FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI Ill greatest, tallest, and most beaut!ful s~u~ure of all th?se built in modem times as well as m anuqwty, demonstratmg that the genius of Tuscan artisans, although it had been The Life of Filippo Brunelleschi, lost, was not completely dead. • Heaven also endowed F~ppo Sculptor and Architect with the highest virtues, a~g which was t~at of fne~d­ ~hip. so that there never existed a m~n m~re kmd or lovtng~ [1377-1446] than he. In his judgement he was dispasstonate, and when­ ever he considered the measure of another man's merits, he set aside his own interest or that of his friends. He knew himself and communicated the degree of his own talent to Nature has created many men who are small and insignificant others, and he was always ready to help a neighbour in need, in appearance but who are endowed with spirits so full of declaring himself a confirmed enemy of vice and :W ~dourer greatness and hearts of such boundless courage that they have of those who practised virtue. He never wasted his ~1me but no peace until they undertake difficult and almost impossible was always striving to assist his friends, either by hims~lf or tasks and bring them to completion, to the astonishment of with the help of others, and he went about visiting his fnends those who witness them. No matter how vile or base these and always supporting them. projects may be, when opportwtity puts them into the hands It is said that in Florence there lived a m:m of excellent of such men, they become valuable and lofty enterprises. reputation, with many praiseworthy habits and ~nd~trious ~ Thus, we should never tum up our noses when we meet his affairs, whose name was Ser Brunellesco di L1ppo Lap1, people who in their physical appearance do not possess the whose grandfather, called Cambio1 was an educate~ person initial grace and beauty that Nature should bestow upon skil­ and the son of a physician, Master Ventura BacherJrU, who ful artisans when they come into the world, for without a was very famous in those days. • Brunellesco married a very doubt veins of gold are hidden beneath the sod. And many well-bred woman from the noble Spini family, and as part of times those with poor features develop such great generosity her dowry she brought him a house, where he and ~is sons of spirit and sincericy of heart that when nobility of soul is lived until their death, which is situated just opposite San joined to these qualities, the greatc:st1tirU.S may be ex­ Michele Berteldi on the side in a comer past the Piazza degli pected of them, for they work to embellish ugliness of Agli. There be worked and lived happily until the. year 1377, • body with strength of int~ect. This an be clearly seen in when a son was born to him, whose birth made htm as happy Filippo di Ser Brunellesco, who was no less ill-favoured in as could be imagined and to whom he gave the name of appearance than Forese cb Rabatta and Giotto, • but whose Filippo, after his dead father. In his early years, the. father genius was so lofty that it might well be said he had been sent diligently taught his son the rudiments ofletters, m which the to us by Heaven to give a new form to architecture which had boy showed himself to be so clever and of such a lofty mtellect been going astray for hundreds of years; the men of those that he often kept his mind detached, as if he did not intend times had spent many fortunes badly, constructing buildings to perfect himself in such matters. On the contrary,.~~ seem.ed with no sense of order, bad methods, poor design, bizarre as if his mind were ru.rned to matters of greater utility, w1th inventions, a shameful lack of grace, and the wont kinds of the result that Ser Brunellesco-who wanted his son to fol­ decoration. And since the world had existed for so many years low his own profession, that of notary, or that of his gr_eat~ without such a remarkable mind and such a divine spirit, great-grandfather--was very displeased. Nevertheless, smce Heaven willed that Filippo should leave behind him the his father observed his son to be continuously attracted to Ill FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI l!J ingenious matters of art and mechanics, he had him learn to doors and windows in a style derived from that of antiquity use the abacus and to write; :md then he apprenticed him in but which was then not widely wed, since architecture was in the goldsmith's craft so that he might learn the art of design a very crude state in Tuscany.• with a friend of his. And this greatly satisfied Filippo, who Then, the friars of Santo Spirito wanted him to carve a began to learn and to practise the various aspects of this craft, lime-wood statue of the penitent Saint Mary Magdalene to and not many years had passed before he could mount place in 2 ch<~.pel, and since Filippo had done a number of precious stones better than the older artisans in the trade. He small things in sculpture, he was anxious to demonstrate that tried his hand at niello• and worked upon larger pieces, such he could succeed in works of a larger scale and agreed to do as some half-length silver figures of prophets plaoed at the the figure. When it was completed and put in place, it was head of the altar of the church of San Jacopo in Pistoia, which considered very beautiful, but in the subsequent fire in that he executed for the trustees of the Works Department of that church during the year 1471, it was burned along with many city's cathedral and which are considered most beautiful He other important objects. also worked on objects in bas-relief. demonstrating such a pro­ Filippo paid great attention to perspectiv_;, then very badly found understanding of this craft that it was inevitable his employed as a result of the many errors made in using it. He mind would surpass the boundaries of this profession. Thus, wasted a great deal of time in this but fmally discovered by after taking some training with certain learned men, he began himself a means by which it could be: done correctly and per­ to speculate over matters of time and motion, weights and ;::;;,' ~"· by tracing ir with a ground-plan and profile wheels, how they could be made to turn and how they ersecting lines, a discovery truly very fu~ous and moved, and as a result, he created with his own hands a num­ useful to the art of design_. He rook such delight in perspective ber of very fme and very beautiful clocks. that he drew a sketch of Piazza San Giovanni,* which shows Not satisfied with this, there aro:se in his heart the des.irc to all the divisions of the black-and-white marble inlay dimmish­ do sculpture on the largest scale. And this occurred later, for ing with a singular gracefulness, and in a similar way he drew since the young Donatello was reputed to be talented in this the house of the Misericordia with the shops of the cialdone art and to show great promise, Filippo began to keep his makers• and the arch of the Pecori, with the column of Saint company constantly, and such great affection grew up be­ Zenobius on the other side. Since this work was praised by the tween them due to the talent each possessed that it seemed as if artisans and those who possessed good judgement in this craft, they could not live without each other. And so Filippo, who it encouraged him so much that before long he began another, was very skilled in many things, worked at"mafprofessions, and he drew the Palace, Piazza. and Loggia of the Signoria and he did not work in them long before he was considered along with the roof of the Pisani and all the surrounding by people with some underst!lding of these matters to be a buildings. These works kindled the spirits of other artisans most excellent architect, as he demonstrated in his techniques who studied them afterwards with careful attention. for decorating and restoring hl>uses: for instance, on the comer In particular, Filippo taught perspective to Masaccio, a of the Ciai family facing towards the Old Market, he did a young painter and his very close friend at the time, who then grea~ deal of work at the hc;me of Apollonio Lapi, one of his honoured his teacher by what he displayed in the buildings he reb.nves, where he worked while it was being built. And he painted in his works. It only remained for him to teach his did much the same thing outside of Florenoe for the tower and method to those who worked in tarsia, which is the craft of house of the Petraia at Castello. In the Palazzo della Signoria, inlaying coloured pieces of wood, and he stimulated these he arranged and partitioned all those rooms where the office of artisans so much that they developed excellent procedures the officials of the Monte• was located, and he constructed the and useful techniques from his teaching, for both then_ and 114 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 115 afterwards many excellent works brought fame and profit to Florence for many years. And so he sent Donatello to his home ahead of him almost as a One evening Messer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli• returned joke (since Donatello did not know that Filippo had executed from his work and happened to be in his garden having supper such a work), and while he gazed at it, Donatello dropped the with some of his friends, and he invited Filippo to join them. apron he was wearing filled with eggs and things they had Having listened to him discussing the mathematical sciences, intended to eat together, carried away by his astonishment and Filippo struck up such a friendship with Paolo that he learned by the ingenious and artistic style Filippo had employed in the geometry from him. And although Filippo was not a learned legs, torso, and arms of the figure, all arranged and combined man, he was able to argue everything so well from his own in such a fashion that beside! declaring himself beaten, practice and experience that he confounded Paolo on many Donatello proclaimed the work to be a miracle. Today this occasions. And thus, Filippo continued to srudy, working on crucifix is in Santa Maria NoveUa between the Strozzi Chapel matters of Christian scripture, not hesitating to intervene in and the Bardi da Vernia Chapel and is still praised to the skies the disputations and sermons of learned men and profiting so by modem artists. The talents of these truly distinguished much from his remarkable memory that Messer Paolo, in masten were so apparent that they were commissioned by praising him, used to say that when he heard Filippo argue, he the Butchers' Guild and the Linen-Drapers' Guild to sculpt thought he was listening to a new Saint Paul. He also spent a two marble figures to be placed in their niches on the sides great deal of this period working on matters relating to Dante, of Orsanmichele. Filippo left the statues for Donatello to coming to understand the places Dante mentioned and their do alone, since he had taken on other responsibilities, and dimensions so well that he would often use Dante to make Donatello executed them perfectly. • comparisons and cite the poem in his arguments. His mind After this, in 1401, it was decided, since sculpture had was constantly grinding out and thinking up ingenious and reached such heights, to redo the two bronze doors of the difficult problems. Nor could he have found anyone whose Church and the Baptistery of San Giovanni, since from intelligence satisfied him more than Donatello, with whom he Andrea Pisano's death until that time no masters existed who held friendly conversations, both men takirig pleasure in each knew how to execute them. As a result, these intentions were other's company, as they conferred together on the problems made known to the sculptors then living in Tuscany, and they of their trade. were summoned and given an allowance and a year's time Now, in those days Donatello had finished a wooden to complete ~ single scene. Among those summoned were crucifix which was placed in Florence's chu.h qf_Santa Croce Filippo and Donatello in competition with Lorenzo Ghiberti, under the scene of the yormg boy resUrrected b~nt Francis Jacopo della Fonte [Quercia], Simone da Colle, Francesco di painted in fresco by Taddeo GiPdi, and Donatello wanted to V aldambrino, and NiccolO d' Arezzo, each of whom w;;r,s to he>r Filippo's opinion of it. But he regretted having asked, execute a scene on his own. The scenes were completed in for Filippo replied that he haAbraham sacrificing Isaac, along with a servant who, while of these building., constantly working without sparing either waiting for Abraham near an ass grazing, pulls a thorn from time or expense. They left no spot unvisited, either within his foot, a detail which deserves considerable praise. When the Rome or out in the countryside, and, in so far as they could, scenes were placed on display, Filippo and Donatello were they took the measurements of everything of any worth. And satisfied only with the one by Lorenzo, and they judged him since Filippo was free from domestic concerns, he abandoned to be more suitable for this project than either they or the himself to his studies and did not worry about eating or sleep­ artisans who had created the other scenes. And so they ing; his only concern was the architecture, which was already persuaded the consuls with sound arguments to commission in ruins, that is, the good ancient orders and not the barbarous the project to Lorenzo, demonstrating in this fashion how the German style which was frequently employed in his times.