CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor AlfredRieber J. Professor Reader: Second Miller Alexei Professor Supervisor: Educational factorin the processof Christianization of Non-Russian Peoples of the Middle-Volga Region in the second half of the 19 In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Central European University Central European History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Oxana Zemtsova Oxana Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2007 by th century CEU eTD Collection may not be made without the written permission of the Author. the of permission written the without made be not may instructions such with madeform such made.inaccordance copies a partof any Further copies must page This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the part,or may bemade in only instructions accordance with by the given Authorandthe lodged in Copyright Author. Copiesof in byanyprocess,either rests with thesis full text the this the CEU eTD Collection urgent imperialurgent problems. milieu languages. The policy of andtraining recruitment of teachers andclergy from non-Russian inorodsy of introduction the was which of basis in the Il’minskii, N.I. founder its after named reaction of the authorities, introducing the whole system of education of non-Russian peoples and pagansKriashenMuslim faith. Tatars) (baptized into caused immediate The process the result of the rising national movement among the Tatar people, resulted in the conversion of population manifested itselfwhich in the apostasies of when 1860s, Islamicbeing proselytism, system. administrative Russian in the faith Orthodox to blend voluntary with baptism,their culturemixed through monopoly marriages andof the complexly challenged. Orthodoxy was either imposed on them by the Russian empire or came beginning 19 the of in came 16 who firstthe ascolonizers Chuvash, Udmurt, population –therelived Mari,- Tatars, of Mordva alargegroup Russians with indigenous the heterogeneous-alongside very was region the of pagans. Thepopulation and Believers Old Muslims, Christians, Orthodox groups: religious several included which and literature in languages the promotion indigenous of tothe solution contributed of The 19 The imperial assimilative attempts, however, met the resistance of indigenous of met theresistance the however, attempts, assimilative The imperial to the Orthodox tradition, together with teaching them school basics, in indigenous in basics, school them teaching with together tradition, Orthodox the to th century century region Middle Volga representedapolyethnicmulticultural and entity, th century century religiousthe life sphere of indigenous of peoples had become th century century continuedand tocoexist with locals.the By the Abstract the CEU eTD Collection Grigoryev my and forson Platon their unconditional love and understanding. being patient, caring and supportiveme; to and, not the least, tomy parents Valentina and Boris me on the issues of nation-building and general questions related to the topic of my thesis. for Balazs advising Professor Trencsenyi I am to of thankful universal andparticular. concepts andsupport advice onreligious topics andhelped me togeta better understanding of the Alfred J. Rieber, who taught me a different approach to Russian and Soviet history. reshaping my vision of the Russian empire. I am also grateful to my second reader, Professor Alexei Miller, for his tolerance, friendly criticism and guidance; and most importantly, for support throughout this academic year. I am especially thankful to my supervisor, Professor My particular non-academic gratitude is to my significant other, Laurent Tatarenko, for Tatarenko, Laurent other, is tomysignificant non-academic My gratitude particular of gave me a lot who Nadia Al-Bagdadi Professor areto My sincereacknowledgements I wouldexpresslike to my people whoto the gavegratitude meconstructive helpand Acknowledgements 1 CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 76 ...... BIBLIOGRAPHY 73 CONCLUSION...... 4. EDUCATIONAL QUESTION IN THE CONTEXT OF 45 ORTHODOX MISSIONARY ...... ACTIVITIES. 33 MINORITIES...... 3. EASTERN SUBJECTS OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE AND THE STATE POLICY ON ETHNIC 2. ETHNOCONFESSIONAL SITUATION IN THE MIDDLE-VOLGA REGION IN THE 19 .HSOIGAH FTEPOLM...... 9 1. HISTORIOGRAPHY ...... OF THE PROBLEM 4 ...... INTRODUCTION 4.4. 4.3. 4.2. 4.1 1.3. 1.2. 1.1...... 65 ...... 52 T T B T C S P HE OVIET HISTORIOGRAPHY OVIET HE HE ESSENCE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF SYSTEM EDUCATIONAL THE OF HE ESSENCE RE ROTHERHOOD MISSIONARY SCHOOLS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO INORODSY EDUCATION INORODSY TO CONTRIBUTION THEIR SCHOOLS AND MISSIONARY ROTHERHOOD ONTEMPORARY HISTORIOGRAPHY ONTEMPORARY - M D REVOLUTIONARY HISTORIOGRAPHY REVOLUTIONARY AIN EVELOPMENT OF EVELOPMENT T RENDS OF M O ISSIONARY RTHODOX ...... 12 ...... 15 A T CTIVITIES IN THE REGION FROM THE REGION IN CTIVITIES EACHER Table of Contents ...... 9 ...... T RAINING N.I. 2 I L ’ MINSKII I NSTITUTIONS OF . A LTERNATIVE 1860-1905. K AZAN R ...... 45 USSIFICATION PROJECTS USSIFICATION E DUCATIONAL TH . CENTURY22 ...... 61 C IRCUIT . . CEU eTD Collection 2. 1. Table Page Ethnic Composition of the Students of the Kazan Teachers’ Seminary in 1875-76 66 Educational Curriculum of a Typical Brotherhood School 63 List of Tables 3 CEU eTD Collection groups groups baptizedof provinces. non-Russiansinthe contiguous The problem missionary of above-mentioned the upon touch I although region, Volga Middle the of provinces Simbirsk territory. framework of Thegeographical researchthe isbasedmostly Kazan on and the is same itgenerally referred tothe although Volga), Povolzh’e,Middle (Volga-Vyatka, Empire. Russian of the borders eastern the at Orthodoxy of expansion in further later used the were an basis forexperimental theapprobation of forms and methodsof missionary which work infidels of the empire.is It possibleclaim to that Kazan territory was perceivedby the clergy as Church expansion regarded the as animportant partof spreading Christianity among the of policythe strengtheningof theimperial in power borderlands. eastern the The Orthodox diocesefoundedregion territory the and inKazanwas alwaysviewed as aseparate (1555), part inperiod history. established Since Moscow control over the multinational population of the paganism. and Islam Christianity, of crossroads aspecific region the made what affiliations religious of ethnic groups: Russians, 19 In the image. their formation of the Tatars, Mari,The mixture languages of and of cultures Turkic Finno-Ugric, andSlavic peoples gavemuch to Chuvash, Mordva, Votyakhaving historical, and anthropological cultural significance for development the of country.the (Udmurt), with regionsdifferent of Russian andcan bethe empire, Asia, viewed asageographic zonebetweenEurope The Middle Volga region, being one of largestthe polyethnic andpolyconfessional There isno unified opinion as tothe definition theof geographical borders of the region The process of Christianization of Non-Russian peoples of the region takes a long th Introduction century, theMiddleVolga century, wasinhabited by a number 4 CEU eTD Collection conclusion that education served as an agent of state policy fixed on the regulation of the of policy regulation fixedon the of state anagent as served education that conclusion the in mission to and in 1827-1905,comes Volga-Kama region of the Orthodox state the interaction the analyzing research, his of objects other among Werth, region. the of population of Orthodox the awakening” for the“national impulse became the program missionary scholars. Western and Russian both by studied been have processes in region Middle the Volga ethnocultural and of ethnopolitical questions of the view onhisrole education inthe activities of Il’minskii and educational missionary haveMiddle Nowadays Volga abundanthistoriography. region remain in the focus of scholarly research, cultural rapprochement with of ethnicthese groups Russianthe society. although there on basisthe indigenous languages, of madeimpact which asignificant processthe of on is no agreed introducedsystem, who ideathe of exposing baptizedOrthodox non-Russians enlightenment to second half of 19th the century was greatly influenced bythedevelopment of Il’minskii’s non-Muslim peoples on basisthe of Russianthe language, andturn to Orthodoxyinstead. the of unification of idea the up give to had missionaries and officials the proselytism, Islamic Middle Volga region by forcible Christianization was the not of very successful. minorities national to Due to regard the with threat of Russification of policy The denominator. common a as lessor universalloyalty its bymeanssubjects: of of Russianthe language Orthodox religion or research. of the education these of ethnic living groups outside theMiddle Volga region is leftbeyond the scope To give a brief overview of the approaches, Kappeler insists that N.I. Ilminskii’s N.I. insists that Kappelergive approaches, the of overview To abrief The problems of education and Christianization of the non-Russian peoples of the The process of Christianization and Russification of of the Russification and Christianization of The process more the achieve to was solve to had officials imperial the problems crucial the of One inorodsy 5 . The issues of the Orthodox missionary policy missionary Orthodox the of issues The . inorodsy (Non-Russians) in (Non-Russians) the CEU eTD Collection According to the aim of the research, the following of educational policy with self-identity religious of population.the Iwill interaction its issue dwell attention of religiousof the the diversity constituents, upon to of Christianization of non-Russian peoples of the policy region.imperial the of implementation the to contributed century 19th the of half second the in contributes tobridgingcontributes gap.The the educational used andmissionary of methods intheprocess programs This thesis education. of insolvingeducation problems policy,hardly of tsarist the urgent anything about issaid be effective. proved to educational contested projects strategies, assimilation regarding possible authorities in and the viewsof Russian that region the concludes of education non-Russian people of ofmissionary role centre as the Kazan the on of hisfocuses research Geraci angle, different from ofits butassessing subjects.Notopposingreligious status eastern a him, the situation Since it isSince it analyze impossible to payingof the ethno-historical situation region the without x x x Still, one of the drawbacks of contemporary research is that recognizing the importance the recognizing isthat research contemporary of drawbacks the Still, of one baptized non-Russians? baptized the of orientation confessional in the changes the to contribute they did How schools andseminaries? usedat andmethods educational Whatwere the programs groups of of region? ethnic the the Russification didhaveTo whatextent animpact factor educational the process of the on provinces of multiethnicthis region? in the applied centre, imperial by the promoted policies, missionary the were How aim of my paper is to analyze how the process of education 6 questions thus arise: thus CEU eTD Collection Cheboksary. in Library National Chuvash and Kazan in Tatarstan of Republic the of Library National from in Mari come the Yoshkar-Ola, National Library literature along with sources Republic(Natsional’nui of ArkhivTatarstan Respubliki published Tatarstan-NART). The (Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennui Arkhiv-RGIA) Istoricheskii and theArchives Central the of Historic Archives State from Russian the aretaken documents archival Most of the of of education theprocess successful how memoirs of hisIl’minskii ideasand contemporaries, whichpresent and about, reports of, literature. secondary memoirs,andrelevant data, of archival the systematization sources, the of analysis aretrospective through is achieved research the of aim is non-Russian developing particularly since1990s.The actively region,the peoples of that of historiography and historiography of Russian is of characteristic ethnocentric one,which instead of perspective, whichisunfolded situational the used approach, through the reaction of fourthindigenous reaction population. isof The to theeducational the chapter devoted counter and phenomenon the towards authorities the of reaction the analyzes and Islam and questionsthe imperial of for apostasies numerous policy, explains reasons into paganism PolicyExpansion and the Russian the of Empire National State dwells Minorities” on upon their religious affiliations Middlethe in Volgaregion 19 the are at the centre andWestern) of problem.the second The deals chapter with ethno-confessional in situation of the discussion. devoted analysesto the historiography of contemporary (pre-revolutionary, Soviet, Russian The third chapter “Eastern Structure ofthethesis One of the primary sources which gives a major contribution to the paper The are the methodology of . The body of thesis consists of four chapters. The first chapter is the research is viewed from a historical-anthropological th century, since theethnic century,since diversity populationthe of and 7 the inorodsy in the Middle Volga region was. CEU eTD Collection the essence of Il’minskii system and its impact on the confessional situation in the region. in the situation confessional the on impact its and system Il’minskii of essence the of analysis brotherhoods, missionary the of activities the of study region: in the activities 8 CEU eTD Collection bratstva sv.Guriya inorodsy idem, inorodcheskie yazuki Christianeducation of baptized )(Kazan: Tatars n.p., 1887); idem, khristianskogo prosvescheniya kreschenuh tatar (Kazan:I. n.p.,1899);Il’minskii, N. Mashanov, policythe Christianization Non-Russiansof themselves:of Bobrovnikov, Il’minskii, Iznoskov, undoubtedly they censored, valuable remain forresearch, the by being written ideologiststhe of of the peoples non-Russian of Christianization of policy official the of Middlejustification) (read description Volga region, missionary activities of the church and clergy. Although 1 acquisition of a range of new ideological and methodological tools. and from perspective atheist by a strictly retreat characterized 1991), (since contemporary includingliterature, andfinally works; ethnographicethno-religious and socio-philosophical, research; withstate sponsored period (1917-1991), Soviet the tangible domination atheist of revolutionary when missionary, can identify (1861-1917), for one and trends ethnographical pre- of subject: the in augment development the stages andthree differentiate necessary to problems from have changed with ideologicalisstemming epochs andthe political situation. It also research but the methodological approaches, and only theoretical historiography. Not multileveled and abundant its explains which time, long a quite for interest of scope N. A. Bobrovnikov, A. N. O sisteme prosvescheniya inorodtsevo Kazanskoj i tsentral’noj kreschenotatarskoj shkole Numerous books and books Numerous 1917 focused articles ontheresearch publishedbefore and The issue of Christianization of the peoples of the Middle Volga region has been in the educationand on Kazancentral Kriashen school) n.p.,, (Kazan: 1913); I.A.Iznoskov, 1 who wrote about their reflections on the state’s policy in regards to missionary to inregards policy state’s the on about their reflections wrote who (The (The twenty-fifthanniversary Guriiof brotherhood) st. (Kazan: n.p., 1892);idem, (On translationof Orthodox Christian books intothe Inorodcheskoenaselenie Kazanskoj gubernii 1. Historiography of problem the 1. Historiography Kazanskaya tsentral’naya kreschenotatarskaya shkola: materialu dlyaistorii 1.1. Pre-revolutionaryhistoriography (Kazancentral Kriashenschool: materials for the history of 9 O perevode pravoslavnuh khristianskih knig na ( Inorodsy inorodsy population of Kazan province) of Kazan population languages) (Kazan: n.p.,1875); Dvadtsatipyatiletie (On the system of CEU eTD Collection Volga peoples in the secondPovolzh’ya vovtoroj polovine 19-nachale20 veka half of the 19 5 Russian. from of quotations translation 2004),11. Here furtherand along Itake full responsibility for the possible drawbacks may occurthe inthat 4 n.p., 1880). (Report on the process of missionary activities on enlightenment of Kazan 3 no.5 (1874). political developments in the country, in the developments political changes of forms and methods of missionary activities of policyNon-Russians and state strengtheningof fails in autocracy, find between connections to the region with social, economic and official church historian, reflects state ideology and a close connection between Christianization Taimasov. missionaryOrthodox activities inby Kazanregion” a contemporary Chuvash historian, Mozharovsky, spread of Orthodoxy among the inorodsy of Kazan province) ofKazan inorodsy the among of Orthodoxy spread 2 province)(Kazan: n.p., 1875). Kazanskojgubernii Mamadushskogo uezda Kazan diocese)1892);M.A. Mashanov, (Kazan:n.p., Missionerskaya deyatel’nost’ sel’skogo dukhovenstva Kazanskoj eparkhii Church in the spiritual life of the people. Several works were written on various activities of the as represented a passive mass people, of being by enlightened local the clergy. position-his of disregard of objects the missionary activities themselves,the which are of the missionary department of Kazan clerical academy Khrustalev, Orthodox missionary activities in the Kazan diocese, the first of which was written by a student paganism. and Islam into apostasies about concerns region, in the processes ethnoconfessional education, Ibid., 12. Quoted from L.A. Taimasov, L.A. from Quoted A.F. Mozharovskij, A.G.Khrustalev, “Ocherk rasprostraneniya khristianstva mezhdu inorodtsamiKazanskogo (Noteskraya,” onthe In ofmid-19the In periodthis one can observe thesummarizing of works appearance the history of 4 Generally supporting Taimasov’s critical view that the book, being written by an by written being book, the that view critical Taimasov’s supporting Generally 3 which is considered” one of the most prominent works on the history of Izlozheniehoda missionerskogo dela po prosvescheniju kazanskih inorodtsevpo 1867 s1551 th century reforms, much attention was paid to the role of the Orthodox Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ i khristianskoe prosveschenienarodov Srednego th (Religious-moral state of KriasheninMamadysh district of Kazan -beginning of 20 the 5 I would stress another drawback of Mozharovsky’s of drawback another stress would I (Orthodoxand Church Christian enlightenment of Middle the 10 Religiozno-nravstvennoe sostoyaniekreschenuh tatar Missionerskij protivomusul’manskijsbornik th century) (Cheboksary: universitet, Chuvashskij (Missionary activity of village clergy of inorodsy 2 from 1551to1867)(Moscow: followed by workof the (Kazan) , CEU eTD Collection missionaries) (Astrakhan: n.p.,1906). Letnitskii, Konfessional’nueshkolu kazanskikh tatar 10 popularbeliefs and legends) (Moscow: 1865). n.p., poveriya, predaniya Sboev, etnograficheskij ocherk Sarapul’skogo uezda of spirituality had its impact on growing research of the problems of church and religion. and church of problems the of research growing on impact its had spirituality of problems in the interest social church, the and state the between interrelations the in problems 9 Mohammedanism) (Orel: n.p., 1876). descriptive anddonotprovide specific analyses ethnoconfessional of insituation region.the largely are works material, these andtheoretical empirical interesting In spiteof due account. Russians reflecting theof processes ofpaganism,syncretism is Islam and Orthodoxy, givenits E.K. Voronets, E.K. 8 Kazanskoj dukhovnoj akademii ecclesiastic seminary witheight low-level vocational schools) (Kazan: n.p.,1881); P.V. Znamenskii, the study of the culture of the peoples of the Middle Volga region. 7 (Kazan: n.p., 1875). Alexandra II from Orthodoxy. stressingbooks anti-Islamic ideasand demands for strengthening the lawsagainstapostasy 6 improvement of their activities. the of ways possible offered and institutions church the analyzed authors the where diocese, Kazan in the schools parish of history the reflect Znamensky and Blagoveschensky of Works developmentof education parish in ofAlexander the times IIwasdescribed by Blagovidov. clergy in the period of modernization of the Russian society. Thus, the role of the clergy in the See:Mel’nikov, P.I. See: N.Ily’in, A. Blagoveschenskii, A. F.V. Blagovidov, F.V. S.V. Eshevskii, Chuvashi vbutovom, istoricheskom ireligioznom otnoshenii.Ikhproiskhozhdenie, yazuk,obryadu, At beginningthe of 20 the One of Onemains for of research ethnographical inthe topics middle of 19 the the O neobkhodimosti missiiotdel’nuh i missionerov (Activities ofRussianclergy the conserning educationpopular during the rule of II) Alexander Proiskhozhdenie ikharakter Islama Otpadenie inorodtsev-khristianmukhammedanstvo v Missionerstvo v Rossii Missionerstvo Deyatel’nost’russkogo dukhovenstva votnosheniinarodnomu k obrazovaniju vtsartvovanie 8 (Votyaks of district)Sarapul (Saint Petersburg: n.p.,1889); V. Rogozin, (Chuvashindomestic, historic and religious contexts. Theirorigin, language, customs, Istoriya Kazanskoj dukhovnoj seminariis vosemju nizshimiuchilischami (Cheremis. Historic ethnographical and studies) Petersburg: (Saint n.p.,1881); V.A. Ocherki mordvuOcherki (History of Kazan ecclesiasticl academy) (Kazan: n.p., 1892). 