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MASTER of SCIENCE December, 2002 HUMANIZING the DEAD: GHOSTS, SPIRITS AND c HUMANIZING THE DEAD: GHOSTS, SPIRITS AND THE ROLE OF THE SPECIALISTS IN SPIRITUALISM t 850 TO THE PRESENT. By Stan Hodges Bachelor ofScience Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma State 1981 Submitted to the Faculty ofthe Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University [n partial fulfillment of The requirements for The Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE December, 2002 HUMANIZING THE DEAD: GHOSTS, SPIRITS AND THE ROLE OF THE SPECIALISTS IN SPIRITUALISM 1850 TO THE PRESENT Thesis Approved: ~. / f\ ~r; ----=~~v, L~ ~ ,I Thesis Advisor ./ Dean ofthe Graduate College 11 TABL[ OF CONTENTS Chapter I. Introduction II. Historical Background 9 Literature Review 10 The Emergence and Growth of Spiritualism Early Scientific Curiosity 11 Mediums and Challenges to Science 17 The 1950s: A New Era 19 1970 to the Present, Breaking through to the Mainstreatn ................................................................ 21 Summary 26 II. Theoretical Concerns ".. 28 Discussing Eliot Freidson's ideas about professionalism, and its development. Expertise: Traditional and Modem 31 Credentialism 37 Autonomy '" ,. .. 38 III. Methodology .. .. .. ... .. .. ... ... 44 Discussing the Ethnography of Literature and observations. IV. Analysis 55 The application of the three traits ofprofessionalism and how they apply to psychics and spirit mediums. Charismatic Psychics and Spirit Mediums 58 Case Study ofJohn Edward .... .......... .. ...... ... ......... ... ... 62 Hierarchical Psychic Groups ............. ...... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... 8 t Technological Groups 90 Professional Research Groups . .. .. ... .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... .. .. 97 V. Conclusions and Insights 107 iii Limitations ofthe Study 113 Contributions and Implications for Future Research 11 S Bibliography ..................... ,. , , " "'" " - ,, . 118 Appendix ..................'.'., ' ,' . 129 IV Chapter One Introduction According to Owen Davies (1999: 12) "during the late nineteenth century there occurred what has been described as the Occult Reviva1." This was a renewed learned interest in ceremonial magic, encouraged by the popularity ofspiritualism. Davies defined this Occult Revival as "the shift from solitary to collective magical practice, coupled with the formulation ofa new magical tradition bringing together ancient pagan beliefs and the Christian occult philosophies of early modem Europe" (Davies 1999: 12). Spiritualism as defined by Guiley (200]), says that spiritualist phenomena fall into three main categories: mental mediumship, spiritual healing and physical mediumship. Mental mediumship includes trance work, automatisms, psychometry, and clairvoyance and other extra senses. Mental mediumistic skills include seances, which usually feature communications with the dead, psychic readings, spiritual healing and the teaching of psychic skills. Spiritual healing usually takes two forms: contact healing, which is the laying on ofhands; and absent healing in which a medium works with spirit doctors and has no direct contact with the patient (570). Physical mediumship involves the excrescence ofectoplasm from the medium as an interface with the spirit world, and is characterized by levitations, rappings, apports, telekinesis ofobjects, physical lights, music and smells, and other activities. Physical mediumship, very popular in the early days of Spiritualism is now rare (Guiley 200]: 570-571). Davies states that "though there had been a small number of erudite, experimental magicians throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the revival brought together large groups of individuals." Bruce (1996) states this renewed interest in the occult was one reaction to modernity, where migration from the rural areas and population growth resulted in urbanization and industrialization. With the spread ofmechanization and dehumanization this hunied social change coupled with a renunciation of religious belief as a means of salvation, all resulted in the tendency to be critical of the fonning modem civilization. This vacuwn created by modernity gave spiritualism a fertile setting to provide for the spiritual needs of large groups ofpersons that were dissatisfied with the direction that modernity was taking. This found expression in the fonn of turning to other worldliness, which in this case was the spirit world. This renewed spiritual interest expressed through the occult was a social phenomenon that affected ideas and beliefs from the late Victorian era into the present concerning the spirit world (Bruce 1996: 1-2). This study examines the Spiritualist movement within the context of modernity and rationalization. Modernity here is defined as rationalization (bureaucratization). Because of this the increasi ng need for specialists and specialization concerning mediumship occurred. Through rational methods of professionalism specialists spiritualists sought to legitimate their continued belief in the supernatural through communicating with deceased humans, rather than angels or deities with various superhuman qualities as spiritualist had done in the past. Thus, Humanizing the dead became the role of the specialists in Spiritualism. In modernity, the spirit world was no longer represented by deities, angels or demons, the communication with deceased human spirits or ghosts was consistent with the principles of science because ghosts 2 could be used as rational scientific evidence ofthe supernatural. According to Podmore (1963: 3) "the spiritualist relation to the occult associated with the occult revival differed from previous historical eras in that the relationship with the spirit world was based on departed humans rather than with demons or angels." Spiritualism gradually incorporated Christian beliefs in communicating with deceased spirits. These spiritualist practices synthesized religious views and scientific ideas creating a bridge between old and new spiritualist beliefs as well as providing a mechanism to integrate the supernatural into an increasingly non-supernatural world (Bruce 1996: 1-7; Ford & Harmon Bro 1958: 26-27). This is a dynamic process, Spiritualist efforts to legitimate the supernatural led to the development ofa model ofprofessionalization for psychics and spirit mediums that is still evolving (Bruce 1996:214-215). The Purpose of the Study The purpose ofthis study is to describe the process of rationalization and emerging professionalization by the spiritual specialists of psychics and spirit mediums. These specialists sought to professionalize in order to increase credibility and respect among the general public for psychic occupations. Weber (1958: 139, 155) looks on rationalization in general as a "deep-lying" tendency in modem society." He further notes that the most significant aspect ofrationalization as " a process whereby life has become organized in terms of instrumental considerations: the concern with technical efficiency, the maximization ofcalculability and predictability, and the subordinatl0n of nature to human purposes." Bruce (l996: 181-182,214-219) concurs with Weber and further states that "Modem life is so fragmented for many people that they find it increasingly difficult to fi nd a satisfying and fulfilling identity. II Given this world-vi ew, J Spiritualists were forced to reconcile their beliefs to the rational scientific principles of the modem world. Codification and regulation are the beginnings of professionalization. This study is organized using Freidson's (1984: 10) three-tenant model of professionalization as a theoretical "frame ofreference," These are l.expertise, 2.credentialism, 3.autonomy. This model will be used in this study. First I discuss the historical development ofthe current professionalization process. Second, I compare the simiIan ties and inconsistencies of professional development with the professionalization experiences of alternative healing methods found in more traditional medicine. The comparison provided for a better understanding as to the importance and dominance of the professionalization in modem society among marginal groups such as psychics and spirit mediums (Wolinsky 1980: 291-302). Statement of the Problem This study discusses how psychics and spirit mediums adopted the ethics of and reconci led their practices to the area of professionalization and rationality and how are psychics integrating professionalization as an important part oftheir occupational experience? This study seeks to understand some of the answers to that question (Bruce 1996: 214-215). The growing interest in the paranormal by the public in the 1970's and 1980's caused a resurgence ofinterest by academia for investigations into these social phenomena. This was largely because of the growth and organization of groups that promoted paranormal abilities. A brief review of sociological literature includes, Mehan and Wood (1975: 8-33) that wrote and article on the five features ofreality that gives a comparison between paranormal beliefs and scientific beliefs In the formation of 4 - incorrigible propositions of a reality which serve to judge others ways of knowing. This article provided an analytical means of understanding the life-world of groups with paranormal perspectives. Emmons (1982: 187-224) who wrote several studies on paranormal beliefs and experiences in China and made cross-cultural comparisons to the West. He looks at the close relationships between individuals, mediums as specialists and the spirit world to see what realities may exist independent from the influences ofa particular culture. Emmons
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