• public and private interests might best be served, and this was And Filippo conceived two grandiose ideas: the first was to certainly the true fruit of friendship, talent without envy, and bring good architecture back to tight, since he believed that if sound judgement of their own abilities, for which they he did this, he would leave behind him no less a reputation deserved more praise than if they had brought the project to than Cimabue or Giotto; the other was to find a means, if he perfection themselves. w~ spirits are those; who, could, to raise the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. while helpmg one another. also take _e_leasure in praiSing the The difficulties of accomplishing this were such that no one labour of others_! How unhappy are the arnsans o our own after the death of Amolfo Lapi* had enough courage to times who, while doing harm to others. are eaten up by envy attempt the feat without expending an enormous sum for a in attacking them when they cannot vent their malice! wooden frame. Filippo, however, never confided his thoughts The consuls begged Filippo to work on the project along to Donatello or to :my living sou], nor did he cease working in with Lorenzo, but he did not wish to do so, intending instead Rome until he had pondered all the problems related to the to be first in a single craft rather than equal or second in this Pantheon and how it might have been vaulted. He had exam­ work. And so he gave the scene, which he had executed in ined and sketched all the vaultings of antiquity and studied bronze, to Cosima de' Medici, who, with the pass~ o~tij11e. them continually. And if by chance he and Donatello found had it set up in the Old Sacristy of San Lorenzo on the bM of buried fragments of capitals, columns, cornices, and supports the altar, where it is today, and DonateU?'s scene was given to for buildings, they would set to work and have them exca­ the Money-Change"' Guild. • vated to reach the foundations. As a result, rumours spread After the commission had been givep to Lorenzo Ghiberti, around Rome, and as they passed through the streets carelessly Filippo and DonateJlo met and decided to leave Florence dressed, the people called them the 'treasure-hunters', because together and to stay in Rome for several years, Filippo they believed they were practising geomancy• in order to studying architecture and Donatello sculpture. Filippo did so locate buried treasure. The reason for this was that one day because he wished to surpass both Lorenzo and Donatello, they uncovered an ancient earthenware pot full of medals. believing that architecture was more necessary for man's needs Filippo was short of money and went about meeting his than sculpture or painting. He sold a small farm that he expenses by setting very precious gems for his goldsmith possessed in Setrignano and left Florence to go to Rome. • friends, and since Donatello had returned to Florence, he thus Upon seeing the grandeur of the buildings and the perfection remained alone in Rome, and with even greater study and toil of the remains of the temples, he stood there so engrossed than before he continued training himself by observing the 118 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 119 ruins of these buildings. He did not rest until there was no sort added that while pas,ing through Cortona, he entered a parish of building he had not sketched: round, square, and octagonal church and saw an extremely beautiful ancient tombstone temples, basilicas, aqueducts, baths, arches, coliseums, amphi­ upon which there was a scene carved in marble, a very r:llre theatres, and every kind of brick temple, extracting from all thing in those days, since the abundance of antiquities we this the methods employed in girding and securing the walls enjoy today had not yet been unearthed. Donatello continued, and in constructing the arches of the vaults, as well as all the describing the method the ancient master had employed in means of joining stones by hinging and dovetailing. When he creating that work, and the finesse which it displayed along investigated the fact that all the huge stones had acute-angled with the perfection and excellence of its workmanship. This holes underneath in the middle, he discovered that it was for aroused in Filippo such a burning desire to see it that dressed the icon instrument we call the ulivclla, with which the stones just 2s he was, in his cloak, hood, and wooden clogs, without were hoisted, and he reintroduced this technique and brought telling anyone where he was going, he went off on foot and it back into use once ag:Un. Then he classified the various willingly allowed himself to be carried off to Cortona by his architectural orders one by one: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. love for the art of sculpture. And when he had seen and And his studies were so intense that his mind was capable of enjoyed the tombstone, he sketched it with his pen, and then, imagining how Rome once appeared even before the city fell taking his drawing, he returned to Florence, without into ruins. Donatello or anyone else realizing that he had even left, since The air of the city caused Filippo a slight problem in the they thought he must be drawing plans or dreaming up some year 1407, and, advised by his friends to seek a change of project. climate, he returned to Florence. There, in his absence, many When he returned to Florence, he showed them the sketch building projects had suffered, and upon his arrival he pro­ of the tombstone he had drawn with such great care. vided many plans and much advice. During the same year,• Donatello was greatly amazed by it, since he could see how the trustees of the Works Department of Santa Maria del Fiore much love Filippo had for the art of sculpture. Filippo then and the consuls of the Wool Guild called together local remained for many months in Florence, where he secretly architects and engineers to discuss the method of v:mlting the executed models and mechanisms for work on the dome but dome. The group included Filippo, and he advised them that still spent time joking with the other artisans. It was then that it was necessary to remove the roof from the building and to he played the practical joke of the Fat Man and Matteo, • and avoid following Amolfo's plan. He suggested that they should often amused himself by going to help Lorenzo Ghiberti pol­ instead construct a frieze ftfteen armslengths in heis.h!, and ish something on his doon. But Filippo had heard that there make a large eye in the middle of each side, since 'Oesidw was some discussion of making provisions for engineers to taking otf the supports of the dome it could thus be vaulted vault the dome [of Santa Maria del Fiore], and one morning more easily. Models were accordingly planrttd and builL his fantasy moved him to return to Rome because he thought One morning, a few months after recovering from his his reputation would increase if he had to be sought after in illness, Filippo was standing in the piazza bf Santa Maria del a place other than Florence. Therefore, while Filippo was in Fiore with Donatello and some other artisans, discussing Rome, the project was studied, and his exceptionally sharp matters relating to ancient sculpture. Donatello was telling mind was recalled, since he had demonstrated in his argu­ how, as he returned from Rome, he had taken the road ments a certainty and courage which h.ad not been founo through Orvieto to see the famous marble fa~ade of the in the other masters, who were standing around with the Duomo which was constructed by several different masten masons, bewildered, having lost their confidence, and believ­ and in those times considered a remarkable work. And he ing they could never discover a method of vaulting the dome, UI 120 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BR.UNELLESCHI nor beams to construct a framework strong enough to support propose your project to them so that after it has been argued and the reinforcement and weight of such a gigantic structure. resolved among so many masters, it may be initiated and given over Determined to see the project through to its conclusion, they to the man who most clearly gives some indication of possessing the wrote to Filippo in Rome and begged him to return to ben technique and judgement for completing such a work. And I know of no better advice or procedures to give you than these. Florence. And since he wished for nothing else, Filippo very graciowly returned. Upon his arrival, the trustees of the Works Department of The consuls and trustees liked Filippo's advice and proced­ Sant2 Maria del Fiore and the consuls of the Wool-Makers' ures, but in the me:mtime they would have liked him to con­ Guild assembled and explained to Filippo all of the diffi­ struct a model to which he had given some thought. But he culties-from the largest down to the smallest-which their pretended not to be concerned with the project; indeed, after workmen were encountering, and since the artisans were pres­ he took his leave of them, he declared he had been asked ent at the meeting along with the others, Filippo spoke these by letter to return to Rome. On~e the consuls realized that words: their prayers and those of the trustees were not enough to stop him, they had many of his friends entreat him, but when he Honourable Trustees, there is no doubt that difficulties always arise in the execution of great projects, and if ever an undertaking presented did not yield to their request, one morning-it was the problems, this plan of yours presents more perplexing ones than twenty-sixth day of May in 1417*-the trustees allocated perhaps even you imagine. For I do not know if the ancients ever put him a sum of money, which can be found credited to up a vault as awesome as this one, and 1 have thought many times Filippo in the account books of the O~ce ?f the Works about the reinforcements requited both outside and inside, so that Department, all this being done to mollify him. But, firm we can work safely on the project, but I have never been able to in his purpose, Filippo left Florence and returned to Rome, make up my mind: the width of the structure discourages me no less where he continuously studied this project, organizing and than the height. If the dome could be rounded, we might employ the preparing for the completion of such a work and believing (as technique employed by the Romans when they vaulted the Pantheon was true) that he was the only man capable of carrying out in Rome--that is, the Rotunda-but here we must pursue the eight sides, using iron ties and toothing in the stones, which will be an even such a plan. Filippo's advice about engaging other architects was given more difficult feat. But when I remember that this is a church consecrated to God :md the Virgin, I am confident that since it is for no other reason than the fact that they might bear witness being built in Her honour, She will not fail to instil knowledge to his exceptional talent, rather than because he thought they where there is none and to provide to whoever may be the architect might discover a means of vaulting the dome and uke on :1: of such an enterprise the necesury strength, wisdom, and talent. But burden that was too great for them. And thus a great deal of how can I assist you here, when