7 In the 1870s, before the Russian-Turkish war, there appeared there theRussian-Turkish war, before 1870s, Inthe (Studies of Mordva) (Moscow:n.p.,1867); G.E.Vereschagin, th (Missionary Russia)work in (Moscow: Ya.D. n.p.,1900); Koblov, (Confessional schoolsof Tatars) Kazan (Kazan:n.p.,1916); I.N. century, an unstable socio-political situation, increased (Emergence character andthe of Islam)(Kazan: n.p., 1876); 11 (About the necessity of the mission and separate (Apostasy of 9 Religious life of the non- the of life Religious inorodsy Cheremisu. Istoriko- (History of Kazan Christians into th century is century Istoriya Votyaki 10 The 6 CEU eTD Collection (About the Volga Petersburg: 1905);n.p., idem, 11 issues. above-mentioned tothe approaches methodological theoretical ideology,and presupposeddramaticMarxist of change which entireregion. of the framework geographic inthe peoples of the of history religion the of research wasnocomplex there Amongliterature discovered treatment. the subjective receive education relations andparish interconfessional of which processes, ethnoconfessional several ideology,aspects dueto missionary questions of Orthodox activities church mostly history and reflecting official the upon touched works above-viewed the that however, mention should I region. Volga Middle of inthe peoples the status religious of the for research the background theoretical implying Russification. direct by projects alternative educational challenged was time that at system, which educational Il’minskii’s of success wasthe change image life baptizedof religious peoples. InChicherina’sof view, themainfactor of progressive complex study of the confessional madean byChicherina. research ethnographical processes works of speech andmostthe often of in religious is tolerance quoted period 1905. Oneof this in the region, she after acute proclamation the of freedom more of became relations andfunctioning church the managed to create an overallinfluence thegrowing as tooppose so ofmissionary activities strengthening wasformain the tendency of Islam on the baptized peoples of the region. Questions of inter-confessional S.V.Chicherina, After the 1917 revolution, the problems of After andreligion weredetermined problems of 1917revolution, the by the church On the historiography presentswhole, pre-revolutionary empirical and a significant inorodsy U privolzhskih inorodtsev.Putevue zametki andcontemporary meaning of system)Il’minskii’s (Saint Petersburg:n.p., 1906). O privolzhskih inorodsakh i sovremennom znachenii sistemu N.I. Il’minskogo 1.2. Soviethistoriography 12 11 Although she clearly did not aim at a (The (The Volga inorodsy. Travel notes) (Saint CEU eTD Collection po istorii Tatarii the methods of national-colonial tsarist policy Tatariyain (from mid-16 politiki tsarizma vTatarii (spolovinu XVIv. pofevral’ 1917),”(Christianization of non-Russianpeoples asone of 13 now: Paganism, Islam, Orthodoxy sectarianism)and (Moscow: n.p., 1929). i teper’: Yazuchestvo, islam, pravoslavie, sektanstvo Russificationsystem) (Moscow:n.p., 1936);Matorin, M.N. working on the basis of Il’minskii’s missionary project and gave generally negative assessment negative generally gave and project missionary Il’minskii’s of basis the on working schools were Gurii only st. Brotherhood’s he but assumedthat book, in Efirov’s described of Tatarstan. peoples several other and of and Tatars process guidelines the of the Christianization presented of government the especially in the 1930s. unceasing interest amongmuch researchers, experienced from pressure newgovernment, the Yakovlev, immense contribution whose to nationalthe keep system educational tends to Chuvashpedagogue, most The celebrated andhisfollowersIl’minskii asreactionaries. 12 missionary of epoch.teachers Thus, Ablov’spre-Soviet andMatorin’s judge,fixed hasno historiography Soviet view on evaluationthe legacyof pedagogical of Asfarcan asI teachers. and missionaries of different activities the also towards but peoples, of past Soviet the in religious the events the only not towards attitude inthe caused changes peoples of Middlethe Volga region based on an atheistic worldview in 1920-30s. of history of the atrewriting the religion aiming increaseworks of an Onecan interest. observe person. Religious studies a imageSoviet of the of creation propaganda, atheistic churchand religion, of criticism research: ethnographical A.N. Grigoryev, “Khristianizatsiya nerusskikh narodnostej kakodin izmetodov natsional’no-kolonial’noj N.N. Ablov, N.N. It is not out of place say to that with the establishment of atheisticideology in the USSR and historical for objectives and goals new set clearly doctrine party Communist The In 1948 Grigoryev of regarded Christianization amethod colonial as policy tsarist the of N.I. Il’minskiii egorusifikatorkayaN.I. pedagogicheskaya sistema (Kazan: n.p., 1948):226-85. 13 The history of pre-revolutionary Thehistory of waspartially pre-revolutionary schools (Religion of the peoples of Volga-Kama region before and before region Volga-Kama of peoples of the (Religion per se 13 Religiya unarodov Volzhsko-Kamskogo kraya prezhde were shifted to the background of scholarly backgroundthe of wereshifted to th century to february of 1917) in (N.I. Il’minskii andhispedagogic 12 works describe works Materialu CEU eTD Collection 18 17 1958). 16 (Cheboksary:n.p., of Chuvash) enlightenment perestroika Positivein changes attitude the towards problemsthe of church and religion came with time. of period that for unusual not was which regime, tsarist the from coming policy forcible Christianization ofnon-Russianprocess ispeoples regarded as peoples’the fightagainst republic. material andsources autonomous basedon are ethnocentric, aspecific ethnographic of were analyzed by Mokshin, to name a few. processthe of their Christianization. Tendencies forreligious syncretism of Mordvapeoplethe Denisov back problems tothe of religion bewhich were to regardedby historians.a newgeneration of position. ideological same the on based be to likely is school Mordovian pre-revolutionary of Makarov, of reforms. educational mispresentation, the rather, itisregion, an of example illustrative the newideology how influenced or the presentation, presented view in and statisticaleducational of of reports general overview the programs the 15 Povolzh’e, Priural’e and Siberia. Historical studies) (Moscow: n.p., 1948). 14 Tallin’s other. each contradict possibly can they way in what finding difficulty have I although other, the on Il’minskii and hand one the on Yakovlev and Ul’yanov ideas of the juxtaposed artificially reason unknown forand some of education character missionary the consideration into take not did Ul’yanov, teacher Chuvash a of contribution of the work of parish schools in the region. N.F. Mokshin, P.V. Denisov, V.N. Tallin, M.P. Makarov, M.P. A.F. Efirov, A.F. At endthe of history 1950sandin the and experienced1960-70s, a ethnography turn 17 gives account of the history of religious beliefs of the Chuvash, especially stressing and the declaration andfreedom of declaration the of in conscience 1988. Ocherki po istorii mordovskoj shkolu mordovskoj poistorii Ocherki Nerusskie shkolu Povolzh’ya, Priural’ya iSibiri. Istoricheskie ocherki Religioznue verovaniya chuvash Religioznue verovaniya mordvu Il’ya Nikolaevich Ul’yanov i prosveschenie chuvash (Religious beliefs of (Saransk:n.p.,Mordva) 1968). (Religious beliefs of Chuvash) (Cheboksary: n.p., 1959). (Notes on the History of Mordva school) (Saransk:n.p., 1856). 14 18 Although his book is Although hisbook valuablefrom of point the On the whole, the research projects of 1960-70s of projects research whole, the Onthe 14 (Il’ya Nickolaevich Ul’yanov and the and Ul’yanov Nickolaevich (Il’ya 15 having educational the studied 16 research on the history (Non-Russian schools of schools (Non-Russian CEU eTD Collection peoples of Russianthe East) (Diss.Candidat Nauk,Cheboksary State University, 2002). obrazovanii v shkol’nom nerusskih narodov ee realizatsiya vostoka i Rossii“ (Il’minskii’s system its realization and in school Il’minskogo education of non-Russian N.I. „Sistema Pavlova, A.N. 1998); University, State poslednej treti 19-nachale 20 vekov” (The system of enlightenment of non-Russian peoples and Chuvash schools Chuvash and peoples of non-Russian of Povolzh’e i Priuraljethe last third ofin 19th-beginningthe of 20 the enlightenment of system (The vekov” 20 19-nachale treti poslednej 22 Historical-ethnografical study of Simbirsk Povolzh‘e) (Ul’yanovsk:n.p., 2002), 31-37. Povolzh’ya „otpavshikh“ kreschenukh tatar vovtorojpolovine 19 veka: Istoriko-ethnograficheskie issledovaniyaSimbirskogo transformationof (Kazan: Tatarnation) 1997); n.p.,A.V. Kobzev, 21 On the materials of Spaso-Yunginskii monastery of Kozmodemyansk district) (Yoshkar-Ola:n.p.,2000). Yunginskogo monasturya Kozmodemjyanskogo uezda 1625-1764 gg 20 idea that the research projects concerning Christianization are focused on Orthodoxy focused on Orthodoxy concerningChristianization are only. idea researchprojects the that Ivanov. and Aiplatov by made was monasteries monastery of studies the into contribution A significant region. Volga Middle in the monasteries colonization in the Mari part of the region on the basis of Spaso-Yunginsky scholars still regard him as an apologist of the colonial policy of the Russian empire. in the 19 19 monasteries on research Zuryanov’s interest. scholarly focus of the arestill relations interconfessional in the second material.printed of questions non-Russian The Christianization and of peoples half mostvividlyin manifested theappearance and of special encyclopedias, books, mass other of the 19 is religion andtowards society state of the interest The perspectives. methodological different to the growth of religious activity of the population. Many statements had beto reassessed from contributed inof ecclesiastic andpolitical the innovations problems. Socio-economic treatment ideological and overcome stereotypes to party appearedachance Communistthere the L.A.Efimov, “Sistemu prosvescheniya nerusskikh narodov i chuvashskie shkolu Povolzh’yaPriural’ya i v See: D.M. Iskhakov, D.M. See: G.N. Aiplatov and A.G. Ivanov, P.N. Zuryanov, th Studies of the missionary activities of Il’minskii enjoy a certain revival, acertain enjoy Il’minskii of activities missionary the of Studies At the beginning of At beginningthe of Union 1990swith collapse of the Sovietthe monopoly and of and beginningthe of the 20 (Appearance of Muslim communities Kriashenand apostates in the second of half 19 the Russkie monasturimonashestvo i nachale v19i 20 veka Problemu stanovleniya itransformatsii tatarskoj natsii Monasturskaya kolonizatsiya Marijskogo Povolzhjya. Pomaterialam Spaso- th century) (Moscow: 1.3. Contemporary historiography th -20 15 20 th Verbum-M centuries One should not, however, be misled by the by misled be however, not, should One (Monastery colonization of Mari povolzh’e. of Mari colonization (Monastery , 2002). th Vozniknoveniemusul’manskikh obschin u 19 century ) (Diss contains allusions to Orthodox (Russianmonasteries and monasticism (Problems of building upand . Doktor Nauk, Cheboksary Nauk, Doktor 22 although some 23 History th century: clichés 21 CEU eTD Collection multinational empire. Emergence, history, collapse )(Moscow: 1997). n.p., 27 23 slave, as“ais state’s it but presented activities, church analysesthe of his to of chapters of monograph one the devoted Russia, Pipes studying tsarist While society. Russian of life inthe church the of place and role the of estimation biased arebya characterized some works Unfortunately, America. and European andcountries Asian historians. ethnologists, philosophers, scholars: various of research the of subject the becomes renaissance religious in of in period the of region Islam the 26 history Volga-Uralof the region) (Sapporo: Slavic Research Centre,Hokkaido University,2002),5-6. 25 (Saransk, 2000). (Finno-Ugric finougrovedov” kongressa world; history Vserossijskogo and contemporaneity. II Materialu Materials of the secondsovremennost. all-Russiai congressistoriya of Finno-Ugric mir: scholars) “Finno-Ugorskii modern the of problems (Cornerstone Finno-Ugric studies: Materials of first all-Russia conferencethe finno-ugrovedov” of Finno-Ugric scholars) (Yoshkar-Ola, 1995); konferentsii Vserossijskoj I Materialu ugrovedeniya: conference) ofregional Materials value: historical Materialu regional’noj nauchnoj konferentsii” (Christianizationof the peoples of the Middle Volga and its 24 (Kazan: n.p, 2000), 209-210. regarded as “the core of the Russian empire. of Russian the as“thecore regarded in and Russian which is status empire,the interrelations Ugric particular their peoples, specific ethnopolitical in processes the region by coexistence a peculiar of andFinno- Turkic Slavic, historiography.A Japanese scholar, Matsuzato,explains increasing this historicalin interest and Eastern aplace inWestern prominent take Volga in region Middle processes the an important impulse of “national revival” of the baptized peoples of of region the peoples and, referring baptized impulse“national the an important of of revival” significance missionary of Orthodox activities. Heregards Il’minskii’s educational as program inupon Kappeler’sresearch, are touched region the of peoples the lifeof of religious the aspects Several its functions. reflect A.Kappeler, Ya. G. Abdullin, Ya. “Pravoslavnuj missionerN.I.Il’minskii” in R. Pipes, znachenie: ee istoricheskoe i Povolzh’ya Srednego narodov “Khistianizatsiya papers: conference of sets Seethe Vesna narodov: Etnopoliticheskaya istoriya Volgo-Ural’skogo regiona The centers of studies of the peoples of Eastern Europe and Russia exist in many The history The history mission Orthodox the of and questions of andethnopolitical ethnocultural Rossiya pri starom regime pri starom Rossiya Rossiya kakmnogonatsional’naya imperiya.Vozniknovenie, istoriya, raspad 27 where he brings forward various wherehe innovative bringsforward ideas aboutthe (Russia during oldthe regime)(Moscow: n.p., 1993), 291-325. (Yoshkar-Ola, 2000); “Uzlovue problemu sovremennogo finno- 25 ” 16 IslamPovolzh’e: v istoriya i problemuizucheniya 26 ” which is far from reality and does not 24 (Spring ofpeoples. the Ethnopolitical (Russia as a as (Russia CEU eTD Collection times and during the civil war. civil the during and times in tsarist movement national Muslim the of history the about judge can one that Quelquejay Islam. into population the of apostasies numerous for causes possible the explain helps sametime at the but elites respective its of activities educational and and population religious Tatar the about empire of concern the Eastern provinces as likely targets for the spread of Pan-Islamism explains the particular Tatarstan 1964) Mouton, idem, ; Russie avant1920 in clashed. region get the idea interests how the political are necessary national of the and to Benningsen and Lemercier-Quelquejay uncovers details of the emergence of the Jadids, which of research French the historiography, in later dueattention receive its topic not the did that fact unfortunate the Despite schools. andIslamic Islam of modernization the was preaching Muslim is prominentpress,of most thenewspaper the BeiGasprinsky, which Ismail of who 31 State ethnos. Tatar a united of consolidation inthe role negative regionthe by theconclusion these Brian-Benningsen push thereader that activitiesa played to contemporary historiography. missionary population the of Tatar Studies activities towards of recipients ofmissionary thateducation thisor problem enjoys in onlypositive coverage national by school is school Sovietless the pre-revolutionary no interesting. the 30 Islamo-khristianskoepogranich’e: itogiiperspektivu izucheniya 29 28 “A”. phase cultural the Hroch, their reaching to A. Benningsen and Ch. Lemercier-Quelquejay, Ch. and Benningsen A. K. Karpat, F.Brian-Benningsen, “Missionerskie organizatsiiv Povolzhje,” (Missionary organizations in Povolzhje) in Ibid., 170. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). It would be unfair to suggest however, that the non-Russians were only grateful wouldsuggesthowever, non-Russianswereonly passive grateful It be the that unfair to (National movements of Muslims)Russian (Paris : Mouton &Co,1960). The politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman (The presse and (Thepresse and national movementsMuslims of Russian before Hague 1920) (Paris andthe : Les mouvements nationaux chez les Musulmans de Russiede Musulmans les « nationauxmouvementschezLesLe : Sultagallievisme au » 30 31 itis of duetothe Also, work Lemercier-Benningsen and Much attention of the authors is given to the emergence of La presse leset mouvements nationaux chezlesMusulmans de 17 28 Kappeler’s assessment of the perception of (Kazan: 1994),n.p., 116-123. 29 Karpat’s presentation of Russia’s CEU eTD Collection McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001). 34 London: Cornell University 2001).Press, 33 Volga-Kama Region, 1827-1905 meaningits other, eastern to empire citizen the asopposed of “core” be seenasa be to recognized to a person of requirement necessary a of Orthodoxy schooling, conversion and apostasy, while thefollowing answering Was questions: profession activities, missionary of issues the upon dwell both they be, might focuses the different religious andlanguage diversity of population.the ethnic, and movement reform school and agenda educational own its had which Islam, of controversies in the education in the region under discussion, which he explains by the presence enlightenment of the non-Russians. The same streamline is followed by Dowler, who deals with problemthe andfaith, policy of religious Geraci moreis the concernedwith problems of if Werth analyzes of But region. peoples the for non-Russian missionary of a centre education by Geraci, is presented moreoverview idea of general a Some archival sources. for lack of relevant the discovered apparently not are their worldview other peoples the of life spiritual The Kriashen. the and of Mari the of life the religious the from events regionprominent as well as the impact of educational programs on the changes in 32 ethnic identity? any of “Russianwith Was and faith” incompatible Orthodoxy a specific retention the therefore russify ethnically non-Russians and was church or school the best way to facilitate the process? region. Volga-Kama the in missionaries Orthodox and authorities state of interaction of issues the with deals question, W. Dowler, W. Robert P. Geraci, P. Robert Paul W.Werth, Paul I take the works of Geraci and Werth as the most relevant to the topic. However Werth, one of the most authoritative Western scholars discovering the problem in theproblem scholars discovering Western of authoritative most Werth, one the Classroom and Empire: ThePolitics ofSchooling Russia’s Eastern Nationalities At theMargins of Orthodoxy: Mission, Governance and Confessional Politics in Russia’s Window East: Nationalon the andImperialIdentities inLate Tsarist Russia 32 His research is based on state-church missionary policy and the most the and policy missionary state-church on based is research His ( Ithaca and London:University Cornell Press, 2001). 18 34 33 who writes about the role of Kazan as inorodets ? Was it possible to (London, Ithaca: (London, (Ithaca and CEU eTD Collection P. Geraci , 35 Orthodox its non- towards attitude state’s of the period was hampered byinconsistence throughout policy religious official of implementation and formulation the subjects, that argues He empire. Orthodoxy as ameans integrate to region’sthe Muslim andinto pagan-animist people the which biographical. for Geracisecular andreligiousinstitutionsviewedof asagents buttomymindassimilation itis too focus both broader in is Werth’s inon his his comparison clearly to of advantage research, lies The haveassimilated. well to believed how was to each them varied according alsotowards in andhow Russian imperial ethnicvarious attitudes groups hepresentsanalysesof period, “thelate in the assimilation and nationalism) (not nationality of ambiguities Examining religion. uncertainty, or language on based be should assimilation the whether claim straightforwardly not he does views strategies-Malov’s andimportance and on political Il’minskii’sdiscussingMuslims their controversy, potentially evendangerous”. problematic and ‘others’ of assimilation the rendering thus identity, imperial and national own Russia’s were actively involved in they project, “civilizing” in the “simultaneously uncertainties exposed and Middlethe the Volga institutions although that region. and Heshows missionaries themselves Russian identity and analyzes competing strategies to assert control over the diverse peoples of Christianization-it required Russification. Geraci in his turn focuses on the formation of just than more now was is assimilation that byWerth suggested implication The inorodsy Andy Byford, review of Werth examines the dynamic motivated by the state’s attempts to use Russian from population non-Russian determining notion the of change The Europe-Asia Studies identifies the change of reference religiousto status to ethnic origin of the population. Window Window East: Nationalon the andImperial Identities inLateTsarist Russia 54, 8 (December,no. 2002): 1356. 