Local political leadership in England and Wales This publication can be provided in alternative formats, such as large print, Braille, audiotape and on disk. Please contact: Communications Department, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, The Homestead, 40 Water End, York YO30 6WP. Tel: 01904 615905. Email: [email protected] Local political leadership in England and Wales
Steve Leach, Jean Hartley, Vivien Lowndes, David Wilson and James Downe The Joseph Rowntree Foundation has supported this project as part of its programme of research and innovative development projects, which it hopes will be of value to policy makers, practitioners and service users. The facts presented and views expressed in this report are, however, those of the author[s] and not necessarily those of the Foundation.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation, The Homestead, 40 Water End, York YO30 6WP Website: www.jrf.org.uk
About the authors Steve Leach and Vivien Lowndes are both Professors of Local Government at De Montfort University.
Jean Hartley is Professor of Organisational Analysis at Warwick Business School, Warwick University.
David Wilson is Dean of the Faculty of Business and Law at De Montfort University.
James Downe is a Senior Research Fellow at the University of Wales, Cardiff, and completed this work while a Senior Research Fellow at Warwick Business School, Warwick University.
© University of Warwick and De Montfort University 2005
First published 2005 by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation All rights reserved. Reproduction of this report by photocopying or electronic means for non- commercial purposes is permitted. Otherwise, no part of this report may be reproduced, adapted, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation. ISBN 1 85935 365 7 (paperback) ISBN 1 85935 366 5 (pdf: available at www.jrf.org.uk) A CIP catalogue record for this report is available from the British Library. Cover design by Adkins Design
Prepared and printed by: York Publishing Services Ltd 64 Hallfield Road Layerthorpe York YO31 7ZQ Tel: 01904 430033; Fax: 01904 430868; Website: www.yps-publishing.co.uk Further copies of this report, or any other JRF publication, can be obtained either from the JRF website (www.jrf.org.uk/bookshop/) or from our distributor, York Publishing Services Ltd, at the above address. Contents
Acknowledgements vii
1 Introduction 1 Research design and methods 2 A framework for understanding political leadership 2 Questions to be explored in the research 6
2 The context of political leadership 8 Social, economic and geographical context 9 The external political agenda 10 The legislative context 11 Local political and organisational traditions and culture 12 The capacity for contextual interpretation 13 Context as perceived by political leaders through the WPLQ 14 Leadership challenges as perceived by political leaders through the WPLQ 18 Conclusions 22
3 Relationships between leadership and the council; maintaining group cohesiveness and a critical mass of support 25 Introduction 25 Leaders and cabinets 25 Leaders and councils 25 The role of chief executive 26 Individual and collective approaches 27 Conclusions 28
4 Developing and sustaining strategic direction 30 Changing patterns of task significance 31 The impact of leadership roles 32 Conclusions 32
5 External relations and networking 34 Introduction 34 Local strategic partnerships 35 Other forms of local stakeholder involvement 36 Links with central government 37 Regional and sub-regional linkages 37 Links with local populations and the media 38 Conclusions 39 6Task accomplishment 41 Introduction 41 Mechanisms for political leaders to ‘chase progress’ 42 Hands-on involvement of leaders in project management 43 The challenge of ‘task accomplishment’ 44 Conclusions 45
7 The skills of political leadership 47 Introduction 47 Capabilities 47 Leadership profiles in England and Wales 49 Capabilities in case study authorities 51 Conclusions 57
8 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared 59 Introduction 59 Resources of mayoral and non-mayoral leaders 59 Leadership tasks 60 Interpretations of the mayoral role – the capabilities dimension 61 Political leadership in the cabinet and leader model 63 The crucial role of the relationship between leaders and chief executives 65 Conclusions 67
9 Conclusions 68 The diversity of leadership approaches 68 The leader–chief executive relationship 71 The importance of leadership capabilities 71 Rethinking effective leadership 73
Bibliography 74
Appendix: Methods 76
vi Acknowledgements
We would like to express our thanks to the Joseph Rowntree Foundation for supporting this research and to the thoughtful contributions from the members of the project advisory group:
• Phil Barton
• Judi Billing
•Professor Clive Fletcher
• Maggie Jones (Chair)
• Stella Manzie
• Jane Slowey
•Professor Gerry Stoker
• Mayor Martin Winter
• Mick Young.
We are also grateful to the local authorities, and their councillors, officers and partners who gave so generously of their time, and without whom this research would not have been possible.
vii
1 Introduction
The inspiration for this research was the interest objectives. Partnerships and networks are in how local political leadership is changing, prominent. The recent paper from the Office of due to the impact of the Local Government Act the Deputy Prime Minister entitled Vibrant Local 2000, which introduced new forms of executive Leadership (ODPM, 2005) signals the need to pay government into local authorities in England attention to, among other things, the skills and Wales. The four models introduced were required for political leadership in this changing ‘elected mayor and cabinet’, ‘elected mayor and context. council manager’, ‘cabinet and leader’ and a The research brief required the team to pay streamlined committee system. The final option particular attention to the impact of the new was available only to authorities with executive models on the following aspects of populations of less than 85,000. This legislative leadership (Cabinet Office, 2001): change reflected a desire on the part of the • clarity of vision: the capacity to identify Labour Government to make local political and focus on clear priorities for action leadership more effective and, in particular, more transparent, accountable and visible. This • community leadership: the capacity to was an objective to which other elements of develop connections with local their democratic renewal agenda also stakeholders and local communities contributed – for example, the emphasis on • visibility: the capacity to generate community leadership and partnership recognition on the part of the local working. The focus of this research is not on the population and so to strengthen workings of the new political arrangements as accountability. such, but rather on how local political leadership has been affected by the introduction These priorities were incorporated by the of the new arrangements. research team into a framework of analysis, In addition, over the past 20 years, there which is innovative in that it combines concepts have been major changes in the role of political and insights from both political science and leaders in local authorities. This has occurred, organisational behaviour. It uses these approaches not only because of changing local to identify and explore the factors that support demographics, needs and aspirations, but also or inhibit effective political leadership in local because of the policies of successive government. The framework of analysis starts governments, in both governing parties. These by analysing leadership tasks, proposing that they pressures, from communities and from are likely to be reinterpreted as a result of government, have meant an increasingly central government’s new conception of the external role orientation for local authorities and leadership of local government under the Local political leaders alike (Leach and Wilson, 2000; Government Act 2000. However, the way in Hartley, 2002a). They now operate in a world which leadership tasks may be interpreted where they are much more reliant on co- locally will depend on two further factors: the operation with the public, with other agencies, political traditions and cultures of different local and with central government, to achieve their authorities and the skills and capabilities of
1 Local political leadership in England and Wales
leaders. The research also assesses, as far as is 4 WPLQ results for the national database of possible, the effectiveness of leadership by political leadership capabilities, held at identifying a number of outcome measures. Warwick. This enabled the research to examine skill differences between senior and other members, as part of the Research design and methods analysis of how skills are acquired. The research is based on an innovative The research design did not lend itself to the integration of concepts and methods from systematic testing of hypotheses, which requires political science and organisational behaviour. A large datasets of local authorities (e.g. Stoker et range of methods have been employed (see al., 2003). The data analysis focuses instead on Appendix for fuller details), consisting of the identifying and exploring key themes from following. interviews, and analysing the quantitative data 1 Nine in-depth case studies, visited in two from the WPLQ to draw out implications for the time periods, of local authorities in policy, practice and conceptualisation of local England and Wales, chosen across the political leadership. four types of political arrangements, and with a range of internal and external A framework for understanding political informants in each case, plus relevant leadership documents and some observation of meetings. Leadership is viewed in this study not as a set of individual skills alone, nor simply as a 2A further seven ‘lighter’ (single visit, particular role in the local authority (e.g. leader, fewer informants) case studies to explore portfolio holder) but rather as a set of social particular themes in more authorities. processes of influencing and motivating 3 Questionnaire results from the Warwick individuals and groups, and of shaping goals Political Leadership Questionnaire and outcomes through influence, persuasion (WPLQ), which was completed by senior and negotiation. The work of Heifetz (1996, elected members in the in-depth case 2003) is valuable for its emphasis on leadership study authorities. Each member who as an active process of working with completed the WPLQ was provided with individuals, groups, communities and a personal analysis of their profile of organisations. capabilities, or skills, along with analysis Four key elements of leadership were of the way that they read the context and instrumental in designing our research the challenges they give priority to in instruments and interpreting the results. These office. This report analyses the aggregated are: results of the ‘leadership team’ (e.g. mayor • leadership context or leader plus cabinet/executive) by authority. • leadership tasks
2 Introduction
• leadership capabilities (also called skills) the opportunities for leading change (e.g. Heifetz, 1996; Hartley, 2002). In the field of local • leadership effectiveness. government, the critique of ‘one best way’ in These are depicted in Figure 1.1, which also evaluation studies and in organisational theory incorporates the recognition that leadership has emphasised the value, both conceptually may be shared among a range of actors. and practically, of paying attention to the particular local context. Leadership context, Leadership context incorporating both local and national influences, There can be a danger that leadership theories is discussed in detail in Chapter 2. are expressed as universals, as though they were appropriate in all circumstances. Yet the context Leadership tasks can be very important. In terms of political It is possible to identify from the literature four leadership, the significance of context has been key leadership tasks, which will be of relevance emphasised by a number of writers, including whatever the pattern of powers and expectations Leach and Wilson (2000) who suggest that the established by central government (see Leach local demography, the political traditions and and Wilson, 2000, drawing on the work of the history of political control all play a part in Selznick, 1957; Kotter and Lawrence, 1974; the constraints and opportunities open to Stone, 1995). But the relative priority given to political leadership ‘teams’. In examining the these tasks may differ both between central and literature on organisational and cultural change, local government, and between local a number of writers have pointed to the government and other local stakeholders. importance of understanding the external – and These tasks, which are outlined in more sometimes internal organisational – context as a detail below, may be characterised as: way of analysing the processes of change and
Figure 1.1 A framework for understanding political leadership
Legislation Local (central government political intentions) culture
Four key leadership tasks
Possibility of shared Leadership leadership capabilities Effectiveness of leadership
3 Local political leadership in England and Wales
• maintaining a critical mass of political of which imply the need for a ‘clarity of vision’ support on the part of the local authority. There is likely to be a difference between mayoral and non- • developing strategic policy direction mayoral options. The mayor will have a • seeking to further leadership priorities mandate based on a personal vision, which may outside the authority also reflect the priorities of his or her party affiliation, whereas the vision of the leader in • ensuring task accomplishment. the ‘leader and cabinet model’ will be more Maintaining a critical mass of political circumscribed by the way the local party support manifesto is constructed. A mayor may also There is the need to ensure the cohesiveness of have more scope to link the vision with action the party group, and among the leading because a leader and cabinet may be more members and officers. This task may be constrained by their dependence on the group. significantly different for an elected mayor, who External influence: seeking to further leadership has a separate democratic mandate, compared priorities outside the authority with a leader in the cabinet model, who is This requires leaders to establish or maintain reliant on the party group for election. An contacts with a wide range of individuals and elected mayor cannot ignore his/her organisations to ensure that the authority’s relationship with the council, as support will be strategic agenda is furthered, and to respond to needed to approve a range of policies that the their concerns (see also Benington, 1997). This mayor wishes to promote. It therefore matters covers ‘the connections which the leadership whether or not the council has a party majority has with local stakeholders and local that matches the mayor’s own party affiliation, communities’ and ‘visibility of leadership’ if any, or whether it does not. However, the (Cabinet Office 2001), although it extends leader in the ‘cabinet and leader’ model is more beyond this into advocacy in regional, national dependent on party group support, or the and European settings. An elected mayor may support of other parties in a no-overall-control be more likely to recognise and respond to this situation, and this may constrain performance. new task than at least some leaders of cabinets Developing strategic policy direction in the more traditional local authorities. Given This task requires the setting of a strategic the visibility of an elected mayor and the way framework within which the authority can he or she is likely to develop wide work. This key task equates with the ‘capacity constituencies of support in seeking election, it to identify and focus on clear priorities for could be argued that mayors will start with a action’ or clarity of vision (Cabinet Office, 2001). greater interest in this task than their ‘cabinet It is a task that has increased in priority, not and leader’ counterparts. least because of the new emphasis on Ensuring task accomplishment community strategies, local public service Political leaders generally believe that they have agreements and partnership arrangements, all a responsibility to ensure that what the majority
4 Introduction
party, or coalition, wants to happen actually The conceptual framework presented here does happen. This task could either be builds on the academic and policy literatures diminished or strengthened in significance, about personal skills and competencies. While depending on local choice. Guidance from the such research has largely focused on managers, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) researchers at Warwick have modified and includes an encouragement to executives to developed this approach to reflect the particular devolve more decisions to officers to avoid roles, skills, knowledge, abilities and values of ‘cabinet overload’. However, the legislation political leaders (e.g. Morrell and Hartley, 2005, does not prevent the continuation of the status submitted for publication; Hartley et al., 2005, quo – or indeed a movement in the opposite submitted for publication). Kanungo and Sasi direction. An executive could decide that its (1992) argue that capabilities represent a wider future electoral chances would be enhanced by set of abilities than skills alone, which enable taking more direct responsibilities for detailed the non-specific, non-routine, discretionary and policy implementation. This would be unstructured parts of the job or role to be particularly true of elected mayors who, if USA achieved. Hirsh and Strebler (1995) describe ‘the experience is anything to go by, may see skills, knowledge, experience, attributes and considerable advantage in a capacity to deliver behaviours that an individual needs to perform for individuals who approach them. [a role] effectively’. Boyatzis (1994) argues that skills need to be set in the context both of role Leadership skills and capabilities demands and the environment. This reinforces The decision-making structures and powers set the conceptual approach presented here, which out in local authority constitutions are likely to is that skills cannot be seen in isolation, but provide constraints on the opportunities for must be set in the context of the environment political leadership. Local political institutions (context) and of the role demands (challenges) – will produce a different range of constraints and see also Dulewicz and Higgs (2005). opportunities. But, whatever the pattern of The interplay of capabilities with contexts constraints and opportunities involved, there and challenges is reflected in the WPLQ. The will always be an interpretive space within which WPLQ has been developed from detailed there is scope for the skills and capabilities of a empirical research with several hundred elected political leader, or leaders, to be exercised, either members in England and Wales, and is based on within a personal agenda or within the ten dimensions or clusters of skill, along with requirements of ‘good performance’ in analysis of how political leaders ‘read’ the authority-wide terms. In other words, we would context and interpret their key challenges or expect an interaction between structure and priorities. The detail of this framework is given agency. There is scope for individual action in Chapter 7. To use Rab Butler’s phrase, within the constraints of the context, given that effective political leadership can be epitomised individual behaviour is also shaped by context. as the ability to identify the ‘art of the possible’ and to act on this perception.
