Films About South Africa 1987 – 2014: Representations of ‘The Rainbow’

A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick Permanent WRAP URL: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/81400 Copyright and reuse: This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications FILMS ABOUT SOUTH AFRICA 1987 – 2014: REPRESENTATIONS OF ‘THE RAINBOW’ by Derilene Marco A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Film and Television Studies University of Warwick, Department of Film and Television Studies January 2016 CONTENTS Page List of Illustrations i Glossary ii Acknowledgements vi Declaration vii Abstract viii Introduction 1 Chapter One – Review of Literature Introduction 14 Part One 1.1 ‘South Africanese’, ‘South African-ness’ and the Challenge of Representation: New and Old Terms 16 1.2 South African Cinema: Definitions, Histories and Possibilities 22 1.3 ‘Rainbow Nation’ Cinema: A National Cinema? 23 1.4 South Africa: Post-colonial and/or Post-apartheid 33 Part Two Defining Cinemas, Nations and ‘Structures of Feeling’ 37 Part Three 3.1 Memory and Trauma in South African Films 50 3.2 Memory and Trauma Studies: Perspectives and Theoretical Points 55 3.2.1 Trauma Cinema, ‘Acting Out’ and ‘Working Through’ 58 3.2.2 Trauma in films 61 Conclusion 64 Section One 66 Chapter Two: On the Brink of Freedom: A Dry White Season, Cry Freedom and Mapantsula Introduction 67 Part One: White and Black Anti-Apartheid Masculinities In Cry Freedom and A Dry White Season 72 Part Two: Mapantsula: A Black Perspective Anti-Apartheid Film, the Case of Panic, the ‘Tsotsi’ 91 Part Three: The Women of Cry Freedom and A Dry White Season 101 3.1 The Afrikaner Women of A Dry White Season and Melanie, the Outsider 102 3.2 Defiance and the Joint Struggle of Women in Cry Freedom 110 Conclusion 115 Section Two 116 Chapter Three: Memory, ‘Ubuntu’ and Forgiveness in Films about The Truth And Reconciliation Commission Introduction 117 South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission 126 Part One: The Truth Shall Set You Free and ‘Full Disclosure’ in In My Country and Red Dust 133 Red Dust 133 In My Country 141 Part Two: ‘Acting Out’, Forgiveness and Revenge: Forgiveness and Zulu Love Letter 150 Forgiveness 150 Zulu Love Letter 164 Conclusion 174 Chapter Four: Shame, Guilt and the Relevance of White Men in Post-Apartheid: Disgrace and Skoonheid Introduction 176 Guilt and Shame in Disgrace and Skoonheid Disgrace 185 Skoonheid 194 Rape in Disgrace and Skoonheid 205 Disgrace 207 Skoonheid 215 Conclusion 223 Section Three 225 Chapter Five: Violent Masculinities and Young Back Men in Post-Apartheid Films: Hijack Stories, Tsotsi, Disgrace Introduction 229 Hijack Stories 234 Tsotsi 247 Disgrace 260 Conclusion 265 Chapter Six: Rituals, Tradition and Steps Forward in the New South Africa: Fanie Fourie’s Lobola, Elelwani and Disgrace Introduction 268 Fanie Fourie’s Lobola: Negotiating New Traditions 273 Elelwani: the Burden of Being a Young, Free Woman 288 Disgrace and Lucy’s Rainbow Womb 302 Conclusion 309 Conclusion 311 Bibliography 321 Filmography 340 List of illustrations Page Figure 2.1 – Panic on route to Pat’s workplace in white suburb (Oliver 95 Schmitz, 1988) Figure 2.2 – Shattered window at Mrs Bentley’s house, Mapantsula 96 Figure 2.3 – Shattered window in flashback, Mapantsula 97 Figure 3.1 – Anna Malan and Langston Whitfield in first confrontation 142 about TRC, In My Country (John Boorman, 2004) Figure 3.2 – Media arrive in the TRC bus for the first hearing, In My 142 Country Figure 3.3 – Arrival of crowds at the first hearing in the film, In My 143 Country Figure 3.4 – Daniel’s comrades: The ‘Rainbow Nation’ trio, 160 Forgiveness (Ian Gabriel, 2004) Figure 3.5 – Daniel’s family at his grave, Forgiveness 161 Figure 4.1 – Before orgy, Skoonheid (Oliver Hermanus, 2011) 201 Figure 4.2 – After orgy scene shot 1, Skoonheid 202 Figure 4.3 – After orgy scene shot 2, Skoonheid 202 Figure 5.1 – Zama after having landed the role of ‘Bra Biza’, Hijack 245 Stories (Oliver Schmitz, 2001) Figure 5.2 – Tsotsi and his friends in opening scene, Tsotsi (Gavin 248 Hood, 2005) Figure 5.3 Tsotsi looking back at his friends while his body remains 249 forward, facing the township, Tsotsi Figure 6.1 – Elelwani with her mother, Elelwani (Ntshavheni wa Luruli, 300 2012) Figure 6.2 – Elelwani as she leaves her parents homestead, Elelwani 300 Figure 6.3 – David looking at Petrus, Disgrace (Steve Jacobs, 2008) 307 i GLOSSARY Apartheid Era of enforced and legalised separate racial development in South Africa between 1948 and 1994. Purposefully written with a small ‘a’ throughout the thesis. Post-apartheid The era from 1994 through