19 35 Comparing and contrasting two educational Comparing and contrasting two novokreschenu by Robert into CEU eTD Collection missionaries? Also, statistic files provide reports about the nationality status about of nationality statistic students filesthe status the provide Also, reports missionaries? formationthe means contributing education, future of quality control the of to of of were the what instruction, of language(s) the whatwas/were methods, andeffective subjects itswere toanswersfollowingin curriculum educational analyzethe what the order questions: taking Kazan educationaland missionary teacher’s seminary as schools institutions, Iwill target While terms. above-mentioned in the subjects eastern non-Russian its towards policy imperial in factor the educational the of stress theimportance am to I going in my research, assimilation of but Whenelaboratingobjectsas on subjects educational problem the policy. of as not non-Russians regard is to itifpossible and clashed projects alternative educational how meanswere, and andeducational really methods whattheirmediators, techniques out, carried were policies missionary particular the ishow marginalized isan what extent to place Unfortunately, way did. they and developed took the processes specific explainthese why question of what was going on in the region in the period of time under discussion, the deal with authors Most its presentation. in gaps certain thereexist subject, of manythe interest try to despite unceasing the that can state I questions, research the to approaches methodological indigenous population responded toreligious policies andin soshapeddoing their evolution. state national a to model as modern colonial empire. important his Equally workuncovers the extenttowhich composite multiethnic traditional a from shifting were state of notions transitions- conceptual related of series shaped bya were mid-century after activities these that offinancial religion,privileged shortage state lackresources andqualified argues clergy. of He for a policy betweenreligious limited state in support bycontradictions tolerance and the was missions of these scope the that stresses Werth activities, missionary the to attention 36 self-definition”. of task in the engagement Russians’ in contradictions Geraci, Taking into account numerous views on the problem, with various viewsnumerous Taking problem,with into theoretical account and on the Window on the East ,11. 20 36 While paying much CEU eTD Collection composition and religious affiliation of the peoples that will be discussed in the second chapter. beimportant the question initial addressedconcerns ethnic region,Middle mostto the Volga local the topresentageneral of peoples region. the order In of population of the overview the their effectiveness in both the solution of the problems of the state and the identity formation of inorodtsy institutions Russian educational tothe in comparison recognizing that Rather, research. ofmy is purpose notthe Such evaluation an policy. imperial of the apologistaccuser or specific assimilative projects assimilative specific diaries, his reports to Pobedonostsev, archival files with reports from the local schools. by ousted toinvestigate sources thequestionsOrthodoxy? The be would mainly Il’minskii’s missionarywhere Islamicand Orthodox side coexisted projects byside-wasIslamfinally areas inMuslim/Kriashen special attention deserves This inthe communities? brotherhood the of activities the were ishow effective Thequestion Gurii Brotherhood. st. of activities first thanksforemost peoplesand region, other ofthe spreadamong the education to the was amongaddressed. Initiated Il’minskii’s system Kriashens, usingin of languages native dealing parish with inindigenous schools somecommunities, be additional questions will Christianization was held with greater help on behalf of the Russian missionary clergy.When wide-spread, dueto efforts the of representativesthe ofindigenous population, andin which wasmore literacy Christianization) part of suggest inregion the (and to which allows what Bearing in mind the political situation, the internal interests of the empire and its and empire the of interests internal the situation, political the mind in Bearing type of school typeofschool and werequite seminaryeducation backward, prove Iam to going vis-à-vis its indigenous population, I do not wish to become an 2 1 the CEU eTD Collection (Cheboksary: Chuvashskij universitet, 2000), 176-212. 37 Church. Orthodox Russian the of made activities of missionary itthe a target in Orthodoxy consequently region and animism the Islam, of co-existence The difficult. especially Christianization of policy imperial the made which assimilation, religious and of ethnic centers the became villages neighboring region focusingregion,religious ontheirmultiethnic primarily andpolyconfessional affiliation. Inthis the region thein Situation 19 in Middle-Volga 2. Ethnoconfessional (Autocracy and Christianizationthe first half of the of19 the peoples of the38 Middle VolgaUdmurt’s worldview) (Izhevsk: n.p., 1994), 60. in the second half of the 16 number of of peoples number 39 among Turkic, Finno-Ugric andRussian peoples. increasecontacts of to the contributed peoples of the migration The historical and Votyak. representatives of other non-native nationalities constituted 0.1%. constituted nationalities non-native other of representatives Mari Chuvash-21.6%,Tatars-29.8%, Udmurt-0.5%.5.5%, Mordva-1.2%, Besides, the 40.7%, constituted 1.5 million which Russians of people, aboutlived there Kazan province Russians theindigenous in dominated population all Middle provincesof the Volga.the the In many in animists and Muslims some were converted 1820-1860s, the in one of of largest and powerful theones infrastructure RussianOrthodox the Church the and MuslimsOrthodox, animists and (pagans). Although Kazanthe diocese was tobe considered E.V. Vladukin, E.V. V.M. Kabuzan, D.M. Makarov, D.M. The population The Middle population inof Volga region the the 19 inhabiting the groups presenton ethnic the an outlook Iam to going In chapter this As to the religious affiliation the peoples of the Middle Volga region were mostly Samoderzhavie ikhristianizatsiya narodov Srednego Povolzhya vtorojpolovine vo 16-18vekah Narodu Rossii vpervoj polovine 19v.Chislennost’ inatsional’nuj sostav Religiozno-mifologicheskaya kartina mira udmurtov th , century.Number and national composition) (Moscow:Nauka, 1992),12-14. the most numerous of which were Russians, Tatars, Chuvash, Mordva, Mari 22 37 By the middle of the 19 (Religious-mythological picture of th century century bya was represented 38 39 Christianization didnot (Peoples of Russia in ofRussia (Peoples th th century the century th -18 century th centuries) CEU eTD Collection 42 according to the confessions)main (Saint Petersburg: n.p., 1901), 5-9. 41 (Yoshkar-Ola: Marijskij gosudarstvennuj universitet, 2001), 59 ee istoricheskoe znachenie (Christianization of Mari of Prikamje and Priuralje in the end), in 40 Muslims7.3% confessional and0.2%other groups. baptism.” and 47roubles from a merchantwas sentenced bythe tocommunity court Birsk andwork horse from a peasant had stolen a Yanbergin, who Uruskul Asakovo villageBirsk district of Christianization, when forced caseof the Mari people. Hediscovers of eastern Christianization of example it was used as a punishmentget money. interestingA or concessions an conscription,tax to scholar Gareev provides for the committed crime:escape reasons-to baptizedpragmatic got purely for faith, or as an alien whatthey perceived “A Mari of the factthe that either people the ignored dogmasthe of didOrthodoxy or not understand them. visitingchurch samethe an at blendingOrthodox This time. wasprimarily practices of due to art inherited from their ancestors. a Paganism cult,religious philosophy,constituted for them and popularthe beliefsaltogether. Masses of people continuedmixed with animism addingthus new elementsto theirin practices, religious stead of ousting to follow their traditions beliefs.traditional whileRather than toamonotheistic turning the pagans religion, Orthodoxy got cause thechange desired inthe religiousworldview of kept to who newlyconverted, the their minorities constituted 1.4% minorities constituted religious andtheother Muslims (27.1%), confession largestwere the second (71.5%), of existence with the Ibid. I.S. Gareev, “Khristianizatsiya marijtsev Prikamya iPriuralyav kontse 18-pervoj polovine 19 vekov” Raspredelenienaseleniya imperiipo glavnum veroispovedaniyam Many non-Russians were either converted by force, and therefore refused to accept refused to andtherefore force, by converted either non-Russians were Many By the 1860s the majority of the population of the Kazan province was Orthodox was Kazan province ofthe population majority the of 1860s the By the 40 Whatever the reasons may be, the non-Russian population soon had to reconcile to had soon population non-Russian the be, may reasons the Whatever dvoeverie (Christianizationof the peoples of the Middle Volga and its historic significance) 41 . The data were alike in the Simbirsk province-92.5%. The datawerealike intheOrthodox, Simbirsk (double faith), which constituted their cosmology. their constituted which faith), (double 23 42 Khristianizatsiya narodov srednego Povolzh’ya i Representatives of the second largest second the of Representatives (Divisionof the populationof theempire CEU eTD Collection 44 43 above all other peoples of the Middle Volga regions, including Russian peasants. of high,very not which butof stillwas spread institutions educational Muslim the put Tatars were there towns and In cities mullahs village in Almost every region. inthe Kazan education Muslim isof thespread respect in this features Tatars to their faith, and the ability (Il’minskii,to defend its truth writers andmissionary divinity. pre-revolutionary all Almost Koblov, government. Onethe of attention of special the most importantMalov, Mashanov),them linguistically to close and religiously remark on almostwere who byBashkirs wasassimilated Tatars the partof some while only Chuvash, “fanatic”and Mordva as such peoples, neighboring assimilate to managed devotion often They population. the of of the Muslim 10% of the population wasabout Tatars numberof the province 30%, theother groups of population being Russians, Mordva,Mari, InSimbirsk Chuvash. Tsarevokokshajsk, Laishevskij, from districtthey Chistopol’skij,Spasskij 25 to constituted In 69.41%). Tetushi the made they district half about population,the inSwiyazsk, of while 1897- year the (in district Mamadysh in the prevailed they province Kazan the In region. Volga Kazan province. was in of Muslim the the population concentration greatest The with lived Mari,whereMuslim Votyaktogether Tatars. peoples Chuvash, Islamto drew attention placechurch of and theymostly secular authorities, in thetook villages of conversion cases in The province. Samara living and Bashkirs mostly Tatars were confession Ibid. Taimasov, On the whole, Tatars outnumbered the majority of the peoples of by majority growth the Russia outnumberedof the peoples the of On the whole, Tatars According to data,providedthe by lived Tatars Taimasov, in all of provinces Middle the Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ taught the localthe taught children basicsthe of faithfor Muslim some parental donation. , 58. mektebs, where young people got further young education,where people quality got the 44 24 . The Middle Volga Tatars were an object of an object were Tatars Volga The Middle 43 . CEU eTD Collection kept byforce law.of wasstill ethnos theTatar within difference ethnoconfessional the but tolerance, of religious thepolicy Catherine to of IIturned Muslims government organized of the onbehalf resistance werebaptized. apart concessions, tax owingthe of Due to financial situation to Tatars missionary actions and alsoduring themissionary formovement Christianization of Muslims.As a result forcible of the strive of the poor werelevels ofthe Tatar slowest population toto improve accept their the Orthodox religion. They were converted in the 18 47 Particularism in Russia’s Eastern Provinces,” 46 least a saint),leastand could reciteamultitude oflegendshis about activities and goodness. Mohammed andAllahinmaintained that Mohammed their prayers, at wasGod’s (or prophet 45 animistic beliefs Mari, Votyak Chuvash, “Tatarized” orfrom Tatars non-Islamized from comes either Converts of group Old the of emergence the hypothesis that a makes etc. Taimasov forests, household, rivers, the images of gods and spirits typical for the traditional beliefs of indigenous peoples: patrons of otherclose groupsof to baptizedChuvash, non-Russians Mari, theyhad - the as same Votyak, weremadedifference. Thebeliefs basedon of andOld Converts popular traditions them that Converts. It is theirreligious background, rather than makes timethe conversion, of that the Tatars), the first point to address is the existence of two distinct groups - Old Converts and New Werth, W.Werth, Paul “From ‘Pagan’ Muslims to ‘Baptized’ Communists: religious ConversionEthnic and Taimasov, Of all the converted ethnic groups of the middle Volga region NewConverts the of only Volga region ethnic middle the groups Of converted the all Coming to the problem of formation of the ethnic group of of (baptized Kriashens the formation ethnicgroup the problemthe Comingof to of At the Margins of Orthodoxy Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ 45 . Werth mentions Kriashen. Werth kept to thatthe themselves thosewho considered chii (pure, true)Kriashen. , 87. , 33. Comparative Studies in Society and History 46 There he gives an example that Kriashen “invoked Kriashen that example an gives he There 25 42,3 (2000): 499. th 47 century CEU eTD Collection dwell in more detail. inmore dwell was comprised of baptized indigenous peoples, upon whose religious worldview I will now entity.population Orthodox large partof the other threaten RussianOrthodox a the The degree 49 and the appearance of Christian sects on the territory of the region (e.g. schism the of spread the observe can one Although Russianness. of concept the with together observing holidays the whilethetraditions weremixed often with rituals.non-Orthodox just meant be anOrthodox-often itwas-to what of perception degreeof their the not, did structure. Peoples, kept their being former Orthodox,often beliefs,to ifofficially and even they in largest inits the numberthe and atthesame people ethnic the most heterogeneous of time in the eastern borders of the Russianwindow on the East,”empire. Orthodox confessional Orthodox Church, Kazan different. of “A realstate the was iscalledthings byGeraci which entity can be regarded as faith, butuntil emergencethe of Il’minskii’s educational system movethis had little success. in theinstruct apostates Christian ineach to village Kriashen to order Finally,a priest wassent strong resistancepartof for metthe on authorities. sucha the which government permission, the to petitions of number a great applied Islam-they to return the for fought constantly they butmostand position- unprivileged Christians proselytism among werepersecuted, apostasy 48 “Tatar.” to “Muslim”becamesynonymic term confessional Geraci, Taimasov, The greatest part of Orthodox population were Russians, as Orthodox affiliation went affiliation as Orthodox Russians, were population of Orthodox part The greatest Muslims did not recognize Kriashens as Tatars-in the course national movement the course the of recognizeKriashens asTatars-in Muslims didnot Although official the may data look quite optimistic from pointthe view of of the Window on the East. Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ 49 was officially recognized as a centre of Orthodox missionary activities missionary Orthodox of a centre as recognized officially was ,88. 26 48 In effect, New Converts were in a skoptsy ), they did not to CEU eTD Collection represented by two sub-ethnic - by groups represented two likepeople, that of pagans,other amixture represented of andChristian traditional rituals. accept. of On Chuvash the had state whole, religious or been the pushed to they had accepted remained purepagans.” infactthey beChristians though ofhisvillage inhabitants to “wereconsidered Orthodox Islam. into conversion casesof the Chuvash with concerned wereespecially The authorities attention newly-converted Chuvashto population lived that toMuslim close villages. Tatar major in problem Middlethe Volga government region, the and the paying church morestarted into. In intowere translated ofIslam1820s, whenmass Tatars became the baptized apostasies became the object of missionary activities as this dialect was the one the first Christian texts time it was the At same the lowland Mari. highland and of whichwascharacteristic confessional difference Russians. Mari, As is explained by their location, geographical theyhad with close contacts Mordva, Tatars, province there moremostly in than were 10% Chuvash, Kurmysh, Buinsk,Simbirsk districts. InSimbirsk Chistopol Tetushu district. andCheboksaru, Kozmodemyansk,Yadrinsk, Tsivilsk, in in of 19 middle the Kazan province andthe the Tatars the 52 51 50 sub ethnic groups I. Ya. Yakovlev, Ibid.,82. Taimasov, The people that was generally considered to be the most russified-Mordva-was to bethemost consideredThe wasgenerally people that the that says childhood his remembering Yakovlev, teacher Chuvash A famous As to their religious worldview, the sub ethnic groups theirAs worldview,to religious ethnicgroups Chuvashlacked the sub of thevivid Speakingit Chuvash aboutthe should ethnos, be mentioned thatthey, comprised of two Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ Moya zhizn’ viryal viryal group inhabitingKozmodemyansk group and thatfirst Yadrinsk districts 52 (highland) and The newly-converted hardly had any basic knowledge of the religion the of knowledge basic any had hardly newly-converted The : vospominaniya , 60. anatri (My life: memoirs) (Moscow: Respublica, 1997), 51. moksha (lowland), took took (lowland), thirdthe place afterRussians the 27 and erzya . The greatest degree of of degree their The greatest . th century mostly century (21.6%), in 51 50 CEU eTD Collection 56 55 54 53 population. Chuvash andTatar they outnumbered inaccumulation where province, was Simbirsk religious rituals testifiesto otherindigenous peoples. Suchinterweaving of elements in confessionsof the different to incomparison the Orthodoxy of spread in the transformation dynamics positive observe can one although culture, of worldview. There is no achieved etc. well-being, cattle-being, harvest, unanimity toaskforremember good ancestors, becameto for day the ethnic this group of which Easter, syncretism. religious of Orthodox-pagan formation the influenced still but consciousness, popular from beliefs traditional oust completely not could Christianity that Hestates homogenous. be cannotreligiously called people,ethnos Mordva this the of religion history with of of dealt problem the who opinionthe Mokshin, of According to Church. Orthodox the of activity missionary and Russians with contacts ethnocultural of length differences in the religious cultural influence. Still, of the representatives among ethnic this we cangroup observe worldview from and religious both received thus with together theRussians,and them, and they lived to close district to district depending on the strength and Mordva peopleMordva in and by province Orenburg Bashkirs.Tatars by itsexplained by Kabuzan assimilation Russians. the underlines partial assimilation the of provinces one could observe a steady decrease in the number of Mordva population what can be andlinguistic influence onbehalf neighboringof peoples. In andSaratov Nizhnii Novgorod Ibid., 132. Mokshin, Kabuzan, Ibid. This example shows that the elements of paganism remained in the Mordva religious Mordva in the remained paganism of elements the that shows example This by factthat be explained the could people of Mordva the Christianization The successful Religioznue verovaniya Narodu Rossii 53 InSimbirsk, Penza andTambov Mordvahardly provinces experienced cultural ,177. , 133. 56 28 55 As an example he gives the celebration 54 CEU eTD Collection 59 the history of Christianenlightenment of Kazan 58 57 district of Kazan by wereculturally influenced province local the Russian population. Highland Mariof districtVasilsursk of province Novgorod Nizhnij andKozmodemyansk and by were population groups Bashkirs. indigenous Tatars assimilated language Turkic of Mari, minority the an among of being eastern an the Mari.ethnic group ethnic Eastern province. Alreadyin 16 the Mari lived in vastthe territories of districtsTsarevokokshajsk and Cheboksar of Kazan Almost highlandin lived all Kozmodemyansk Mari lowlandKazan province, of district while consciousness. in beliefs peoples’ the two of co-existence or beliefs of traditional among the scholars whether we can perceive it as construction of new religiosity on the basis sermons. atthe literature Christian and translated used language native Maris in their converted mass of implantKozmodemyansk AlbinskyChristian districtinto to Urusovtried and the education Iznoskovhighland was for among of Orthodoxy population, the recognition which a tendency the explainslowlanddifferences ofhighland in andinAlready perception 1850sthere religious Mari. the by educational activities of the Orthodox clergy. The priests of had favorable conditions for close ties with Orthodox population. Orthodox with ties close for conditions favorable had their location near two important paying to factors, special attention and other ethnocultural geographic, by social,the economic, waterways- the of only Mari not beto alarge butby priests,the explained should efforts educational the extent Volga and the Sura, which means that they Werth, I.A. Iznoskov, Taimasov, The Mari The Mari lowland groups: wascomprised of people three highland, and eastern group. What concerns the specific religious situation of the Mari people one can mention the mention can one Mari people the of situation religious specific the concerns What At theMargins of Orthodoxy, 58 Werth states that the reasons for the changes in the religious worldview of highland of in worldview religious for changesthe the thereasons that states Werth Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ Materialu dlya istoriikhristianskogo prosvescheniya inorodtsev kazanskogo kraya th century a partoflowland century moved Mari Urals, creating the to thus , 72. 