5 Local political leadership in England and Wales
The effectiveness of political leadership 1 Understanding effective political leadership There are three starting points, or agendas, from •To what extent, and in what ways, do which local political leadership can be leadership base (leadership powers), strong approached. There is the modernisation agenda leadership and individualistic leadership driven by central government, which is contribute to effective leadership? performance driven and currently organised • What is the relationship between effective primarily around the Comprehensive leadership, in terms of local authority Performance Assessment (CPA) process, but performance, and effective political which also embodies a series of assumptions leadership? and expectations about how local political 2 Impact of political control leadership should operate, with an implied link • In what ways do the different attitudes to between ‘strong political leadership’ and good leadership among the three major parties performance. There is the local political agenda, (Labour, Conservative, Liberal Democrat) which will be an expression of the political influence political behaviour and shape priorities, and traditions, of the party or parties the scope for effective political in power locally, and which the political leadership? leadership will be expected to strive to deliver. •To what extent is effective political And there is the local managerial agenda, which leadership possible in hung authorities? may be closely aligned with achieving central government’s performance expectations, though 3 Impact of structural/constitutional framework less so with the political leadership • What differences do leadership powers as expectations, but which has to take account of expressed in the constitution make to the reality of the local political agenda. These leadership behaviour and effective different agendas develop a dynamic within leadership? local authorities that is focused on the political • Does the differential power base leader–chief executive relationship, although underpinning mayoral leadership and the leadership may operate in a more collective ‘leadership of cabinets’ affect the or corporate way. behaviour and effectiveness of political leaders? • Does the mayoral model result in an Questions to be explored in the research enhanced concern with visibility and We set out to undertake the research with a series community responsiveness? of questions about the tasks, the context and the 4 Impact of local political institutions capabilities of political leadership. Our detailed •To what extent have local political interviews from case studies and our analysis of traditions and culture, as embodied in the WPLQ have enabled us to develop this outline political institutions, influenced the scope into a set of key themes, which are explored in the for effective leadership in both ‘political’ and research. They reflect the conceptual distinctions ‘authority-wide’ senses? identified and discussed above.
6 Introduction
• How are differences between the 6 Impact of political leadership–chief executive Government’s agenda for local political relationships leadership and those of the local party •To what extent can ‘leadership’ be group/machinery mediated by political understood as a tension between the leaders? demands of ‘good performance’, as •To what extent have the new political interpreted by the chief executive, and institutions associated with the political considerations, as understood and Government’s democratic renewal experienced by the dominant party agenda become embedded in the culture group/coalition? of local authorities? 7 The variety and impact of leadership capabilities 5 Leadership tasks •To what extent do leadership capabilities •To what extent, and in what way, has the shape priorities and outcomes, for introduction of new political management example, the ability of political leaders to structures changed the understanding of, draw political groups towards ‘effective and balance between, the four key leadership’ in authority-wide terms? leadership tasks? •Are particular capabilities associated with particular local authority contexts or configurations? • Do more experienced political leaders have particular capabilities? •To what extent are capabilities inherent or learnt?
7 2 The context of political leadership
The crucial importance of context in shaping the change – however difficult, particularly in the experiences and choices of an individual leader short term, this is perceived to be. The is well recognised in the traditions of historical, constitution is the formal expression of how an political and organisational analysis (e.g. Scott, authority has responded to the legislative 2001). Leaders in local authorities face a shifting framework set out in the Local Government Act but always limited set of choices that stem from 2000 and its accompanying guidance. the internal and external context of the While the constitution contains many fixed authority, both current pressures and future points, it is open to interpretation and is indeed trends. interpreted in each local authority in the light of We distinguish between four categories of its distinctive local political and organisational ‘context’, which can be depicted as a series of traditions and culture or ‘organisational concentric circles around the core of the local biography’ (Lowndes, 1999). This forms the authority’s constitution (see Figure 2.1). innermost circle of context, being in principle At the core of the circles of context is the the most amenable to change, although harder local authority’s constitution. The constitution in practice. Culture operates, not only through itself is not part of the context, because it is an formal rules and requirements, but also through internal instrument, which is amenable to perceptions and assumptions – often shared,
Figure 2.1 A framework for analysing ‘relevant context’
The local authority’s constitution
The local political and organisational traditions and culture
The legislative framework governing political management structures The wider externally driven political agenda
The locality’s social economic and geographical profile characteristics
8 The context of political leadership
sometimes contested – about the value of influenced by local authorities acting particular practices or ‘ways of working’ individually or, more likely, collectively, but (Stewart, 1986; Schein, 1992). The informal only at the margins. institutions of local government provide a Finally, in the outermost circle, there is the powerful set of constraints on the direction and impact of the social, economic and geographical extent of change. Their taken-for-granted nature characteristics of the local authority’s area, and means that they are at least as influential as future trends in these characteristics. This their more formal counterparts. Informal contextual category is arguably the least institutions – whether general to local amenable to leadership influence, though the government or specific to a particular authority skills of a political leader in ‘reading’, – may be especially hard to change, given that interpreting and articulating this context to they embody dominant values and identities, others, and taking the context into account in though skilled political leaders may try to shift strategy, is crucial to effective political such values and identities over a period of time. leadership. Traditional ‘institutions’ are of particular In the analysis that follows, we illustrate the importance because they often act as barriers, way in which context impinges on and is though sometimes also provide opportunities, interpreted by local political leadership within to the incorporation of new values and ways of each of the four broad categories identified working associated with the Government’s above. In doing so, we make use of both democratic renewal agenda. Familiar examples interview material from the case study include ‘the committee style of working’, ‘the authorities and the data from the WPLQ, which ultimate authority of the party group’ and ‘the illustrate the importance placed by political principle of unified advice from officers/ leaders on different elements of context and the departments’. way in which leaders interpret context to Beyond this circle of context is the legislative develop their own agenda. context associated with the introduction of new political management arrangements per se. But it is Social, economic and geographical context not only the 2000 Act which provides relevant context to the exercise of local political Some elements of this contextual category are leadership. The wider political agenda, which is well known to the authority concerned – for largely generated by central government, is a example, the multicultural and multifaith further important contextual influence. The characteristics of the Leicester population, the introduction of the Comprehensive Performance presence of a large gay and lesbian community Assessment (CPA) system has had an impact on in Brighton and Hove, and the large number of leadership agendas as have the various asylum seekers in Kent. A knowledge of such partnership opportunities – Private Finance demographic characteristics does not determine Initiative (PFI), public service agreements, what the leadership response will be, but may community strategies – provided by the be taken into account by the leadership and Government. This ‘wider agenda’ can be acted on in particular ways. The social context
9 Local political leadership in England and Wales
was mentioned spontaneously by the leaders in leadership shown in both the interviews and the the research as elements of their leadership WPLQ data. agenda. In the case of Milton Keynes, the impact of the high growth rate was spelled out to us in The external political agenda detail – for example, the high social services costs of supporting young families without The Local Government Act 2000 is not the only extended family support and the challenge of element in the external central government building ‘community capacity’ among a agenda that constitutes a challenge for local relatively transitory population. Kent County political leaders. For example, in 2003–04, the Council is also experiencing the challenge of revised basis of central government grant planning for the level of population growth distribution shifted resources away from more earmarked for it within the South East regional rural shires into the urban conurbations, and plan. from the south of England to the north. This has Perhaps the best example of the influence of posed major problems for those authorities socio-geographic context on leadership was, in losing out. In some Conservative-controlled the perception of several leaders, that they counties, council tax increases approaching 18 should respond to the growing assertiveness of per cent were introduced in 2003, simply to the local population. This is an interesting maintain existing service standards. Leaders in example of a social characteristic that cannot be affected counties were involved both in trying identified from published census data; rather, it to persuade central government to amend the is sensed by leaders on the basis of local new formula and in managing the budgetary knowledge or from specific examples of consequences of the new allocation. behaviour. One leader in a case study authority However, the most striking example of the had set out in a personal manifesto a number of impact of central government initiatives comes responses to the assertiveness of the authority’s from the Comprehensive Performance population. The manifesto promised that the Assessment (CPA). In December 2002, the CPA authority would become even more of a scores for all London boroughs, metropolitan listening council and that the leader intended to districts, shire counties and unitary authorities ‘engage directly with the many diverse were announced. With benefits and penalties voluntary and community organisations which attached respectively to high or low scores, local exist in the borough’. authorities took this process extremely seriously. Many other examples illustrate the Leaders were directly involved often in the significance of the social, economic and development of strategies of preparation for the geographical context of authorities in shaping CPA inspection and occasionally in deputations the leadership agenda. But they also to the Audit Commission to persuade it that an demonstrate the selectivity of the process erroneous assessment had been made. A whereby leaders single out particular elements particular challenge for leaders in some of our of this context for priority action. This process of case studies has been dealing with the ‘prioritisation’ was a key element of effective consequences of a weak or poor CPA. The first
10 The context of political leadership
elected mayor of North Tyneside, Chris Morgan, streamlined committee system. The who resigned in April 2003, could hardly be ‘constitution’ that each local authority is held responsible for the authority’s poor CPA required to adopt is the formal expression of assessment in November 2002. He had been in how the authority has decided to operationalise post for only eleven months. But the agreement the requirements of the 2000 Act and its of a recovery plan with ODPM officials and then accompanying guidance. Because the then putting the plan into operation was a major Department of the Environment, Transport and feature of his mayoral agenda between the Regions (DETR) circulated a ‘model November 2002 and April 2003, pushing into constitution’ as a reference point in developing the background his desire to establish a stronger constitutions, it is perhaps not surprising that presence in the partnership arena. there is a distinct similarity in the broad format, One of the challenges for council leaders is though not necessarily detail, of local authority the substantial impact of agendas generated by constitutions. This outcome too has added to the central government on local authorities, feeling of a straitjacket – a centrally promoted involving a succession of major initiatives and model constitution designed to respond to a policies. Responding to an externally imposed very limited agenda of choice among centrally agenda can act as a distraction from other imposed executive options. leadership tasks – for example, the building of However, the reality, as an ODPM report robust local partnerships. There is an implied emphasises (Leach et al., 2003) – and some, need for selectivity and prioritisation on the though by no means all, local authority leaders part of leaders and the sharing of leadership have come to recognise – is that, far from being responsibilities within the leadership group if a constitutional straitjacket, the 2000 Act and the the full range of challenges are to be met local constitutions that reflect it offer effectively. considerable scope for local choice and, hence, local political leadership. Anna Randle (2003) has made a similar point The legislative context in relation to the role of elected mayors: There have been complaints from local The constitutions of mayoral authorities vary authorities that the legislative requirements widely in the freedom and authority they actually concerning new forms of political management give to the mayor, usually in relation to whether structure (Local Government Act 2000 and the the council was more or less supportive of the associated guidance) amount to something idea. approaching a constitutional straitjacket. (Randle, 2003, p. 13) Concerns have been expressed about the lack of choice, particularly around the limitations of the There were many examples from our case options available in relation to executive studies that demonstrated the scope for choice government, i.e. mayor and cabinet; mayor and that exists in relation to the post-2000 council manager; cabinet and leader; and, for constitutions. In each case, the leadership authorities with populations below 85,000, a recognised an opportunity for moving the
11 Local political leadership in England and Wales
authority in a direction that they felt would be Ian Bottrill, despite his party not holding an advantageous, and acceptable to a majority of overall majority. On the other hand, the the council. They looked for opportunities to resistance encountered by the two Conservative exploit within the legislative context rather than mayors in North Tyneside from the Labour regarding it as a constraint. majority on the council reflects the adversarial traditions of inter-party relations in that authority. A key problem that this tension Local political and organisational traditions between leader and council can generate is and culture resistance on the part of the council to the ‘Organisational biography’ (Lowndes, 1999) has mayor’s budget proposals (see Chapter 3). a crucial influence on the political leadership of The importance of this contextual category an authority. Leaders may be seriously goes beyond inter-party relations. The chief constrained by it in their scope for action and executive, and sometimes other chief officers, may need a shrewd understanding of the scope can play an important part in facilitating for choice and opportunity in this context, leadership priorities, or sometimes failing to do sometimes related to political survival. This so. The chief executive of North Tyneside has emphasis on the significance of local political had a hugely difficult task in attempting to culture has a relevance to all the new executive mediate between a Conservative mayor and an forms. oppositional Labour-dominated council. There are, for example, a variety of political Bedford’s chief executive has been increasingly traditions regarding the legitimacy of strong effective as a broker between the elected mayor personalised leadership that have facilitated the and the (no-overall-control) council. Sometimes, quasi-elected mayoral role of Sandy Bruce- however, a close working relationship between Lockhart in Kent and Russell Goodway in leader and chief executive may contribute to Cardiff, but which would be viewed as difficulties in political leadership, with inappropriate within Liberal Democrat-led insufficient distinctiveness in their perspectives Milton Keynes or Stockport, where the ultimate and agendas. authority of the group is jealously guarded. The most important contextual influence in There are important rule- and tradition-based the current circumstances is the way in which differences between the parties but also the move to executive government (mayoral or considerable variation within them. cabinet and leader) is perceived in the authority In addition, the traditions of inter-party (see Randle, 2003, p. 13). The concept of local relationships can play a crucial contextual role executive government has often been viewed as in facilitating or hampering leadership action. a potential threat to valued, traditional local The long-standing co-operative relationship government institutions, in particular the key between the Labour and Opposition groups roles of the full council, the politically (Conservative and Liberal Democrat) in proportionate decision-making committee and Warwickshire has clearly facilitated the scope the party group. In authorities where these for action of the county’s then Labour leader, values have proved particularly dominant, the
12 The context of political leadership