the project is not mine? Let me time was wasted before these architects arrived from their tell you, however, that if I were commissioned to d£.it, I would various cities and countries, since they had been summoned courageously and quite resolutely discover a way to vaUTt d...tome from afar by orders given to Florentine merchants who lived without so many difficulties. Hut until now I have not thought about in France, Germany, England, and Spain, and who had been this at all, and you would like me to explaA my method to you? But commissioned to spend whatever was necessary to secure from when Your Lordships really decide that the dome must be vaulted, you will be obliged not only to test n.,- opinion (which will be the rulers of these countries the services of the most experi­ insufficient advice for such a grandiose undertaking) but to take enced and distinguished talents who lived in those regions. the trouble and expense of arranging for Tuscaru and Italians, as well When the year I420 arrived, all of these foreign masters, as Germans, Frenchmen, and architeccs of every nation, to gather along with those from Tuscany, as well as all of the most in Florence within a year's time on a speci£c day, and you should skilful Florentine architects, were finally assembled in Florence, 122 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 12] and Filippo returned from Rome. They all tben met in tbe the rurvature of a pointed arch and to make two vaults with one Office of tbe Works Department of Santa Maria del Fiore in inside and one outside, so that a man can walk between them. And the presence of the consuls and the trustees, along with a over the comen of the angles of the eight sides, the strucrure must be selected group of the most worthy citizens, in order to choose a bound together through its thickm:.ss by dovetailing the stones and, method for vaulting the dome after the opinion of each artisan similarly, the sides of the dome must be bound together with ties of had been heard. Thus, they summoned all the artists to the o:Uc. And attention mwt be paid to the lighting, the stairways, and hearing and listened to their opinions one by one, as each artist the cdnduits for draining off the rain·water. And none of you has remembered to point out that internal scaffolding can be constructed explained the pbns he had developed for the project. It was 2 to do the mosaics and a countless number of other difficu1t tasks. But marvellous thing to hear the strange and varied views on this I, who envision the dome already vaulted, recognize t:lut there is no subject, for some declared that they would construct brick other method nor any other way to vault it than the one that I have pillars from ground level to support the arches and hold up the set forth. framework that would bear the weight; others maintained that it would be well to vault the dome with pumice stone And the more heated Filippo grew in his discussion, as he so that it would weigh less; and many of them agreed on sought to explain his idea so tbat they could understand it and constructing a pillar in the middle and vaulting the dome with believe in it, the more questions they raised, so that they a pavilion-shape, like the one over San Giovanni in Florence. believed him even less and considered him even more of a fool And there were even some who said that it would be a good and a chatterbox. As a result, they cfumissed him several times, idea to fill up the church with a mixture of earth and coins, but, in the end, he refused to leave and was carried out bodily so that when the space W2S vaulted anyone who wanted from the hearing by several young men, with everyone to do so would be permitted to carry away the earth, and in considering him to be completely cnzy. This disgraceful this fashion the people would rapidly clear it away without experience was the reason why Filippo later had to declare expense. Filippo alone declared that the dome could be that he did not have the courage to pass through the streets of vaulted without using too many beams and without pillars or the city for fear of hearing people say: 'Look! There goes the mounds of earth at a much lower cost than the many arches madman!' would incur, and he said it could be done quite easily without After this meeting, the trustees remained confused over the any reinforcements. difficult methods proposed by the first masten as well as by To the trustees, 2S well as to the workmen and all the the one suggested at last by Filippo, which seemed foolish to assembled citizens, who had expected some fine scheme, it chem, since they believed he was mistaken about the project in seemed that Filippo was talking nonsense, and they mocked two ways: the first was the idea of erecting a double vault, him and laughed at him, turning away - decl;lring that he which would be very large and dangerously heavy; and the should speak of something else-that his mi!th~was that of a second was the idea of constructing it without framework. On madman-wbicb be was. Mi. result, Filippo, taking offence, the other band, Filippo, who had spent so many years of study declared: in order to obtain the commission, did not know what to do • and was tempted on many occasions to leave Florence. Yet, Sirs, you must realize that it is not possible to vault the dome in any since he wanted to succeed, he had to arm himself with way other than this one. Although you may laugh at me, you must patience, and he was clever enough to realize that the opinions understand (unless you wish to be obstinate} that it neither should nor of the citizens in his home town never held firm for very long. could be done otherwise. If you want to execute it according to the Filippo could have shown them a small model that he had scheme 1 have developed, it will be necessary to tum the cupolt with constructed, but he did not want to do so, having recognized 124 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 125 the lack of understanding on the part of the consuls, the envy Honourable Trustees, considering the difficulties involved in building of the artisans, and the fickle favour of the citizens, each of this ~tructurt:, r find that there is no possible means of forming the whom preferred first one thing and then another according to vaults in a perfect circle, since the plane of the lantern is so great dut whatever struck his fancy. I am not at all surprised by this, any weight placed upon it would immediately cause it to collapse. since everyone in this town professes to understand as much in Thw, it seems to me that those architects who have not kept their eye these matters as skilled masters do, although there are very on the longevity of such a structwe show Little pnsion for memorials few, in fact, who do so; and I say this hoping those who truly and do not understand why they :ue built. I decided, therefore, to Wldentand will excuse me. construct inner vaulting in sections matching the outer sides, giving them the proportions and curvature of the pointed arch, for the Thus, what Filippo was unable to achieve among the curvature of this type of arch always thrusts upwards to form the top assembled officials he tried to achieve by drawing different of the dome, and when the lantern is loaded on to the dome, they individuals aside, speaking now with this consul :md now with will combine to make it durable. At its base, the vaulting must be that trustee, and in like manner with many townspeople, three-:md-three-quarter armslengths thick., and it must rise lilc:e a showing them some part of his plan, so that he led them to the pyramid. narrowing outside where it doses up and where the lantern decision to give the commission for this project either to him is to be placed. And the vault must be one--and-one-quarter arms­ or to one of the foreigners. As a result, the consuls, trustees, lengths thick. Then another vault mwt be made over this one which and citizens, encouraged in this fashion, all met together and will be tw~and-a-half armslengths thick from the base, in order discussed the project with the architecn. But with his strong to protect the one inside from the rain. lbis one must also diminish arguments, they were all beaten and won over by Filippo. It is proportionally like a pynmid and join the lantern like the other vault, so that at its apex, it will be two-thirds of an armslength thick. said that the argument over the egg arose during the meeting For every angle, there will be a ribbed buttress, making eight in all; in the following way. They wanted Filippo to explain his and there will be two buttresses for the middle of every side, which intentions in detail :md to show his model, as they had shown makes a total of sixteen; rwo buttresses, each one four armslengths theirs, something he did not want to do, and he in tum thick at the base, must be built in the middle of these angles on the proposed to both foreign and florentine masters that whoever interior and exterior of each face of the dome. The two vaults, could stand an egg upright upon a marble slab should execute erected in the shape of pyramids, mwt rise together in equal the dome, since in this way their intelligence would be proportions up to the summit of the eye, which is closed up by the revealed. Therefore, when Filippo produced an egg, all those lantern. Then rwenty-four buttresses will be erected with the vaults masters tried to make it stand upright, but none of them found built arowtd them as well as six arches of blue-grey sandstone, which the way to do it. Then they asked Filippo to do it, and he will be strong, long, and weU-braced with iron; the iron ties will be covered with tin, and iron chains will be placed over the blocks of graciously took the egg, cracked its bottom on the marble and blue-grey sandstone to bind the vaulting to the buttresses. The made it stand upright. The artisans loudly complnfttd t foundation must be built of solid blocks up to a height of five--and­ they could have done the same thing, and, laughing, Filippo one-quarter armslengths, and from there the buttresses mwt continue answered that they would .also have leaned how to vault the and the vaults must be separated. The first and second circles must be dome if they had seen his model and his plans. And so they completely reinforced at the base with long blocks of blue-grey decided that Filippo should have the cesponsibility of ex­ sandstone laid lengthwise, so that both of the dome's vaults may rest ecuting this project, and he was told to give more details to upon them. And at the height of every nine armslengths, the vaults the consuls and trustees. should possess smaller arches between the buttresses linked together After he had returned home, Filippo wrote down what he with thick oaken ties to bind the buttresses that hold up the inner had in mind as dearly as he could upon a sheet of paper in vaulting. These oaken ties will then be coveTed with iron plates because of the suirw.ays. All of the buttresses must be constructed order to ~ive it to the assembled officials in this fashion: with blue-grey sandstone and hard stone, and, in like manner, the u6 FfLIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI !27 sides of the dome must be made of thick stone bound to the Jacopo sopr' Arno for Stiatta Ridolfi next to the chapel of the buttresses up to a height of twenty-four armslengths. and from that high altar. These works inspired more confidence in Filippo's point on mwt be built with bricks or pumice stone. according to project than had his explanations. whatever the builder may decide, to make them as light as possible. And so, after the consuls and the trustees of the Works Outside a passage-way must be constructed above the round win­ Department were convinced by Filippo's written explanation dows and a terrace below with perforated parapets two anrulengths and by the projects they had examined, they commissioned high, corresponding to those of the little tribunes bdow; or rather the dome to him, naming him the principal master builder by there should be two passage-ways, one above the other, resting upon a well-decorated cornice, with the one above left uncovered. The a vote taken with beans. But they contracted with him to rain-water will be carried off the dome by a marble gutter, one-third build no higher up than twelve armslengths, telling him that of an anrulength wide, which will throw t~ water into a