200-223. inorodsy 29 )(Moskva: 1893), n.p., 3-4. 59 In the very beginning of the of beginning very the In (Materials for (Materials 57 CEU eTD Collection religious practices and those of religious and Finno-Ugricpeoples, namelylowlandlivedthose practices of other who in Maris, Mamadysh and Kazan districts. territory Kamabetween while theVyatka, and the inKazanprovince lived onlyin they while lowland Mari kept to their traditional belief. highland Mari inpopulation could be truly Orthodox called middlethe of 19 the (Kazan: n.p., 1889),78. 62 priests. Orthodox of theactivities than effect missionary hadgreater even ties economic cultural and population, indigenous Russian and of co-existence authoritiessettle decided to Russian in localpeasants villages.the Smirnov considers such that from various far districts came there to perform perform to a ritual. camethere far various from districts people that so famous some were which of sacredgroves, hierarchy) church were and church 61 P.Geraci, and Michael Khodarkovsky and(Ithaca London : Cornell University Press,2001),147. Appropriations,” in Appropriations,” 60 by a conducted objects. inhabitspecific in and could was located physical world the sacred the that istherecognition less peculiar No monotheistic. was religion their that say not can one although God, supreme the supposedly for acculturation. asthe basis tolerance ethnocultural created Russian colonizationpopulation Russian Orthodox settled close highland to people which Mari I.N. Smirnov, I.N. Werth, Paul W.Werth, “Big Candles and ‘Internal Conversion’: The Mari Animist Reformationand Its Russian Religious beliefs whoof Votyak werestudied byLuppov, draws betweenparallels their indigenouslived population-of group on Votyak- the partof other The the greatest To ensure the greater spreading Orthodoxythe of among Mari the population, the Lowland Mari rejected Christianity for a long time. They venerated They time. long a for Christianity rejected Mari Lowland At theMargins of Orthodoxy Cheremisu. Istoriko-etnograficheskij ocherk kart Of Religion andEmpire:Mission, Conversion andTolerancein Tsarist Russia (usually the most experienced and respected person, since the Mari had no had Mari the since person, respected and experienced most the (usually 60 The places for such sacrifices, beginning with amass prayer The beginning with suchsacrifices, placesfor ,31. 30 (The Cheremis. Historical-ethnographical studies) Historical-ethnographical Cheremis. (The 61 62 Despite this, only part of the Kugu Jumo th ed. Robert century, - CEU eTD Collection underwent some changes absorbing into themselves elements of Christian veneration. Christian of elements themselves into absorbing changes some underwent higher God. single, perception the of a formed there Islam, and Orthodoxy of influence the under then and world, the of layer that considers the spirit, Holy Kuldusin andKvos’ religion.images Thus, ofpopular with the sacredimages equate Christian to the alive.kept As not could them themissionary efforts it oust completely, was possible considered God highest in the belief of formation the to led faith monotheistic Muslim with acquainted getting part beliefs. keptto while great of their population the traditional sacrifices in public and family ( in andfamily places sacrifices public ( groves insacred Votyak sacrifices weather, etc. practiced being, good blood sacrifices,whom to people prayed for some practical things like goodharvest,well- “devil” speech a nickname for as , the this land. Although groupalong Mari ethnic modern used in cultthe with colloquial the of 67 66 65 of 64 63 the neighboring zones and with whom they had close economic and cultural contacts. of Christianity of Votyak in the first half of the 19 Vladukin, Ibid.,78. Ibid. Taimasov P.N.Luppov, keremet,’ Inmar. Close cohabitation of Votyak with Tatars in Kazan province allows for ahypothesis that Religiozno-mifologicheskaya kartina Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ 65 But despite the influence of the monotheistic religion, the paganbeliefs Butdespite still the influence the of were religion, monotheistic the common to Finno-Ugric and Turkic peoples of the region, was also venerated by Materialu dlya istorii khistianstvau votyakovpolovine pervoj v 19 veka Inmar vorshuds - vorshuds -the venerated spirits- intermingled with the God-Father, God-Son the and God-Son God-Father, with the intermingled spirits- venerated -the used to be just one of the Gods, equal others,representingGods, beto theupper of justone used the to with guardian angels, separate saints with natural spirits. natural with saints separate angels, guardian with , 77. keremet’ 67 kual , 101-102. th As a result of missionary activities many rituals many activities missionary of result a As century) (Vyatka: n.p., 1911). ). 31 64 was initially considered to be adeity, initiallyto considered requiring was Orthodoxy thus had only external character, external only had thus Orthodoxy (Materials forthe history lud ) andfamily 66 63 Vladukin The cult Inmar, CEU eTD Collection 68 Orthodox education of of system of the andtheappearance movement reforms missionary of the the for impetus the became which authorities, and church from secular both the concern serious caused Islamism Muslim Tatars refusing to become Orthodox. and Islam to return to wanted who Kriashens, newly-converted beliefs; pagan their with living still lifewhile of Christian part ceremonial symbolic, recognized Kriashens who old-converted lowland Votyak, Mari, Chuvash, Orthodox of doctrine; the beliefs,basics accepted traditional their to keeping who, Mari highland and Mordva identity; national of a part became extent worldview and proximity to the official state religion: Russians,for whom Orthodoxy a greatto populationthe of multiethnicthis region intosome according groups to their religious Slavonic. church indigenous population speak andto in geteducation Russian and tounderstand liturgy the in the for difficult very still was it villages, neighboring inthe especially assimilation, linguistic certain presupposes close coexistence Although wereFinno-Ugric. andVotyak Mordva Mari, while group, from Turkic andChuvash coming Tatar population, Slavic of the representatives Taimasov, This confessional heterogeneity crowned with cases of apostasy and the threat of of pan- threat andthe of apostasy cases with crowned heterogeneity This confessional The analysis of ethnoconfessional situationin the Middle Volga region allows todivide in Russiansweretheonly Speaking linguistic the representation region of Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ inorodtsy , 92. -the problem -the which will be developed in nextchapters.the 68 32 CEU eTD Collection ‘inferior’ peoples to a core, dominant nation.” implicitly least andat distinct, culturally of diverse, by thesubordination characterized state, multinational a other, the on and, dynasty, non-national hereditary a by ruled regions onethe made hand, essentially compositestate an peoplespremodern, and upof different “on as empire the of definition the gives Werth Paul Thus, notion. very its on views various to by models of characterized variety of the reaction. side non-Russian from the response subsequent andthe subjects eastern the policy towards the that made instrategies between. discusses thus imperial up the reinterpretation The chapter or of subversion cases with eager acceptance, to rejection, from direct varied activities The mission.” “civilizing the of object passive the not gotvarioussubjects presentations andinterpretations by population, indigenous the whowas TheideaRussians. of its imperial bythe policy eastern the towards conducted government into a socium asOrthodox transform recognized goingto of they were Muslim partwhich authorities had todeal multilingualwith and polyconfessional entity population,the of non- the social, and political economic situation in theborderlands. In Middlethe region Volga the aggravated byan loyalty degrees of imperial the unstable characterized by to different centre, identification, homogeneity strive population, for greater its inof which the 19 69 Werth, 3. Eastern Subjects of the Russian Empire and the State Policy on Ethnic In an attempt to define the structural defineIn attemptitisof to empire,an structural possibletoturn pattern Russian the the The attitude of the empire toits subjects was predetermined by necessitythe forits self- At theMargins of Orthodoxy, 7. Minorities 33 69 At the same Atthe Andreas Kappeler time, defines inorodsy reaction to the imposed the to reaction th century was CEU eTD Collection 73 2004),16. 72 countries due to its geographical position. By the 19 itsthe By position. geographical countries dueto problems inthe modernhistory of those empires,of unlike FranceBritain, European andother minorities.” ‘Asian’ or European culture wasmuch stronger andhighly more developed than of culture the ‘Oriental’ essentially because Russians’ inevitable even natural and was process was assumed,“the Assimilation projects of empire. the core nationalized homogenous amorecreate to striving were least 1830s at since were especially pronounced in regard to the Volga region, where, as it 71 diversity of the population. can not give a definite answer to the all-embracing? questionand voluntary, center imperial the with minorities due to the ethnic, of particular,” the linguisticand attachments the and confessionalRussian empire was “caught in its of diverse population,” integration the permanent tug of war betweenloyalty the vision above of the all universal else, to “from imperialan featuring model tolerance andone religious diversity and emphasizing dynastic of a unitary nationala transition viewedmust as be in question period the that argument Werth’s Paul consideration state, which aspired to a higher degree of 70 non-racist. and tolerant paradigmatic, flexible, populations asremarkably overseas Unlikeempires. EdwardSaid, heportrays thetreatment non-Russian of conquered Russia as a traditional premodern empire and contrasts it with the 19 Geraci , Geraci Seyla Benhabib, Werth, Kappeler, The analyses of the situation in the Middle Volga region of the empire shows that one Tsarist Russia of the 19 At theMargins of Orthodoxy, Window on the East Rossiya. The Rights ofOthers: Aliens, Residents andCitizens 73 , 248. Russia’s relationship with the “East” presented a unique set of auniqueset presented “East” the with Russia’s relationship th 7. century century was empire,a multiethnic imperial butthe authorities 71 72 the question arises if the process of unification of the or was the process of cultural assimilation of ethnic 34 th century Russian leaders were acutely were leaders Russian century (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, th century Western, century 70 Taking into CEU eTD Collection 78 77 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 92. 76 75 74 world in the form of its subjugation, pillage, and exploitation.” modern “outsidebourgeois Europe its traditional confines and atthe expense of restof the the in cultural Orient interests within situating the contextof expansion of perspective the Europe’s as Orient. part of the viewed byEuropeans often as itwas “Western” culture, or “European” judgments country’sin about place the sensitive to and cultural terms.” and cultural historical Russia in soextensively geographical, because blurry Asiainterpenetrated often grew inferiority,” Oriental and superiority Western between distinction ineradicable the is Orientalism of essence religious groups withreligious groups for Orthodoxy.” status a privileged absolute, for it was often used as a synonym for “non-Russians”,be not can regardlesshowever, of their explanation, The religious non-Russians. baptized define to population indigenous old the Russians…actually fit (orshould fit)into the larger society.” Russification, the mosteven faith.Christian, Although affiliationOrthodox remained linked to the imperial goal of crucialanother, to Orthodoxy from questionapostasy for or faiths their promoting either for persecuted was the Great Reforms of 1860s brought was “how non- by the extended use of term the use of extended by the Ibid., 133. Werth, DanielR.Brower Edward J.Lazzerini,and ed., Ibid. Edward W. Said , The shift in the classification of the diverse population of the empire was characterized was empire the of population diverse the of classification in the The shift In his book In his book Edward Said his presents ideaof“Orientalism” historical and through Russian law and administration in the 19 inthe administration and law Russian At theMargins of Orthodoxy, inovertsy 75 in the Russian context “the cognitive boundary between ‘us’ and eastern ‘others’ eastern and ‘us’ between boundary cognitive “the context Russian in the Orientalism (of a different faith) in the course of eventual Christianization of the of Christianization eventual of course in the faith) a different (of 76 (New York :Panteon Books, 1978),6. 27. inorodsy. The notion Russia’sImperial Orient: Borderlines andPeoples,1700-1917 35 th century for recognized “combined century tolerance inorodsy 77 Thus the non-Orthodox population non-Orthodox the Thus 78 74 (of a different origin) replaced In spite of Said’s idea that “the CEU eTD Collection Russia,” 79 fashion).” particularistic in a be administered they should that uncivilized and/or whowere sodifferent subjects’ (those fromassimilation)beunderstood but(those amenableto different to Russians and ‘colonial separating Slavs…and all Eastern inhabitants other of empire.”the most empire’s barrier of difference insurmountable signify an to hadcome the ‘others’ different radically designate to meant originally term “the definition Slocum’s In affiliation. popular Sufi popular Sufi learnedIslam and Islam. Old (baptized The converts inthe 16 links the between ignored andfaith Islamic of Kriashens’ nature the heretical the expose missionaries Orthodoxy, often and toaccepttriedTatars to Kriashens Inpersuading Kriashens. further along. be discussed would which community, the shook Islam into apostasies massive until attention, groups processthe of assimilation was somethingmore natural, they not givenwere their due for Finno-Ugric the that itwas assumed Since influence. Islamic Muslims experienced with the Turkiclinguistic zones livinginthecontact to proximity population,only those although policy.From the other ethnic groups in the region one must also distinguish Chuvash due to the space between the Russian and Tatar worlds andwas thus the primary target of the assimilation (Kriashens), inlay Middle of region whoseidentity Tatars the Volga empirethe –baptized wereviewed assimilation.groups for Finno-Ugric ethnic assubjects assimilate,KriashenVolga hardto Chuvash, the region: whileMuslimswereconsidered and 80 John W. Slocum, “Who, and When, Were the Inorodsy? The Evolution of the Category of Aliens in Imperial Werth, In it isthis regard worth while viewing a particular ethnicgroup,which lived in the From 1860sthe the haveterm seems been to used to“signify‘national both minorities’ Agnes Kefeli maintains that the Christian-Muslim dichotomy was not absolute between Russian Review At the Margins of Orthodoxy, 57,2(1998):176. 80 This holds especially true for the diverse population of the Middle 139. 36 79 th century) came CEU eTD Collection Discussing the Russian Empire. Slavic Eurasian Studies Affirmation of Christianity in the Middle Volga Region”, in 83 82 Michael Khodarkovsky (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2001),255. in 81 camefrom peoples who wereoriginally Muslims. primarily from background, (baptizedan while animist Newconverts the in 18 the Chuvash). ethnocultural values (e.g. “chiMari”,“chan Chavash ”- correspondingly pure Mari, pure missionaries). by the “paganism” called was (what veneration of forms pre-Islamic indigenous, Christianity, important place an in religiousthe world of most Kriashen was by occupied them from inneighboring way some the Yet,despite the groups. clear with connection would differentiate a label that adopt hadto Orthodoxy-they to converted time same the were at speak a and continuedTurkic language, to Muslim. of situation-they dubious their Because as being as from distinct Tatars they thought that the could “Tatar” designation a apply to only themselves Kriashen regarded old-converted Tatars”, “baptized them to referred as authorities Asia, in Arabic or Persian. in Islam wasthe taught “high” Islam whereas spirits”, Islam meant“popular Sufi books in and Tatar beliefs superstitious in charmsamulets, and evil “Low” Islam. “high” and “low” between differentiate to tended they Islam, ideaof rationalized time, while Islam, in its popular form, remained an important part of their religious world, religious their of part important an remained form, popular its in Islam, while time, for quite along have status toonly a formal continued Christianity nearbypeoples. from other The designation “Kriashen” distinguishedthus they religiously form Muslims linguistically and L . Taimasov, “ From Kazan’s ‘Newly Converted’ to ‘Orthodox Inorodsy’: The Historical Ibid.,261. Stages of the Agnes Kefeli, “The Role of Tatar and Kriashen Women in the Transmission of Islamic Knowledge, 1800-1870,” Knowledge, ofIslamic Transmission the in Women Kriashen and Tatar Roleof “The Kefeli, Agnes OfReligion andEmpire: Missions, Conversion, andTolerancein Tsarist Russia Every Every hadethnic group its ownterminology,faithfulness totheir denoting group’s Though Kriashen samespoke the nearby languageas Muslims, andthough Russian 83 ThoseKriashens keptwho totheir belief pagan were“pure, Kriashens.” called true 82 , 13 (2007): 124. 37 Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to 81 Because missionaries had Becausemissionaries abookish, medresse of the Middle East or Central , ed. Robert P. Geraci and Geraci P. Robert ed. , th century) CEU eTD Collection its adherents. By the middle ofthe 19 for shame of a source became even Christianity communities, some In latter. the to proximity view linguistic amere because onChristianity rituals, as of their andcultural collection the Kriashen,with together sometimes and to, close living noTatars, the doubt projects; national expansive own their constituted such a certain possessingthreat.ethnic groups, agreatassimilative potential being and fulfilling capable of about wereanxious groups nationalist and Russian the state the Both elites. Tatar progressive exercised tolerance to indigenous population, which couldfall under the assimilation project of Literaturnoe Obozrenie, 2006), 92. Romanov Empire and Nationalism: An Essay on the Metodology of Historical research) networks.” of economic development andthe sacred places, “the appropriation the of andpre-Islamic pre-Christian books, popular Sufi of religious use Middle Volga region.” Middle a variety of cultural systems (including mystical Islam and flourishing animism),then inthe between dialogue a complex involved but religions, world two between achoice simply not was Orthodox Christian Tatar community. Kefeli argues that “for Kriashens, conversion to Islam 87 86 start of the 19 85 84 unity.as athreattotheir and ethno-cultural population wasregarded non-Russian part of the by great “foreign” a considered was Church Orthodox baptism. Russian their despite Alexei Miller, Ibid., 252. Ibid. Kefeli, Imperial powers, facing the threat of facingImperial threatpowers, of the Islamism in Pan-Turkism itsand easternborders, The Role of Tatar and Kriashen Women, th Imperiya Romanovukhnatsionalism: i esse po metodologiiistoricheskogo issledovaniya century, collective apostasies to Islam by some of the Kriashen shook the shook Kriashen of bysome the Islam to apostasies collective century, 85 Various strategies Various and agentsof work-includingIslamization were at th century, manyKriashens were engagedmigrant inlabor 251. 38 87 Muslims were able to propagate a critical 86 (Moscow: Novoe 84 From the (The CEU eTD Collection 93 92 91 Islam.” aggressive and dynamic less natural attraction”, or bythe“more the apostasies if could one explain in caseof Kriashens Also, the region. in relation to othermosques and served as mullahs for ethniceach other, groups of their own constructed names, be by called Christian to refused Kriashen fact the time that the the region the officials same andatthe activity missionary church and Orthodox of the theweakness demonstrated saw “an itfor alarm,immediate zones in fileda caused and of such petitions, number Votyak contact the asMuslims. recognize them to for apermission 90 Missioner 89 88 existedin village”every Muslims, Islam which“exposedthem to through mosquesthe andschools thatinvariably practices. and, spendingmany inmonths Muslim areas, they naturally many adopted Islamic beliefs and isolated individuals, wholethe isolated but villagesapostatized. Such openrejection of Orthodoxy communities. peasant local beingstate extendedinpeasants, 1866to for allowed acertain in degree of self-government by predetermined misinterpretation Kriashen’s the which,of 1861emancipation the statute, foreducation their children. Ibid., 153. Ibid.,162. Ibid., 182. Werth, Orthodoxy), from Kriashen of (Apostasy pravoslaviya” ot Tatar E kreschenukh Malov, .A. “Otpadenie Werth“ From , ‘Pagan’ Muslims to ‘Baptized’ Communists,” 499. Perhaps the biggest cause of the problem remained baptized Tatars’ cohabitation with cohabitation Tatars’ baptized remained problem biggestthe causeof Perhaps the Paul makesWerth Paul “Great athe apostasy that hypothesis plausible of 1866” was At theMargins of Orthodoxy, 11 (1874):114-115. 