scope for individual leadership has been coupled with his own status as a high-profile, circumscribed, although that has not necessarily visible and responsible leader – the kind of prevented the leaders of these authorities from leader the Labour Government was trying to carving out a viable leadership role that has encourage – he was in a position to influence reflected a sensitivity to these enduring values. and to some extent negotiate with central In other authorities, the political culture has government ministers and civil servants. He been more supportive of the new system and could do this in a way that would not have been receptive to a different conception of leadership. plausible for the vast majority of local authority leaders. He has developed and articulated this opportunity, based on his reading of the central– The capacity for contextual interpretation local context in Kent, to considerable advantage. The research interviews confirmed a key Mike Wolfe, the then elected mayor of Stoke- element of the WPLQ conceptual framework, on-Trent, perceived that, given his constitutional that one of the key political leadership skills was status and the limited degree of personal an ability to ‘read’, or interpret, the context in a support he enjoyed within the council, there way that provided a basis for effective action – were more opportunities to exercise community for example, action that proved capable of leadership through partnership mechanisms implementation within the authority. than to lead the quest for enhanced service For example, Ken Bodfish, the Labour leader quality provision by the council itself, a task of Brighton and Hove, where Labour had that he has in effect trusted the council manager enjoyed majority control in the period preceding to achieve. But his judgement was that his the 2003 election, made an assessment in the community leadership role would not best be election run-up of the options in the event of facilitated by his becoming chair of the local Labour losing majority control, which was strategic partnership – a view shared by Ray indeed the outcome. He concluded that, so long Mallon, the Mayor of Middlesbrough, about his as Labour remained the largest party, the own locality. possibility of any other two parties forming a However, it would be misleading to view the coalition administration was remote, in which key context-related leadership skills as solely case Labour could press for a minority responsive in nature. There are circumstances in administration (i.e. one in which they held all which leaders can change the context, less so in the chairs) in the knowledge that there was no relation to the first three contextual categories – viable alternative. Labour was successful in although government ministers are sometimes achieving this outcome, largely because the persuaded to modify their intentions by leader had made an insightful reading of the influential leaders – but much more so in political context and acted on it. relation to political and organisational Sandy Bruce-Lockhart, the Conservative traditions. As Leach and Wilson (2000) have Leader of Kent County Council, recognised that, argued in their discussion of the relationship given the size and strategic significance of Kent, between leadership and political culture:
13 Local political leadership in England and Wales
… there is the situation where the leader, through to 86 items and to produce a version in 360- his/her own leadership qualities, persuades a degree feedback as well as self-assessment form.) political group that a change in leadership role is We argue from the research that developed necessary … even where this need is not initially the WPLQ (see Hartley et al., 2005) that effective widely perceived. In these circumstances, it is political leadership includes the skill of being possible to characterise the situation as able to ‘read’ the context, both observing and ‘transformational’; it generates a change in reflecting on changes, and making judgements political and organisational culture through action about the degree and pace of change and what taken by leaders themselves. this suggests for action or inaction at any (Leach and Wilson, 2000, p. 41) particular point. If community leadership is to become a lived reality, then effective political The most striking example of this process leadership requires the capability to interpret that was identified in the research was the changes in the external context of the authority. ability of Ray Mallon, the elected mayor of In the WPLQ, context is examined through Middlesbrough, to transform the political the importance leaders accord to particular climate in which he operated from one of initial elements in the way that they undertake their hostility, on the part of a large section of the work as a leader. Here, context covers political Labour group, to one of widespread support, changes, economic changes, social changes and not just for his own leadership but also for the environmental changes. The WPLQ asks each value of an ‘elected mayor’ per se in respondent to consider changes listed under Middlesbrough. A second example is provided these headings and to rate how important each by the way in which George Lord, council and one is to them in their role as elected member, in Conservative group leader on Worcestershire terms of the extent to which the person takes County Council, has been able to transform the this issue into account in their leadership role. political culture from one of adversarial party Items are summed across particular aspects of politics, during the 1997–2001 period, to one of context. It is not a measure of how much the inter-party collaboration, in which all parties are leader works on that issue but how much they represented on the cabinet. take it into account in their work. The national database of the Version 1 Context as perceived by political leaders WPLQ is based on the self-reports of 201 elected through the WPLQ members in England and Wales. It is interesting The Warwick Political Leadership Questionnaire to note from this research (Hartley and Morgan- that was used in this research is Version 1, Thomas, 2003) that longer service as a councillor which is based on 187 items covering how is associated with leaders being more sensitive political leaders perceive their contexts, to reading social and demographic elements of challenges and capabilities. It is a self- the external context – they have had a longer assessment version, i.e. political leaders rate period of time in which to observe and reflect themselves. (Since the JRF research, the WPLQ on how this has the potential to impact on has been further refined to reduce the item stock political choices and priorities.
14 The context of political leadership
Those who are in senior leadership positions interpreted and acted on. also report that they pay more attention to We turn now to examine how the context is elements of the external context compared with perceived within some of the in-depth case either those in scrutiny/overview roles or those in studies. The results are analysed in aggregate ward representative roles only. While there are no across the leadership group, i.e. leader or mayor differences in terms of reading the social and plus executive members, in each case study. We environmental changes, political leaders in cabinet examine the leadership group as a whole, both or equivalent are more likely to pay attention to because it would be invidious to give detailed political context issues (e.g. from central information of this nature about individuals and government, from local issues) and to economic also because this is a valuable unit of analysis context issues (e.g. economic activity, labour given that the actions of the political leadership market issues). Scrutiny and overview members are likely to take into account the perceptions of also pay more attention to these issues than ward the whole group. Table 2.1 shows the size of the representatives, though less than those in leadership group and the WPLQ responses for executive positions. This is shown in Figure 2.2. the five local authorities where the majority of It is also interesting to note that differences executive members responded to the in the reading of context were based at the Questionnaire. More details are given in the individual level (role, length of service as a Appendix. We draw on these profiles in this councillor, gender) but not at the level of the chapter (contexts and challenges) and in local authority (e.g. type of council). This Chapter 7 (capabilities). suggests considerable variation within as well The leadership groups also vary in the as across authorities in how the context is read, importance that they attach to particular
Figure 2.2 Significant differences by cabinet, scrutiny and backbench roles
Council executive/ cabinet Scrutiny/overview Political changes Other
Economic changes
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
15 Local political leadership in England and Wales
elements of context. Leaders do not passively Thames Gateway are scheduled by ODPM for react to contextual forces. Rather, they interpret substantial growth – are important changes. In the significance of such forces in the light of addition, a number of those interviewed their own political and organisational values mentioned the high level of transient populations and experiences. in Kent, including refugees and asylum seekers. We illustrate the findings in three case Kent’s public service agreement (PSA) targets studies. The aggregated results for the Kent and social policy innovations are focused on political leadership show that they rate social reducing dependency on the State, and this is changes as a particularly important element of also consistent with the WPLQ analysis. So, the wider context (see Figure 2.3). This rating is overall, there is a high degree of consistency consistent with the description of the locality here between perceived importance and given in interviews, where community plans, documented information about context. housing development – Ashford and the
Table 2.1 Size of the leadership group and WPLQ responses for the five local authorities where the majority of executive members responded to the Questionnaire Size of leadership team Responses
Cardiff 10 6 Kent CC 10 8 Lewisham 9 6 Milton Keynes 7 6 Warwickshire 12 10
Figure 2.3 Context: Kent County Council
Political changes
Economic changes
Social changes
Environmental changes
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
16 The context of political leadership
In Milton Keynes, the most emphasis is However, from an objective perspective, the placed by leaders on environmental change (see low rating attached to economic changes may Figure 2.4). This emphasis is consistent with appear surprising given the anticipated growth local and political priorities and recent profile of the city. It may be the experience of experience. ‘Green’ issues were prominent in sustained economic growth over the past 30 the Liberal Democrat manifesto when the party years has reduced the perception among leaders came to power in 2002; there was a major issue of its significance – that is, to some extent, it is facing the leadership over a popular movement ‘taken for granted’. to prevent a waste-processing plant in the Turning to the Cardiff leadership group, locality. In addition, the ‘reading’ of social there is a high rating given to all four aspects of changes is consistent with concerns about the change (see Figure 2.5). Environmental changes, impact of the rapidly growing population of which include sustainable development and Milton Keynes, in terms of the data lag and the public transport, are rated highest and this financial lag on resources, and also the desire to reflects the priority attached by leaders to build community capacity in a locality with a strengthening Cardiff’s role as a capital city and high level of mobile, working young couples as a significant European city. Equally, the and the concern about national plans for the economic development of the city is an rapid growth of the city. important potential contribution to this goal.
Figure 2.4 Context: Milton Keynes Council
Political changes
Economic changes
Social changes
Environmental changes
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
17 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Figure 2.5 Context: Cardiff County Council
Political changes
Economic changes
Social changes
Environmental changes
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
Leadership challenges as perceived by 2002b). Taylor (1993) conceptualised civic political leaders through the WPLQ leadership as consisting of four arenas. These have been described as follows. Leadership does not take place in a vacuum, but is shaped by the purposes or tasks of the 1 Shaping and supporting the development political leader. This is a critical element of any of grassroot communities. leadership, though the context-free approach of 2 Negotiating and mobilising effective some leadership theories inappropriately belies partnerships with other public, private this perspective. One of the key characteristics and voluntary bodies. of political leadership is that it involves having to make choices that are sometimes 3Voicing the needs and interests of the incompatible or at least having to manage local community in regional, national, tensions created by different pressures, European and international arenas. stakeholders and timescales. 4 Leading the local authority organisation Our research in developing the WPLQ and giving its services clear strategic indicated a large range of priorities, seen as direction. challenges, to address, with sometimes contradictory implications. We have To which the WPLQ research added a fifth conceptualised these challenges using a challenge. framework derived from Taylor (1993) and used 5Working with party groups and coalitions in a number of Warwick studies (e.g. Taylor, to build support and achieve outcomes. 1993; Hartley and Benington, 1998; Hartley,
18 The context of political leadership
This framework is shown in Figure 2.6 and is experience of working with other tiers of used as the framework for considering how government but because of length of service. This political leaders perceive the main challenges or may be because they rate the current challenges priorities of their work. There is some overlap in from central government more highly in contrast the ‘leadership tasks’ model of this study, but with their experience in earlier years. This is with the Taylor (1993) model treating the ‘organisational biography’ as evidenced by the ‘external world’ as having different components. responses of the longer-serving cohort of elected The national database of the WPLQ is based members. These councillors are more influenced on the self-reports of 201 elected members in by the traditions, cultures, values and deeply England and Wales. It is interesting to note from held views of what it means to be a council and this research (Hartley and Morgan-Thomas, 2003) what a local authority’s relations with central that there were no statistically significant government should be. differences in the challenges as perceived by Using the national database, when we political leaders on the basis of size or type of compare executive members with all other roles, council. There is considerable diversity across there are two statistically significant differences. local areas and the challenges that are thrown up Leaders/mayors and executive members report from the five arenas. However, some individual that they rate the challenges of working within and some role variables were important. Those the party/coalition and working within who have been councillors for over 20 years are partnerships more highly than other elected more likely than councillors with shorter service members. This is interesting because these are to perceive challenges derived from working the challenges of holding together political with other tiers of government. This is not support and working in a community associated with them being more senior, which leadership way which are particularly relevant was checked in a separate analysis. It is for a strategic approach to leading and associated simply with age and length of service managing the local authority. This is shown in – that is, it is not because they have more Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.6 The Warwick model of five arenas of civic leadership
Regional, national, European and supranational arenas PARTY
Other public agencies Private and voluntary and services, The local sector partnerships e.g. health, police authority and relationships
PARTY Civil society Grassroots organisations
19 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Figure 2.7 Significant differences by role (two categories)
Council executive Other
Challenges with party/coalition
Challenges with partnership
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
We turn now to examine the WPLQ profile challenge of overcoming factional differences of the leadership challenges, as seen by the within the local Labour party following the senior leadership group in the case studies – for adversarial nature of the contest for the example, leader/mayor plus executive members candidature of the Labour mayoral nomination. – in three of the in-depth case study authorities. Warwickshire’s aggregate WPLQ profile, as a The WPLQ profile for Lewisham shows the hung authority, is based on the executive plus greatest importance being accorded to the the two minority party leaders, as our challenges of ‘working within partnerships’ (see interviews showed that they are reported to Figure 2.8). This emphasis reflects the fact that have an influential role in policy and strategy Lewisham is one of the few authorities where through the Leader’s liaison board. there is an elected mayor, an executive model in The profile is fairly even across the which particular importance is attached to challenges, suggesting no arena of challenge has community leadership and the development of been identified as requiring particular emphasis the local strategic partnership (LSP). The by the authority (see Figure 2.9). All of the five importance attached to ‘working within the areas are seen as important challenges. The authority’ reflects a concern to ensure that some importance attached to challenges within the of Lewisham’s basic services should operate party group/coalition reflects the county’s ‘no- more effectively. In this connection, the mayor overall-control’ position, with Labour operating had taken a ‘hands-on’ role in dealing with a minority administration. The somewhat lesser some worsening problems with the refuse emphasis on other tiers of government reflects collection service. The importance attached to their importance, though still above the working within the party group reflects the midpoint. The authority had a history of
20 The context of political leadership
Figure 2.8 Challenges: Lewisham, London
Within your authority
Within your party/group or coalition
Within communities
Within partnerships
Other tiers of government
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
Figure 2.9 Challenges: Warwickshire County Council
Within your authority
Within your party/group or coalition
Within communities
Within partnerships
Other tiers of government
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
difficulties in sustaining positive county–district 2.10). This challenge is focused on the ‘growth relationships with other councils. agenda’, i.e. the continued development of In Milton Keynes, the highest degree of Milton Keynes as a city over the next 30 years importance is attached to partnership (see Figure and who should lead the development. The
