sign in sign up
<<
Home , Filippo Brunelleschi, Florence Cathedral, Giorgio Vasari, Michelozzo

The of Santa Maria del Fiore by Brunelleschi, c. 1420-1436, Photos courtesy Adrielle Kent (web sources) Santa Maria del Fiore: A Philosophical Context for Understanding Dome Construction During the Italian

Adrielle Kent

In the early 1420‘s, Brunelleschi (1377-1446) began one of the most ambitious Brunelleschi‘s father, a notary and architectural feats ever attempted. His task counselor for the city of Florence, was on the was to construct a dome to crown Santa Maria committee of 1367 charged with planning the del Fiore, the primary in Florence. dome, so Brunelleschi grew up with the Brunelleschi was able to provide a unfinished cathedral, which may have comprehensive solution to the complex inspired him. Little is known about his early engineering problems involved in building a life, but it is documented that he became a round dome of that magnitude. His goldsmith after his father‘s unsuccessful ingenuous design made it possible for him to attempt to make him a notary (Jackson, p.27). build the highest dome up to that time and the He became a member of the Goldsmith‘s largest since Hadrian‘s Pantheon in . Guild in 1401 (Hughes and Lynton, p. 16). A (1511-1574) stated about the crucial moment in his career came when he architect, ―[Brunelleschi is] like , participated in a contest to create a set of meager in person but of a genius so lofty that metal doors in relief for the many say he was given to us by Heaven to of Santa Maria del Fiore. The reform that has been for many Opera of the Baptistery announced a contest centuries deformed…‖ (qtd. in Jackson, p. for the commission for a set of doors for the 27). The dome spurred the trend of structure in 1401. The commission came and many other shortly after an outbreak of the structures in Europe and other areas of the in Florence and may have been considered a Western hemisphere were inspired by it. The public act of piety (King, p. 15-17). vision for this wonder of architecture came not only from Brunelleschi‘s mind, but from Out of the several Florentine artists who the culture in which he lived. It would have participated in the competition, his most been a simple task to build a sturdy covering formidable opponent was another artist by the for the cathedral, but it was imperative that it name of , another goldsmith. be dome-shaped. The reasons for this It has been suggested by some historians geometrical choice are many and the history that Brunelleschi‘s panel does not posses the of geometry in art and architecture goes back sense of balance and harmony that he thousands of years. The explanation of why achieved later in his architecture. It also the spherical shape is important in western required more metal to build than Ghiberti‘s culture provides an understanding of what is simple and elegant panel. Ghiberti used valuable to the western esthetic. There are classical models to construct a more muted several reasons why are so important design may have been more appealing to the in western architecture. The reasons for this judges. structural choice that is present in so much There are two stories that tell who won western architecture is not merely practical; it the contest for the doors. One states that is ideological. These ideologies illuminate Ghiberti and Brunelleschi both won, but numerous characteristics of western society Brunelleschi refused to work with Ghiberti. and thought from antiquity to the present day. Another says that Ghiberti won and the