88 By endof the 1860s overtenthousand baptized Tatars asked in their petitions 92 and sometimes were the only way for the Kriashen to provide 93 What made the apostasy still more impressive was that not 91 148. 39 89 90 The fact that not only Kriashen, but Chuvash but Kriashen, only not that fact The was an indicator of Islamic influence in the influence Islamic of indicator an was en CEU eTD Collection 97 96 95 baptizedand Tatars) (Kazan: n.p., 1892), 185. 94 apostasy,” the counteract to ability government’s the deeplycompromised release of and arrest door revolving “this that proposition Werth’s Here Isupport persecution. or choose tolerance apostates-to the deal quite how to sureThe they was with were not with imperial the problem governmentthat Islam. to their return prevent to grounds no had local authorities the that Tatars baptized local village.” the in faith Orthodox in the alone remain cannot “one that saying toapostasy,peoples in thus village a mixed Votyak-Tatar hisone Votyakby explained apostasy they beshould questioned By alltogether. this creating unity instigated otherindigenousthey that claimed and interrogation refused separate theapostates villages, since thewhole prosecute understand the Christian faith as well as the Muslim faith to which they were now returning.not did they and converted forcefully were themselves, or parents, their for Christians, them of the divinitypersuade could one of then only the for Islam, to Christian reconversion the of illegality the of faith.announcement rejected. for the official reply to their petition and would return to Orthodoxy should their claims be masse the time they had already spent in prison waiting for the hearing of in timehad the spenttheir forhearing the case, waiting prison of already they because of werereleased andmany theircontest punishment, tried to imprisonment, or labor, Werth, RGIA, f. 821, op.8 , d. 763, l. 161ob.; quoted in Werth, NART, f.4, op. 101, d.11,l. 20. E.A. Malov, E.A. required legal regulations, since many of the apostates claimed many they since legal of that were waiting apostates the regulations, required The difficulty with the regulation of the problem was that it was virtually impossible to impossible virtually was it that was problem the of regulation the with difficulty The In this connection E. A. Malov puts an emphasis on the need in the official and open Thefact that many apostates and proselytizers, sentenced either exileto in Siberia, hard At theMargins of Orthodoxy, Missionerstvo sredimukhameddan ikreschenukh tatar 97 since in the eyes of the baptized Tatars the protest came not from from came imperial the protest not the Tatars of sinceintheeyes baptized the 161. 94 Many apostates claimed that they had never been never had they that claimed apostates Many 40 At the Margins of Orthodoxy, (Missionary work amonf Mohammedans amonf work (Missionary 160. 95 96 convinced the convinced CEU eTD Collection 60; quoted in Paul W.Werth, 101 100 99 98 localthe ,whopriests their taught parishioners andperformed liturgy in the local He languages. missionaries.” across Volgathe as counterparts meadow their visited even highland Mari villages, and “literacy languagebecameintheaffected widespread noted, and the Russian ethnographers inhabitants of region. Asthe Orthodox enlightenmentthe to the broughtpopulation,the who monasterycommune and eventually ina convent Kozmodem’yansk in 1877. was ingranted 1868 that thepetitioned priests the Synod literacyfor education. andOrthodox Since 1860sagroupofyoung Highlandliterate for Mari permission and to establishthe theirmonks own monasteryspirit. were and school, whichthedevil. was representativesreligions,which the of cult the of changes the through viewed be ceased can to be the spirit manifestationof of embracing Orthodoxy. On the levelof of the animist cosmology ancestorsthisindigenous phenomenon and in of district Kozmodemyansk monastery Kazannon-Russian the canberegardedasa province now became a representative Orthodoxy in lifethe ofindigenous population, though on various terms. The establishmentof a of the and clergy. the authorities local the from but Orthodoxy, denouncing from them prevent not would who centre, Ibid., 202. Ibid., 201. Evgenii Popov, Evgenii Ibid. 98 Many Mari people thus saw the conversion to Orthodoxy as a way to escape the evil the escape to as away Orthodoxy to conversion sawthe thus people Mari Many We could explain also the reasons for acceptance such in of open Orthodoxy desirethe Contrary to the massive apostasies one comes across the examples of incorporation of 101 Ob userdii k missionerskomu delu Werth stresses that highland Mari’s religiosity was largely due to the efforts of efforts the to due largely was religiosity Mari’s highland that stresses Werth 99 . Female representatives of localfounded awomen’s . Female first of parish the representatives At the Margins of Orthodoxy, (Oneagerness formissionary work) (Perm:n.p., 1874), 52- 41 202 keremet, 100 The peculiarity of the of peculiarity The central to local pagan CEU eTD Collection 103 102 they of notion the (instead, sacrifice appearance candles), of used breadand sin and afterlife. blood of monotheism,rejection for strive beingthe ofreference points the animistic perception, recognized religion on the same level with Islam and Orthodoxy. reforming theirpagan belief, own which,it, asthey couldsaw receivethestatus of an officially by pattern of butinstead recognition belief andrituals, not suggested blindly accepting the achieve was to group how anethnic trying became vividexampleprovince most and the of in Vyatka It emergedamongMari the ‘BigCandle’). the (literally population name KuguSorta the received that phenomenon, the of analysis the through viewed be can population indigenous Volga region- e.g. among Chuvash, Kriashen. way or another, served peoplesmonastery, Archangelname received Michael,inof region.the the which The of one as a role the of cosmology model pagan the to central been always has forforest the for worldview, thereligious other non-Russian inthe changes also tothe contributed highland part of The deforestation the counterparts. monasteriesmeadow their to than peoples inindigenous other and the Russians with both Middleconnections for itsignificant, and moregave highlandMari for opportunities people trade cultural was quite factor cities. Thisconnected geographical with Kozmodem’yansk other that routes totrade close Volga river, nearthe itwas situated factthat the dueto probably people was local firstthe Mari and language the completed grammar. into liturgy the translated who Al’binskii Andrei priest the of example prominent most the gives Ibid.,221. Werth, The reform presupposed theadjustment of basicsthe ofbookish religions in the Mari highland the among appeared monasticism non-Russian of case the that fact The But perhaps the most interesting example of incorporation of Orthodoxy into the life on At theMargins of Orthodoxy, 203. 103 42 102 CEU eTD Collection 104 system, but through a fundamental reworking of one's own religious beliefs.” the attempt torationalize the religious system “not through the adoption an of external religious conversion”, “internal case specific calls this Werth Paul rejected. unconditionally and apostasy petitioners ratherand sophisticated defendinganimismintheirown, the at the same Since ways. time were formally legal forseemed ofandnecessary from what recognition, dogmas appropriate the Orthodoxy Orthodox Christians, take to religion,imposed wishing Orthodox the to approach they apragmatic exercised words, theirbasis of their own indigenous belief. claimsin Exhibition were1890. Industrial and Scientific recognizedKazan the at rituals, their from artifacts the with together as the sign Theof open manifestation of the reform expressed itself in the public presentation of theirbelief, 106 ideathe now a human incorporated of corruption religion pragmatic perception animistic of previously the the factthat This to testified deity. single becamethe now when KuguJumo outcome of refusal indigenoustheir belief andOrthodoxy. turning to practice misfortuneseconomicThey viewed theirpresent of the paganism. social and as Mari the communicatecould not with God through Christianity, insisted on they exclusive the intosin, by confessing Orthodoxy, thus having rejected their own old rituals; it was implied that 107 105 scientific-industrial exhibition) (Kazan: n.p., 1890), 30-31. pagan faith and ritual.” in their Russian they petitions expression “customaryused the white-cheremis-oral-ancient I.N. Smirnov, Werth, RGIA,f.796, op. 172, d.2686, ll.3-11. Werth, 104 The most radical innovation the reformers made was the achievement of monotheism, of achievement the was made reformers the innovation radical most The The reformers called theirbeliefs Likewise, they petitioned the Emperor, requesting exclusion from Orthodoxy on the on Orthodoxy from exclusion requesting Emperor, the petitioned they Likewise, Big Candles , At theMargins of Orthodoxy, Etnografiya na Kazanskoj nauchno-promushlennoj vustavke 145. 107 In the essence of the faith lay the idea was that the Mari Intheessence lay faith fallenhadidea was of Mari the the that the 237. 105 They modified alsoin used Cyrillic other orthography- tochto chii Marla vera tochto chiiMarla 43 (“ancient pure Mari faith”)pure Mari (“ancient and (Ethnography at the Kazan 106 CEU eTD Collection policy in its eastern borderlands. eastern in its policy imperial of the fulfillment for successful the was chosen anew as that strategy enlightenment by the Orthodoxy of acceptance of conscious cases inthe only effective proved bypriests, the conducted activities, missionary The conversion. simple of means by Orthodoxy in non-Russians baptized transformation of indigenous belief as a protective measure. religion,approved imposed theimpetusforon indigenouspopulation,conscious the created draw state- the that conclusion the allows discourse, to used thelanguage of which Orthodox affiliation, and being notRussians, and they did not have to accept Orthodoxy. 108 “church-civil enactments,“ and prayers icons, Christian cross, the rejected they faith”, “Russian from the difference maintain to in the of order forgiveness prayforsins.Still,the to and nature necessity the Werth, The processes, described in the chapter, suggest that it was impossible to keep the it to was impossible suggestthat in chapter, the The processes, described However explicitly the reformers rejected Orthodox Christianity, in their debates they Big Candles , 162. inorodsy, 108 thus maintaining basis that the ethnicity of lay in the religious usually when the church relied on Orthodox Christian Orthodox on relied church the when usually 44 CEU eTD Collection structure of the missionary institutions. In the Middle Volga region the duties of missionary institutions. of structure region missionary of Volga duties the In Middle the the teacher-training institutions. school and at practice-both in daily the realized howwas ideology the of overview to the bedevoted will subchapters fourth the and third The system. above-mentioned the of basics the analyze will I which after region, in the activities missionary of state the upon dwell to going institutions of the Il’minskii atvarious process educational in the and region the situation missionary general the presenting system. To give a broader perspectiveapproach, first deals with primarily Thechapterthe project. carrying Russification the to out of the situation, I am firstof Radlov, putupwith Islam, butregarded the usage of Russianthe language as mainthe means inorodsy as system meansnative religion with of of languages (Il’minskii education the usageof the indigenous population in emerged that Volga Middle the region one wasbasedon Orthodox the for the programs Russification alternative thetwo Of education. inthesphereof reflection member the and/or of nation.found The immediate “Russianness” Russian the of concept its empire Russian of the is belonging beingasubject that state tothe related appeared questions 4. Educational Question in the Context of Orthodox Missionary Activities. ofOrthodoxMissionary Questionin the Context 4. Educational Together with the question of educating the Non-Russian population of the empire there The analyses of the religious missionary work in the given period shows a certain schools). The other, Russian-Tatar school system, which was connected with the name 4.1 TheMain Trends ofMissionary Activities inthe regionfrom1860-1905. 45 CEU eTD Collection 4. 3. 2. 1. policy. imperial by fighting propaganda“bosom as wasdetermined and the church” of the Muslim missionaries carried out the task of in state their essence). the Orthodox proselytism,be non- to wereconsidered religions other whereas the empire, of the by thepatriots practised returningreligious the apostates to topicsthe (persuading that Orthodoxy was the state religion and therefore must be 110 Nauk, Cheboksary, 2004),80. missionary societies of the Middle 19- Volga at the kontse endv of the 19 Povolzh’ya Srednego oschestv nachale 20 veka”(Organizational and missionerskih Pedagogical basisof religious and educational activities of Orthodox the pravoslavnuh deyatel’nosti religiozno-vospitatel’noj 109 thepeople. interested that literature illustrated the with opponents. debate strong was aneed to topics. religious on speeches intopaganism or Islam. made decisions,priests, especially important when factsthey ofmass the discovered apostasy of the work supervised the districts, certain assigned to brotherhood, of the The missionaries brotherhood. st.Gurii was which of famous most the brotherhoods, of shoulders the on fell work Ibid. NART,f.4,op.1,d.120764,A.V. quoted ll.7-9; in Morohov, “Organizatsionno-pedagogicheskie osnovu As can be seen, the scale of the activities and the responsibilities were impressive, the The usual forms of missionary activity following:were the Speaking withwas it illiterate mostly was thepopulation the Since Russiansliterature. religious of Distribution or there when cases difficult inthe especially work, missionary daily in the part Taking Trips districts, toremote providingmethodicalhelp local tothe giving priests, 110 109 the inorodsy 46 th -beginning of 20 the (in their(in indigenous languages) on th century) (Diss. Candidat (Diss. century) CEU eTD Collection made them of capable ingiving arguments of favor Islam when talkingtheir to opponents. by the fact that determined the The authoritiesfuturetheirwith their pupils. they spread onto unconditional devotion to religion that would Muslims, bringtrue main of wasto alternative upgenerations against the task religion. Their thus oftenregion wasreferred that, like the Orthodox, to theyMuslims carried out the asfunction “religious of missionary work, aimed fanatics.” This was partly madrasah also were usually mullahs, who well-educated werethe mainproselytizers the suggests that some education. upbringing, then upbringing,teaching.” then 112 Cheboksaru,nauk, 2002 ), 110. (The systemof educationof non-Russian peoples ofPovolzje: structure,organization, practice) (Diss. Candidat 111 mektebs the except schools, no were where there areas inthe pronounced especially became cases together with clothingfollowhabits gradually started andto dietary rituals. Such their religious living inorodsy, togetherNon-Muslim districts. Simbirsk and Kazan both in proselytism, Islamic of objects with Muslimchurch Tatars, was sometimes thatnumber the of foundMuslimrepresentativesVolga region,their where Islam proved to be a Tatarplausible alternative for Orthodoxy lifedue to the large population. Middle the of characteristic was especially style It its activities. to main threat the as elites Muslim moreof the Whatattractive, Russians, constituted and Kriashen, the main concern Chuvash, of the VotyakOrthodox were the Ibid. N.H. Yumankulov,“Sistema obrazovaniya narodov nerusskih Povolzh’ya:organizatsiya,structura, praktika” The analysis of the religious situation in the region, conducted by by Yumankulov, conducted region, in the situation religious the of analysis The Duringin the period question, Russian the ChurchOrthodox regarded progressive , for the for , and mekteb inorodsy teachers. The motto of these educational institutions was “First religious was“First institutions educational these of The motto teachers. would sendtheir aMuslim to children in togetschool atorder least 111 What is also typical of the 19 madrasah gaveits pupils a religiousstrong background, which 47 th century Islamic education in the century education Islamic 112 CEU eTD Collection themselves advised the Kriashen to behavelike Christians, for being the subjects of the Russian activity. missionary of Orthodox opponents for the meeting places literature, of active pro-Muslim propagandabe places the to out turned to Islam.Markets forms of attraction of the one also This was paid. - these were the placesin style, the Tatar attended themosques and intook part holidays,the weremore they highly for distribution of life,habits. Russian dietary When costume, works season indigenous peopleduring or dressed Islamic religious since for thesake poor, of many converted concessions. tax faith.” in “brethren their other crucial argument the Muslim Tatar made was that they are generally well-off and help 115 114 not so difficult and that the rules of the their interlocutors that to pray five times a day ismore beneficial than one, that Islamic fasts are Orthodoxy status alsothe of worked: they a paganbelief. arguments convinced practical Purely claiming Trinitythe thatof nearly embodiment polytheism, was the assigning to thus 113 best. the was faith Muslim the that mention persuade the Orthodox peasantsin Islamic that “God is one, missionary butpeople in such villages moreusually spoke than one indigenouslanguages. The main tendency the faiththe that fact is the was job the different”,simplified degree a to also What languages. workother and Russian not forgettingwasinto translated books Muslim thesimple used preachers toIslamic The villages. Tatar stress on neighboring made on monotheism. Islamists were trying to Ibid. Ibid. Morohov, Another strong factor of ideological influence was the propaganda of Islamic way of way Islamic of the propaganda was influence ofideological factor Another strong The main objects of Islamic influence as a rule were the inhabitants of remote villages remote of inhabitants the were asarule influence of Islamic main objects The Organizatsionno-pedagogicheskie osnovu, 114 Orthodoxy among Tatars was perceived to be the religion of the sharia 113 are more advantageous, aremore advantageous, especially formen. The 48 89. Sometimes they went the other way around, way other the went they Sometimes 115 The mullahs CEU eTD Collection the massive Islamization of the population of the region and were trying resistto it. That is why stronger. even it making thus faith their for basis scientific amore give would Tatars educated the that afraid ashe was Tatars the to education secular idea the providing of was from against Il’minskii Islam; baptized Tatars the toturn hoped impossibleprove was them by to It wrong. of means Christian missionariesthe education that so itwas books, did thantheir anythingwantnot sacredIslamic Tatars other toread the that Il’minskii: For the 25 the For Il’minskii: 116 by unconditionally accepted believers. the course of time inlotthisof initself the hada approach drawbacks anddisadvantages.was thatIslam But the religiondenouncing the prophetthey hoped toruin basisthe religion. for the wasas belief, their of falsity built the Muslims the to explain to thus was missionaries Orthodox the of into a system,spoke aboutitin insulting an no waywhile giving sound arguments against it. which was have idea parish,the faith not a of to thevillagesto Muslim and totalkthe in did good order not to be questioned, knewthelanguages, and came in know language. who, the not contrast, did Themissionaries, but Christianused toOrthodox some parish refusedrituals; priests totalk totheir Tatar sincethey got not had Kriashen the that fact the mentioned brotherhood Gurii st. Islam of into representatives the apostasies Kriashen for reasons the analyzing When impartial. missionaries the or innerlosefathers’ totheir faith. deep attachment to not people advised they sametime the At openly.practice Islam to itwas difficult empire, 120 119 118 117 P. Znamenskii, Ibid., 399. Ibid. Ibid., 389. Ibid., 333. The representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church were well aware of the dangers of dangers the of aware well were Church Orthodox Russian the of representatives The Such manifestations of open or implicit proselytism did not leave either the authorities Na pamyat’ o N.I.Il’minskom: k25-letiju Bratstva sv. Guriya th anniversary of St. Gurii brotherhood) Gurii of St. anniversary 119 The missionaries said that the belief was so strong, so was belief the that said missionaries The 49 116 (Kazan: TipografiyaIl’yashenko, N.A. 1892), 329. 