21 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Figure 2.10 Challenges: Milton Keynes Council
Within your authority
Within your party/group or coalition
Within communities
Within partnerships
Other tiers of government
Not at all 1 2345Very important important political leadership has taken a number of assured (a cohesive group), the WPLQ ratings actions in this area, including building and here suggest that this requires time and repairing relationships with partners, attention, and is therefore a priority challenge particularly with the previously disgruntled for the political leadership. business sector, and is working with ODPM and ministers to shape the future governance Conclusions arrangements for growth. The second most important challenge is perceived as ‘within the The influence of ‘context’ is most helpfully seen authority’. This is an area that was flagged up in in the terms in which it was characterised at the the Liberal Democrat manifesto in 2002 and has start of this chapter: been reinforced since by the IDeA peer review, … a shifting but always limited set of choices that and by the ‘weak’ rating achieved by the council stem from the internal and external context of the in the CPA process (at the time of the research) authority, both current pressures and future and the challenge of developing more cost- trends. efficient and effective services. Also rated as a challenge is working with the If context is seen in these terms, it becomes party/group. Our interviews provided evidence clearer why there is so much diversity in the that Milton Keynes has developed a way of experience and practice of leadership (see also working across the ruling group that is strongly Stoker et al., 2003). Context may define or cohesive, though also time-consuming, both in constrain choice but it does not determine the formal meetings and in informal soundings and choices made. The content of the Local discussions. While the outcome might seem Government Act 2000 and of local constitutions,
22 The context of political leadership
the social and demographic structure of an area, and demographic characteristics; the and the range of other government legislation – external political agenda and legislative and exhortation – that impinge on the agenda of framework; and local political and local authorities will clearly influence organisational traditions and culture. leadership priorities and behaviour, but • The legislative requirements of the Local invariably leave a good deal of scope for Government Act 2000 do not amount to a interpretation (see, for example, ODPM, 2003, ‘constitutional straitjacket’; there is a good Chapter 5). In particular, although the political deal of scope for interpretation, which has and organisational culture of an authority is an been recognised in many authorities. important influence on the council leadership, and is ignored at the leader’s peril, it does not • Constitutions can empower non-mayoral determine leadership action, but rather defines leaders to operate in much the same way the scope for choice that is feasible in the as elected mayors or can impose circumstances. considerable limitations on the formal An effective leader can be seen as one who capacity for leadership. can accurately read the context surrounding the • In all authorities, there are economic, authority and can adjust his or her leadership social and demographic characteristics behaviour to respond to, but also shape, that that are perceived by leaders as priorities, context, conscious of the boundaries and although such characteristics do not whether or not to overstep them. Thus a leader determine the nature of the response. faced with a traditional Labour group unwilling to change its ways of working, despite the • The regional government proposals, inappropriateness of several of these in the (post changes in the basis of central 2000 Act) circumstances, would not see that government grant distribution and the element of context as a given, but would requirements and impacts of the external constantly be looking for ways to change it, inspection, especially the CPA, provide without undermining his or her own leadership examples of important contextual credibility. Effective leadership is about sound influences stemming from the national judgement and ‘the art of the possible’, but it is political agenda. also sometimes about attempting to change the • The CPA in particular has had profound context, and hence the scope, of ‘what is effects on leadership priorities. possible’. Responding to the experience, or The main conclusions from this chapter can expectation, of a weak or poor CPA now be summarised. evaluation often acts as a distraction from • Four important categories of context more proactive leadership tasks. impinge on leadership agendas: the • Internal cultural resistance to the move to legislative framework governing political local executives, and in particular to the management structures; socio-economic idea of elected mayors, has had profound
23 Local political leadership in England and Wales
constraining effects on the leadership which they operate, particularly in capacity of political leaders, sometimes relation to local political and working through the constitution, organisational culture. This contextual sometimes through more informal element does not determine leadership practices. action, but rather defines the scope for choices that are feasible in the • There are aspects of leadership that relate circumstances. to individual characteristics and that are not best explained by structural theories. •Effective leadership involves sound There is an irreducibly personal judgement, the ‘art of the possible’ and an component to political leadership. One of ability to extend the boundaries of choice the key leadership skills is the ability to to the limits, without overstepping them. read or interpret context in a way that • There is also considerable personal, rather provides a basis for effective action. than structural, variation in how political • Longer service as a councillor is leaders prioritise particular challenges in associated with being more sensitive to each of five arenas of activity. reading social/demographic elements of • Those with long service and a more the external context. This is associated traditional view of the role of local with length of service, not age, so this is government are more likely to perceive primarily an experience not a maturity challenges in working with other tiers of effect. government, underlining the issues of • Those in senior roles pay more attention ‘organisational biography’ raised earlier. to political and economic context than • Leaders report that they put greater time those in other roles. and attention into the challenges of • This capability is not wholly responsive working within the party/coalition and in nature. There are circumstances in in working with partnerships than other which leaders can change the context in elected members.
24 3 Relationships between leadership and the council; maintaining group cohesiveness and a critical mass of support
Introduction delegated either directly or indirectly to cabinet members other than the leader. There are The essence of this task is the incentive all exceptions to this normal expectation; leaders have to generate a critical mass of ‘generating a critical mass of support within support, in order to ensure that the formal cabinet’ can be a problem for a leader where decision-making process, whether in the there is an all-party cabinet and the party to executive or the full council, reflects the leader’s which the leader belongs does not have a preferences. majority of cabinet places. The division of responsibility in all the current models, including the fourth option, is that decisions on policies – some legally Leaders and councils specified, some optional – including the annual There are important distinctions between budget, are made by full council, on the basis of mayoral models and cabinet and leader models, recommendations made by the executive, and between situations of majority control and whereas decisions made within the policy no overall control. framework are the responsibility of the Of the 11 mayoral authorities, there is executive itself. Thus there are two distinct congruence between the party affiliation of the elements in this leadership task: mayor and dominant party on the council in six. 1 gaining support for decisions in cabinet Where there is party congruence, the mayor, and his or her cabinet colleagues, would 2 gaining support for policies, and the normally expect to receive the necessary level of budget, in full council. support to ensure that mayoral policy and budget proposals get through council. There is Leaders and cabinets no guarantee that they will, but, if the mayor ensures that the party group to which he or she In general, the first element of this task is much belongs is consulted on such proposals, then it more straightforward than the second. If the would be very unusual for a leader’s proposal leader is empowered to select his or her own to be blocked. The greatest danger of this cabinet – all elected mayors and one-third of scenario would be if there were a ‘factionalised’ cabinet and leader executives (see Stoker et al., majority group or a group opposed to the 2003) – then it would be surprising if the principle of an elected mayor. leader’s views did not prevail in relation to For the other five elected mayors where decisions on which they have a clear view. there is not a party congruence between mayor Many executive decisions will of course be and council, there is more of a problem. They
25 Local political leadership in England and Wales
have the advantage that a two-thirds majority in members who are not on the executive that council is needed to substitute an alternative ‘deals are being done’ between leaders, which budget or policy for the mayoral proposal. Four undermine party priorities. of the five mayors had to amend their original The alternative to a coalition-based cabinet budget proposals for 2003–04 to ensure they in a no-overall-control situation is one in which gained council acceptance. The challenge in one party, usually the largest, is allowed, future is for them to develop informal links with through support or non-opposition at the enough groups on the council in preparing crucial council vote, to form a minority budget, or policy, proposals to ensure administration, i.e. one in which all the key acceptance without amendment. cabinet positions are held by the minority party. For cabinet and leader councils in majority In one of our case studies, the minority-based control with a one-party cabinet, the challenge cabinet is able to work effectively, with a of building a critical mass of support is in reasonably high degree of certainty that its principle similar to the situation that prevailed proposals will not be opposed or ‘called in’, before the implementation of the 2000 Act when because it operates in conjunction with a informal cabinets were widespread in party ‘leadership group’ – a regular informal meeting political authorities. The main difference under of the three leaders in which the key issues the new arrangement is that, because the coming before cabinet are discussed. executive meets on a more frequent basis than former policy and resources committees did, the The role of chief executive scope for group influence over the full range of executive decisions has in many cases reduced. One would not necessarily expect a chief There remains in all parties a normal executive to play a part in the role of ensuring a expectation that the party group will follow a ‘critical mass of support for the administration’, leadership steer, not least because the other which sounds like and normally is an cabinet members will be supporting it, giving intrinsically political leadership role. However, an inbuilt support factor of eight to ten votes as there are situations in which chief executives do a starting point. However, groups vary in the regard it as helpful, and appropriate, to become latitude they are prepared to give the leadership involved in either the composition of an and leaders vary in their ability to persuade administration or its sustainability once groups to follow their lead. established. The position in cabinets based on coalitions For example, the chief executive of Bedford of two or more parties is similar in some ways, has played a vital role as an intermediary different in others. Once the executive has between the elected mayor and the council. agreed a desired course of action, the leaders of None of the three main parties represented is the parties concerned would normally expect to committed to supporting the mayor (although be able to persuade their party colleagues to individual Conservatives do sit on his cabinet) support them, although there is often, in such and, given the antipathy to the mayor on the situations, an element of suspicion among party council, there is at present little possibility of
26 Relationships between leadership and the council
him using informal mechanisms to persuade cabinet. In reality, this choice is often – and negotiate. It is the chief executive who particularly in the cabinet and leader model – a discusses mayoral proposals with the party heavily constrained one. Whereas elected groups on the council and who managed to mayors have the power to determine the size of negotiate a compromise solution over the their cabinets, the definition of the portfolios mayor’s 2003–04 budget proposals. In these held and distribution of decision-making circumstances, the mayor is to a significant powers within the cabinet, non-mayoral leaders extent dependent on the chief executive’s of cabinets frequently operate within the terms negotiating skills to overcome obstacles. of a constitution that denies them these powers. These differences are important. In principle, a mayor, in the mayor and cabinet model, could Individual and collective approaches allocate all responsibilities for executive Although ‘maintaining a critical mass of decisions to himself or herself and use other support’ is a task that most leaders in the cabinet members as policy advisers rather than cabinet and leader model would regard as an decision makers in their own right. No mayor individual priority, not least because their own has gone quite this far, although there are one or continuation as leader depends on the quality of two examples that approach it. In contrast, the this relationship, it is possible, particularly for a majority of leaders of cabinets have to operate leader with a high profile externally, to share with cabinet colleagues they did not select, and this role with a trusted cabinet colleague, i.e. in some cases would clearly not have wanted, someone who can be relied on to keep the operating with portfolios they did not define leader in touch with group opinion or to sound and did not allocate, in a system where all, or out its reaction to tentative proposals from the the vast majority, of executive decisions are leadership. In mayoral authorities, where the made collectively. There are, of course, mayors’ direct election gives them a level of situations where experienced leaders can detachment from their party group, there is influence the pattern of nomination for cabinet often a more explicit delegation of the task of positions within their group, but, for recently ‘keeping the group on board’. Indeed, in elected or vulnerable leaders, this may not be an mayoral authorities, the role of ‘leader of the option. For such leaders, the capacity to group’ on council is always held by someone influence is a much higher priority than it is for other than the mayor. elected mayors. In authorities where there is a strong The research has shown that, within the collective approach to leadership, the cabinet, much will depend on the traditions that maintaining of links between the leadership (on operated prior to the introduction of the cabinet the cabinet) and group is seen much more as a and leader system. If that tradition involved a shared function. strong sense of independence on the part of A leader, or leadership group, has to decide service committee chairs (now portfolio how to allocate tasks and decision-making holders), then it is likely that the same responsibilities among the members of the expectations will prevail in the new system. If,
27 Local political leadership in England and Wales
on the other hand, the authority is one with a priority’ in relation to ‘maintaining a critical tradition of strong leadership, where the mass of support’ in mayoral authorities, that is legitimacy of a leader’s influence was a not the case in the cabinet and leader case studies. dominant norm, whatever the formal allocation With the benefit of hindsight, this finding is not of decision responsibilities, then that tradition surprising given that the basis of the too is likely to survive under the new system. relationship between leaders and party group, Thus political culture can play an important or between leader or leaders and party groups part in constraining or extending the scope for in a no-overall-control situation, has been proactive leadership, both in collective decision- largely unaffected by the change in political making arrangements and in situations where management arrangements. The dependency of power has formally been delegated to the leadership on the continued support of the individual portfolio holders. group(s) remains. The underlying challenge involved for all leaders in this process is that of ensuring the Conclusions maximum degree of leadership influence on the roles and tasks that the leader regards as • Minority-based executives work most priorities. No leader – even a powerful elected effectively when they are linked to an mayor – can dominate the four key leadership informal, all-party ‘leadership group’ tasks that we have identified. In relation to meeting, underpinned by good personal ‘maintaining a critical mass of support’, the relationships between the respective leaders. challenge is to manage the operation of the • All-party executives may operate very much cabinet, using whatever powers or channels of like old policy and resources committees, influence that are available, to ensure that the unless the leadership role of one party is leader’s own priorities are facilitated rather than tacitly acknowledged, or can be developed. frustrated. In achieving or moving towards this • There are situations in which chief executives preferred distribution of responsibilities, a become involved in forming or sustaining a leader will of course have to take account of the political administration – either by acting as political culture and expectations of the cabinet, ‘honest broker’ in a hung authority or by the dominant group in council and, in some acting as an intermediary between an elected cases, the council as a whole. Thus one leader mayor and an unsympathetic council. told us that one of the cabinet appointments he • Both mayors and council leaders may in made was not one he would have ideally effect delegate the task of securing a critical preferred, but one in which the expectations of mass of support in council to a trusted an influential member of the group, and the cabinet colleague. potential leader of a disruptive faction, could not realistically be ignored. • There are significant variations in the extent Finally it is worth noting that, although there to which political leadership is perceived and is some supportive evidence for a ‘decrease in operates in individual or collective terms.