section of they wanted to see how the project was turning out; if it hard stone constructed under the gutter; at the angles on the outside succeeded, as he claimed, they would not fail to commission surfaces of the dome there will be eight marble ribs of an appropriate him to do the rest of the work. Filippo thought it was strange size and rising an armslength high above the dome, corniced at the to see such obstinacy and mistrust on the part of the consuls head and two annslengths wide, 50 that then: may be peaks and eaves and trustees; and if he had not been convinced he was the only everywhere. They must rise like a pyramid from their b:~.se up to the man capable of completing such a project, he would not have summit. The two vaults must be constructed in this manner without set to doing it. Yet, since he was anxiow to pursue the fame it a framework up to a height of thirty armslengths, and from there would bring, he took it on and pledged himself to bring the on in whatever way the master builden who are charged with its construction advise, since practical experience will show how the project to a perfect conclusion. His sheet of paper and his work should be carried out. pledge were copied into a book used by the superintendent for keeping accounts for the wood and marble; Filippo was When Filippo bad finishing writing this, he went in tho granted the same allowance for his work that they had given morning to tho assembled officials, and after he gave them this up to that time to other master builders. When the artisans sheet of paper thoy considered the whole proposal. And and the townspeople learned that the commission had been although they were incapable of understanding it, they saw granted to Filippo, some approved but others were resentful, the liveliness of Filippo's mind and the fact that none of tho as is always true of popular opinion, as well as the opinions of other architects was on firmer ground, in contrast to Filippo, those who are thoughtless or envious. While preparations who displayed an obvious confidence in his explanations, for beginning the construction were under way, there arose repeating the same thing in such a way that it seemed as if he a faction among the artisans and townspeople who went had already constructed ten such vaults. The consuls drew to to face the consuls and trustees and declared that the decision one side and decided to give him the project, bu"*'eUd h:~.d been made in haste, that a project such as this one should want to see some proof of how the vault could be constructed not be undertaken on the advice of a single man, and that Wlthout any framework, while approviltg all the rest of his they could be excused for doing so only if there were a details. FortUne was favourable to their desire, for Bartolomeo lack of excellent artisans, but there was, instead, an abund­ Barbadori• bad previously wanted to puild a chapel in the ance of them. The decision, they claimed, brought no hon­ church of Santa Felicita and bad discussed it with Filippo, who our to the city, since if any mishap occurred, as sometimes bad set to work and without a framework had vaulted this happens with buildings, they might be blamed for having chapel, which is at the entrance of the church on the right by given too onerous a task to a single individual without con­ the holy-water stoup, also by his hand. And similarly, Filippo sidering the damage and public shame which might result had, at that time, vaulted another chapd in the church of San &om this; and so, in order to curb Filippo's enthusiasm, it 128 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO DRUNELLESCHI !29 would be well, they claimed, to provide him with a partner. appear he was actually earning his salary and that he was about Lorenzo Ghiberti had earned a fme reputation for the to do something. Filippo was paid fifty lire and fifteen soldi demonstration of his genius in the doors of San Giovanni, and for these models, as we can see in an allocation recorded in the fact that he was admired by certain men who were very the account book kept by Migliori di Tommaso on the third influential in the government was shown very dearly when of October in 1419, and Lorenzo Ghiberti received three these men observed Filippo's fame growing, :md, under the hundred lire for the labour and expenses incurred in making pretext of their love and affection for this building, these men his model, more because of the friendship and favour that worked on the consuls and trustees in such a way that they he enjoyed than because of its usefulness or benefit to the imposed an associate on Filippo for this project. The degree of building project. • Filippo's despair and bitterness over what the trustees had This situation, which lasted until 1426, was an aggravation done may be measured by the fact that he was about to leave in Filippo's eyes because both Lorenzo and Filippo were con­ Florence, and if it had not been for Donatello and Luca della sidered equally to be the originators of the project, and the Robbia, who comforted him, he might well have lost control. mental anguish Filippo suffered over this was so strong that he Truly wicked and cruel is the anger of those who, blinded by lived in great pain. Meanwhile, he had developed various new envy, endanger honour and beautiful works through ambi­ concepts and fmally decided to rid himself of Lorenzo, who tious rivalry! It was certainly not to their credit that Filippo he realized would be of little use in this undertaking. Filippo did not destroy his modeb, burn his plans, and in less than half had already raised the two vauJts a11 around the dome to a an hour discard the results of all the work he had done for so height of twelve armslengths, and now had to install the stone many years. The trustees first begged Filippo's pardon and and wooden ties. This was a difficult task, and he wanted to urged him to proceed, assuring him that he, and no one else, discuss it with Lorenzo to discover whether or not Lorenzo was the inventor and creator of this structure, but they gave had considered these problems. And he found out that Lorenzo the same salary as they gave to Filippo. Filippo Lorenzo had not even thought about these matters and that his carried on the proJect with very litde enthusiasm, realizing only response was to say that he relied upon Filippo, since that he would have to endure all the hard work that it would Filippo was the designer. Lorenzo's reply delighted Filippo, require and that he would then have to share the honour and since he felt this provided him with a way to remove Lorenzo fame with Lorenzo. Still, he determined that he would find from the project and to reveal that Lorenzo lacked the know­ some way of ensuring that Lorenzo would not last too long on ledge his friends thought he possessed and that it was their the project, and he went ahead togethc.~~~ w~ Lorenzo favouritism which had put him in the position he occupied. according co his contract with the trustees. Now the workmen on the project were at a standstill and Meanwhile, it occurred to F~po to make a model, since were awaiting orders to begin the section above the twelve no one had yet done so, and having thus set to work, he had it armslengths, to build the vaults and to bind them with the done by a carpenter named Baq:olomeo• who lived near the chains, since the dome had begun to close up towards the top. studio. And in this model, which was made exactly to scale, he To do this, they had to build scaffolding so that the workmen characteristically included all the difficult details, such as the and masons could work without danger, since the height was illuminated and dark stairways, all sorts of windows, doors, tie so great that merely looking down from above brought fear irons, and buttresses, as well as a section of the gallery. Having and dismay to even the most confident soul. Therefore, the heard about this model, Lorenzo tried to see it, but when masons and the other master builders were awaiting the plans Filippo prevented him from doing so, he flew into a rage and for building the chains and scaffolding, and when neither ordered a model of his own to be made so that it would Lorenzo nor Filippo made any decisions, the masons and the

/ IJO FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI !Jl other masters began to mutter among themselves when they stone-cutters came to a standstill. And these men, muttering saw that the initial sense of urgency was now lacking. And against Lorenzo, began to say: 'He's good enough to draw his since these men were poor individuals who lived by their salary but not to give orders so that we can do the work. Oh, labour :md were afraid that neither architect had the courage if Filippo were not here, or if his illness were to last for long, to go ahead with the project, as best they could and knew how, how would Lorenzo manage? Is it Filippo's fault that he is they remained at work on the structure, replastering and sick?' Seeing themselves put to shame by this state of affairs, retouching everything that had been built up to that moment. the trustees of the Works Department resolved to go and see One morning or another, Filippo did not tum up at work Filippo, and upon arriving, they fust comolcd ~m for. his but went to bed with a bandage around his head, and, illness and then explained to him the state of disorder mto constantly crying out, he had hot plates and cloths prepared which the building project had fallen and how many diffi­ with the greatest solicicude, pretending to have a pain in his culties his illness had caused. At this, with speech impassioned side. When they heard this, the masters awaiting orders about both by his love for the project and by his feigned illness, how to proceed asked Lorenzo what should be done next. He Filippo.declared: 'Isn't he there-Lorenzo? What is he doing? replied chat the schedule was Filippo's responsibility and that I'm amazed at you.' When the trwtees responded, 'He won't they would have to wait for him. Somebody askd him: 'But do anything without you!', Filippo retorted to them: 'I would don't you know what he has in mind?' 'Yes,' Lorenzo do quite well without him.' answered, 'but I wouldn't do anything without him.' Lorenzo His very pointed and double-edged reply was enough for said this to excuse himself, for he had never seen Filippo's them, and after they had left him, they knew he w"' ill model and had never asked him what kind of schedule he because he wanted to work alone. Therefore, they sent his wanted to keep to, and, in order not to appear ignorant, he friends to remove him from his bed, intending to take was very vague and answered only in ambiguous terms in Lorenzo off the project. And so Filippo rerumed to the speaking about the matter, especially since he knew that he building, but when he saw the degree of favouritism shown to was taking part in the project against Filippo's will. Lorenzo and reali2ed that he wou1d still receive his salary Filippo's illness had already lasted more than two days, and without doing any work. Filippo devised another means of the supervisor of the project and a good number of the master holding him up to ridicule and making public how little builders went to see him and continuously begged him to tell Wlderstanding Lorenzo had of this profession. And in them what they should do. But Filippo declared: 'You have Lorenzo's presence, he presented this proposal to the trustees: Lorenzo; let him do a little something.' Nor could they get any other answer out of him. U pan hearing this, discussions My Lords the Trustees, if we were as sure about the length of tim~ we and serious criticism arose over the entire project: soml'1>eQPif;. have to li'lle as we :ire about the probability of our death, there u no were saying th;rt Filippo had taken to bed out of grief because doubt whatsoever that many projects which are begun would be he lacked the courage to vau1t the dome, •r that he regretted completed rather than left unfinished. The misfor~une ~f the illness I having become involved in the project. And his friends suffered could have taken my life and brought this proJect to a halt. defended him, saying that if he were upkt, it was a result of Therefore, in case I ever fall ill again, or-God forbid!