120 118 Theargumentbehind (To the memory of N.I. 117 The main task CEU eTD Collection peoples by Russians, whichwas in with disaccord imperial currentthe policy. defined nationality, in against sawtheguarantee IslamGasprinskii assimilation Turkicof religion that thesis, Il’minskii’s Accepting knowledge. religious and training practical both school could secularand Russian safely teach language, with the provide subjects, other along used theRussian languageandthe Cyrillicin alphabet for Muslims. Thenewmethodschools 123 122 Pravoslavnuj sobesednik, 1895), 175. 121 ( a newmethod of founder andthe movement their resources to reconstruct themselves into new sociopolitical entities. The ideologist of this invarious thestruggle of Muslimcommunities inRussiafor cultural self-preservation, using advanced stage the They Muslims. represented the among nationalism riseof the and formation nation of of process the in century Islamism emergingRussia aspart 19th pan-Turkism and nationalists.” and “progressivists whom to appoint to the mullah’s advice him gave Il’minskii Pobedonostsev, to letters his of in one Thus, fight. the for arena mostly population, educational The an with background. sphere became animistic a virtual religions. OrthodoxInstead, was that they were not trying to convert the strong believers to their respective they were fighting Kazan Academywherethey Ecclesiastic special received training. each othermissionarynew schools in unstable beingopened all thethe staff districts, graduatesfrom for the hearts and souls of the hesitating Karpat, Ibid., 176. N. A. Bobrovnikov, comp., Bobrovnikov, A. N. He especially warned about the danger coming from the Crimean Tatars, calling them Tatars, from Crimean the danger coming the warnedabout He especially better, than a civilized Tatar, still worse is a personwith University education. A fanatic without the Russianeducation, not knowing the Russianlanguage, ismuch The politicization of Islam The main peculiarity of the missionary activity on behalf of both Muslims and Muslims both of behalf on activity missionary the of peculiarity main The Pis’ma N.I.Il’minskogo . position: 122 By saying this he obviously referred to the ideas of ideasthe he referredto Bysaying obviously of Pan- this (Letters of N.I. Il’minskii) (Kazan’: Izdatel’stvo redaktsii 50 jadid ) school in Russia, Ismail Bey Gasprinskii, Bey Ismail Russia, in school ) 121 123 Thus, CEU eTD Collection 125 124 set by the government in relation to the eastern subjects of the empire. middle of 19 the Muslims, the resistance of the apostates and the evident deficit of qualified missionaries. By the amongindigenous projectspopulation, led thehardtoachieve because of by counter was sufficient. from far was missionaries of number bibliography,was training.Russian schism,of schism History the theological from specialists graduated Simbirsk EcclesiasticAmong seminary. the subjects they studied of Oldthe Believers’prayinghouse and specificrituals. peculiaritiesschismatics werealsotaught duties of students the wasantireligious.a priest, The persuade missionary philosophy the formation that ability the skills wasmadeon to of the of Academy Old againstinmain in specialists the trained the The stress work the Belief. Ecclesiastic Kazan of department missionary the Islam, to shifted fight the of priorities against Old Believers,which had been going onsince schism.the Although in 1860-70s the Tatars. Muslim apostasiesthe Islam into backgroundthe against of initiated unification movement of Russian Il’minskii’s non-Russian Orthodox education was the card the empire was going play to against NART, f. 10,op.1,d.4448, l.8 NART, f. 10,op.1,d.4448 , l.8-9 The aim of the missionary activities-to promote Orthodoxy and to fight the apostasy Not of the least importance on behalf of the Orthodox missionaries was the struggle th century it became obvious that the church alone could not carry out the task the out carry not could alone church the that obvious became it century 51 124 In the period from Inthe from period 1859-1869 16 125 Still, the CEU eTD Collection 129 128 University of Washington Press, 1992), 186. 127 126 histurned attention activizationandthe to moralof religious upbringing peasants,the of government, however, was not going toabandon the idea of religious education altogether. sharp decline, as Tolstoy’s experienced a education of religious Synod, education Holy ministerthe over-procurator and of plans lay in the teachers from in clergy.When servedthe the yearsTolstoy as simultaneously 1866-1880 the direction of a totally the of situation financial the hard was schools inparish difficulties tothe contributed that factor secular school system. The ForcesLate in TsaristRussia: essays in honourof Donald W.Treadgold , became less popular than the than popular less became schools, with strong parish the education, secular policy of the conducted Tolstoy Education of Minister Since the religious component, Ministry Education. assigned tothe of forwas education publicprimary responsibility the lost their significance.school. As a result, theBrotherhoods, seminaries as a againstmissionary of the the whostood activities and educational andorganizations, zemtsvo result of which it itself found church teachingfrom the activities, pressureboth under Ministry of the Education was very difficult to open a new parish or missionary Sorenson, “Pobedonostsev Parish Schools,” 189. Schools,” Parish “Pobedonostsev Sorenson, Morohov, Thomas C. Sorenson, “Pobedonostsev Parish Schools: A Bastion Against Secularism,” RGIA, f.733, op.170,d.210,ll.215-216.in 126 Consequently, in when 1880Pobedonostsev became theheadof Holy the he Synod, 4.2. Theessence ofthe educational systemof N.I. Il’minskii. Alternative Russification During the Great Reforms of 1860-70s, according to the order of 1862 of January, 18, order the to of 1860-70s, according Reforms Great During the Organizatsionno-pedagogicheskie osnovu , In spite of factthe the clergy that was activelyinvolved inmissionary and zemstvo schools and many schoolsand of them closed down. projects. 52 21. ed . Charles E. Timberlake (Seattle: Timberlake E. Charles Religious and Secular 128 The other 129 127 CEU eTD Collection religious feeling.” 133 132 131 130 throughout theon countrythe schools underreligious influence on thethe massesof of people. On literacy”the 4 control of church suggested authorities schools. parish by the and of independent Ministry the inmatters of Holy in Education organization of of process teaching the Synod.priests organization tothe clergy.Church nowbelonged becameauthorities process educational of Suchkept allschools the clergy Orthodox in opening and support of schools.”parish were organized20 faith.the On Orthodox the spreading of acenter as viewed was representative, its as school, Thus theparish improvementof of of people. inreligious education the forceleading matter the and desires of the interpreter can only be the Orthodox clergy” and“should correspond to the religious feelings faith, based firm school “should be Orthodox the principles whose guardian on of and linked totheRussian Church.Orthodox laid He aspecialemphasis on factthe the popular that on by AlexanderJune He argued 13, 1884 thethat II. popular musteducation elementary be increasing andand network of general the also parisheducation schools. improvementof financial the villagesituation clergy,of thelevelraising of their pedagogical RGIA, f.733, op.171, d.632, l.4. RGIA,f.1263, op.1,d.4229, l. 73-74 Schools”,188. Parish “Pobedonostsev Sorenson, in quoted Pobedonostsev K. Ibid.,88. th of May, 1883 the Minister Education introduced a decree on introduced“Providing of adecreeon Minister Education May, 1883the to assistance An important role had to be given to the clergy, whohad to “encourage a conscious Beginning another with Russian year1891,the the church means Orthodox got of schoolson signed parish statute Pobedonostsev the for 1884, spoke about In hisreport narod 132 Pobedonostsev wanted to turn the Russian Orthodox Church into the into Church Orthodox Russian the turn to wanted Pobedonostsev itself.” 131 53 th of of May Alexander III signed the “Rules 133 The main role in the 130 CEU eTD Collection 3. 2. 1. 135 134 modest. is and church, patient the of ideals inthe who believes teacher, of aChristian existence wasthe success missionary religious education, Pobedonostsev came to conclusion that the main condition for the sides and of to reformation. foreign becamethe drawbacks strong subject analyzedthe Having conversion of Muslims to Orthodoxy. amongmissionary culture in ideas Orthodox popularization and Russian society, of the pagans, for missionary spread the RussianChristianity first and foremost Orthodox society, of and missionary partwasgiven important In the May 1865theSynodwork. to established the religious upbringing of population theschoolsweremostly the by as attended grown-ups. of development the to they contribution made acertain poor, quite teachingsupplies were basis the Althoughand process. theoretical teaching the fororganization of the responsibility 137 136 church, history of christian church in the 19 Takingloyalty tsar. the thepopulation the to God’s submission the of could will ensure to one the teaching mission. By was seen civilizing agent of as an that nation,” “core the towards a certain to undergo hadcultural rapprochement that imperial other subjects the Russians over saw: S.Runkevich, “ Morohov, Ibid. K.P. Pobedonostsev, K.P. In the second half of the 19 the of half second the In It is clear enough that the above-mentioned points underline the underline points above-mentioned the that enough is clear It Getting to appreciate the spirit of the people, which is expressed in the life, art, history. character in Russian traits the peculiar Uncovering Exercise in obedience and submission to God’s will Organizatsionno-pedagogicheskie osnovu Russkaya pravoslavnaya tserkov’, istoriya khristianskoj tserkvi v 19 veke Novaya shkola Novaya 136 (New school) (New th Among the most important tasks tasks important Amongof he most education religious the century the teaching concepts of the missionary activities of missionary the teachingconcepts the century th 135 century) (Saint Petersburg: n.p., 1908), 138. (Moscow: Sinoidal’naya tipografiya,1898), 81. 54 ”,32. a priori superiority superiority of the (RussianOrthodox 134 137 An CEU eTD Collection 138 of high percent with a empire the of regions in the that thought Il’minskii Zolotnitskii. N.I. Novosti” Gubernskie “Vyatskie future editor-in-chief with the of of Kazan professor academy Ecclesiastic Il’minskii together penetrated by the church in the best, spiritual sense of the word.” only then willsaid that “school, sinceit is for the people, must reflect in itself soulthe and faiththe of the people, people Pobedonostsev connection this dominated school. In over to RussianChurch, that Orthodox love it…school on people faith, state, peoples’ become and the of responsibility the which was to the the between self-consciousness spiritual of mustunification the but nothing on state the of power the be closely of establishment in the whichwas theessenceof state, masses the and people’s of unification tied to the church. It timely. quite was program must a such that sees one be country in the situation pre-revolutionary tense the consideration into (Moscow: 1900), n.p., 29. it region, the in hadto: education conclude the to that is possible situation non-stable centre, state the from remoteness the region, Volga Middle linguisticthe of of people the peculiarities consideration ethnic and intothe Russians. Taking different religious sects, which could alsoinfluence the of religiousgrowth the worldviewhand- other the of on the non- peoples; Votyak Chuvash, Cheremis, Bashkir, also but not only made target possiblehad its Tatars hand,that threats-Islamicontheone proselytism of apostasies nature, as in case of growing of Pan-Islamism the government will face the problem of K.P.Pobedonostsev, The major contribution into the organization of religious education was made by by a wasmade education religious of organization the into contribution The major aimed The main were by education,of trends Pobedonostsev, atthe religious suggested “baptized inorodsy” “baptized Uchenie iuchitel’. Pedagogicheskie zametki inorodtsy either intoIslam intoor paganism. He gave warnings of two population, the education must be missionary in its in missionary be must education the population, 55 (Schooling and teachers. Pedagogical notes) Pedagogical teachers. and (Schooling 138 CEU eTD Collection Resist the decrease of morality, spirituality, refusal to live according to God’s lawsGod’s live the among to according to refusal morality, decreaseof spirituality, the Resist into large of consideration masses the Take of for they paganpopulation region, the the constituted Fight againstapostasy baptizedof intoMohammedanism non-Russians Aim atmissionary activities. these languages; b) living together with the Russian population, who were to have common have to were who population, Russian the with together living b) languages; these teachinghad be in to conducted indigenous languages with published usagethe in of books indigenousOrthodox intopopulation was a)poorly-Russified, subdivided for whom the 141 140 139 Kriashen school) as its director. kazan the at church the of (priest Timofeev of appointment the with children Kriashen the people of the region, as it was threatening the state interests of Russia. weakest group, most likely fallto under Muslim assimilation project. presupposed the appearance of Orthodox the for theschools of appearance presupposed the education of the Russian the of education the empire. Russian of the territory region. the throughout launched soon were peoples indigenous other for schools E.A.Malov. Academy Kazan Ecclesiastic of the teacher Slavonic. Theschool was inspected by andIl’minskii ascholar on missionary andpolemics a in andboth Church the ChurchsongsTatar attentionGeography, waspaid to Special Drawing. in in then Russian, Tatar, first Reading Arithmetic, basic of introduction with later the Catechism Znamenskii, Ibid., 14. Ibid. In 1864 Il’minskii turned to Shestakov forShestakov In 1864Il’minskiithe topermissionturned open for school a private to The main aim of the system was to resist the spread and dominance of Islam on the in Tatar on the basis of Russian alphabet, God’s God’s history on Law,in basisof the church the of Russian alphabet, prayers, Tatar Na pamyat’, 331. 141 139 inorodsy The system was ratified by the rules “about the measures to measures the “about rules bythe was ratified Thesystem The school was successfully opened, with the teaching of ”, issued onthe 26 ”, 56 140 inorodsy Started for the Kriashen, the satellite th of March 1870. The rules March 1870.The of and for Muslim Tatars. The Tatars. Muslim for and CEU eTD Collection 3. 2. 1. of Christian dogmas and not so zealous in keeping their faith, as Muslims or Old Believers. in the remote villages he came to a conclusion that the main part of them have quite vagueRussian people remain faithful idea theirto Orthodox religion.havingvisited But Russian peasants Russian itself. population ForIl’minskii, only the way empirethe would survive underif the peoples. was alwaysother East, to moving carrier tothe population, of Orthodoxy the gradually 144 143 who would work outcomes. follows: 142 Seminary), system” statement (the beingPedagogy Il’minskii doubtful, in taught since Kazan Teachers’ astandardized he created that andeven standardization, andschool denied theory pedagogical for teachingfaith. lawof mullah the their taught by the same rulesinorodsy as non-or poorly-Russifiedschools with instructionthe in Russian with nativepossible financed departments by the Znamenskii, Geraci, 131. Efirov, It is necessary to train not only teachers for parish and missionary schools but also priests also but schools missionary and parish for teachers only not train to necessary is It negative asanyextremes willhave character, gradual mustbeof All policy educational the lie must in education. ofmissionary education Orthodox The core the the Backing up his approach heBacking uphisapproach claimsthat throughout Russianthe history Russian the 144 ; c) quite Russified, with Russian primary schools. The Muslim Tatars were to be to were Tatars Muslim The schools. primary Russian with Russified, quite ; c) Nerusskie shkolu Nerusskie One of the important axes of his theory was religious-missionary upbringing of the of upbringing religious-missionary was theory his of axes important the of One 143 Na pamyat’ it is possible to sum up the suggested principles of Orthodox principles education of as Orthodox sum upthesuggested itis possibleto Although Geraci claims “Il’minskii that was adamantly to both opposed in the district with unfavorable moral situation. moral unfavorable with district the in , 12-13. ,300-320. 142 57 inorodsy with the possibility to invite possibility with a to the CEU eTD Collection As for the organization of school Il’minskiithe work, following:recommended the liturgy, itself “ in the famous triade: The ideology manifested system the of impact make innative allowedsermons them greater on local languages the to population. 145 missionary work. Thus, it was a introduced method in the stress crucial which was madeprimary onusage of local the in languages the task to train the belief. in their fortified be to of the local population, since the final aim of the system wasmodels, sincethe in extreme cases they couldRussification turn to pagans, and not to the church. ( although notpracticing ritual sacrifices themselves, the Russian peasants could not serve as role Russian side. Thephenomenon was determined bythesyncretic basis of Russian Orthodoxy; observed is the process of reciprocal assimilation, which of course was more pronounced on the of lifestyle,their become and more convinced intheir of could acceptance Orthodoxy, what be peculiarities the pickup gradually would non-Russians population, Russian the living close to that they would pray the idolsto makeand sacrifices. pagans Russian the turned forhelpto peasant inbadillness case orharvestso of somebody’s that was district Kazan in the he observed what Thus, rituals. also but practices, daily various 148 147 146 the Znamenskii, N.I. Il’minskii quoted in Tajmasov, in quoted Il’minskii N.I. Ibid. Ibid. inorodsy , 26. As the main objects of missionary work were the non-Russians of the region, Il’minskii region, the of non-Russians the were work missionary of objects main the As Il’minskii’s system was going to put an end tosuch collisions in the religious worldview The other conclusion he made was that the Russian people is eager to adopt not only inorodsy , their complete blending (in faith and language) with the Russians, Na pamyat’, parish with the priest at its head.” 28 Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ 58 148 , 225. 145 Thus, although it was presupposed that it Thus,although was presupposed inorodsy priests and missionaries, as andmissionaries, priests inorodsy books, 146 who also had obrusenie inorodsy ) of 147 CEU eTD Collection 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. religious.” component of separate history, in its people from which the faith andwas aconsolidating to the upbringing the Slavic soul. That is why national and general upbringing may be only the the 19 151 Petersburg: Izdatel’stvo uchilischnogo sovetapri Svyatejshem Sinode, 1904). 150 149 theideaUshinskii supported of psychological effect. greatest the has Faith feeling of fear and blessing. loveHoly their comes church the to towardssaints, God; it is there thatsymbol. Heshould with explainthattogether icons of the Savior,the Mary Virgin and the the study of prayers andmissionary the Symbol of teacher shouldspecific So ofusingwhen books. visiting religious rules Quranandother the achurch explain the meaning of every icon, the meaning of each religious understandneeds and their concerns. gradually and smoothly. K.D. Ushinskii quoted inL.A. Efimov, Znamenskii, Ocherk prosvetitel’skoj deyatel’nosti N.I. Il’minskogo Speaking of Muslim educational strategies, Il’minskii particularly stressed that they had thatthey stressed particularly Il’minskii strategies, educational Muslim Speaking of The whole process of education must go in the streamline with the religious upbringing. The mustteacher be a role model for his hispupils, thus conduct must be without reproach. and obedience. mustrespect teach The school The teacher must be “not the lord, but an elder brother”,The teacher shouldnot rush pupilsthe anything, into educational the mustgo process must be close to his pupils and th -20 The missionary trends were in the same streamline with the classics of pedagogy- th centuries) (Moscow: MGOPU, 2003), 42. 