disgruntled Brunelleschi left the city. for building the dome, released the following Regardless of what the precise conditions public statement: ―You must erect a were, it is clear that Ghiberti was granted the monument which human art could not commission for the baptistery doors and conceive more noble or more beautiful. You Brunelleschi left for Rome shortly after the must build it in such a way that it corresponds contest was over. While in Rome, to the heart grown extraordinarily large and Brunelleschi spent years studying ancient containing the souls of all citizens welded Roman ruins, collecting samples, and together into one single will‖ (Guntern). The drawing. Brunelleschi worked as a winning prize consisted of two hundred clockmaker as a means of support while he florins, which would be considered a small stayed there (King, p. 20). Sculptor fortune at the time. After going through a accompanied him on one of his great deal of effort to convince the Opera del visits to Rome (Hughes and Lynton, p.16-17). Duomo that his design for the cathedral would ―As pioneers in this work, it is remarkable work, Brunelleschi was given the commission how much they were able to assimilate of the to build the dome. He used the architectural character of ancient buildings,‖ state Hughes principles he learned in Rome to complete the and Lynton (p. 17). Although keen observers, massive project. including Brunelleschi, clearly mistook some No dome had been built larger since the early Christian buildings for Roman models, Pantheon, and Brunelleschi‘s was the highest Brunelleschi did study several authentic ever built. The Pantheon‘s rotunda is 140 feet Roman monuments. One such structure was high and the diameter is 142 feet (Anderson the Pantheon, a Roman domed structure and Speirs, p. 221). Brunelleschi‘s dome on attributed to the emperor Hadrian (120-124 Santa Maria del Fiore reaches 157 feet high AD). The architect claimed that he would be and is 143 feet in diameter. He was able to able to build a dome larger than the one on achieve such a large-scale yet incredibly the Roman masterpiece. His later work has stable work using innovative engineering Roman elements, but the structures are methods and construction techniques. reinterpreted according to Renaissance . Mathematical knowledge was Historians credit Brunelleschi with the very important for the artist in order to invention of linear , although other replicate Classical building techniques. The artists surely contributed to its development. field fascinated Brunelleschi; one of his Brunelleschi may have developed his version companions during his excavation in Rome of the perspective system from the process of was mathematician Paolo Toscanelli (1397- creating architectural drawings. Brunelleschi 1482) (Hughes and Lynton, p. 17). By 1420, is known as a ―paper architect,‖ meaning that Brunelleschi would use his newly acquired he drew his designs on paper instead of using knowledge of ancient building techniques in models, which were more popular at the time Florence to achieve a major breakthrough in that he worked. In order to create an accurate architecture. drawing, the draftsman must know how to draw using a mathematical system. History and Details of the Dome Brunelleschi developed his system of Architect Arnolfo Lapi built the base of perspective during his time in Rome, while the dome, but did not live long enough to studying ancient architecture. He would have finish the dome itself. The competition to needed drawings to take back to Florence design the dome for Santa Maria del Fiore with him so he could reference the designs. th was announced on August 19 , 1418. The The Dome was begun in 1418, but Opera del Duomo, the committee responsible Brunelleschi had already begun working on

2

the project before then. He served with Brunelleschi decided that the Ghiberti on a committee in 1404 that required should be placed in horizontal rings. Each Giovanni d‘Ambrogio, an architect who was section contains a vertically placed at working on the cathedral, to lower the certain intervals. The row on top of it semidomes. They remain at the designated contains another vertical brick that place today. Brunelleschi needed the corresponds to the previous one, creating a semidomes to be lowered so a drum could be whorl pattern that culminates on a keystone. inserted between the central dome and the This system forms a herringbone pattern that semidomes surrounding it. The lowering of provides excellent stability. To reduce the the semidomes reduced the amount of weight weight of the dome, the lower levels of on them so this would be possible. masonry are stone, while the upper layers are The octagonal dome for the base of the brick. cathedral had already been built when Perhaps the most innovative aspect of the Brunelleschi started working on the dome, dome‘s design is Brunelleschi‘s double- which means this aspect of the structure was shelled system. There is an inner and outer not part of his design. The floor plan of the dome that are each connected to the eight ribs. cathedral was by (1232- In between the two shells, sixteen smaller ribs 1302), who designed the octagonal . are hidden by the exterior walls of the dome. The decision to make round occuli They are only visible inside the staircase surrounding the dome instead of the pointed between the shells that can be used to reach Gothic was made in 1367. the summit of the dome. The smaller ribs are The dome has eight ribs that correspond to connected with stone bands to each other and the octagonal base of the structure. There is a also to the primary eight ribs. Close to the buttress for each rib. Each buttress in turn is base of the dome, the interlocking grid gains surmounted by a volute. Every angle contains additional support from oak beams, connected a Corinthian pilaster. The arched windows by iron links. rest on capitals designed by Brunelleschi. Initially, the dome contained seventy-two Each window opening contains a classical occuli. The inner ones were covered in the shell shape. The exterior surface décor 16th century so the ceiling could be frescoed, possesses a sense of harmony and simplicity however the outer ones can still be seen. The foreign to Gothic structures and reflects Opera del Duomo considered lighting the Brunelleschi‘s rational architectural style. interior with openings at the top, similar to the Brunelleschi‘s design made it possible to of the Roman Pantheon, but the idea build the dome without centering, an was scrapped in favor of a lantern. architectural technique that uses wood frames Flying buttresses could have been used to to hold an arch in place during its support dome but did not appeal to Italian construction. Scaffolding allowed masons to taste (Brown). The did not want to reach the increasing height of the dome to look like French and English; an important work on it. Masons used to have to carry aspect of building monuments in Europe was materials up to the top of a building they were political competition. To build a dome with working on. Brunelleschi‘s system included no buttressing was unprecedented at the time, hoisting machines that carried the material for which would have resulted in awe and respect them. The Opera del Duomo had to official for the Florentines. Architecture could be an forbade Florentines from riding the machines indirect means of defense; if the Florentines for the fun of it (Hartt and Wilkins, p. 165). could make a remarkable breakthrough in architecture, they could theoretically do the