28 Relationships between leadership and the council
• The power base of elected mayors enables emphasising the importance of party political them, in certain circumstances, to dominate considerations. executive decision-making processes, with • In most circumstances, politically affiliated the role of other cabinet members becoming elected mayors can operate a more relaxed largely that of ‘policy advisers’. and arm’s-length relationship with their • Leaders have to work within the traditional ‘party group’ on council, and maintaining a ‘role expectations’ of leadership that prevail critical mass of support diminishes in relative in their authorities, although effective leaders importance, though it cannot be ignored can, to some extent, change these altogether. expectations. • Despite the Government’s emphasis on the • Leaders have to manage different sets of leadership tasks of ‘strategic direction’ and pressures coming, on the one hand, from the ‘external networking’, maintaining a critical chief executive, emphasising the importance mass of political support remains a high of high levels of performance, and, on the priority for most leaders. other hand, from party groups or coalitions,
29 4 Developing and sustaining strategic direction
The importance of strategic direction, quite apart of personal manifestos, recognising the need for from its contribution to effective leadership, is some kind of contract between themselves and recognised by all authorities that have undergone the electorate. In some cases, these manifestos a recent CPA inspection or IDeA peer review. The were quite lengthy and elaborate affairs. Mike Audit Commission and other inspection bodies Wolfe, the elected mayor of Stoke-on-Trent, have placed strong emphasis on the importance identified four key themes: ‘individuals’, ‘a of this leadership task. single city’, ‘community’ and ‘government’, The pressure to produce a coherent with a range of proposals under each heading corporate strategy that provides a basis for co- and an overall objective of trying to develop a ordinated action is one element of the context stronger sense of civic consciousness and driven by central government that faces local empowerment in Stoke, moving people away authorities. They cannot ignore it – or, if they from their deep-rooted parochialism and do, they do so at their peril – but there are fatalism. different ways of responding to it. A mayoral manifesto is not in itself a The key issue in a study of political corporate strategy, though it should at the very leadership is the extent to which it is leading least form an important ingredient. One of the politicians who set the strategic agenda. If they tasks identified by chief executives in the do not, it is always likely that chief executives mayoral authorities was that of developing the will attempt to ‘fill the gap’. But, if what they mayor’s manifesto into the kind of corporate produce generates no sense of political strategy that would be likely to gain approval ownership, it is unlikely to become influential, from Audit Commission inspectors. Part of this for example in relation to the budget, although task was ensuring that the strategy was in an it may prove successful in achieving a tick in the appropriate format, but, in other cases, relevant inspectorate box! Strategic direction can depending on the scope covered by the mayoral be seen, therefore, as an area of negotiation manifesto, the chief executive felt it necessary to between the political and managerial leadership suggest additional priorities for inclusion. of an authority, incorporating a greater or lesser In the cabinet and leader case study degree of distinctively political input. authorities, there was a considerable diversity of The political leaders interviewed in the case practice. One chief executive had difficulties in studies were all able to identify a number of the mid-1990s in developing a coherent priorities to which they were committed. There corporate strategy when the council was hung. were significant differences, however, in their The problem was overcome in 1999 when the scope, the extent to which these were personal Liberal Democrat group won a majority and (political) priorities, and the way in which the produced a distinctive strategic agenda, leader intended to take them forward. ‘Cleaner, greener, safer, stronger’. All the elected mayors interviewed had In one county, the chief executive took the stood for election and campaigned on the basis manifesto priorities of the incoming
30 Developing and sustaining strategic direction
Conservative-led cabinet, which emphasised the Much harder are the issues which seem to have need for enhanced resourcing of education, come up from nowhere, for example, the adult social services and road improvements, incinerator issue. This was a huge issue, which and negotiated the inclusion of two significant suddenly blew up. The landfill contractor put in an additional items – ‘partnership working’ and application for an incinerator a couple of weeks ‘improving libraries’. He felt these were after the May election. Local people were not at important for the future credibility of the county all keen. We decided we had to work with the council, as well as transforming the manifesto- protestors. based priorities into an appropriate inspection- Local authority leaders – whether political or relevant format. In Kent, the strong personality managerial – have to find ways of responding to and leadership of Sir Sandy Bruce-Lockhart led unforeseen strategic issues, for which the existing to a situation where he was the prime mover in corporate strategy offers little if any guidance. deciding the strategic agenda: ‘The philosophy One of the key political leadership skills in this and the principles are entirely mine’. respect is the ability to deal with such issues, The pressure to implement manifesto which may have profound consequences for the priorities is likely to be stronger for elected future well-being of the authority, while retaining mayors, because of the perceived greater public a commitment to the priorities in the corporate knowledge of these manifesto statements (cf. strategy, i.e. not allowing them to be sidetracked party manifestos in the cabinet and leader or marginalised. model) and the perception that they are likely to be held to account if the priorities are not achieved, certainly by the local media and, in Changing patterns of task significance due course, possibly by the local electorate also. Although, as noted above, all the leaders It was certainly the case that elected mayors interviewed had a set of priorities that were were aware of these pressures and keen to capable of development into a corporate strategy, demonstrate what they had already achieved. the task of doing so was not always seen as a high The pressure on chief executives in all priority, even for elected mayors. One important authorities is to demonstrate the feasibility of reason for this has been the impact of the CPA implementation of the corporate strategy and, in process, which was of course introduced after the due course, its success in achieving the stated new political management structures. In three of objectives. the case study authorities where a poor CPA result The problem with any political manifesto had either been experienced or is anticipated, statement or corporate strategy is that it is likely there has been a much higher leadership priority to be overtaken by events, on a regular basis. on ‘ensuring task accomplishment’, i.e. remedying Strategies cannot take into account the poor performance, than on strategic direction, unforeseeable. Isobel Wilson, Liberal Democrat which is seen as a task ‘for the future’. leader of Milton Keynes, exemplified the Even leaders, including mayoral leaders, of problem clearly: authorities with ‘good’ or ‘fair’ CPA
31 Local political leadership in England and Wales
assessments may give a higher priority to the they are convinced of the value of this kind of task of dealing with a financial crisis and/or activity and feel competent to engage in it, they specific underperforming services rather than will do so. If they recognise the value of the ‘strategic direction’. Steve Bullock, elected activity but do not wish to play a leading role in mayor of Lewisham, felt that it was right to pay it personally, they will provide a steer to the attention to basic services, especially chief executive and leave him or her to get on environmental services, in the first year of his with it. If they do not recognise the significance mayoralty, with an expectation that he would of the activity, then it may be difficult for a chief subsequently move on to emphasise the longer- executive who does to develop a strategy that term priorities to which he is committed – can generate any kind of political ownership. community safety, citizenship and youth. Why should there sometimes be political resistance to what would appear to be a desirable and increasingly necessary role? There The impact of leadership roles will be circumstances where the perceived It is clear that the variety in leadership demands of the political situation – for example, approaches to ‘strategic direction’, illustrated in elections three years in four, a volatile political this chapter, reflects a key element of our overall climate with changes in control always possible, framework (see Chapter 1) – the irreducible adversarial party politics – increase the personal elements in role interpretation. Those likelihood of a focus on party, rather than who move into leadership positions do so with authority-wide, interests, short-termism and the their own baggage of experience, values, extension of the political into the managerial expectations and competencies. They take over agenda. This position is not necessarily a position where there are very few formal irrational in political terms; it reflects the logic rules, although a good deal of advice and of the political situation. guidance – some of it contradictory – from party colleagues and the chief executive respectively. Conclusions The mayoral role in particular is a wholly new role (in this country) in which precedents are • All political leaders can identify a series of extremely limited. Mayors have in many ways priorities. However, the extent to which these defined their role on the basis of experience in priorities provide an adequate basis for a the job. In these circumstances, it is not at all comprehensive corporate strategy varies surprising that there is such a degree of considerably. disparity. Mayors and council leaders will tend • The manifestos of non-mayoral leaders to concentrate on those activities that they typically reflect the priorities of the party personally perceive to be important or that they group/local party with some scope for think they are good at. The extent to which personal priorities. Independent mayors are leaders pursue strategic agendas beyond an less constrained in their choice of manifesto initial statement of priorities reflects their own content. capacity for longer-term visionary thinking. If
32 Developing and sustaining strategic direction
• Chief executives typically seek to fill the • The task of taking forward a strategic agenda strategic gaps and negotiate with political is not always seen as a high priority, even for leaders in an attempt to persuade them to elected mayors. In particular, where a weak adopt such additions. or poor CPA scare has been experienced, dealing with the recovery plan can become • In situations where new leaders were elected the strategic priority. in authorities with a long tradition of one- party rule, there is often a recognition that it • The extent to which a leader can articulate would not be appropriate to argue for a and carry through a strategic vision varies major change of strategy. considerably, depending on the state of inter- party relationships. In hung authorities • The commitment to implementation of where there is neither a minority manifesto priorities is likely to be stronger for administration nor a two-party coalition, a elected mayors, because of the perceived leadership vacuum may develop and a greater public knowledge of these manifesto corresponding lack of a politically led set of statements and the perception that they are strategic priorities. likely to be held to account by the local media and the local electorate. • The implementation of mayoral priorities, whether or not they are articulated into an • Any political manifesto statement or explicit ‘strategic vision’, is more difficult corporate strategy is likely to be overtaken by where there is a mismatch between the events on a regular basis. While some future mayor’s political background, or lack of it, changes can be confidently predicted, others and the political composition of the council. cannot. Such unanticipated issues often require a strategic response from the • The extent to which leaders pursue strategic leadership. agendas beyond an initial statement of priorities also reflects their own capacity for • Local authority leaders have to find ways of longer-term visionary thinking. responding to unforeseen strategic issues, for which existing corporate strategy offers little •Effective strategy-based leadership tends to if any guidance. One of the key political be more feasible in mayoral authorities and leadership skills in this respect is the ability county councils, where elections are held to deal with such issues, which may have every four years, and authorities with more profound consequences for the future well- stable political environments. being of the authority, while retaining a commitment to the priorities in the corporate strategy.