151 Na pamyat’, 26. narodnost’ Shkolu Chuvashskogo kraya v 19-20 vekah in education “…we have no right in the education in the right no have “…we in education 59 (Studies of teaching activities ofIl’minskii) N.I. (Saint 150 It is the church that gives the people the people the gives that church is the It (Schools of Chuvash krai in 149 CEU eTD Collection Russian peoples which could be quite dangerous in the multiethnic empire. inthemultiethnic be dangerous quite could which Russian peoples non- of the national self-consciousness lead of development the could to andpractice school Besides, heexpressed idea introduction an that the indigenousof languages church into the the and Islam. beOrthodoxy inbetween something appeared to Tatar into translated sacred text basic Christian thusnotions, themeaning sometimes gotdistorted and misinterpreted. Thus, a claimed that the use of the isunderstanding hadlearnt students the and beingafter of what only Russian.They taught, ensure the to be usedas“auxiliary tools” could non-Russian languages the agreed that 154 153 statej po voprosu obrazovaniya inorodsev the introductionof the Russianlanguage and Russian literacy Tatarin vocational schools) 152 that in stressed He butRussian. in language not native the educate non-Russians itto was necessary that claimed Baratunskii Simbirsk province criticized Baratunskii Il’minskii’s non-Russians. viewsontheeducation of important instructionally than Russian.” than instructionally important the empire,the his addressed opponents: of subjects eastern all of Russification and Christianization to main obstacle become the might well.” as nationality the language assimilates of a “the assimilation that stated and Russification” Ibid., 138. Geraci, 123. A.Baratunskij, “Zapiska ovvedenii russkogo yazuka i russkoj gramotnosti v tatarskih uchilischah,” (A note on 154 The proposed system, however, had its opponents. The archbishop The opponents. its had however, system, proposed The In his turn, Il’miskii, putting the accent on the hypothesis that the spread of Islam complete, conscious acceptance of Orthodox faith, all the languages in the non-Russian non-Russian the use schools to we refuse people, andcertain of a the afraid churchwe are because If for the solid and languages, then we would- most- at support various smallpeoples notinclined of non-Russian use the for we allow contrary, on the If, Mahomeddan. and into a single tribe ( inorodsy plemya the inorodsy (Simbirsk:n.p, 1884),619. ) interms of the bothlanguage and faith-Tatarthe languages “implied that these languages these “impliedthat languages weremore 153 languages did not have adequate words to express have words to didnot languages adequate In debatesthe of spoke Baratynskii “civil 60 inorodsy will turn in Sbornik dokumentov inSbornik i of Buinsk districtin 152 Hissupporters CEU eTD Collection Russian villages into the Old Belief and mass conversion of the Kriashen, Chuvash and Chuvash Kriashen, the of conversion mass and Belief Old the into villages Russian the priority was given to the fight against Old against the local layon Believers dioceses. of shoulders the with 1860 BeginningOrthodox Islam. It was determined by apostasiesBaptizers of the whole missionary st.societies brotherhoods- Guriiand inbrotherhood Kazan andprovince The Three of Il’minskii system were put into practice. conceptions the theoretical how question tothe of turn butrather here, detail itindiscuss more not Iwill research, of present the thescope is leftbeyond Tatars Muslim of Russification child getting Islamic education was also taught Russianthe language. Asthelinguistic 155 in obligatory became classes language Russian Tatars; Muslim at schools aimed Russian-Tatar in itself of creation the found Russification means of language asthe the Russian ideaof familiarization language.The using later Russian the with immediate strategy was to reach assimilation of the non-Russians by means of Orthodoxy and dominatingthe as basicsince languageRussian churchandthe roleof school of the the teaching of tool as theprimary languagewasrecognized indigenous Quoted from Taimasov, from Quoted The main functions of the missionary religious education were carried out by by the out carried were education religious missionary the of functions main The After the heated discussions in the educational council of the non-Russian districts the districts non-Russian the of council educational in the discussions heated the After 4.3. Brotherhood schools missionary andtheircontribution toinorodsy education. brotherhood inbrotherhood before although province, Simbirsk theduty year1867the fightingof of faith. Make your choice! your Make faith. of to the Tatar way of life ( Pravoslavnaya tserkov’ tatarstvo 155 ), and connected with the Russians by by means Russians the with connected and ), , 228. 61 mektebs and the inorodsy madrasahs , so that any language with CEU eTD Collection memorized in Russian. The main subject being God’s Law, the pupils had to learn it twice: first twice: it learn to had pupils the Law, God’s being subject main The in Russian. memorized phrase was level the schools. knowledge at literacy pupils acquired of first faith infixed teachingyear basicsofOrthodox the on indigenouslanguages.By second the the translatedbasics of Arithmetics. They started to learn Russian a little later, since the primary attention was into years learntHoly intheirmother Churchsinging children the History, the Reading tongue, and the motherschools, Il’minskii tongue, Education create Tolstoy of suggestionthe with thenetwork such schools.to primary Russian Unlike school consisted then of four years pronounced of schooling. During the first twoseveral times and 157 (Overview of the activities of Gurii brotherhood in25 years of existenceits (1867-1892)) (Kazan:n.p., 1892). 159 158 and pedagogical thought of Tatarthe people) (Kazan: n.p., 1968),77. tatarskogo naroda 156 Law God’s were taught who September 1863by Il’minskii and Malov. In 1864-65 there were20Tatarand Chuvash pupils, in property, was created andfunded donations of byprivate state of by Ministry this the type, them. among Belief Old religious Russianpopulation upbringing of fightagainst and spreadandpaganism the the of non-Russian school meetings of solution printingteachers, of activities, problems the of Kriashenthe school and state schools was the teachingin indigenous languages, conducting the society. with practical missionary the Academy, together Ecclesiastic Kazan in established was department anti-Muslim A special Islam. into Cheremis Ya. I. Khanbikov, Khanbikov, NART,f.4,op.148, d.373, p.45. M. Mashanov, M. The experiment proved to be quite successful and Il’minskii turned to Minister of Minister to turned Il’minskii and successful be quite to proved experiment The Much attention was devoted to the supervision of missionary schools. The first school first The schools. missionary of supervision the to devoted was attention Much In the plan activitiesthe of of Gurii brotherhoodinst. 1870 together with supportof the Russkie pedagogi Tatarii, Obzor deyatel’nosti bratstva Svyatitelya Guriya za 25 let ego suschestvovaniya (1867-1892) (Russian pedagogues of Tatariya and their role in the development of the teaching activities teaching ofthe development the in role their and ofTatariya pedagogues (Russian Russkie pedagogi Tatarii i ikh rol’ v razvitii prosvescheniya i pedagogicheskoj musli 157 , Religious History, Religious 92. 62 and short Catechism 156 159 When reading Russian every Russian text When reading in Tatar. 158 CEU eTD Collection 165 164 Narodnaya shkola 163 162 161 160 Total 30 30 30 30 Singing 2 2 2 2 Writing 4 3 2 2 Arithmetic 45 5 5 Mother tongue 6 4 3 3 Church Slavonic - 2 2 Russian 10 12 11 11 God’s Law 4 4 5 Russian. in then tongues, mother their in teaching supplies. problems constant with teachingby the staff, hadbadconditions,werepoorly provided the had lower,much schools institutions, sothe thesalary was public-supported were non-state, languages. In writing the main technique wascopying andthe use of visual aids. both of phenomena linguistic the comparing verbs, then only and adjectives then nouns, pupilsthe hadlearn to speak Russianto andunderstand to the teacher. The children first learnt Subject 1 Table 1. Educational Curriculum of a Typical Brotherhood School of Russian as can be seen in Table 1. mother of tonguewith dominance the the character a auxiliary rather Law, whichpresupposes possible to state thatone analysesmost the school curriculum for theof period of tuitionattention work. (hours a missionary weekdo per to language), ability the it and is religiosity their was criteria main the wasrequirements, given to the Russian language, then came God’s Source: “Shkolu ‘bratstva Svyatitelya Guriya’ v Chuvashii,” Ibid:108-109. Chuvashiya), in brotherhood Gurii of st. (Schools v Chuvashii,” Guriya’ Svyatitelya ‘bratstva “Shkolu NART, f.4, op.148, d.373,l.45. Ibid., 94. Ibid., 93. There were certain drawbacks in the activities of the missionary schools. Since these Since schools. themissionary of in activities the drawbacks certain There were 4 (1996): 108. 162 st The teachers of these schools had to meet minimal professional meet hadto schools Theteachers of these year 2 nd year 3 164 rd year 4 160 Before studyingRussian written its and grammar 63 th year Narodnaya shkola 165 4(1996): 108. 161 163 If CEU eTD Collection too narrowly religious-moral in its education.” its in religious-moral narrowly too achieve the significant linguistic unification of linguistic unification significantachieve the to system little for the did Education, of Ministry by the criticized often they school were population of the region. indigenous the and population Russian the among paganism with fight on effort much and provide Islam, to the Orthodox schools with teaching supplies. spent The brotherhood influencepaganism Belief, strong Old the of inthevillagesunder organizeschools missionary and Russian the both popular vocational schools Yakovlev. The aim of societythe was toprovide financial help for Yakubovich, director of popular vocational schools Ul’yanov, and inspector of Chuvash military school of Okhotin, director academy Ecclesiastic of Simbirsk rector was the society the on the voluntary basis in order to hold the system of education in the district. In the council of level. Many annually. 2-year vocational them of into school higherwere transformed with educational salaries. As a result, 5-6 brotherhood schools were transferred to the to transferred schools were brotherhood 5-6 Asaresult, salaries. reason for such a drawback was that the priests did not want to work in the school due to low 167 166 in the lessons the than level lower in a conducted were Law God’s of brotherhood was not perfect. As was reported in the beginning of the 20 Werth, “Shkolu ‘bratstva”: 109. 166 In spite of certain successful trends in the missionary activities of brotherhood the activities inthemissionary trends In spite of successful certain Like in Kazan, in Simbirsk district ininLike inKazan, brotherhood Simbirsk of district 1875 the Three Baptizers It should be underlined that the organization of the work in missionary schools of the of schools missionary in work the of organization the that underlined be should It At theMargins of Orthodoxy, inorodsy Orthodox institutions, to raise funds for educational purposes, to 232. 167 64 inorodsy with the Russian population and "was and population Russian the with zemstvo th century, many century, lessons zemstvo school network school schools. The appeared CEU eTD Collection schools. Teachers Seminary and Kazan Ecclesiastic Academy. Kazan Ecclesiastic and Teachers Seminary providing education providingfor education besides which, education, Orthodox of centers as served schools The school. teachers’ inorodsy Birsk seminary, Teacher’s Kazan school, Cheremis Ufa school, Chuvash central future teachers. trained institutions that of a setof non-Russiansthe teaching to in but and positions, contributed clerical fact establishment tothe 169 loyalturning into and peoples subjects.” Russian theirpatriotic whowouldmaintain totheir andties groups native educatethem intention ultimatewith the of suggests, the creation of “notnew Russians but an intermediate class of Russified non-Russians 168 teaching staff for the the quality of the teaching, the qualification of the staff.is It the latter problem-formationin of the itself reflected supposedly that insufficient, was brotherhood the support state financial the as At samethe pagans missionary amongorganization time, and OldBelievers. of Muslims, work language,mission the RussianfulfilledMuch attention wasgiven assigned tothem. to the introduction which, religious had with subsequent united component, the astrong of the Efirov, Geraci, Among them there was Kazan Ecclesiastic Academy, Kazan Kriashen school, Simbirsk The whole system, from primary to higher professional education, led to, asGeraci led to, higher from The wholeeducation, system,to primary professional As material schools, by brotherhood the abovegiven providedthe education, suggests, Nerusskie shkolu , Window on the East 169 Among the institutions mentioned above the most illustrative were the Kazan the were illustrative most the above mentioned institutions the Among 4.4. TheDevelopment of Orthodox Teacher Training Institutionsof Kazan inorodsy 36. the inorodsy , 157. schools that I will now discuss. I willnow that schools Educational Circuit. of the region, also trained teachers for smaller 65 168 Il’minskii not only promoted inorodsy CEU eTD Collection History, Geography,Writing, andArts. Drawing Geometry, Arithmetic, God’sLaw,Russian, following subjects: learned the they school, where 1 Table 2. Ethnic Composition of Students the of Kazanthe Teachers’ inSeminary 1875-76 standards of the seminary and many had to leave after ayear or two. level of knowledge were sometimes quite different for not every student was able to meet the only 5. sendto 22Russian tothe students seminary providing them with stipends, Il’minskii accepted 173 172 171 170 Votyak 1 - - Chuvash 5 11 3 Cheremis 6 - 5 Tatars 10 - 7 Mordvins 1 - 1 Russians 26 18 11 they When inequal Nizhnii proportions. were admitted the Novgorod seminary Il’minskii, its defined educational layingmission, particular emphasis on Orthodoxy: Ibid.,l.7. Source: Ibid., ll. 109-110. NART, f.93, op.1,d.49,l.5. Ibid. 171 The eligible candidates had to finish parish or finish parish hadto candidates The eligible and Russian for the was established seminary Kazan teachers’ time. a long for Orthodox been At establishedopening seminary the The Kazan in1872. was Training Teacher acquired by the unites peoples the makingthem Godsand children brethren Christ.in This religion, Christianity is the religion, which… does not efface the traits of a person or people but The example of ethnic quota in the seminary is shown in Table 2. inorodsy, makes them close to the Russians since the latter have already have latter the since Russians the to close them makes st Grade 2 170 nd 66 Grade Graduates 173 The abilities of the students and the initial the and students the of abilities The zemstvo school or two-year vocational zemstvo inorodsy council council decided children and children 172 CEU eTD Collection 179 178 177 176 175 174 prayers and psalms. strength of religiousthe in component studentsread Gospel,education-the the library large andthe books the especially had a supplies. stressed of Malinovskii stock teaching needed building of renovation, the that though district stated seminary the it Malinovskii was material. the of revision constant with psalms and prayers holidays, church history, church Bible, forteaching of quality program the institution, the Lawincludedof study the God’s of the Sciences, Geography, Natural God’sLaw,subjects: Russian, Church Slavonic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Russian History, History, singing. Church Literature, inChurchSlavonic, inespecially the seminary, the teaching quality with was satisfied quite it, inspector the of staff. In spite of teaching the of meetings the booksand records the record compositions: in and Russian Pedagogy. Slavonic languages,Mathematics, Natural hadwriteHistory, The graduates Pedagogy. to two tuition. their least money hadpay work foron 6 years back villageschool the they at spent to as or teachers of charge had free studied and they should teachers, school the primary became The graduates students, but if students, but students withwould Russian the havetowork then localthe village population, include the study languages.indigenous of Thisisunderstandable with regard to Ibid., l.86. NART, f.93, op.1, d.81, l.1 Ibid. Ibid., l.75. Ibid., l.10. NART, f.93, op. 1,d.84, l.6. In the course of revision of the seminary in 1879 by the assistant of head What caused the incredulity of the revision committee were the absence of student the of absence werethe committee therevision of incredulity the caused What 178 The final exams consisted of Law, Thefinalexamsconsisted of History, Russian andGod’s Geography, 177 The analysis of the programs of the seminary subjects suggests the serious the suggests subjects the seminary of programs of the analysis The 174 Painting and Drawing, Church singing, Physical Training. singing, Physical Drawing, Church andPainting 175 In the seminary Inwere seminary followingthe taught students the 179 What is Whatsurprising, the teaching curriculum not did 67 of teaching the of knew a lot of the inorodsy 176 CEU eTD Collection Teachers’ seminary) Teachers’ 181 180 held was practice written couldlook atthe picture),methods of teaching church the singing. is why all the teachers must be able to draw, since the illiterate pupils not understanding what is aids (that visual of importance the andcount; write read, to of methods teaching basic given the aspect was strongly relatedas feelings”,“Thepsychological soul,”“Religion”,the domainof heart the that suggesting to morality and religion.including the following topics “Independence of thein soul relation to thebody. Superiority of In the methodical part study body parts: anatomy partwasstrangelyof human the subdividedintoand soul, two the students were methods of The teaching. includes anatomy, program subjectthat the the psychology, of work among the Russian population of the region. hold tomissionary weredestined teachers Russian-speaking the isit probable curriculum,that werenot in andhow subjects Since they learn where did languages? the indigenous the the two years of studies in each of them. The education was conducted in Russian. Since 1878 a inRussian. 1878 conducted Since inyears education was studiesthem.two each of The of gave theidea the students of his educational system, and methods principles of teaching. suggest by is that he As itimportance. himself classesweretaught possibleIl’minskii the to thethat missionary amongpopulation much work theregion the Russian of was given 15 pupils in each school. with Russians the for schools primary Russian the of in one and Tatar the for school Kriashen V.N. Vitevskui, Ibid., l.100. As the future missionaries and teachers were taught pedagogy, it As thefuturepedagogy,is missionaries analyze and teacherswere taught necessary to Simbirsk Chuvash teacher training school classeswith Simbirsk in1868,havingthree Chuvash school appeared training teacher N.I. Il’minskii-director Kazanskoj uchitel’skoj seminarii (Kazan’: Tipografiya Imperatorskogo Universiteta, 1892),22. in inorodsy 181 In this respect, considerable number of Russian graduates suggests considerable In number graduates this of Russian respect, primary schools (for Mordva, Chuvash, Votyak, Cheremis),in the 68 (N.I. Il’minskii-director of Kazan Il’minskii-director (N.I. 180 Theteaching CEU eTD Collection 185 184 183 possible negative attitude toOrthodoxy from within. Orthodox broughtfamilyreligion the children’s the to education through underminingthus 182 conversion indigenouspopulationthe of Orthodoxy of irreversible,seemed it development thelater usualturnedinto of process of and school. parish The church, the called missionary. family missionary school The was alsodeveloping along with the aso became education, getting Orthodox members,after One family for of the their parents. Soon “homethe children church”for the baptized non-Russiansof turned tothe parish church with the help of such a churchchurch”in right theYakovlev classroom.the Thefulfill maintaskthat had school graduate to was to organize missionarymakeknow how“home to sucha had to finishedwhoparish. school the Every had student education quickly a “ he school Chuvashestablished teachers’ Simbirsk and effectively. but above all they had to be able tounderstand and explain them to the illiterate population.heart, by texts religious the know to had They population. non-Orthodox with debate to ability Il’minskii andMalov- in techniques expressive reading indigenous books the of languages, influencing thefeelings of prominence was pupils.the Much themethods suggestedgiven to by made organization singing oneffective church of psychological as important factor an vocational school. a into women’s two-year later be transferred to was created department women’s special Ibid. “ Morohov, Yumankulov, Efirov, An extremely interesting teaching wassuggested byYakovlev. technique In the was main focus the work, missionary of methods learned the teachers future the So that Nerusskie shkolu , Organizatsionno-pedagogicheskie osnovu” , “Sistema obrazovaniya”, 182 37. 215-216. 69 55-56. domovaya (home) church 185 since the school the since 184 ” without the without ” 183 CEU eTD Collection 190 189 188 187 186 culture. and ethnography parishes, is that why teaching focus made on the study was the of indigenous languages, for priests train was to mission institution’s The seminaries. Irkutsk Tobolsk, Astrakhan, Vyatka,Saratov,Tambov, Simbirsk,Penza, Novgorod, Nizhnii Perm, Orenburg, was formed in 1732. Theology, Psychology, History of Philosophy, Latin, German, Linguistics ; the 2 Academy inAcademy 1872-1873included thefollowing subjects: 1 indigenous languages. Christianization, Turkic andtheHistory History tribes their Ethnography of Mohammedanism, of of Arabic,Tatar and Mongol. Theory and Practiceparish. the with work better for of the tostudy They becomepedagogy teachers. not wanted to pedagogy,Tatarwas priests, their ambition language,Kazem-Bek,orientalists Bobrovnikov, Popov, Il'minskij. General famous the AmongArabic the faculty were Mohammedanism. History of and ethnography, overviewanti-schismatic, of to knowanti-Muslim, their foes and be able to debate with them should the need arise. anti-Buddist with the chairs of Mongol, Kalmyk, Tatar and NART, f.10, op.1, d.8937,l.34. NART, f.10, op.1, d. 8925, l.1. Ibid. Ibid., 73. Khanbikov, The higher level institution-educational Kazan Ecclesiastical seminary and academy The future missionary missionary The future studying Mashanov’s curriculum firstin yearsof the the three departments- two with missionary courses Academyappearedtwo-year the In 1889at sub departments: following the with department a missionary opened there Since 1854 Russkie pedagogi Tatarii, 189 186 190 The students of the Tatar department learnt the following subjects: The eligible candidates for admission were graduates from Kazan, from admission for were graduates The candidates eligible 187 The students received a strong theological background, astheyhad theological background, astrong Thereceived students 72. 