3

same with weaponry. It would have been hemisphere of the Pantheon that Brunelleschi impossible to make the dome completely free- had studied. The goal in this structure was standing, so Brunelleschi cleverly hid the clearly to make a spherical dome, at least one buttressing in the dome so it didn‘t actually that appeared spherical. However, look like buttressing. The semi-cylindrical Brunelleschi had to work with the Gothic exedrae serve as buttresses that are cleverly structure that was already present. The task of blended into the architectural façade of the building a sphere on top of an octagon is not a structure so the dome appears to stand without simple one. Ian Sutton states, buttressing. The exedrae are distinctly not ―Architecturally, the Renaissance is always Gothic. They are based on Roman temples taken to begin in 1418, with Brunelleschi‘s that Brunelleschi had studied. The structures dome of ‖ (p. 126). The are executed following ancient Roman author goes on to say that this is peculiar proportional systems. Brunelleschi also because Sutton claims that the dome owes inserted rectangular impost blocks that create more to than Classical more of a sense of verticality that counteracts architecture (p. 126). A more accurate way of the visual weight of the exedrae. With semi- interpreting the some is realizing that the domes surrounding the primary one, support structure takes many Classical principles and for the structure was made possible in a most harmoniously incorporates them into the subtle way. previous Gothic design the cathedral already Brunelleschi‘s most important had. Brunelleschi was successful in architectural contribution was solving the seamlessly incorporating a new Renaissance engineering problems involved in building style of architecture into a Gothic structure. such a structure. Francesco Bocchi stated in Vasari the fifteenth century that, ―In truth, Just as important as the architecture of the knowledgeable artists cannot well decide dome is that décor inside. Giorgio Vasari was whether this sovereign building is more primarily responsible for the beautiful or more strong, for joined together, on the inside of the dome, which was those two things compete with each other for rendered between 1472-79, although the work first place, and yet are at the same time in was finished by Frederico Zuccari. The harmony in generating wonder and fresco represents the Last Judgement, a amazement‖ (qtd. in Hartt and Wilkins, p. common theme in Christian art. Perhaps 165). Florentines were marveled by more importantly, he depicts the Heavens. Brunelleschi‘s architectural achievement. The spherical dome is a convincing Some of the details on the exterior of the background for representing the sky. It seems Dome were completed after Brunlleschi‘s as if some figures in the painting are spiraling death. Architect di Bartolommeo back into space and others are about to leap was responsible for completing the dome. from the wall. The atmosphere is convincing, Michelozzo designed the attic, crowned by a complete with clouds and shades of brilliant fluted cone, gold orb, and cross. Other artists sunset colors. worked on the structure. Andrea del Gorgio Vasari was the first known art Verrocchio, ‘s teacher, historian. He compiled ―The Lives of the created the gold orb in his workshop. Artists,‖ a work which includes the lives and Although the dome looks spherical, it is work of such masters as , not a perfect sphere. Its construction takes Leonardo da Vinci, and Fillipo Brunelleschi. ideas from Gothic architecture, structurally Although there is a great deal of legend as resembling a Gothic more than the ideal well as Vasari‘s own opinions in the work, the