to the present after the first democratic elections were held in South Africa on 27 April 1994. Rainbow Nation Term used to describe South Africans after the end of apartheid. The term suggests that the population, constituted of different ethnicities and races, is united in its diversity. Askari A black person who fought against apartheid (often part of one of the resistance movements like the African National Congress – ANC) but who was co-opted by the apartheid security police force to act as an informant. Often blackmailed or somehow coerced into a position in which they needed to provide information to the apartheid security police. Boer Literally "farmer" in Afrikaans. In South Africa, a derogatory term used by Black people during apartheid to identify a white Afrikaans speaking person of any kind, i.e. a police officer or an ordinary woman citizen. Although the term is still used, it is not as common in everyday parlance and no longer holds the same fear. Born-frees People who were born after 1990 but usually refers specifically to those born in and after 1994. Braai The word braai is Afrikaans for “barbecue” or “roast”. It is a common social custom in South Africa. ii Coloured A person of mixed-race heritage but with specific cultural and ethnic meaning in South Africa and different to mixed-race. The cultural grouping is linked to interracial sexual activities between slaves and indentured labourers and white settlers during colonialism. Also linked to the San and the Khoi, who are indigenous migrant communities. It was a racial category enforced by the apartheid government through the Population Registration Act No. 30 of 1950. Impimpi A Black police informant during apartheid. Similar to the term askari but not interchangeable as anyone in the community could be an impimpi. Koeksisters A plaited doughnut dipped in syrup.From Afrikaans koe(k)sister: koek meaning 'cake' + sissen 'meaning to sizzle'. Kwaito Kwaito is a music genre that emerged in Johannesburg, South Africa, during the 1990s. It is a variant of house music featuring the use of African sounds and beats. Mixed race This is a relatively new and growing racial category in South Africa which refers to the mixed race offspring of parents of two different races. Moffie Refers to an effeminate male or male homosexual (derogatory term), or transvestite. Toyi-toyi A physical action which expresses defiance and protest. It involves raising ones knees and arms held in fists. Commonly seen in anti-apartheid marches. Tsotsi Most easily translated as gangster or thug but has additional connotations in black townships in South Africa. iii Ubuntu The term ubuntu is used as part of an African proverb: umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, to impart the idea that we are all connected via our humanity. Translated, the phrase means, ‘I am what I am because of who we all are’. Black References all non-white citizens of South Africa. Used with a capital ‘B’ in this thesis when discussing non-white characters unless otherwise indicated. black References the apartheid racial category, black Africans, enforced by the Population Registration Act No. 30 of 1950. Used in parts of the thesis. Manse A term which means South but which is colloquially used as a direct reference to South Africa. ‘Kaffir’ A derogatory and highly offensive racial term that was used for and to Black people during apartheid. The term could be equated to the use of the word “nigger” in the U.S context. Coconut The term ‘coconuts’ suggests that one is Black on the outside but white on the inside, or culturally ‘white’. It is also a term that references wealthy, young Black South Africans who grew up middle class and who are able to access certain things that other young Black South Africans cannot. It is sometimes used along with the term Black Diamonds. Although related, the terms are not always interchangeable. Afrikaner A term used to describe Afrikaans-speaking whites in South Africa. These identities were/ are often associated with conservative Calvinist values and the protection of a kind of ethnicity within South African whiteness that makes an Afrikaner distinct from a white English person, for example. Afrikanerdom A term that describes an Afrikaner person’s culture and values. During apartheid it was the cultural group which was to be protected and which was blessed by God. The Dutch Reformed Church supported apartheid and was the stronghold of Afrikanerdom, as it was a culture protected by God. iv ‘Madam’ / ‘Missus’ The terms are used interchangeably and reference a white housewife. Often a term used by Black domestic workers about the owner of the house.

Load more