-Lorenzo the disgrace of having been given Lorenzo as a parmer. but should, in order for one or the other of us to go on with his part of the work, I thought that just as you, My Lords, have divided the that he was actually ill from the pain in his side. caused by his salary betwec:n us, so you should also divide the work, so that spurred strenuous work on the project. on by the desire to demonstrate what each of us knows: each m~y Thus. while the arguments continued, the project was securely acquire honour and profit in the presence of thts repubhc. stalled, and almost all of the work by Ithe masons and the Now, there are two difficult matters which at present have to be dealt 132 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 133 with: the first is the scaffolding so that the masons can lay their brides. had rmdertaken that task. Since he had already prepared plans which is to be used both inside and outside the structure and which and models, he immediatdy showed them, and when. they mwt hold up worken, stones, and lime, as well as the winch for were examined by the trustees and the other master build~rs, pulling up heavy loads and other similar devices; the other i3 the they recognized the error they had fallen into by favounng chain which has to be placed above the levd of twelve-armslengths in Lorenzo, and wishing to recofy this rmstake and to demon­ order to bind the eight sid~ of the dome and to support the srrvcture, so that all the weight superimposed upon it will tighten and hold it in strate that they understood the proper procedures, they named such a way that the weight will not stretch or widen the dome but Filippo administrator and head for life of the entire struc~e• will, on the contrary, be evenly disttibuted throughout the entire and ordered that nothing should be done on the proJect edifice. Let Lorenzo, therefore, take up one of these tasks, whichever without his approval. And in order to acknowledge their he feeh he can most easily carry out, and I shall work without any approval, they presented Filippo with the gift of one hnndred disagreement to execute the other so that no more time is lost. florins appropriated by the consuls and trustees on 13 August 1423, and signed by Loren2o Paoli, notary of th~ 'Y.orks When he heard this, Lorenzo was forced for the sake of his Department, and charged to ~esser Gher~rdo .~ Fihp~o own honour to accept one of these tasks, and even though he Corsini; and they came to a deas10n to. provtde ~1lippo wtth did so quite unwillingly, he decided to pick the chain as the an allowance for life of one hundred ftonns a year. easiest of the two, since he could trust the advice of the ma­ And so, having given orders for the construction to sons and remembered that in the vault of San Giovanni in proceed, Filippo pursued it so closely and carefully that not a Florence, there was a chain of stone ties from which he could. stone could be placed without his wanting to mspect 1t. On take part, if not all, of the plan. And so one set to work on the the other hand Lorenzo, fmding himself beaten and nearly scaffolding while the other worked on the chain, and both disgraced, was favoured and assisted to s~c~ an extent by his completed their work. Filippo's so.ffoldings were built with so friends that he still drew hh salary, clatmmg he could not much ingenuity and skill that they were truly considered to be be clismissc:d for another three years. For every little detail, the contrary of what many had imagined them to be before, Filippo continuously drew sketches an~ made models of since the nusons could work upon them just as safely and frames to be built and structures for pulling up heavy loads. could pull up heavy loads and stand upon them just as securely But this did not prevent spiteful people, friends of Lorenzo, as if they were standing upon solid ground. And the models from driving him to desperation, having different models built for this scaffolding are preserved in the Works Department of every day to compete with his, to the exten~ that Master the Duomo. Upon one of the eight sides, L~lt his Antonio da Ver2elli* executed one of them, while other mas­ chain with the greatest difficulty, and when it was completed ters, shown favouritism and preference now by this citiz~ Filippo was called by the trustees ta. see it; he said nothing to and now by that one, demonstrated their fickle natu~e, theu them, but with certain of his friends he discussed the matter, inadequate knowledge, and their lack of understandmg, for declaring that another kind of biAding was required, that it although they had perfect models in hand, rhey kept pro­ should have been put up in a differert way, that it was not moting imperfect and useless ones. sufficient to support the weight that ~as to be placed on it, The chains around the eight sides of the dome were already since it did not bind the structure as ghtly as it should, and, completed, and the masons, gaining heart, worked boldly, but fmally, that the allowance which was iven to Lorenzo, along Filippo then asked of them more than the usual, and because with the cost of the chain he had built, was money thrown of some criticism that he directed at their work as well as some away. Filippo's opinion became known, and he was charged other things which happened daily, they got sick and tired of with showing how he would have constructed the chain if he him. And so, moved by this and by envy, the leaders JOrned FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 135 FIL IPPO BRUNELLESCHI r34 the various sections of the guttering &om which the water together in a conspiracy and said that the work was strenuous could run off, showing some covered, others uncovered; and and dangerous, and that they did not want to vault the dome he followed this up by organizing various holes and openings without a huge raise (even though their salary had alre<~dy so that the force of the winds would be broken and to ensure been increased more than usual), thinking in this way to take that exhalations or earthquakes could not damage the struc­ revenge upon Filippo and to make a profit for themselves. ture. (n all of this he demonstrated how much he had profited This development displeased the trustees and Fill ppo as well, from his studies during his many years in Rome. Considering and, having thought about it, one Saturday evening he made what he achieved in the dovetailing, fitting, joining, and up his mind to fire them all. Finding themselves fired and not binding the stones makes one tremble imd stand in awe and knowing how matters might end, the men were in a very shrink with fear at the thought that a single mind was capable bad humour, and on the following Monday Filippo set ten of as much as that of Filippo. And it continued to grow .at Lombards to work, and by staying right there on the spot, such a pace that there was nothing, no matter how difficult ordering 'Do this here and that there', he taught them so and challenging, it could not render simple and easy. And he much in a single day that they worked on the project for showed this in using counterweights and wheels for haulmg many weeks. On the other hand, the masons who saw heavy loads, which enabled a single ox to draw a load as heavy themselves fired, their work taken away from them, and thls as six pairs could barely have drawn before. . disgrace heaped on them, did not have any other work that The structure had grown so high by this time that 1t was was more profitable than this, and they sent messengers to tell extremely disruptive to go down to the ground after havmg Filippo that they would willingly return to work, begging climbed up, and not only was a great deal of time lost by the his pardon as vigorously as they could In this way, Filippo masters in going to eat and drink, but they suffered great kept them dangling for many days in the fear that he would discomfort from the heat of the day. Filippo therefore found a not hire them back; then he took them back at a lower salary way to open eating places with kitchens on the dome, where than they had initially received; and so, where they had he sold wine as well, and in this fashion no one left the work thought to make a profit, they suffered a loss, and with their Wltil the evening. This was convenient for the workmen and vendetta against Filippo thc:y only caused damage and loss for exceedingly advmtageous to the project. Filip~'s spirits rose themselves. so high as he observed the project moving steadily ahead and The grumbling thus stopped, and the genius of Filippo turning out so successfully that he worked constantly; he him­ prevailed, once it was seen how smoothly the s~re was self went to the kilns where the bricks were being formed, being vaulted, and anyone who was not blinded by pa~n since he wanted to see the clay and knead it himself, and when held that he had already shown a cour'lie never seen in the the bricks were baked, he wanted to pick them out as carefully works of any other architects, either anaeqt or modem, and as possible with his own hands. He would examine the stones this came about because he brought pu~ his model. In it being used by the stone-cutters to see if they we~e hard or everyone could see for himself the extremtly careful plans he contained any thin cracks, and he provided them wtth models had conceived for the stairs, the lighting both inside and out for the joints and the fittings made from wood, from wax, and (so that no one might injure himself in the darkness out of even from turnips, and sirn.ihrly, he designed iron to_ols for t~e fear), and all the various iron guard-rails for the ascent which blacksmiths. He discovered a means of producing hinges With were set up and carefully arranged where the climb was steep. he•ds and hooks which greatly simplifted architecture, which Besides this, he had even thought of putting iron bars inside to through him was raised to a level of perfection probably never support the scaffolding if ever mosaics or paintings were to be before achieved among the Tuscans. added; and he likewise placed in the least dangerous positions 136 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 137 In 1423, florence could not have been happier or more joy­ the competition with Filippo's design! However, he merely ful when Filippo was elected to the Signoria for the months laughed at their presumption, and many of ~1s fnends advtsed of May and June by the San Giovanni district,• while Lapo him not to show his model to any other arttsans, so that ~ey Niccolini was chosen as Gonfaloniere of Justice by the Santa would not learn from it. To them he replied that there eXIsted Croce district. And if he is found listed in the register of priors only one good model, and that the rest were worthless. S~me as Filippo di Ser Brunellesoo Lippi, as he ought to be, no one of the other masters had put details from Filippo's model mto should be surprised by this, since his grandfather W>S n>med their own, but when he saw them, Filippo would always say: da Lippi and not de' Lapi--an error which is seen in this same 'The next model this man makes will be just like mine.' register and repeated in countless other lists, as anyone we11 Filippo's model was lavishly prai.,d by everyone, but they knows who has seen it or is familiar with the customs of those supposed it to be defective, since they could not see. the times. Filippo performed the duties of this office and the other stairway leading to the ball. Nevertheless, the trustees deaded judicial positions he held in his native city and always to commission Filippo to do the project, provided, ho~~ver, demonstrated good judgement in all his actions. that he showed him where to place the stairway. So Filtopo They had already begun to dose the two vaults towards the removed the piece of wood from -the model, which was ~ eye where the lantern was to begin, and although Filippo had the lower part, revealing in a pillar the stai~ay as we see lt constructed in both Rome and Florence several models in clay today-in the form of a hollow tube; on one Slde, there was a and in wood of each one, which had not been seen, he still had channel with bronze rungs by whic:h, placing one foot after to make the final decision about which one he wanted to the other, one might climb up to the top. Because Filippo was execute. Deciding to complete the gallery, he drew several old and would not live long enough to see the bntem com­ designs for it which remained, after his death, in the Office pleted, he stipulated in his will that it should be built follow­ of the Works Department but which have been misplaced ing the model and hls written instructions. Done oth~rwlSe, because of the carelessness of those officials. [n our own day, in he declared, the structure would collapse, because 1t was order to complete the project, one section of one of the eight vaulted in a pointed arch, and the weight would have to press sides was built, but because it did not match Filippo's design, downward to strengthen it. Filippo was not able to see the it was abandoned and left unfinished upon the advice of completion of the edifice before his death, but he r;used It up Michelangelo Buonarroti. quite well to a height of several armslengths. He also had With his own hands, Filippo also made a model for the almost all the marble that was to be used cut and cuefully lantern with eight sides based upon the proportions of the prepared, and when the people sa_w all the_ marble delivered. dome, which, to tell the truth, turned out very well because of they were amazed that it was posSlble he wtshe~ ~o place such its inventiveness, variety, and decoration. He incJwie~ ip the a weight upon that vaulting. It was also the opUllon _of many model a stairway for climbing up to the ball [on the 11'l!!ern], clever people that the vaulting would not bear the wetght, and which was a marvellous thing indeePazzi not yet been covered when Giovanni de' Medici passed to a family,• a work of great variety and beauty.