4

facts included in it are still helpful to art circles possess. The line that forms a circle historians. continues indefinitely on its prescribed path, The artists who worked on the dome and symbolizing eternity. Eternity is an important cathedral it rests on were true Renaissance concept in Christianity, so the circle was an men (the construction was male-dominated). important icon in Medieval and Renaissance The contributing artists possessed more often art. The circle is also associated with God than not a wide variety of skills, including and Heaven, which are eternal according to painting, sculpture, architecture and structural Christian thought. engineering. Thus, the artists themselves Anthony Kenny conveys ‘s Idea of embodied the pluralism inherent in the the circle in a nutshell: ―My subjective structural design of the dome. Its multiplicity concept of the circle -- my understanding of of meanings is clearly enhanced by the broad what ‗circle‘ means -- is not the same as the range of perspectives brought to the project Idea of the circle, because the Idea is an by the structure‘s creators. objective reality that is not the property of any Philosophical Context individual mind‖ (p. 50). This statement can The concept of universal harmony as it be better understood by exploring Plato‘s was understood during the Renaissance philosophy of Forms. According to Plato, originated with Pythagorean and Platonic everything in the physical world is a copy or proportional systems found in geometry, shadow of a universal Idea. This world of music, and ultimately, nature (Koenigsberger, universal Ideas or Forms is ideal and p. 173). The ideas of many mathematicians unchanging. The universals are Ideas and philosophers were used in Brunelleschi‘s themselves and the copies of the Ideas in the dome and Renaissance building techniques. physical world are referred to as Particulars. ―Several examples of conceptions of harmony One way to approach this philosophy is in theories of art and architecture, and also in via Plato‘s cave analogy (cf. 521c-535a of suppositions about nature and reality, have Plato‘s Republic). Plato presented his concept been brought forward [by scholars].‖ of education by describing a cave in which (Koenigsberger, p. 173). Notions of harmony humans are chained to a wall and cannot and are integral aspects of the move. In front of them is a fire that provides architecture and art of this period. light. Objects in the outside world, which the One of the most important philosophical imprisoned ones cannot see, are reflected as aspects of the dome is its shape. Although the shadows on the wall in front of them, so they dome is not a perfect sphere, it is intended to can only understand the physical objects represent one. The spherical shape has many outside of the cave as shadows. In the philosophical implications. The sphere is analogy, the real objects outside are the derived form the shape of a circle. The circle universal Forms, while the shadows of the has been used to represent several key objects visible inside of the cave are philosophical ideas in Renaissance culture. Particulars. So the world of Ideas is more The origins of this philosophical context go real than the physical world for Plato, but back to the ancient Greeks, particularly the humans are shackled to the physical world, philosophy of Plato. unable to fully experience universal Forms. What is important about the philosophy of Plato‘s philosophy parallels the concept of the circle is not any particular circular shape. Idealism. The world of Forms is ideal, from It is the universal idea of the circle that is which everything in the physical world is a relevant. There are certain properties that all copy. So Plato espouses the idea that the Ideal does exist, but humans cannot fully

