȱ (1998),ȱ “andȱ haveȱ comeȱ fromȱ aȱ varietyȱ ofȱ researchȱ domainsȱ andȱ methodologies”ȱ (p.ȱ 95).ȱ Althoughȱ someȱ studiesȱ (Allowayȱ &ȱ Gilbert,ȱ 1998;ȱ Alvermann,ȱ 2002,ȱ Rowan,ȱKnobel,ȱBigum,ȱ&ȱLankshear,ȱ2002)ȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱconnectionsȱ betweenȱgenderȱandȱvideogameȱplay,ȱmanyȱhaveȱfocusedȱonȱtheseȱissuesȱ separately,ȱaddressingȱvideogameȱplayȱandȱlearningȱ(Gee,ȱ2003),ȱidentityȱ developmentȱ throughȱ videogameȱ playȱ (Filiciak,ȱ 2003),ȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ computerȱ gamesȱ (Myers,ȱ 2003),ȱ theȱ valueȱ ofȱ videogamesȱ (Newman,ȱ 2004),ȱandȱgenderedȱmarketingȱstrategiesȱforȱvideogamesȱ(Ray,ȱ2004).ȱȱ Althoughȱ videogameȱ cultureȱ isȱ stronglyȱ maleȬfocusedȱ andȱ masculinist,ȱ developingȱ aggressiveȱ themesȱ andȱ situationsȱ (Allowayȱ &ȱ Gilbert,ȱ 1998),ȱ oftenȱ childrenȱ andȱ youthȱ areȱ representedȱ asȱ aȱ homogeneousȱgroup,ȱignoringȱissuesȱofȱdifferenceȱconnectedȱtoȱgenderȱ (Kline,ȱ2004)ȱandȱdifferingȱimpactsȱonȱdiverseȱpopulations.ȱȱ GenderȱandȱMasculinityȱȱ Genderȱasȱaȱsocialȱconstructȱimpactsȱlearningȱbothȱinȱandȱoutȱofȱschool,ȱ dictatingȱwhatȱisȱandȱcanȱbeȱlearnedȱandȱwhatȱisȱoutȱofȱbounds.ȱGender,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ masculinity,ȱ isȱ notȱ fixedȱ inȱ advanceȱ ofȱ socialȱ interaction,ȱ butȱisȱconstructedȱinȱinteraction,ȱandȱmasculinityȱmustȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱ anȱaspectȱofȱlargeȬscaleȱsocialȱstructuresȱandȱprocessesȱ(Connell,ȱ1995,ȱp.ȱ 39).ȱFromȱaȱpoststructuralȱperspective,ȱthereȱareȱmultipleȱwaysȱofȱbeingȱaȱ maleȱ andȱ creating/negotiatingȱ maleȱ subjectivity.ȱ Theseȱ multipleȱ andȱ diverseȱ positionsȱ openȱ upȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ constitutingȱ subjectivityȱ asȱ multipleȱ andȱ contradictoryȱ (Davies,ȱ 1992):ȱ everyȱ individualȱ maleȱ accesses,ȱ performs,ȱ andȱ transformsȱ multipleȱ versionsȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ inȱ variousȱ contextsȱ andȱ atȱ variousȱ times.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ multipleȱ waysȱ thatȱ masculinityȱ isȱ performed;ȱ howeverȱ hegemonicȱ versionsȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ areȱ mostȱ highlyȱ valued,ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ performancesȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ thatȱ embodyȱ“theȱcurrentlyȱacceptedȱanswerȱtoȱtheȱproblemȱofȱtheȱlegitimacyȱ ofȱpatriarchy,ȱwhichȱguaranteesȱ(orȱisȱtakenȱtoȱguarantee)ȱtheȱdominantȱ positionȱofȱmenȱandȱtheȱsubordinationȱofȱwomen”ȱ(Connell,ȱ1995,ȱp.