33 5 External relations and networking
Introduction There has been the establishment of regional chambers, or assemblies, in the English regions, The scope for leaders, if they so wish, to spend within which delegated local authority leaders time outside the council offices attending have the majority of seats. There has been the meetings with partners, meeting the public, growth in public participation, not just in lobbying central government or dealing with relation to Best Value and community strategies the media is immense. Leaders have, of course, where it is legally required, but also across a a long tradition of involvement in external whole range of local authority activities (see relations, especially local authority associations, Lowndes et al., 2001). The growth of the inter-authority relationships – either within or significance of the European Union has drawn between tiers of government – and relations some leaders into its ambit and, for elected with the local media. But, in the days of the mayors, there is the impact of direct election by inward-looking, self-sufficient authority the local population and the implications of this (Stewart, 1986), the priority was clearly within relationship for their continuing contact and the authority rather than outside it. The responsiveness to individual and collective local internally oriented tasks of political cohesion concerns. and service management were rarely challenged These pressures cannot be ignored by in importance by the perceived requirements of leaders. However, they respond to them in external networking. many different ways. Leaders, faced with the Various pressures – some local, some impossible time commitment implied by a full national – have impinged on local authority involvement in all the opportunities for external leaders in a way that has influenced them to activities that present themselves, have to make change these priorities, even when not judgements about priorities both on a personal particularly predisposed to do so. Since 1997, basis and within the wider leadership group. there has been the explicit central government Those who have difficulty in doing so are likely prioritisation of the principle of community to experience problems of overload and to find governance and all that this entails: local other important leadership tasks – for example, strategic partnerships, community strategies strategic direction – are being neglected. and stakeholder engagement. There has been Newly elected leaders are often faced with a the exponential growth, which predates the range of external positions, which either their election of the Labour Government, of multi- predecessor held or there is an expectation agency partnerships with specific remits, within the authority that they should take on, operating at anything from sub-regional to and typically undertake a period of assessment neighbourhood level on issues that include as to which of these many time-consuming regeneration, community safety, health action commitments are worth persevering with and and social exclusion among many others (see which are not. Sullivan and Skelcher, 2002, pp. 228–37 for In examining the process of sorting out and details). More recently, public service prioritising the many demands for external agreements (PSAs) have come into this frame. involvement that leaders face, five categories, or
34 External relations and networking
different types of external arena, can helpfully not really need a major involvement from be identified: political leaders. Brighton and Hove among our case study 1 local strategic partnerships authorities provides the clearest example of an 2 other forms of local stakeholder explicit delegation of the leadership task of involvement managing/steering partnerships from the leader to a colleague. Although partnerships are 3 links with central government recognised as a high priority by the leader, Ken 4regional and sub-regional linkages Bodfish, he is happy for his deputy, Sue John, to play the leadership role in the LSP and other 5 links with local population and the local partnerships, which matches her personal media. interests and capabilities. Elected mayors, given the particular Local strategic partnerships emphasis on their community leadership role in the legislation and their enhanced legitimacy The structural importance of the local strategic within the partnership arena – reflecting the partnership (LSP), and the community strategy personal mandate flowing from their direct for which it is responsible within the election – expressed a perhaps surprisingly Government’s democratic renewal agenda and diverse range of attitudes to the importance of the accompanying legislation, is such that local the LSP, and of their own role within it. authority leaders have to take it seriously. In The attitudes of two of the elected mayors almost all cases, they attend its meetings, if only interviewed – Ray Mallon of Middlesbrough to display an indication of commitment that is and Mike Wolfe of Stoke-on-Trent – are of crucial to its credibility with other partners. But particular interest. Both have chosen not to that formal involvement and commitment can become chair of the LSP. In Ray Mallon’s case, mask a range of different attitudes and he was the chair for a year, but then decided to differences in the extent of the real priority that step down, against the advice of the chief leaders allocate to LSPs. executive. He felt that his personal agenda, as For leaders whose personal interests and elected mayor, could be compromised by being capabilities do not draw them enthusiastically the LSP chair and wanted to be free to argue in into the LSP world, there are two options. First, this arena, and elsewhere, what he thinks is they can delegate the lead role in the LSP to a right for Middlesbrough without having the leadership colleague. Alternatively, they can formal responsibility, as chair, for negotiating delegate it to the chief executive, while compromises. Mike Wolfe, who had been an maintaining a personal presence at meetings. active member, as National Council for The second choice is consistent with the Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) perception of one chief executive, who told us representative, on the Stoke LSP before that, once a community strategy had been becoming mayor, had a similar view. He has a developed, the ongoing operation of an LSP did detailed knowledge of how the LSP works and
35 Local political leadership in England and Wales
is confident he can influence it, when he needs meetings between key stakeholders and local to, without the formal responsibility of chairing authority leaders, sometimes involving the it, a perception shared by Ray Mallon. This political leader, sometimes the chief executive confidence reflects the good relationships that and sometimes both. These meetings usually both mayors enjoy with their respective LSP had the benefit of strengthening the inter- chairs: a business community representative in agency relationships involved and Stoke; the chair of the local Primary Care Trust underpinning the behaviour of the participants in Middlesbrough. The ‘ability to influence’ is at formal meetings, for example the LSP. The also aided by the ‘lead role’ played by the two meetings can act as channels of advocacy or local authorities in servicing the LSP. Their negotiation. dominance in relation to agendas, working Three of the elected mayors – Steve Bullock, group operations and outputs, and formal Mike Wolfe and Ray Mallon – had recognised reports is a crucial factor here. the way in which the status and legitimacy of the elected mayor as community leader had enhanced the responsiveness of key Other forms of local stakeholder stakeholders to them, thus enhancing their involvement potential influence. Steve Bullock was LSPs, though the dominant arena linking an particularly aware of the differences, having authority’s leadership with key stakeholders, been a non-mayoral council leader in the 1980s are by no means the only channel of and 1990s. He noted a comment from a local communication between these entities. As noted area police superintendent – ‘how can we help earlier, there will be a range of other important you achieve your mayoral agenda?’ – which he partnerships on more specific topics such as was clear would not have been said to any health/social service community safety, previous council leader. Mike Wolfe was also regeneration of deprived neighbourhoods and clear that mayoral status had changed the particular development schemes. The direct perception of other stakeholders. He cited an involvement of political leaders in these more example of speedy police action to deal with a specific partnerships will reflect their public space that was being used for drug importance to the authority, or sometimes the dealing, to which he had drawn their attention. leader. In some cases there may be a mismatch Ray Mallon’s ability to influence local between these two perceptions. One chief stakeholders, including the police force, reflects executive would have liked the leader to play a not only his perceived legitimacy as elected more decisive role in the local health mayor but also the blend of charisma, partnership, which he described as a ‘dreadful conviction, friendliness and courtesy he mess’. Another felt that the leader perhaps displays in his meetings with stakeholders, needed to be more strategic in his choice of although he can be openly critical when he partnership involvement. thinks it is justified. One finding of significance that emerged Although, in some authorities, there appears was the importance of informal one-to-one to be a well-established network linking the local
36 External relations and networking
authority leaders (political and managerial) Very few authorities are in a position to develop with key stakeholders – typically, an ongoing relationship of this nature. Within representatives of health, police, the business our case studies, there were two such examples. sector, the voluntary sector and learning and Kent CC is bigger than Northern Ireland in skills councils – in no authority had this population and has a strategic significance network developed into anything resembling a within the South East and in its relationship regime (Stone, 1995). with France. It is also widely perceived as the In general, it is probably fair to comment ‘Tory flagship’ authority in local government. that the anticipated shift in leadership priorities The Conservative leader Sir Sandy Bruce- from internal local authority issues to external Lockhart has been able to exploit these community leadership and networking characteristics in developing a ‘special concerns has not been as marked as the relationship’ with central government. Government might have anticipated. There has Given Kent’s strategic position in the South been a change but it has been patchy – more East, links with France were of particular significant for elected mayors than council importance to the leader. Otherwise Europe did leaders, but subject to considerable variation not feature significantly in the priorities of within both categories. The logic of the leaders, apart from Ken Bodfish in Brighton and Government’s agenda has not yet worked Hove who is currently leader of the UK through into fundamental changes of attitude delegation to the Committee of the Regions. and practice. Regional and sub-regional linkages Links with central government Regional linkages, in some cases involving There are two principal manifestations of the membership of the Regional Chamber, are link with national government. The first is a particularly important for authorities in regions direct link, whereby authorities have developed where elected regional government was seen as an individual channel of communication with a real possibility, for example the North East, or the centre. The second is collectively, through where the authority has a significant strategic the Local Government Association (LGA), position in the region, for example Kent in the whereby representative local authority leaders South East. Thus Mick Henry (Gateshead) and attempt to influence government policy and Sir Sandy Bruce-Lockhart (Kent) gave a higher periodically meet ministers for round-table priority to this level than did most other leaders. discussions of current issues. For metropolitan districts such as Stockport, A direct link between an authority and the area-wide joint arrangements that were the central government is unusual, except over a legacy of the abolition of the metropolitan particular issue, for example, a deputation of county councils in 1986 are often a more local leaders to protest about the impact of the important and time-consuming consideration. change in the formula in the allocation of central For counties and districts operating under a government grant – as in Worcestershire in 2002. two-tier system, county–district relationships
37 Local political leadership in England and Wales
are usually an important consideration for and that it will be a public view of the party’s leaders at both levels. performance that is likely to be a more influential factor at election time. However, what all leaders, mayoral or otherwise, have to Links with local populations and the media be able to do is to respond to collective public There is an important distinction between concerns over issues such as an incinerator public participation involving local stakeholders proposal (Milton Keynes), a proposed new – for example, representatives of business, the airport (Rugby in Warwickshire) and a public voluntary sector and health and police outcry about the way the council has dealt with authorities – and public participation involving the gravestones in the cemeteries (Stockport). the general public. All the elected mayors While public recognition cannot in itself interviewed recognised the importance of guarantee public support, it certainly has the sustaining, and ideally enhancing, the public potential to do so. Visibility is particularly support they enjoyed at the time of their important to elected mayors. election. However, proactive initiatives by elected Mayors used a range of different methods to mayors are probably less important in this further this objective of ‘public approval’. context than the scope and nature of the Dorothy Thornhill, mayor of Watford, conducts coverage of their activities in the local, and surgeries in all parts of the borough, and occasionally national, media. In this respect, provides a phone-in service (‘If I can help I mayors have been fortunate in relation to the will’) and dominates much of the public-facing degree of coverage, if not always the content. work of the authority. Steve Bullock had made Elected mayors are probably the only feature of his e-mail address available to all Lewisham the new political management arrangements residents, an initiative he has sometimes introduced under the 2000 Act to have caught regretted! Mike Wolfe, the elected mayor of the imagination of the media. Stoke-on-Trent, does regular ‘walkabouts’ in the Elected mayors have experienced both various town centres of the city and makes positive and negative coverage. In general, the regular visits to Stoke’s community forums. Ray Stoke Sentinel has been positive in its coverage Mallon in Middlesbrough attends the of Mike Wolfe; it had, after all, itself ‘community councils’ within the town on a campaigned for an ‘elected mayor’ referendum. regular basis, as a channel of information about Stuart Drummond in Hartlepool has, however, local concerns and as a way of maintaining a experienced less than sympathetic coverage public presence. from the local press. While some council leaders have made a Non-mayoral council leaders generally have point of emphasising their concern to enhance a similar concern with the way they are levels of public participation, and of council depicted in the local press, but have fewer responsiveness to local interests, they recognise exploitable opportunities than elected mayors. that their own position is less vulnerable to Russell Goodway, as a high-profile leader of public support than their mayoral counterparts, Wales’s capital city, has enjoyed a level of press
38 External relations and networking
coverage certainly equivalent to that of elected • Informal relationships between key mayors, but much of it has not been positive. stakeholders and the local authority Other leaders have seen the media as less of a leadership (political, managerial) may be just priority, particularly in county councils, where as important for ‘effective networking’ as the the interest of the local media is often focused at LSP itself, which these informal relationships a sub-county level. often serve to underpin.
• Elected mayors are perceived by key Conclusions stakeholders as having a greater legitimacy for community leadership, reflecting the • Council leaders, including elected mayors, mayoral agenda, than council leaders. while recognising the importance of local strategic partnerships (LSPs) to the authority, • The anticipated shift in leadership priorities vary in the degree of priority they allocate to between internal (local authority based) and personally leading on this task. ‘De facto’ external (involving community leadership delegation to a leadership colleague or the and networking) agendas has been patchy, chief executive is sometimes arranged, and subject to considerable variation. though the council leader invariably attends • Only large or strategically placed local LSP meetings. authorities are in a position, through their • Elected mayors do not always chair LSPs, leaders, to develop an individual relationship although they invariably wish to exert a with central government. Others have to strong influence on their work. Some mayors work through the LGA. perceive that their personal mayoral agenda • Leadership emphasis on regional networks is of for the city or town would be compromised significance only where there is a strong by holding the chair of the LSP and hence do regional identity, and pressure for an elected not choose to do so. assembly, or where there are important regional • The priority given by leaders to external planning issues affecting the authority. networking and partnerships is likely to be • Elected mayors pay more attention to reduced in situations of performance crisis sustaining or enhancing public support than (budget or weak/poor CPA assessment) or in council leaders. They use a range of different a conflictual and difficult-to-manage political methods to try to achieve this objective. climate. • All leaders pay serious attention to local • The direct involvement of political leaders in controversies that generate a high level of partnerships that are topic or area specific, or local concern. PSAs, will tend to reflect their perceived importance to the authority and/or to the • Elected mayors see public recognition as a leader. particularly important opportunity for developing a stronger base of public support.
39 Local political leadership in England and Wales
• There has been a considerable degree of • There is usually an agreement between leader media interest, especially local, on elected and chief executive that the former should mayors, and more rarely on council leaders. play the dominant role in media relations. Such interest may not necessarily have This agreement can be difficult to sustain if positive consequences for mayors or leaders. the chief executive is perceived by the media as high profile in his or her own right.