70 188 Although Although students the studied st year:-Holy Bible, General the inorodsy nd year-Holy CEU eTD Collection realize the ultimate goal-the decrease in the number of apostates, creation of the army of army creation the of apostates, of number inthe decrease goal-the ultimate the realize ethnic theymanaged to groups, target the from degree of population, andacertain resistance Muslim the of behalf on opponents the meet to then and effectiveness its prove first to necessity Although followersthe of system the had tocombat difficulties, numerous in manifested the population in ofits easternprovinces. ideology the embodiment relation imperial of the to the became system the teachers, and missionaries talented of generations the up bringing education in languages, indigenous providing schools with necessary biblical andliterature religious the chosen Having terms. insecular peasants of the literacy universal less more or imperial non-Russianpolicy peoples,of Russification leavingbehind of theof aim reaching skillful in servingpurposesfor the which they trained.were their Islamic opponents. Islamic their samethe andatresisting capable of erudite time Orthodoxy with of deep knowledge educated trainingthe thestudents received-this was institution creatingreally an elite-highly church Overview ofForeign RussianLiterature, and Slavonic languages. Church Archeology and Liturgy, andLinguistics of Russian Theory History Literature, of German, Ministerial GeneralTheology, Theology, Logics, Psychology, Metaphysics, History of Philosophy,History Pedagogy, Latin, of Liturgy in the Orthodox and Western Churches, 192 243. spiritual academy),in Mashanov-professor Kazanskojdukhovnoj akademii” 191 Theology, Ministerial languages, Slavic German, Latin, Philosophy, of History Psychology, Logics, Theology, General Bible, Khabibullin, NART,f.10,op.1,d. 6750,ll.239-253;d. 7023/a,l.l; quoted M.Z. Khabibullin, in The unfortunate truth about the system is that it served only as a way of ratification of By the abundance of the subjects and certain continuity one can judge about the depth thedepth of judgeabout can one continuity and certain subjects of the By abundance the “Mikhail Alexandrovich Mashanov”, Pravoslavie vpolikonfessional’nom obschestve 192 Coming from the indigenous Liturgy, Church Law, Church 245. 71 (Mikhail Alexandrovich Mashanov-professor of Kazan of Mashanov-professor Alexandrovich (Mikhail milieu Linguistics; , ed.R.A.Nabiev Magarif,(Kazan’: 2006), they could really become quite 191 the 3 “Mikhail Alexandrovich rd year-Holy Bible, year-Holy CEU eTD Collection Russianness and theirindigenous ethnos. baptized mention however, that such a short period should One of belief. time accepted did not allowconsciously a became for a completeOrthodoxy whom for Russification-the non-Russians Orthodox inorodsy stayed at the level of acculturation, carrying in themselves both the traits of 72 CEU eTD Collection the inorodsy milieu missionariesfrom andclergy appearance of The social and acculturation transformation. economic and of Russian Russians-as aresult with Orthodox cohabitation in of places the thatoccurred assimilation missionary”-natural “popular was region the of baptized population the of affiliation of confessional large missionary centre. a be to out turned now East”, the on “Window the diocese, Kazan Christians. Orthodox as to referred of ethnoconfessional population-the majorstructure of the paganpeoplesthe part wereofficially then fact that the of spite In paganism components. religious and ethnocultural different of never syncretism of result the as centuries turned to a structured, dogmatic,prevailed Chuvash, among formedcosmology whose Mari, andVotyak population, was during many complete religious mid-19ththe becouldcentury considered formally.only Orthodox The phenomenon faith still of double system as the outcomedevotionIslam, to only were exposed linguisticto Russification. non-Muslimethnic However, by groups of Kriashen,aimed Chuvash and at profound Finno-Ugric who Muslim peoples. demonstrated Tatars, these that by ethnic groups half of secondthe 19 the in Volga 16 whichstarted the region, Middle the of non-Russians of Christianization Mass Russification. linguistic and spiritual at arrive to in byimperial that elites endhad the must supported project beviewedasapartof a larger assimilative The Orthodox education of the Russian eastern Together with the official policy of Christianization, one of the factors that influenced changes influenced that factors the of one Christianization, of policy official the with Together Not all the ethnic groups were subject to Russian assimilative projects, whichRussian weresubjectall primarily assimilative projects, towere Not groups ethnicthe also contributed to the promotion of Orthodoxy. th century, became importantpart an century,of Orthodox unification of Conclusion 73 inorodsy th century led change the century to in the second half of the 19 the of half second in the th century of the of CEU eTD Collection creation of the army of army the of creation problems. missionary of solution of Il’minskii system as the state program of the emergence forcecamethe with into that enlightenment methods of use Christian the to began missionaries Orthodox The baptized”. the “baptizing of task the with faced now was church the Orthodox, already with animistic background were also seen as a “group of risk”, open for apostasy. Since they were formally and souls of the Kriashen, who were linguistically and culturally close to Muslims. Finno-Ugric peoples protest. andanticlerical a social beviewedas can tendency some this degree To interests. by pragmatic also but Islam as wasinfluencednot onlyby a religion similar cultural historic and the development of peoples, the movement. national for theTatar andalso movements Pan-Turkism and basisfor Pan-Islamism ideological the became half 19 the second Inthe of the beliefs peoples. of Middle Volga the for important very be to continued it religions, monotheistic of influence lengthy the to due development ethnocultural natural population. local the from missionaries and of teachers an group active of emergence later tothe also but support, state initially due to success was Its non-Russians. the in of worldview for the religious changes impetus languages.inner acceptance The system, at aimed of Russification, becamethe spiritual Orthodoxy, What made the clash between Islam and Orthodoxy so peculiar was the spiritual fight for the hearts the for fight spiritual the was peculiar so Orthodoxy and Islam between clash the made What of choice The community. Kriashen the shook Orthodoxy from apostasies massive 1860s the It At the core of the system was the idea of education of non-Russians in indigenous languages, the languages, indigenous in non-Russians of education of idea the was system the of core the At Islam a remained definite alternative toOrthodoxy forand many centuries influenced the religious inorodsy inorodsy teachers and clergy, and promotion of religious literature in since meant itpreserving their peculiarity. ethnoconfessional 74 inorodsy education, which now took responsibility for the for responsibility took now which education, th century century preservedits status and Islam inorodsy CEU eTD Collection expansionist project inproject expansionist region.the blockedfor-it thewas fulfilledone Islamic unconditionally successfully maintasksitset the of of empire, bastion the ideological school, asthe Orthodox ambivalent, remain project assimilative revival” of baptized the confirms languages national “national tothe Kappeler’sculture, what hypothesis aboutthe and turn attempts construct theirto identities own Orthodoxy,within adaptation of Cyrillic for theirindigenous in itself manifested local which population, the of consciousness ethnic of rise triggered the process indigenous languages made thestrategy promotion of of successful.Orthodoxy quite samethe At time the nation. with core Other” the “eastern the presuppose did equality make the not of like “to wanted rapprochement for us”,astheaspirations them authorities Russian the extent what to uncertain remains it phase, terminal its reach not did Russification assimilation of successful a guarantor serve as not could alone Orthodoxy national culture. onthelanguageand more stress weregradually Others putting of thisdevelopment. stage assimilation at Here I confer main but meansof asthe also and process progressive onlyasaninevitablenot by somewas withregarded the opinion century.of RussificationRobert of the Geraci that by the end of the 19 193 Geraci, 350. What bears no doubt is that the introduction of the system of Christian enlightenment in enlightenment Christian of system the of introduction the that is doubt no bears What Even if the benefits of both the imperial authorities and the eastern subjects got as the result of result the as got subjects eastern the and authorities imperial the both of benefits the if Even The role of The roleeducation of Orthodox asmeans of Russification throughoutremained the contested 19 inorodsy. non-Russian peoples as spiritual unification on the basis of Orthodox entity Orthodox of basis the on unification spiritual as peoples non-Russian 75 193 . Since the project of th century th CEU eTD Collection Blagoveschenskii, A. ______. Benningsen, A. andLemercier-Quelquejay, Ch. Benhabib, Seyla. Ablov, N.N. in Il’minskii) missionary Il’minskii”(Orthodox N.I. missioner “Pravoslavnuj Ya.G. Abdullin, Fond 93(Kazanskayauchitel’skaya seminariya), op.1,d.49,84,81. Fond 10(Kazanskaya dukhovnaya akademiya),op.1,d.4448,8925, 8937. Fond 4(Kazanskaya dukhovnaya konsistoriya), op. 101,d.11; op.148,d.373. 2. Fond 1263(KomitetMinistrov), op.1,d.4229. Fond d.2686. 796(Kantselyariya op.172, Sinoda), Fondnarodnogo 733(Departament prosvescheniya), op.170,d.210; op.171,d.632. 1. Aiplatov, G.N. and Ivanov, A.G. Baratunskij,A. “Zapiska ovvedeniiyazuka russkogo i russkoj gramotnosti v tatarskih Natsional’nuj Arkhiv Respubliki Tatarstan (NART) National Archive of the Republic of inTatarsan Kazan Republic the of Archive National (NART) Tatarstan Respubliki Arkhiv Natsional’nuj St. Peterburg Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennuj ArkhivIstoricheskii Historic Russian (RGIA) State Archive in au Tatarstan Muslims before 1920).Paris and the Hague : Mouton,1964. les MusulmansdeRussie avant1920 University Press, 2004. Islam vPovolzh’e:istoriyaiproblemuizucheniya. inorodsev. his Russification pedagogic system). Moscow :n.p., 1936. in Tatar vocational schools). uchilischah,” (Anote on introductionthe of Russianlanguagethe andRussian literacy monastery monastery Kozmodemyanskof district). Yoshkar-Ola:n.p., 2000. Spaso-Yunginskii materials of On the povolzh’e. of Mari colonization (Monastery materialam Spaso-Yunginskogo monasturyaKozmodemjyanskogo uezda 1625-1764gg (History of Ecclesiastic seminary with eight low-level vocational schools). Kazan: n.p., 1881. schools). vocational low-level eight with seminary Ecclesiastic of (History Les mouvements nationaux chez les Musulmans de Russie « de Le Musulmans : Sultagallievisme les chez » nationaux mouvements Les N.I. Il’minskii iegorusifikatorkayapedagogicheskaya sistema Il’minskii N.I. The Rightsof Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens. Simbirsk:n.p, 1884. (National movements of Russian Muslims). Paris : Mouton &Co, 1960. Istoriya Kazanskoj dukhovnoj seminariiIstoriya Kazanskoj svosemjunizshimiuchilischami dukhovnoj Sources and literature Monasturskaya kolonizatsiya MarijskogoPovolzhjya. Po Archival documents In Bibliography Sbornik dokumentov istatejpovoprosu Sbornik dokumentov obrazovaniya (The presse and national movements of Russian of movements national and presse (The 76 La presse chez etlesmouvementsnationaux Kazan: n.p, 2000. Cambridge:Cambridge (N.I. Il’minskii and CEU eTD Collection ______,comp. Blagovidov, F.V. Koblov, Ya. D. Koblov, Ya. Eshevskii, S.V. Efirov, A.F. Brian-Benningsen, F. N.A. Bobrovnikov, Geraci, Robert P. Geraci, Robert Gareev, I.S.“Khristianizatsiya marijtsev i Prikamya Priuralya v 18-pervoj kontse 19 polovine Dowler, W.Dowler, Denisov, P. V. ______. Chicherina, S,V. ______. i Povolzh’ya shkolu ichuvashskie narodov nerusskikh prosvescheniya “Sistemu L.A. Efimov, Byford, Andy. Review of Daniel J.ed. 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Petersburg:1905. n.p., University, 1998. the20 19th-beginningthe of non-Russian and peoples Chuvash of schools i Povolzh’e Rriuralje inthelast third of Priural’ya vekov” (Thesystem vposlednej 20 19-nachale treti of enlightenmentof London, Ithaca: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001. Kazan: 1994. n.p., Russia O privolzhskih isovremennom inorodsakh znachenii N.I.Il’minskogo sistemu Shkolu Chuvashskogo krayav 19-20 vekah Classroom andEmpire:ThePoliticsofSchoolingRussia’s Eastern Nationalities. Nerusskie shkoluPovolzh’ya, iSibiri. Priural’ya Istoricheskie ocherki Missionerstvo v Rossii v Missionerstvo by Robert P. Geraci . Religioznue verovaniya chuvash verovaniya Religioznue Konfessional’nue shkolukazanskikh tatar Deyatel’nost’ russkogo votnosheniiknarodnomuobrazovaniju dukhovenstva Window Russia. East:NationalandImperial IdentitiesinLateTsarist on the U privolzhskihPutevue inorodtsev. zametki Pis’maN.I. Il’minskogo Inorodcheskoe naselenie Kazanskoj gubernii inorodsy Missionerskiev Povolzhje organizatsii Islamo-khristianskoe pogranich’e: itogiiperspektivuIslamo-khristianskoe izucheniya Window on theEast:NationalandImperial IdentitiesinLateTsarist .Bloomington: Indiana University 1997 Press, and contemporary meaning of Il’minskii’s system). Saint system). Il’minskii’s of meaning contemporary and (Activities of the Russian clergy clergy popular (Activities of Russian concerning the Europe-Asia StudiesEurope-Asia (Missionary work in Russia). Moscow: n.p.,1900. th century )Diss century (Letters of N.I. Il’minskii).Kazan: Izdatel’stvo 77 (Religious beliefs of Chuvash). Cheboksary: Russia’s Orient: ImperialBorderlines and (Schools of Chuvash krai in the 19 54, no.8 (December, 1356. 2002): . (Confessional schools of Kazan schools of (Confessional Doctor Nauk, Cheboksary State (The Volga (Missionary (Missionary organizations in ( Inorodsy inorodsy. population of (About (Non- ,57-62. Travel th -20 th . CEU eTD Collection Iskhakov, D.M. Iskhakov, ______. ______. Iznoskov, I.A. Ily’in, N. Ily’in, Il’minskii, N.I. Letnitskii, I.N. Khanbikov, Ya.I. Khabibullin,M.Z. Kabuzan, V.M. ______. Luppov, P.N. Kefeli, Agnes.“The Role of Tatar and Kriashen Women in the Transmission of Islamic of in Women Transmission the andKriashen of Role Tatar Agnes.“The Kefeli, K. Karpat, ______. Makarov, D.M. Makarov, n.p., 1876. brotherhood). Kazan:brotherhood). n.p., 1892. up and transformation of Tatar nation). Kazan: n.p., 1997. (Missionary activity of village clergy of Kazan diocese). Kazan: n.p., 1892. Kazan: 1913. n.p., istorii Tatarii people). Kazan: 1968. n.p., role intheof developmentof activities and teachingthe thoughtTatar the pedagogical pedagogicheskoj tatarskogo musli naroda Magarif, 2006. 274. Ithaca and London:Cornell University 2001. Press, Russia Tsarist in Tolerance n.p., 1893,3-4. 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Volga in the second half of 16 Volga half second the of inthe vekah polovine 16-18 Proiskhozhdenie i kharakter Islama Proiskhozhdeniekharakter i of Orthodox Christian books into books Christian Orthodox of O perevode pravoslavnuh khristianskih knig nainorodcheskieyazuki O perevode pravoslavnuh khristianskih The politicization ofIslam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, andCommunity in O sisteme prosvescheniya inorodtsev i o Kazanskojtsentral’noj kreschenotatarskoj O sisteme prosvescheniyainorodtsevi Materialu dlya istorii khristianskogo inorodtsevKazanskogokraya prosvescheniya Pravoslavie v polikonfessional’nom obschestve vpolikonfessional’nom Pravoslavie Missionerskaya sel’skogodukhovenstvaKazanskojeparkhii deyatel’nost’ Dvadtsapyatiletie bratstva sv.Guriya bratstva Dvadtsapyatiletie Materialu dlya istorii khistianstva uvotyakov vpervoj polovine19veka (On the system of O neobkhodimosti missiiiotdel’nuh missionerov Kazanskaya tsentral’naya kreschenotatarskaya shkola:materialu dlyaistorii Problemu stanovleniyaitransformatsii tatarskoj natsii Samoderzhavie iKhristianizatsiya narodov Srednego Povolzhyavovtoroj Narodu Rossii v pervoj polovine 19v.Chislennost’ sostavNarodu inatsional’nuj Rossiivpervojpolovine (Mikhail Alexandrovich Mashanov-professor of Kazan spiritual academy). “Mikhail Alexandrovich Mashanov-professor Kazanskoj dukhovnoj AlexandrovichMashanov-professor “Mikhail , 226-85.Kazan:n.p., 1948. 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(Russia as amultinational Kazan province), Kazan: 1875. n.p., Mamadushskogo uezda University, 2002. of Nauk,Cheboksarynon-Russian Diss.Candidat East). of Russian the peoples State education school in realization its and system (Il’minskii’s Rossii“ vostoka narodov 1904. Sinode, soveta pri Svyatejshem uchilischnogo Il’minskii).Petersburg: Saint Izdatel’stvo and now: Paganism, Islam, Orthodoxy and sectarianism). Moscow: n.p., 1929. sektanstvo islam, pravoslavie, 19 activities of19- kontse v thebasis andeducational of religious andnachale 20veka”Pedagogical (Organizational Povolzh’ya Orthodox Srednego oschestv missionerskih missionarypravoslavnuh deyatel’nosti societies of the Middle1968. Volga at the end of the enlightenment of Kazan of enlightenment inorodtsev s1551po1867 research). of Historical issledovaniya Rossiya pri starom regime Missionerstvo sredimukhameddankreschenukh itatar Obzor 25 letegosuschestvovaniya deyatel’nosti bratstvaSvyatitelyaGuriya za th Uchenie i uchitel’. Pedagogicheskie zametki Pedagogicheskie Uchenie iuchitel’. -beginning of of -beginning 20 the Rossiya kak mnogonatsional’naya imperiya. Vozniknovenie, istoriya, raspad mnogonatsional’naya imperiya.Vozniknovenie,istoriya,kak Rossiya Religiya u Religiya narodov Volzhsko-Kamskogo krayaprezhde iteper’:Yazuchestvo, Ocherki mordvu Religioznue verovaniya mordvu verovaniya Religioznue Il’ya iprosveschenie chuvash Nikolaevich Ul’yanov Il’ya Imperiya esseRomanovukh inatsionalism: po metodologiiistoricheskogo Religiozno-nravstvennoe kreschenuh tatarKazanskoj sostoyanie gubernii (Overview of the activities of Gurii brotherhood in yearsits 25 of brotherhood of Gurii (Overview activities of the Novaya shkola Missioner (The Romanov Empire and Nationalism: An Essay on the Metodology the on Essay An Nationalism: and Empire Romanov (The Izlozhenie hoda missionerskogo dela po prosvescheniju kazanskih missionerskogo delapoprosvescheniju Izlozhenie hoda (Studies of Mordva). Moscow:n.p.,1867. 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Rogozin, V. veroispovedaniyam poglavnum imperii Raspredelenie naseleniya ______. “ From Kazan’s ‘Newly Converted’ to ‘Orthodox TheHistorical Inorodsy’: to ‘Orthodox Stages Kazan’s ‘Newly Converted’ ______. “From Sorenson, Thomas C. “Pobedonostsev Parish Schools: A Bastion Against Secularism.” In Runkevich, S. Vesna narodov: Etnopoliticheskaya istoriya Volgo-Ural’skogo regiona Volgo-Ural’skogo istoriya Etnopoliticheskaya Vesna narodov: Vereschagin,G.E. V.N. Tallin, “Shkolu ‘bratstva Svyatitelya Guriya’ v Chuvashii” (Schools of Gurii brotherhood in brotherhood Gurii of (Schools v Chuvashii” Guriya’ Svyatitelya ‘bratstva “Shkolu V.A. Sboev, Said ,Edward W. Slocum, John W. “Who, and When, Were the Inorodsy? The Evolution of the Category of Category the of Evolution The Inorodsy? the Were When, and “Who, W. John Slocum, Press, 1992. ethnographical studies). Kazan: n.p., 1889. according main tothe Petersburg:confessions). Saint n.p.,1901. 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Russkie monasturi i monashestvo v19inachale20veka Russkie monasturiimonashestvo Religiozno-mifologicheskaya kartina miraudmurtov Otpadenie inorodtsev-khristian v mukhammedanstvo Otpadenie inorodtsev-khristian v Moya zhizn’ N.I. Il’minskii-director uchitel’skojKazanskoj seminarii Istoriya Kazanskoj dukhovnojakademii 42,3(2000). : vospominaniya th th , ed. Robert P.Geraci , ed.Robert Khodarkovsky,and Michael 144-173. anniversary anniversary Gurii of brotherhood). St. and the beginning of andthebeginning of the 20 Of Religion andEmpire:Mission, ConversionOf and 81 (My life: memoirs). Moscow: Respublica, Moscow: memoirs). life: (My Ithaca and London: Cornell University Cornell London: and Ithaca Kazan’: Imperatorskogo Tipografiya (History of Kazan Ecclesiastic Kazan of (History Comparative StudiesinSociety th century). Moscow: (Religious-mythological (Apostasy of (Russian monasteries (Russian (To the memory of Kazan: Tipografiya (N.I. Il’minskii- (N.I. inorodsy Verbum-