5

experience it. Plato‘s philosophy was easily the Renaissance, however. For example, the reconcilable with Christian thought during the Pantheon‘s Dome clearly symbolizes the sky, Renaissance. For Renaissance thinkers, God but not in the same way as a Renaissance is part of the ideal world, while humans would. The Roman vision of how a inhabit the imperfect physical world. representation of the cosmos should look was Neo-Platonism became a popular perhaps similar, but certainly not the same, as philosophy during the Renaissance and the Renaissance one. Nevertheless, domes in embodied a resurgence of Platonic thinking. Western culture do generally represent the Renaissance philosophers reinterpreted the sky. The heavenly realm can represent teachings of Plato according to their various ideas including God or heavenly contemporary views. There is a distinction beings, eternity, the universe, and even ideas between Plato and the Platonic tradition themselves. It is natural for people to look up (Kristeller, p. 50-51). Philosophical traditions at the sky and imagine. Biologically, it is not transcend the initial philosopher and take on a clear why this is. The celestial bodies can be life of their own, becoming cultural used for practical purposes, such as movements that evolve over time. Platonism navigation. They also seem to spark the and Neo-Platonism are no exceptions. human imagination. The Heavens are a vital aspect of numerous philosophies and religions Renaissance philosophers emphasized throughout history, and the dome is one tradition. They saw ancient philosopher‘s important way the sky can be depicted in the ideas as authoritative, considering such Western esthetic. philosophers as Plato and to have possessed divine wisdom. During the Hegel Renaissance, it was generally believed that Not only was the design of the dome God is omnipotent and embodies all truth. influenced by philosophies that were popular The philosophies of the Renaissance during the Renaissance; the dome of Santa presented a blend of tradition, religion, Maria del Fiore and others like it have been antique ideas, and new interpretations the topic of philosophical discourse of later (Copenhaver and Schmitt, p. 1). philosophers. The philosophies that have was a crucial phenomenon of been formed after the dome‘s construction culture in modern Europe and, along with speak to the structure‘s importance to secularism, was formed during the Western culture. Renaissance. In Northern , lay notaries The aesthetic appeal of a dome has a and law teachers advocated early humanism background that many philosophers have in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first explored. One such philosopher was the th humanists were interested in reviving famous 19 Century German thinker Hegel. Classical culture and using it as a template for Hegel taught that ―the Absolute is approached contemporary ways of living. They studied by art aesthetically, in the beauty of material and taught Latin and Greek texts (Copenhaver forms‖ (Rohmann, p. 172). Hegel also taught and Schmitt, p. 25). that architecture should create a place of Representing the cosmos was the primary meaning for the inhabitant, realizing that a goal of Renaissance dome construction. structure would always be influenced strongly ―…Finding ourselves looking up is at the by the culture in which it was built (Sharr, p. heart of our experience of sacred of sacred 105). architecture‖ (Davis, p. 11). This way of Hegel believed there are ―three stages of representing the heavens was not invented in architecture…organized around their relation