40 6Task accomplishment
Introduction upper-tier authorities. Cabinet members with a ‘full-time’ commitment are expected to develop If the conventional allocation of responsibilities a more detailed grasp of the technicalities of the between members, including leaders, and services for which they hold a portfolio and to officers was universally accepted and have more time available to become involved in implemented, then there would not be a policy implementation issues. In addition, it is significant leadership role in relation to ‘task important for all local councillors in terms of accomplishment’. The conventional division of their re-election prospects – individual or party labour is clear; officers develop policy on the – that they can ‘deliver’ for local constituents, basis of political priorities in a way that whether this is in relation to a personal sometimes involves informal working grievance or an adverse reaction by a local arrangements between members and officer. pressure group to a council decision. Draft policy documents are then presented There is an added incentive for elected under the new arrangements to the executive mayors to succeed in dealing with such who will ‘agree’ them, sometimes with grievances and adverse reactions, or at least a modifications. Some policies also require majority of them. They know that they will be approval from the full council. Once a policy judged as individuals by their capacity to deliver. has been formally adopted, it is the job of Hence the concern to build connections with officers to implement it, although it is perfectly local populations (see Chapter 5) and an legitimate for members to monitor its understandable reluctance to delegate implementation and raise questions if there are operational decision making exclusively to the performance shortfalls. Indeed, the guidance managerial domain. accompanying the Local Government Act 2000 There are three possible stances regarding recommends the delegation of a greater number involvement in operational decision making on of executive decisions, i.e. decisions that the part of the political leadership. implement an agreed policy, to officers to reduce the pressures on the executive and to 1 Acceptance of the conventional division of mitigate ‘cabinet overload’. labour: leaders are responsible for policy But it is not and never has been as simple as and strategy, officers for implementing it. that. Elected members are judged by the impact Leaders may ‘make representations’ on of policy ‘on the ground’ rather than by the implementational issues to officers, and content of policy documents. The traditional monitor performance, but the distinction has come under extra pressure from responsibility lies unequivocally with the heightened political priority attached to officers regarding decisions delegated to performance through the CPA assessments and them. targets. Also, since the introduction of the new 2 Flexible interpretation of the boundary: it is political management structures, there has been recognised that some ‘delegated an increasing tendency for cabinet members to (implementation) decisions’ will actually become full time, particularly in the unitary and be of high political salience, and it is
41 Local political leadership in England and Wales
appropriate to identify mechanisms takes place, rather than sanction a wider access through which such decisions can be on the part of leaders, particularly to middle discussed and the member view clarified, managers. even though formal responsibility One chief executive was uneasy about a new remains with the officers. leader’s propensity, in the early months of his leadership, to contact middle managers directly 3 Extension of member responsibilities into when he felt that they weren’t delivering. The implementation territory: in some, though chief executive recognised that such managers not many, authorities, the scope for would find it difficult to cope with the ‘personal member decision making extends directly criticism’ from the leader, which was either into what would normally be regarded as expressed or implied. He has managed to implementation territory, either formally persuade the leader that it would be better to through the delegation scheme or channel such progress chasing through the informally through the expectation that strategic directors. officers will reflect member preferences in Other arrangements are possible. In one exercising their delegated powers. authority, the cabinet member for policy This first stance is illustrated by two quotes development was clear that ‘progress chasing’ is from interviews with chief executives. One chief a major expectation: executive told us: My main task is to ensure that the council There must be a clear dividing line between performs. I take action to pick up information and member involvement and officer involvement in act to improve performance ... I let the managers decision making. As chief executive it’s up to me know what they have to deliver … I’m the ‘hard to maintain that line. The dividing line is movable, man’ around this place, make no mistake about it. but it has to be there – without it, there’s chaos. The way this cabinet member characterises The ‘nightmare scenario’ for a newly his ‘progress-chasing’ activities raises the issue appointed chief executive is a recognition that about the degree of challenge involved in this the line has not been at all clearly defined: role and the capacity of the officer structure to deal with it. I inherited a situation where the Labour leadership Ken Bodfish, leader of Brighton and Hove, had a history of ‘interference’ in managerial believes that a challenging stance from a leader concerns, including officer appointments. in relation to officer advice is a positive virtue:
I argue with officers all the time. They get credit Mechanisms for political leaders to ‘chase for telling me I’m wrong! I believe the leadership progress’ team should have the capacity to argue with a Chief executives often prefer to operate as the manager’s proposals. conduit through which this process of leaders The value of these kinds of ‘robust ‘chasing up’ issues of implementation detail exchanges’ is that, assuming they can be
42 Task accomplishment
resolved, both leader and chief executive end up perceive as problematical. If there is too rigid an more convinced of the ‘rightness’ of the final adherence within the authority to a policy– decision. They provide a mechanism for implementation or political–managerial divide, enabling political leaders to express their which prevents such a process, leaders will concern with task accomplishment, without understandably become frustrated. However, it jeopardising the traditional division of labour. is equally important from the perspective of But the mechanism can work effectively only if effective management that a leader’s there is a high degree of mutual trust and involvement in such detail does not develop respect between the two protagonists, or into the adoption of wide-ranging executive between the leader and the directors’ team. powers or, probably worse, what one chief In principle, leadership interest in task executive referred to as ‘hybridity’ in decision achievement could also be sustained through a making: vibrant system of performance monitoring. As I am very much against the process of delegating one chief executive put it: decisions to officers, and then requiring them to It’s important that we have systems for consult with members. The authority for decision performance management based on objectives. making should be clear, although I’ll always listen That way the members can hold us to account. to what members have to say.
The problem with this logical and systematic approach to politically led performance Hands-on involvement of leaders in project monitoring of the success of officers in management achieving political objectives is that it does not One way for leaders to ensure that their fit easily with leaders’ immediate concerns priorities are implemented is to become about the specific performance issues of the personally involved in implementation. The moment. One of the implications of a concern case studies provide two vivid illustrations of with task accomplishment, particularly for this propensity. Ray Mallon, the elected mayor elected members, is that prompt responses are of Middlesbrough, emphasised community sometimes required, not simply systematic safety in his election manifesto. Once elected, he periodical performance monitoring. Some had to decide how to take this issue forward. A leaders deal with this issue by presenting chief key element of his programme was to establish executives with regular lists of specific issues an information system that would tell him on a that require action. day-to-day basis where the ‘trouble spots’ in The important general point is that, in all Middlesbrough were – the crimes, the authorities, there needs to be a mutually vandalism, the graffiti, the abandoned cars. acceptable way of dealing with such issues. It is Partly, the information came from the police, legitimate for leaders – in particular elected but, just as importantly, it came from the system mayors, given their unique constitutional of community wardens that Ray Mallon position – to seek to influence action on detailed instigated. There are 75 community wardens, issues of policy implementation that they
43 Local political leadership in England and Wales
16 parking attendants and five litter officers, all In situations where chief executives and of whom have the responsibility to pass on leaders have enjoyed a long and positive details of incidents/trouble spots and to enforce relationship, the ability of chief executives to council policy. A weekly meeting held between sense what a leader would expect to know Ray Mallon, the relevant cabinet members and a about can become so well developed it is almost small group of officers reviews the evidence and intuitive. This kind of relationship does not develops a plan of action for the week. Now this involve a merging or blurring of roles: indeed, it system is working effectively, Ray Mallon and is often underpinned by a clear mutual the other cabinet member attend some recognition of the distinctiveness of the roles. meetings, but play a background role. What it does provide, however, is a flexible Mark Hunter’s personal agenda following vehicle for information, discussion and his election as council leader of Stockport in negotiation over the many issues that have both May 2002 included a commitment to ‘cleaning a political and a managerial dimension. up the borough’ (Operation Springclean). He decided that, because this was such a key The challenge of ‘task accomplishment’ priority in his programme, he wanted to chair the officer task force implementing the Of the four key leadership tasks, it is ‘task programme. This was a new precedent in accomplishment’ that is potentially the most Stockport and there was some unease among problematical. The dominance of the political the senior officers when it was first mooted. leadership in maintaining a critical mass of However, both leader and chief executive now political support is widely accepted. The logic of feel that this ‘hands-on’ involvement from the a political lead over strategic direction coupled leader worked well and the programme has with a recognition that the managerial been successful. Mark Hunter is clear that he leadership has an important steering role to would use the same arrangement again for a play, and will sometimes act to fill the gaps, is similar issue, but only extremely selectively. uncontentious. Most authorities can work out These forays into ‘hands-on’ management an acceptable division of political–managerial among leaders appear at first glance to be labour in relation to external networking. incompatible with the familiar policy– However, in relation to task accomplishment, implementation division of labour. But in none of the political leader’s need to be seen to be the illustrations set out above did either leader or delivering on its manifesto commitments or to chief executive perceive the process to be be dealing effectively with an unexpected crisis problematical. So long as such ventures are seen will necessarily challenge the conventional as ‘untypical’ political leadership roles for use in policy–implementation division of labour, ‘special circumstances’, and so long as the particularly if an election is on the horizon. In respective roles of political leaders and managers this sense, the logic of the political, ‘How do we are agreed and understood in the operation of maximise our chances, or my mayoral chances, the task groups involved, they can operate within of re-election?’ comes up against the logic of the the understood ‘division of labour’. managerial, ‘Managers should be left alone to
44 Task accomplishment
manage on the basis of policies agreed by the •A range of different mechanisms is used by executive or council’. Both views are legitimate political leaders to ‘progress chase’. These within their respective assumptive worlds. But include the allocation of the role to a cabinet they may, in certain circumstances, pull in colleague or a political adviser, a reliance on different directions. In the centre of these the chief executive, or a personal propensity opposing forces will be the political leader and to ‘progress chase’ at different levels in the the chief executive. organisation. In the exchanges that develop around ‘task • Robust, challenging exchanges between accomplishment’, the leadership capabilities of leaders and chief executives can provide a political leaders and the political judgement and valuable mechanism for leaders to express sensitivity of chief executives become crucial their concerns with task accomplishment, influences. The concept of a ‘dividing line’, without jeopardising the traditional division which is flexible and can occasionally be of labour. crossed, and a ‘bottom line’, which isn’t and can’t be, is central here. For this kind of • The use by leaders of the authority’s flexibility to work successfully, a high degree of performance-monitoring mechanisms to mutual trust is required. identify performance shortfalls is a valuable Where leader–chief executive relationships process, but also needs mechanisms for are based very much on strong interpersonal shorter-term progress chasing. and mutual knowledge and trust, there is a • Political conventions can help to structure particular challenge of sustaining the quality of and facilitate this potential problematical area such relationships when the individuals change. of the involvement of political leaders in In one or two of the case study authorities, implementation detail. considerable attention had been paid to ‘succession planning’. In Gateshead, a change of • The hands-on involvement of political political leader had been prepared for in this leaders on specific projects can operate way and a change of chief executive is being without detriment to the conventional approached from a similar standpoint. division of labour, so long as the respective roles of the political leader and manager(s) are clearly agreed and well understood. Conclusions • Positive long-term relationships between • There is a legitimate political interest for leaders and chief executives do not involve a political leaders in seeking to ensure that merging or blurring of roles; rather, they are political priorities are being implemented underpinned by a mutual recognition of the effectively. distinctiveness of the roles, and a high level • The political importance of this aim is of mutual understanding of the priorities of strongest for elected mayors, given the and context in which the other works. unique qualities of their constitutional status.
45 Local political leadership in England and Wales
• The legitimate concern of political leaders • One of the opportunities provided by the with ‘task accomplishment’ requires a mutual new executive arrangements is that they recognition of a potential area of negotiation create both capacity and legitimacy for around this issue and a flexibility that leaders to respond to ‘exceptional operates within clear, mutually agreed circumstances’ that require decisive boundaries. leadership action in a proactive and transparent way.
46 7 The skills of political leadership
Introduction Capabilities
This research is based on a framework that takes The conceptual framework about capabilities for into account structures of leadership (e.g. effective political leadership builds on the constitutions and political arrangements), academic and practical literature about personal cultures of leadership (e.g. organisational and competencies (Hartley and Morgan-Thomas, political cultures) and the role of individual 2003; Hartley et al., 2005). While research on characteristics (will and skill) in political competencies has focused largely on managers, leadership. This chapter focuses on that third we have extended and modified this approach element: the personal characteristics that are to reflect the particular roles, skills and mindsets associated with skilful leadership. In shorthand, of elected members in local government. they can be called skills, though a broader While it may be possible to identify concept includes capabilities, or competencies. particular skills for particular circumstances, a We argue here, and elsewhere (e.g. Hartley context-based approach to skill does not attempt and Morgan-Thomas, 2003; Hartley et al., 2005) to define a universal set of traits, abilities and that leadership capabilities need to be skills that are effective in all circumstances, but interpreted in their organisational and local rather asks what works, for what type of leader, context, as well as in the light of how the leader in what role and in what circumstances. This is interprets their key priorities or challenges. This particularly important for leadership in complex is recognised in the Warwick Political settings (cf. Dulewicz and Higgs, 2005). Leadership Questionnaire (WPLQ), which The identification and development of underpins the analysis of skill analysed in this competencies for managers and staff in a range chapter (see Hartley and Morgan-Thomas, 2003, of organisations has been prevalent for some for a fuller account). Context and challenges time. They are a feature of many organisations derived from WPLQ data were examined in and are likely to increase in the future (Strebler Chapter 2. et al., 1997; Hodgkinson and Sparrow, 2002). This chapter focuses on the skills of action Increasingly, in the field of local government, and interpretation, within the authority and in there is an interest in clarifying the roles of working with and influencing others, and elected members, and the skills and mobilising organisations and networks. We competencies, both for effective leadership and draw on the systematic identification of ten for member development. dimensions of personal skill in action, which Kanungo and Sasi (1992) argue that have been derived from extensive research with competencies represent a wider set of abilities elected members using Version 1 of the WPLQ and approaches that enable the non-specific, (see Hartley and Morgan-Thomas, 2003 and non-routine, discretionary and unstructured Appendix for more details). parts of a job or role to be achieved – which of course is central to any type of leadership role, and to political leadership in particular.
47 Local political leadership in England and Wales
The seminal writer on competencies, The capability framework of the Warwick (capabilities) Boyatzis, wrote that: Political Leadership Questionnaire The section of the WPLQ that focuses on the A job [role] competency is an underlying capabilities of elected members is concerned characteristic of a person in that it may be a with the behaviours, skills and other qualities motive, trait, skill, aspect of one’s self-image or that, from earlier research (Hartley and Morgan- social role, or a body of knowledge that he or she Thomas, 2003), distinguish effective from uses. ineffective political leadership, recognising that (Boyatzis, 1994, p. 16) the specific combination of capabilities in any Boyatzis suggests a framework for not only particular context will vary. thinking of the capabilities of individuals but The WPLQ identifies ten key dimensions of also setting these in the context of both role capabilities as follows (the defining dimension demands and organisational environment (see in italic, with behaviours and attitudes Figure 7.1). This reinforces our conceptual constituting that dimension alongside). approach, which includes context and 1 Public service values: service, integrity, challenges. courage.
Figure 7.1 A model of effective job performance
The individual The job’s competencies demands Effective specific actions or behaviour
The organisational environment
Source: Boyatzis (1994)
48 The skills of political leadership
2 Questions thinking: skills of questioning, The version of the WPLQ used in this self-reflective, learning, challenging, research is a self-report version (Version 1). (At creativity, lateral thinking, imagination. the time of the research, the 360-degree feedback version of the WPLQ, which is based also on 3 Decision making: making tough choices, views of informed commentators, was not yet seeing different possibilities, balancing available and the WPLQ has since been further competing possibilities. developed.) 4 Personal effectiveness: self-awareness, As part of the commitment to the research, managing emotions, energising, we produced a personal report for every elected persistence, handling difficult relationships. member who took part in the WPLQ enquiry, regardless of the number of returns from each 5 Strategic direction: strategising, planning authority, and this was sent directly to the the campaign, mobilising, gaining the person. The report was based on their responses high ground. on the three sections of context, challenges and 6 Advocacy and representation: shaping and capability. voicing the needs of the electorate. First, though, we present data about leading elected members compared with other elected 7 Political intelligence: understanding members from a national database of elected collective responsibility, the boundaries of members in England and Wales who have party discipline, building coalitions, completed the WPLQ. This gives some negotiation skills, the art of judgement. interesting insights into the development of skill 8 Communications: persuasion, engaging in among leading members, which provide dialogue, listening, understanding broader clues relevant to the analysis in this different perspectives. report.