• ... Around that better life, leaving behind his son Cosima. Cosima possessed time work was begun on the church of San Lorenzo in a bolder spirit than his farher, and, taking delight in such Aorenoe by order of the parishioners, who had named the memorials, he arranged for the construction to continue as his prior as master builder of the structure, a~n who professed first building project, which brought him so much pleasure to understand architecture and who took at delight in it as that from then on until the time of his death, Cosima was a pastime. He had already begun the c: nstruc:tion of brick always building. Cosima took a warmer interest in this pillars when Giovanni di Bicci de' MediCJ, who had promised project, and while one part was being planned, another was the parishioners and the prior to erect the sacrist)li*ld~hapel being completed. And since Cosimo had taken on the project at his expense, had Filippo over for lunch one morrung, and as a pastime, he was constantly occupied with it. His con­ after discussing a number of things.he asked Filippo about cern was the reason why Filippo completed the sacristy and the initial work on San Lorenzo and what he thought of Donatello made the stuccoes, the stone ornaments for the it. Filippo was forced by Giovanni;s entreaties to reveal his porticoes, and the bronze doors. Cosima also had his father's honest opinion, and in order to tell the truth, he found fault tomb constructed under a large slab of nurble supported by with many details of the project, such as the fact that it four small columns in the middle of the sacristy where the was organized by a person who perhaps po,.essed more priesa don their vestments, and in the same place, he had book learning than experience with buildings of that kind. tombs built for his own family, separating the women from the Whereupon, Giovanni asked Filippo if he could produce men. In one of the two little rooms on either side of the sacristy, something better and more beautiful, and to this Filippo he built a well and a wash-basin in one comer. And all in al~ replied: everything Ouilt in this structure reflects his excellent judgement. FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHt FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI t.p Giovanni and the others had planned to place the choir Cosima was very sorry not to have followed Filippo's plan, under the tribune in the middle; Cosima changed this plan at for he later constructed the other palace, • and he used to say Filippo's suggestion. Filippo enlarged the main chapel (which that he had never conversed with a man of greater courage was originally a smaller space) so that the choir could be and intelligence than Filippo .... • . constructed where it stands today, and when it was completed, It is also said that Filippo invented the machmery ~or t~e the tribune in the middle and the rest of the church remained Paradise of San Felice in Piazza Qocared in the same cuy) m to be built. This tribune and the remainder [of the churchJ was order to stage the mystery play or, rather, the feast of t~e not vaulted until after Filippo's death. The church is one Annunciation as was customary in the o1d days at that place m hundred and forty-four armslengths long, and a great many Florence. The machinery was truly marvellous and demon­ mistakes can be seen in its construction; one among the others strated the talent and skill of the man who invented it, for on is that of placing the columns on the ground without high a Heaven full of living and moving figures could be.seen, mounting them on dados of the same height as the bases as well as countless lights, flashing on and off like lightrung. I supporting the pillars on the steps. Thus, the pillars appear do not want my description to appear laboured m reco~ntmg shorter than the columns, making the entire work look lop­ precisely how the mechanisms ~f this machinery functiOned, sided. All this was the result of following the advice of the since every bit of it has been rumed and. the men who knew men who remained after Filippo died and were envious of his how to discuss its work.ing5 from expencnce are now de~d. renown, and who, during his lifetime, having constructed There is no hope of reconstructing it, for the Camaldolite opposing models, had been, nevertheless, humiliated by some monks who once inhabited the place are gone and have been of his sonnets. And after Filippo's death, these individw.ls took replaced by the nuns of Saint Peter Martyr, primarily be~ause their revenge not on1y upon this project but upon all those the monastery of the Carmine was damaged by the machinery which remained for them to complete. Filippo left behind his which pulled down the timbers supporting its roof. model, and completed part of the presbytery for the priests In order to create these effects, Filippo had placed a half­ of San Lorenzo, making the cloister one hundred and forty globe shaped like an empty bowl, or a barber"s basin turned armslengths long. t upside-down, between two of the beams which support~d the While this building was being canst cted, Cosima de' roof of the church. This half-globe was made from thin and Medici decided to build his own palac , and he therefore light laths fastened to an iron star which turned ~ound. Its explained his intentions to Filippo, who put everything else circumference~ the laths narrowed towards a large tron nng aside and made for Cosima a very beautiful and large model in the centre, whidl was balanced in the middle and around of this palace, which Filippo wanted to place in the piazza which revolved the iron star which supported the framework facing San Lorenzo, isolated on every side. Filippo'...irt2_~ty of laths. This entire mechanism was held up by a str?ng beam w:~.s so cleuly displayed in this model that it seemeOroo of fir-wood well reinforced with iron, which was lymg ac~oss luxurious and grand to Cosima. and. mwe to avoid envy than the timbers of the roof, and to this beam was attached the nng the expense, he gave up the idea of using Filippo's plan. While which held the half-globe suspended and balanced. From the Filippo was working on the model, h<, used to thank fate for ground it truly looked like Heaven. At its base on the mstde the opportunity of building such a home--.omething he had edge, certain wooden brackets were placed, JUSt large mo~gh desired to do for many years-and for having come upon for a person to stand upon, and also inside but at the hetght someone who wanted and was able to build it. But then when of an armslength, there were iron clasps. On each of the he learned of Cosima's decision not to go on with the project, brackets stood a child of about twdvc years of age, s~cun:d he angrily broke his model into a thousand pieces. And with an iron clasp one-and-one-half armslengths h1gh m 142 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 143 such a way that he could not have fallen even if he tt:ied. steps in the middle with an opening through which the iron These young cherubs, twelve in all, were arranged upon the point of the mandorla passed. A man hidden bdow the throne brackets, as I have explained, and were dressed as angels with bolted the mandorla down when 1t reached lt5 place,. and tt golden wings and golden skeins of hair. When it was time, thus stood securely upright. Inside the mandorla, playmg the they joined hands, and as they moved their arms about, they role of an angel, was a young boy of about fifte~ years of age seemed to be dancing-especially since the half-globe was who was fastened by an iron clasp to . the rruddle_ of the constantly turning and moving. Inside the globe and above mandorla and also to its base to prevent htm from fa~g. and the angels' heads were three circles or garlands of lights set up so that he could kneel, the iron clasp was made ~ three with some tiny little torches that could not be overturned. pieces-as he kneeled down, one piece slid smoothly mto the These lights looked like stars from the ground, while the other. supports covered with raw cotton resembled clouds. And so, when the 'bouquet' was lowered down and the From the above-menci~ned ring hung a thick iron bar with mandorla rested upon the throne, the man w~o bolted _down another ring on its side, to which was attached a thin cord the mandorla unfastened the iron clasp which bdd m the which fell to the ground, as I shall describe. This thick iron bar angel, whereupon he came out, walked ~o~ the stage, and had eight arms which revolved in an arc large enough to cross reached rhe place where he hailed the VJrgm and made the the entire space of the empty half-globe, and at the end of each Annunciation. ·Then, after he returned to the man~orla, _while arm was a ftat stand as large as a wooden platter; placed on the lights-which had been extinguished upon his amval­ each stand was a young boy of about nine years of age who were relit, the iron clasp supporting him was fastened once was held tightly in place by an irontasp soldered to the upper again by the man hidden underneath; and once the bolt portion of the branch, but in such a fashion that he could tum holding the mandorla down was rel~sed, !t was ~rawn s!owly in every direction. Suppo ed by this iron bar, these upwards once again, while the angels m the ~ouquet sang eight little angels were lowered, by means of a small winch and those in the Heaven turned about, making tt seem a real which was let our very slowly, from the empty space in the Paradise, especially since, besides the chorus of angels and the half-globe to a distance of eight armslengths below the level of 'bouquet', there was a figure of God the F~th~r near the shell the flat timbers supporting the roof, in such a fashion that they of the half-globe surrounded by angels smular to the ones could be seen without obstructing the view of the other angels described above and secured with iron clasps. In this fashion, who were standing around the inside of the half-globe. In­ the Heaven, the 'bouquet', the figure of God the Father, and side this 'bouquet' of eight angels (as it vl1!!