ȱ77).ȱȱ 290ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱKATHYȱSANFORDȱ&ȱLEANNAȱMADILLȱ Familyȱactivitiesȱandȱvaluesȱtransferȱintoȱschoolingȱpracticesȱwhereȱ notionsȱofȱmasculinityȱ(oftenȱlinkedȱtoȱimagesȱofȱsuchȱthingsȱasȱstrength,ȱ cleverness,ȱ winning,ȱ power,ȱ andȱ status)ȱ areȱ furtherȱ developedȱ andȱ reinforced,ȱ creatingȱ powerfulȱ sitesȱ forȱ genderedȱ messagesȱ toȱ beȱ reinforcedȱ byȱ teachersȱ andȱ youngȱ peopleȱ themselvesȱ (Browne,ȱ 1995;ȱ Sanford,ȱ 2002).ȱ Hegemonicȱ masculinityȱ notȱ onlyȱ naturalizesȱ masculineȱ behaviours,ȱbutȱalsoȱmaleȱdisciplineȱareas,ȱsuchȱasȱscience,ȱmathematics,ȱ mechanics,ȱ andȱ technologyȱ –ȱ thoseȱ areasȱ seenȱ toȱ requireȱ rational,ȱ unemotionalȱengagement.ȱ Malesȱandȱfemalesȱdevelopȱattitudesȱtowardsȱscienceȱandȱmachinesȱ differently,ȱandȱatȱaȱveryȱyoungȱage.ȱAsȱRayȱ(2004)ȱnotes,ȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ theȱcomputerȱasȱaȱmaleȱobjectȱisȱreinforcedȱinȱchildrenȱveryȱearlyȱinȱtheirȱ lives.ȱ Males,ȱ givenȱ machineȬtypeȱ toys,ȱ includingȱ computers,ȱ areȱ encouragedȱ toȱ experimentȱ withȱ them;ȱ theyȱ areȱ moreȱ likelyȱ toȱ receiveȱ trainingȱ (formalȱ andȱ informal)ȱ inȱ usingȱ computers.ȱ Oneȱ youngȱ participantȱinȱourȱstudyȱcommented,ȱ“You’veȱgotȱtoȱknowȱhowȱtoȱmakeȱ whatȱ goȱ whereȱ andȱ stuff.ȱIȱ learnedȱ someȱ ofȱ thatȱ fromȱ aȱ gameȱ manual,ȱ mostlyȱjustȱclickingȱaroundȱ…ȱthat’sȱhowȱIȱlearnȱthatȱkindȱofȱthing,ȱjustȱ trialȱandȱerror.”ȱMales,ȱlikeȱthisȱparticipant,ȱareȱsocializedȱtoȱengageȱwithȱ computersȱandȱvideoȱgames.ȱȱ NewȱandȱCriticalȱLiteraciesȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱweȱhaveȱdiscussedȱnotȱonlyȱhowȱmalesȱuseȱvideogamesȱtoȱ createȱresistances,ȱbutȱalsoȱourȱconcernsȱrelatedȱtoȱvideogameȱplayȱwhenȱ viewedȱsimplyȱasȱanotherȱformȱofȱ“text.”ȱWeȱhaveȱraisedȱquestionsȱaboutȱ operational,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ criticalȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ learning.ȱ Basedȱ onȱ aȱ socioȬculturalȱ perspectiveȱ inȱ examiningȱ newȱ orȱ alternativeȱ literaciesȱ comprehensively,ȱ weȱ drawȱ onȱ Green’sȱ (1997)ȱ threeȬdimensionalȱ modelȱ thatȱ considersȱ operational,ȱ cultural,ȱ andȱ criticalȱ dimensionsȱ ofȱ literacyȱ andȱ learning.ȱ Operationalȱ literacyȱ “includesȱ butȱ alsoȱ goesȱ beyondȱ competenceȱwithȱtheȱtools,ȱprocedures,ȱandȱtechniquesȱinvolvedȱinȱbeingȱ