6

to function: symbolic architecture comes Heidegger before any posited separation of function and Heidegger was interested in Cartesian mass, achieved a perfect metaphysics, primarily exploring what the balance of the two, and romantic architecture definition is of ―what constitutes a thing goes beyond the dominance of function‖ around the universal concept of mathematical (Kolb). Brunelleschi‘s dome fits into Hegel‘s extension of space‖ (Walker). Architecture second category. The architect was emulating presents the current cultural idea of what is classical models and successfully captured the but it also presents a challenge to that status essence of classical architecture. In his dome, quo by visualizing how temporal the current symbolism and function are perfectly meshed. notion of the universe is. Brunelleschi‘s While it has an enormous amount of dome does this precisely. It embodies symbolism, it is also incredibly strong. Hegel Renaissance religion and philosophies of the also believed that function is an external time, simultaneously creating a monument to aspect of architecture. The essence of the temporality of it all. We can see the architecture is its symbolic meaning. He also structure and recognize the Renaissance ideas believes that there are three stages of art, imbedded in it which have now become which include the universal, the particular, dated. At the same time however, there are and the individual. The universal is the idea elements of Brunelleschi‘s dome that defy behind the art itself, or why it is important. time and remain relevant to the modern age. The particular is the art technique being used. For example, in a painting the particular is Conclusion paint. The individual is the finished product, By reflecting on what these philosophers a painting on canvas, for example. This have said about Western architecture, one can finished product should embody the universal, see that certain architectural structures or the main idea of the work of art, even art embody complex philosophical contexts that itself. reveal the cultural ideas of the time in which In the case of Brunelleschi‘s dome, the they were made. Later philosophies that are universal is complex, and is the focus of this formed about such structures speak to the discourse. It represents God, eternity, the culture of those philosophers and the firmament, rationalism, imagination, and continued cultural relevance of such idealism. The particular is the means that architecture. Structures such as the Dome on were used to construct it, which is Santa Maria del Fiore have a complex architecture. The individual aspect of the philosophical background and the ideas dome is the finished product of the structure embodied in such architecture are ingrained in itself, which embodies the universal. So, today‘s culture in the West, making them through Hegel‘s philosophical principles, a relevant to contemporary culture beyond their deep philosophical context for this structure mere historical value. Rationalism, reason, can be deduced. Much philosophy has been innovation, and individualism, among other done exploring art, what it is, and what it ideas, are all embodied in Brunelleschi‘s means. This work of architecture raises dome; as ideas, these influences continue to complex philosophical questions about the be central, and increasingly problematic, to nature of art and perhaps nature itself. Art contemporary Western culture. Might there be can be viewed as a visual philosophy that may a link to the technological foundations of our have the capability of saying more than words own culture, and to the forces holding court can. on the construction of our own grand duomo?

7

References

Anderson, William J. and Speirs, R. Phene (1907). The Architecture of Greece and Rome: A Sketch of its Historic Development. London: B. T. Batsford. Brown, Jennifer (2002). Brunelleschi‘s dome. url: www.obscure.org Copenhaver, Brian P. and Schmitt, Charles B (1992). Renaissance Philosophy. Oxford: . Davis, Keith F. (2005). Admiration and Awe: Stevenson and the Photographic Sublime. In Stevenson, David and Hammond, Victoria. Visions of Heaven: The Dome in Western Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Gunten, Gotleib (2009). Brunelleschi‘s Dome: A Tale About , Leadership, and Risk-taking. url: www.creando.org Hartt, Frederick and Wilkins, David G. (2007). History of Italian . Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Hughes, J. Quentin and Lynton, Norbert (1962). Simpson’s History of Architectural Development. Vol. IV. New York: David McKay Co. Inc. Jackson, Sir Thomas Graham (1921). The Renaissance of Roman Architecture. New York: Hacker Art Books. Kenny, Anthony (2004). Ancient Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. King, Ross (2000). Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture. New York: Walker and Company. Koenigsberger, Dorothy (1979). Renaissance Man and Creative Thinking:A History of Concepts of Harmony 1400-1700. Atlantic Heights: Humanities Press. Kolb, David. Before Beyond Function. url: http://abacus.bates.edu/~dkolb/bbfunction.html Kristeller, Paul Oskar (1979). Renaissance Thought and its Sources. New York: Columbia University Press. Plato (1994). The Republic. Waterfield trans. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rohmann, Chris (1999). A World of Ideas: A Dictionary of Important Theories, Concepts, Beliefs, and Thinkers. New York: Ballantine Books. Sharr, Adam (2007). Heidegger for Architects. New York: Routledge. Sutton, Ian (1999). Western Architecture. New York: Thames and Hudson. Vasari, Gorgio, Bondanella, Julia Conaway, and Bondanella, Peter (1998). The Lives of the Artists. Oxford University Press. Walker, Gerald Lee. Heidegger and Modern Architecture. University of Pennsylvania. url: http://repository.upenn.edu

8