/ alljjiPpriately the mandorla with its coWltlcss lights and sweet mustc truly called) was a copper mandorJa which was hollow inside and represented Paradise. In addition, to make it possible to .open contained many little torches set C small holes upon m iron and close this Heaven, Filippo had two huge doors built on eube shaped like a pipe: when a spring was held down, all either side, each five armslengths high, with iron rollers, or of the lights were concealed in the empty space within the actually copper ones, set in grooves, and the gr?oves _were. so copper mandorla; and when the same spring was released, all well oiled that when a thin rope was pulled on either Side wtth of the lights could be seen shining through the little holes. a small winch, the doors opened and closed, according to what Once the 'bouquet' reached its appointed place, the man­ was desired, by drawing together the two parts of the doors or doria, which was attached to that thin cord, was lowered very, drawing them slowly apart by means of the groove>. And, very slowly by another litcle winch and reached the platform thus constructed, these doors produced two e~ects_: first, smce where the performance took place. On the stage, exactly they were heavy, they created a noise soundmg like thunder where the mandorla came to rest was a raised throne with four when they were pulled; second, when closed they served as 144 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI 145 a stage for arranging the angels and for accommodating the Filippo then constructed a model for the church along with other items that were needed inside. Thus, these ingeniow that of the monks' quarters as it is today. The length of the devices, as well as many othen, were invented by Filippo, church was one hundred and sixty-one armslengths, while its even if some people maintain that they were invented long be­ width was fifty-four armslengths, and it was so well planned fore him. Whatever the case may be, it is appropriate to have in the arrangement of its columns and its other dccoratio~, discussed them, since they have completely fallen into disuse. that no other building could have been constructed wh1ch But let w return to Filippo. His fame and reputation had would have been richer, more delightful, or more graceful. grown to such an extem that anyone who needed to construct And, to tell the truth. if it had not been for the curse of those a building sent for him from great distances to obtain draw­ who spoil the lovely beginnings of things by always pre­ ings and models prepared by the hand of such a great man, tending to understand more than others, this church waul? and people would employ the influence of his friends and today be the most perfect church in all Christendom. As tt the most lavish means to do so .... • stands it is therefore more charming and better proportioned One year during Lent, the sermons at the church of Santo than ~ny other, even though its model was not followed in Spirito were delivered by Master Francesco Zappa, then very every respect, as we see in certain external details which do not popular with the congregation, who spoke strongly in favour refiect the arrangement of its interior: it seems, for example, of the convent, the school for young men, and especially the that this is the case with the doors and the frames of the church which had burned down in those days. • As a result, windows, which do not correspond to those in the model. I the leaders of the district-Lorenzo Rid9lfi: Banolomeo Cor­ shall pass over some errors attributed to Fili~po, which, ~ne bmelli, Nen di Gmo Capporu, Gogo diStag10 Dati, and count­ has to believe, would not have_ been tolerated if he had earned less other citizern--obta.incd pennission from the Signoria to out the building's construction, for everything he create~ he rebuild the church of Santo Spirito, and they named Stoldo brought to perfection with his great judgem~nt, discrenon, Frescobaldi the supervisor. Because of the interest Stoldo had ingenuity, and skill. And this work proved him to possess a in the old church (the main chapel and the high altar of which truly divine genius, . . belonged to his family), he toiled long hours on this project. In Filippo was humorous in his conversation and very wttty m fact, at the very beginning, before the funds were received his retorts. For exa{tlple, on one occasion he wished to make a from taxing those who owned tombs and chapels there, he biting remark about Lorenzo Ghiberri who had bought a farm provided thousands of scudi out of his own pocket, for which at Monte Morello, called Lepriano. Spending two times more he was later reimbursed. on this farm than he earned from it, Lorenzo bec:une so After the project had been discussed, Filippo was sent for, disgusted with it that he sold it. When someone 2sked Filippo and he made a model complete with all the useft!PmQJ;w;mour­ what was the best thing Loren:zo had ever done, perhaps able details he could devise suitable for a Christian church. thinking that he should vex Lorenzo because of the enmity Filippo urged that the ground-plarw>f this edifice be turned between them, Filippo replied: 'Selling Lepriano.' completely around, since above all he wanted the piazza to Finally, having grown very old-that is, having reached the reach the bank of the Amo so thatteveryone passing by there age of sixry-nine- Filippo passed to a better life in the year from Genoa, the Riviera, the Lunigiana district, and from the 1446 on the sixteenth of April, after labouring strenuously to areas of Pisa and Lucca could observe the magnificence of the create those works which earned him an honourable name on structure. But because certain citizens who did not wish to tear earth and a resting place in Heaven. His death cawed indesc~b­ down their homes refused this change, Filippo's desires had no able griefin his native city, which recognized and esteemed him impact. more after death than it had done while he was alive, 2nd he 146 FILIPPO BR.UNELLESCHI was buried with elaborate ceremony and the greatest honour in Santa Maria del Fiore (although his family tomb was in San

Marco) under the pulpit near the door 1 where there is a coat of arms with two fig leaves and some green waves in a field The Life of Donatel/o, Florentine Sculptor of gold, indicating that his ancestors came from the region of [1386-1466] Ferrara, namely, from FicaruoJo, a walled town on the River Po, as is suggested by the leaves which signify the place and the v:aves the river. His artisan friends grieved most deep I y­ espectally the poorer ones whom he constan~y assisted. Thus, li:ing like a C~ristian, he left to the world the memory of his Donato, who was called Donatello by his relatives and thus kindness and his remark:..:~ble talents. In my opinion, it can be signed some of his works this way, was born in Flor~nce in said of Filippo that from the time of the ancient Greeks and the year 1303. • And devoting himself to the art of des1gn, he Romans to the present day, there never existed a man more became not only an unusually fme sculptor and a marvellous rare or excellent than he, and Filippo deserves even greater statue-maker, but also grew experienced in stucco, quite praise, for in his lifetime the Ge~ari style was venerated skilled in perspective, and highly esteemed in architecture. His throughout Italy and practised by ofcler artisans, as is seen in Works possessed so much grace and excellence and such a ~ne countless buildings. Filippo rediscovered the use of the ancient sense of design that they were considered to be more like cornices and restored the Tuscan, Corinthian, Doric, and Ionic the distinguished works of the ancient Greeks and Romans orders to their original forms. • ... Filippo was most unfor­ than those: of any other artist who has ever existed, and he tunate in ~me respects, because besides always having to is therefore quite rightly recognized as the frrst artisan who contend With some opposition, several of his buildings were properly used the device of scenes in bas-relief.. J-:Ie worked out not completed during his lifetime, and they were left unfin­ these scenes with such careful thought, true facility, and ex pen ished afcerwards. And among the other unfinished projects, it skill that it was obvious he possessed a true understanding of was a great tragedy that the monks of the Angeli could not (as them and executed them with extraordinaqr._beauty.~ I mentioned) complete the church he began,• since after they other artisan surpassed him in this field, and even in our own had spent more than three thousand scudi on what we can see­ times, there is no one who is his equal. today-the funds coming in part from the Merchants' Guild Donatdlo was raised from childhood in the home of and in part from the Monte where the moneys were deposited Ruberto Marcelli, and With his fine qualities and the diligence --the capital was squandered, and the structure wa?leM..And with which he refined his skill, he not only earned Martelli's remains incomplete. Thus, as was mentioned in the life of affection but that of this entire noble family. In his youth, he NiccolO da Uzzano, • whoever wish~ to leave behind a worked upon so many things that they were not very highly memorial of this kind should complete it himself while he is regarded because there were so many of them. But the thing still alive, without relying upon anyondelse. And what I have which earned him a name and brought him recognition was said about this church could also be said of a great many other an Annunciation in blue-grey stone which was placed in the buildings planned by Filippo Brunelleschi. church of Santa Croce in Florence at the altar in the chapel of the Cavalcanti family. for which he made a decoration in the grotesque stYle. • Its base was varied and twisted, completed by THE END OF THE LIFE OF FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI a quarter-circle to which were added six putti carrying several garlands who seem to be steadying themselves by embracing LBON BATTISTA ALBERTI 179 far surpassed those artisans who actually surpassed him in the practice of their craft. Thus, experience shows w that as far as The Life of Leon Battista Alberti, fame and reputation are concerned, the written word is far more influential and long-lasting than anything else; and pro­ Florentine Architect vided that books are truthful and do not lie, they easily travel [1404- 1472] everywhere, and everywhere are trusted. Thus, it is not surprising that the famous Leon Battista Alberti is better known for his writings than for the works he did with his hands. He was born in F1orence• into the most Letters bring the greatest benefits to all those artisans who take noble family of the Alberti (which I discussed elsewhere),• and deli~ht in them, an~ most especially to sculptors, painters, or he spent his time not only investigating the world and architects, by openmg the way to creativity in all of their measuring the ancient ruins but also, since be was very much c:n~eavou~. An~one wh~ is deprived of the experience of inclined in this direction, devoting more energy to writing life s connngenc10s, that IS, of the~o panionship of good than to producing actual works. He was a very fine arithmeti­ books,_ cannot possess perfect judg t (even if this judge­ cian and geometrician, and in Latin he composed a treatise on ment IS a natural gift). for who oes not realize that in architecture in ten books which be published in 1481 and choosi~g a site for. buildings, one must use natural philosophy which can be read today in a translation in the Florentine to avoid the seventy of pestilential winds, unhealthy air, and language by the Reverend Messer Cosima Bartoli. provost the smells or vapours of impure and unhe2lthy waters? Who of San Giovarmi in Florence. • He also wrote a treatise on does not recognize that one must know what to avoid and painting in three books, now translated into Tuscan by Messer what to accept in one's own work after careful consideration Ludovico Domenichi;* he did a treatise on pulling weights v.:ithout having to rely upon the theories of others, which, U: and the rules for measuring heights, as well as a book on the most cases, are found to be of little value when separated from civic life and some erotic works in both prose and verse. • And pr_actice? But when ?Y cha~ce theory and practice meet and he was the first to try to adapt vernacular poetry to Latin JOm together, there IS nothing more useful to our lives, for prosody, as in this letter of his: through the means of science, art is perfected and enriched, I send chis most wretched letter and the advice and writings of learned artisans are more useful To you, who so wretchedly scorn us.• and trustworthy than the words or works o~ou._rtisans who do nothing more than practise their craft, whether they Leon Battista happened to arrive in Rome during the reign do so weU or badly. The truth of 4ltese statements is clearly of Pope Nicholas V, who had turned Rome upside-down demons~rated by Leon Battista Alberti, who, having srudied with his methods of building, and through the intercession of the ~atm langua~e. and having tractised architecture, per­ Flavia Biondo from Forfi, his close friend, he came to be on spective, and pamtmg, left behind him books written so close terms with the pope, who had earlier taken advice on well that although ~o~tless modem artisans have proved architectural matters from Bernardo Rossellino, the Florentine more excellent than him m practice, • they have been unable to !Culptor and architect (as will be discussed later in the life of eq~~l him in writing about their craft. Accordingly, his Antonio, his brother).• After Bernardo had begun to remodd wnnngs have exercised so much infiuence upon the works and the papal palace and to do several things in Santa Maria conversations of learned men that it is commonly bdievcd he Maggiore following the pope's wishes, from that time on be always sought Leon Battista's advice. As a result, by depending 181 180 LEON BATTISTA ALBER Tl LEON BATTISTA ALBERTl upon the judgement of the one and the ability of the other Battista expended more than ordinary effort.• He likew.ise to execute a project, the pontiff constructed many things created for Cosima Rucellai the design for the palace which which were useful and worthy of praise; among them were he built in the street called La Vigna, as well as for the loggia the refitting of the water pipes to the Acqua Vergine fountain, opposite the palace, in which he constructed arches over the which had fallen into disrepair, and the construction of the narrow columns in the fa~ade and upper parts; and because he fountain in the Piazza de' Trevi with the marble decorations wished to continue them and not merely form a single arch, that can be seen there today, upon which are found the coat of he left space between each part; and thus he was forced to arms of that pontiff and of the Roman people. • make some projections on the imide corners-: When later he Afterwards, Leon Eattista went to serve Lord Sigismondo wanted to construct the arch of the interior vault, he observed Malatesta of Rimini, where he constructed the model for the that he could not give it the curvature of a semicircle, since church of San Francesco and especially for the facade, which it would turn out flattened and awkward, and he decided to was built of marble, as wdl as the vaulting on the side build small arches in the corners from one projection to facing south which contained large arches and tombs for the another. Here he lacked the good judgement and the sense of illustrious men of that city. • In short, his fme workmanship so design that demonstrate quite clearly the necessity of practical changed the edifice that it became one of the most famous experience in addition to learning. ~or judgement can ~ever churches in Italy. Inside the church, there are six~of the most become perfect until knowledge, taking concrete form, IS put beautiful chapels; one of these, a most ornate cha e1 dedicated into practice. to Saint Jerome, is used to hold the many relics rought back It is said that Leon Battista also designed the home and from Jerusalem. In the same church stand the tombs of the garden of this same Rucellai fa~y in the Vi~ della Scala, a same Lord Sigismondo and his wife, most richly carved from project executed with excellent Judgeme~t w~tch turned out marble in 1450; over one of them is the portrait of chis ruler, to be exceptionally comfortable, for beSides tts other many and in another part of the: work that of Leon Battista. Then, conveniences, it has two loggias-one facing south and the in the year 1457, when the German Johann Gutenberg dis­ other towards the west-both very handsome and constructed covered his extremely useful method of printing books, Leon without arches over the columns. This method is the true and Battista likewise discovered a means of tracing natural per­ proper one which the ancients practised, for the architraves spectives and diminishing figures by means of an instrument, laid across the capitals of the columns stand level, whereas as well as the way to enlarge smaller figures by adapting them something with square edges--such as curving arches-cannot to larger proportions-these were all charming and helpful rest upon a ronnd column without ap~earing faulty ..Thus, the inventions, both useful to art and quite beautiful. proper method of construction requm::s that archttraves be It was during Leon Battista's lifetime that Giovanni di Paolo placed upon columns, and when arches must be built, pillars Ruceilai wished to build, at his own expense and eii!lte~ and not columns should be used. marble, the main faf?de for Santa Maria Novella, and he For the same Rucellai family Leon Battista built a chapel in spoke with his close friend Leon Battis~ about this project, San Brancazio in this same style of his which is supported and receiving not only his advice but also the design, Rucellai by large architraves resting upon two columns and two pillars resolved to execute this work, whatever' the cost, in order to that go through the wail of the church, a difficult but most leave behind some monument to his own memory. And so, secure method. As a result, this work is one of the best the project was begun and completed in the year 1477 to the completed by this architect. In the middle of this chapel, there great satisfaction of all, who fonnd the entire work pleasing is a very well-made marble tomb of an elongated oval shape but most especially the door, where it is evident that Leon which, an inscription reveals, is similar to the tomb of Jesus !82 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI LEON BATTISTA ALBER Tl Christ in Jerusalem. At the same time, Lodovico Gonzaga, be seen which are built in Leon Battista's style. • Salvestro Marquis of Mantua, wanted to build the tribune and principal Fancelli of Florence, a rather good architect and sculptor, chapel in the Servite Church of the Annunziata in Florence executed Leon Battista's designs and models, and followed his using Leon Battista's plans and his model;• and he tore down wishes with good judgement and extraordinary care in all a square chapel in the same church which was old, not very the works Leon Battista Wldertook in Florence. The buildings large, and painted in the old style, and built the new tribune in he constructed in Mantua were done by a Florentine named a refreshingly original and difficult manner, in the sh.tpe of a Luca, who continued to live in Mantua, where after his death, round temple surrounded by nine chapels, all of which form a according to Filarete, he left his name to the Luchi family, semicircular arch :md which can be used like a niche. For this which still lives there today. Alberti was therefore very for­ re.ason, since the arches of this chapel are supported by the nmate to have friends who understood him and who were pillars in the front, the stone ornaments on the arch while willing and able to work for him, for since architects cannot moving towards the wall always tum bacl!wards to meet the always watch over their building projects, it is a great help to wall, thus turning away from the curve/of the tribune. As a them to have someone who will faithfully and lovingly carry result, when the arches of these little chapels are viewed from them out, and if no one else ever realized this, I certainly have the sides, they seem to be falling backwards and look as done so through long experience. awkward as they are in fact, even though their measurements In painting, Leon Battista never produced any great or are correct and their method of construction difficult. And to unusually beautiful works, since those that can be still seen tell the truth, if Leon Battista had avoided this method, it (which arc very few in number) are less dun perfect; nor is would have come out much better, for besides being difficult this surprising, since he spent more time on his studies than on to execute, this method is awkwnd in its details, both large the art of design. Nevertheless, he could demonstrate his ideas and small, and cannot really be successful. And that this is the quite well with his drawings, as can be seen in some sheets in case in its larger particulars may be seen from the very large his hand included in our book; in these sheets are the plans for arch in front which forms the entrance to the tribune, for the Sant' Angelo bridge and the covering which he designed while from outside it is very beautiful, yet from the inside, like a loggia to protect it from the sun in the summers and since it must turn around following the chapel, which is from the rains and the winds in the winters. This he was round, it appears to be falling backwards .and is extremely commissioned to do by Pope Nicholas V, who had intended awkward. Perhaps Leon Battista would not have done this to build many other similar projects throughout Rome before if, along with his knowledge and theory, he had possessed death interrupted his plans. There is a work by Alberti in a practical knowledge and experience in buildingr-for49ther litde chapel dedicated to Our Lady on the side of the Ponte architect would have avoided this difficulty by attempting, alia Carraia in Florence-that is, a predella---containing three instead, to render the grace and gre~r beauty of the edifice. small scenes with some perspectives which he described much Otherwise, all of this work is in itself most beautiful, strik­ better with his pen than he painted with his brush. Likewise ingly original, and exact. And LeoruBattista had nothing less in Florence, in the home of Palla Rucella~ there is Alberti's than a great deal of courage to have vaulted the tribune in the self-ponrait which he executed with the help of a hand­ marmer he chose during those times. mirror, as well as a panel containing very large figures done This same Marquis Lodovico then brought Leon Battista in chiaroscuro. He also painted a picture of Venice and San to Mantua, to have him make the model of the church of Marco in perspective, but the figures which it contains were Sane' Andrea, as well as a number of other things, and on the executed by other masters, and this is one of the best examples road leading from Mantua to Padua, several churches can of his painting to be seen. Leon Battista was a person of the 184 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI most civilized and praiseworthy habits, a friend of talented men, generous and completely courteous with everyone and he .live~ honourably, as the gentleman he was, durin~ his ent1re hfc. And when he fmally reached a ripe old age, he The Life of Antonello da Messina, Painter pass:d a':"ay to a better hfe contented and tranquil, leaving [c.l430-1479] behmd him a most honourable reputation.

THE END Of THE LIFE OF LEON BATTISJ ALBERTI When I myself consider the various kinds of benefits and advantages conferred upon the art of painting by many masters who have followed this second style, I cannot but call them ttuly industrious and excellent through their works, since their principal concern was to bring painting to a higher level of perfection Without giving a thought to any hardship, expense, or other personal interest. Thus, they persisted in using no other kind of colouring than tempera on their panels and canvases, a method which was begun by Cimabue in the year 1250 when he was working with the Greeks and was later continued by Giotto and the other painters we have discussed up to this point. These artisans kept on painting in this way although they recognized full well that in tempera painting their works lacked a certain softnm and vitality which would have produced, had it been found, more grace in design, more beauty in the colours, and greater f2cility in blending colours together, and they had always been in the habit of executing their works with nothing but the points of their brushes. But although many had tried to find such a method, raising questions along the way, no one had ever discovered a good method-either by using liquid varnish or by using other kinds of colours mixed with the tempera. Among the many .. who experimented with such methods or other similar ones but fuled were Alesso Baldovinetti, Pesello, and many othen, none of whom succeeded in executing works of the beauty and excellence they had imagined. • And even if they had discovered the method they were seeking, they lacked the means of making the figures in their panels pose like those they painted upon walls; the method of washing them without the colours running; and that of creating works