9 Organisational mobilisation: inspiring and motivating, galvanising across Leadership profiles in England and Wales boundaries and spheres, partnership The WPLQ national database consists of working. responses from 201 elected members from a 10 Systems and tasks: managing roles, substantial number of local authorities in boundaries, implementing and tracking England and Wales. The responses are from progress and performance. elected members in all roles – leaders and mayors, cabinet members, scrutiny chairs and Each dimension is based on a number of panel members, regulatory committee members questions completed by the political leader. and those who have only ward responsibilities, These are added and weighted to give a score sometimes called ‘backbench’ members. In a for that dimension on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 comparison of leading members compared with being relatively low skill and 5 being high skill non-leading members (115 and 85 respectively on that dimension. in the database, and shown to be typical of
49 Local political leadership in England and Wales
councillors across England and Wales), some On the other six dimensions of capability, significant statistical differences emerged. there are no significant differences between Leading members rate themselves as higher on leading and non-leading elected members. the following. These statistically significant differences are shown in Figure 7.2. • Personal effectiveness: self-awareness, We can consider three possible ability to work with and understand interpretations of these findings. The first might other people, and to handle difficult be that leading members are more generous to relationships. themselves in their rating of themselves than • Strategic direction: the ability to be those who are not in leadership positions. strategic and to take an overview. However, this is not supported by the evidence from the other six dimensions, where no • Political intelligence: having the ability to significant differences between leaders and non- understand and work effectively with the leaders were found. The second possible political currents and dynamics, both explanation is that ‘born leaders’, or at least within and across groups. those with particular leadership skills, have • Organisational mobilisation: the ability to come to the fore within the council. The third mobilise others in the organisation, both explanation is that skills are improved through members and officers, to bring about experience in the role of being a councillor or substantial organisational and cultural senior member. Examining the results in relation change, i.e. transformational change and to demographic variables, roles and council across organisations. characteristics shows that the capabilities of
Figure 7.2 Differences by executive versus all other roles
Council executive Personal Other effectiveness
Strategic direction
Capabilities Political intelligence
Organisational mobilisation
Not at all 1 2345Very important important
50 The skills of political leadership
personal effectiveness and organisational variation between people in the profile of their mobilisation are not related to length of service skills (not shown here). This is consistent with or role, but that having strategic direction and the interviews, which emphasised the different political intelligence are improved by length of and complementary roles played by cabinet service and by being in a senior position. Thus members both formally and informally, and the both the second and the third explanations may different skills within the group. The overall be true for different reasons for the different leadership group profile is presented in capabilities. This suggests that some skills, such Figure 7.3. as strategic direction and political intelligence, The four most evident capabilities across the are honed not only through maturity but also whole leadership group are questioning through the learning that occurs in undertaking thinking, personal effectiveness, strategic tasks as an elected member. These are acquired direction and decision making. skills. This is an important finding in relation to Questioning thinking covers skills in critical policy and practice for leadership development thinking, being able to question and reflect on and succession planning. what is heard, being able to use creativity and imagination, and being able to draw on lateral thinking. A number of the interviews Capabilities in case study authorities corroborate this element of political skill in the Data about individuals are not presented in this Kent leadership, who have shown the capacity report, for reasons of confidentiality (see to innovate, to develop and build new ideas and Appendix on methods). Instead we focus on the policies, and to set these in motion. For profile for each authority, based on the example, the local PSA targets are a major aggregated scores across the senior political innovation at a national level, in terms of their leadership at authority level. In interpreting policy content. The questioning thinking these data based on the leadership group approach is consistent with the leadership’s profile, it is important to bear in mind that the intention to change the performance of the number of elected members who have authority in the way that it delivers services. completed the WPLQ in each authority is The leadership of Kent also shows skills in inevitably small given the size of the executive personal effectiveness. This is the capacity to (between six and ten members in each council). comprehend and work with other people, Therefore, the results are not reported in terms particularly in terms of having an of statistical findings, but rather as the profile of understanding or intuition for other people’s each leadership group. We examine three feelings and motivations, and an awareness of authorities in detail to illustrate the analysis. one’s own feelings and motivations as these affect both social interactions and leadership Capabilities: Kent County Council actions. This personal element of social skills Eight out of the ten members of the cabinet has also been called ‘emotional intelligence’. completed the WPLQ. The individual WPLQ The authority’s leadership has also scored reports showed that there was considerable highly in strategic direction, which represents
51 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Figure 7.3 Capabilities: Kent County Council
Public service values
Questioning thinking
Decision making Personal effectiveness
Strategic direction Advocacy and representation
Political intelligence
Communications
Organisational mobilisation
Systems and tasks
Low skill 1 2345High skill the ability of the leadership group to have a The leadership is also rated as having high strong sense of strategic purpose and to be able skills in decision making. It is an authority that to concentrate on the overview. A group with has not only a strategy but also the ability to high strategic direction avoids getting caught make decisions to support that strategy. It is up in detail. Kent has been a pace-setter in terms decisive and able to make decisions even where of its social and economic strategy. The there are competing interests or difficult choices authority has thoroughly analysed its social and to be made. There is considerable respect for the economic pressures and opportunities, and the approach to decision making by the political leadership has translated that understanding leadership of the authority. into a wider vision and strategy, with a Three capabilities where the Kent leadership particular perspective on social inclusion. The score less highly on the WPLQ are advocacy leader has described this as a ‘noble goal’, and representation, political intelligence, and which is both strategic and also sufficiently organisational systems and tasks. The relatively down-to-earth and practical to engage staff in low rating for political intelligence is perhaps that strategic purpose. surprising, given the national stage on which
52 The skills of political leadership
Kent’s leader is performing, though we note importance of delegating implementation to that the rating is above the mid-point of the officers. The WPLQ dimension, though, raises a scale and that this capability is based on the question as to whether there is sufficient leadership group overall. monitoring of such work. The leadership was rated relatively lower on The WPLQ results for Kent show a profile the skills of advocacy and representation. This that reflects the interests and style of the dimension concerns the skills of being able to leadership: particularly acute skills in terms of help constituents and groups to articulate their being able to ‘think outside of the box’, i.e. being needs, and persevering in pursuing the issues imaginative and questioning with ideas; being and concerns of people in the ward or division. strong in terms of strategic direction and Our interviews showed that there was decision making. The WPLQ profile also awareness in the leadership group that the focus suggests that the leadership group rates itself as on strategy by Kent Council had perhaps been less strong on the detail – for example, in at the expense of working with individual cases advocacy and representational work, and in and concerns. A number in the leadership group systems and tasks. commented that they worked with local groups on particular planning appeals (e.g. transport Capabilities: Milton Keynes Council infrastructure), but that advocacy work was The analysis of capabilities is based on the relatively underemphasised. One interviewee WPLQ results for six out of the seven-strong commented that a possible weakness of the leader and cabinet. council was that its emphasis on major strategy The Milton Keynes leader and cabinet might be at the expense of some attention to arrangement is reported, from our interviews, to practical details. operate as a close-knit team. While each cabinet This is also consistent with the other member has specific responsibilities in their dimension with a relatively low score, which is portfolio, the cabinet meets on a regular basis to that of being able to implement policies and share views and to explore areas of overlap/ practices at a detailed organisational level. This implications across portfolios. They work is the dimension of ‘systems and tasks’, and this closely with the Liberal Democrat Group to represents the necessary elements of develop policies. transactional leadership – being able to make Figure 7.4 shows how the Milton Keynes things happen in a day-to-day way. This reflects executive scored in terms of their self-rated the Kent culture among elected members of capabilities on each dimension. leaving the practicalities of implementation to For the Liberal Democrat leadership of officers. A couple of interviewees commented Milton Keynes, strategic direction and personal on the danger of ‘members getting into the effectiveness are rated as the capabilities the boiler room’ and members tended to be quite executive is strongest on, with decision making aware of the need to avoid this. Thus, while and organisational mobilisation running very there is a high emphasis put on meeting key close. This reflects data gathered from targets, the elected members recognise the interviews, where a clear sense among the
53 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Figure 7.4 Capabilities: Milton Keynes Council
Values
Questioning thinking
Decision making Personal effectiveness
Strategic direction Advocacy and representation
Political intelligence
Communications
Organisational mobilisation
Systems and tasks
Low skill 1 2345High skill political leadership of aiming to take the strategic and more corporate approach, while authority in a new direction and having to having to deal with forceful political opposition. grapple with some large strategic issues was Personal effectiveness is a key element of the evident. Having a strong sense of strategic political leadership, with an overall style of direction has helped the leadership in its administration that is reported to be relatively analysis of, and action to tackle, the complex informal, with a greater emphasis on building long-term and strategic issues facing the relationships as a means to achieve outcomes council. These include not only the growth than relying on rules and procedures to get agenda, i.e. the plans of central government for things done and/or to govern the work of the continued and rapid expansion of Milton members with officers. It is also consistent with Keynes as a city and locality, but also the the evidence of a cohesive political group, with public–private partnership for support services fewer of the tensions between cabinet and and the service improvement action plan scrutiny than is currently found in a number of following CPA, including trying to build a more councils.
54 The skills of political leadership
The leadership also shows strengths in about their political intelligence skills. On the decision making and in organisational other hand, the difficult state of cross-party mobilisation. The decision-making process for politics in Milton Keynes may have contributed the political leadership of this authority is to the leadership rating themselves as described as being effective in the sense of being somewhat less skilled on this dimension. It able to take some tough decisions about the would be interesting to return to Milton Keynes growth agenda and services improvements, to reprofile the executive to explore whether though some have commented that decision changes have occurred over time in this making about the financial legacy of tight capability. resources is somewhat less bold. Its decision- The administration has also, in aggregate, making process is cohesive – close consultation rated itself as somewhat less skilled in terms of with the Liberal Democrat Group, but systems and tasks, i.e. the skills of ensuring that considerable responsibility for individual services are provided and improved, within the cabinet members. boundaries of the local authority structures. It is Organisational mobilisation, which comprises transactional leadership – an important the skills of transformational change – mobilising component of making improvements and as and influencing people to create change, shaping necessary in many circumstances as people and plans to achieve substantial transformational leadership. This is an area that organisational and cultural change – is part of the has been the source of some frustration to the explicit platform of this administration, which political leadership, where, at the time of the sees itself, in its manifesto and in office, as second round of interviews, there was a sense concerned with improving the quality of life for that they were able to communicate a large and local residents and addressing some of the engaging strategic vision but were having perceived shortcomings in the ways in which difficulties in ensuring this was enacted in services are delivered. practical changes to front-line services. Changes The leadership profile shows that some skills to improve waste recycling and to refurbish bus are relatively less well developed, though above shelters, to give just two examples, had been the mid-point of the scale. This shows in terms problematic in implementation, causing a of the two dimensions of political intelligence negative image of the council in the press and and of systems and tasks. Political intelligence is among some of the public. concerned with skills, not only in understanding Overall, the profile for Milton Keynes shows and influencing the dynamics of the leaders’ a new administration that is strong on strategy, own political party, but also in working with decision making, personal effectiveness and other parties or political alliances in the council organisational mobilisation, which together in order to achieve outcomes. The cabinet suggest skills in spelling out and shaping a new members were still relatively new in post at the agenda for the locality. The profile also shows time of completing the WPLQ and it may be that the executive rates itself as relatively less that they were somewhat tentative at that stage skilled at ensuring implementation, i.e. systems
55 Local political leadership in England and Wales
and tasks, and at political intelligence. The through the leaders’ liaison board and also leadership was aware of these areas for skill through the two minority party leaders development and it would be interesting to see attending the cabinet ex officio. We have if these capability dimensions were included all these members in the analysis strengthened over time. because they are all reported to play a significant part in the leadership tasks of the Capabilities: Warwickshire County Council council in this joint administration. This case study is based on returns from ten out In examining the capabilities profile for this of the 12 senior elected members to whom it group of influential senior elected members, we was sent. Unusually, among the profiles, this see a pattern that is somewhat less one is based on leadership across all parties. differentiated than for the previous two cases Warwickshire is a joint administration, based on (see Figure 7.5). There is less range in the scores a Labour cabinet of ten, including the leader, but across the ten dimensions, which gives a picture with the active engagement of all three parties of all-round capabilities but without clear
Figure 7.5 Capabilities: Warwickshire County Council
Values
Questioning thinking
Decision making Personal effectiveness
Strategic direction
Advocacy and representation Political intelligence
Communications
Organisational mobilisation
Systems and tasks Low skill 1 2345High skill
56 The skills of political leadership
outstanding strengths or weaknesses in terms of those with executive responsibility) rate WPLQ dimensions. themselves as higher on: This reflects the political culture and • personal effectiveness: ability to work operational activities of the political leadership. with and understand other people, also Our interviews show a strong emphasis on self-insight consensus, mentioned spontaneously in all first- round interviews, with a degree of co-operation • the ability to be strategic between parties that had led one member to • showing political intelligence, i.e. having question whether the authority had got ‘too the ability to understand and work comfortable’. The authority governs a county effectively with the political currents and that ranks low in terms of indicators of social dynamics both within and across groups and economic deprivation, though with areas of deprivation in the north and east of the county. • the ability to mobilise others in the It may be that the resource base, the organisation, both members and officers, demography and the ‘good’ rating on CPA have to bring about substantial organisational all contributed to a sense of moderate skills and cultural change (transformational (capabilities) across the range of dimensions. change). Warwickshire’s sense of being above average is In addition, it is clear that some skills are shown in the ratings on the WPLQ. sharpened through practice. This is particularly true for having a strong sense of strategic Conclusions direction and for having political intelligence. This suggests that such skills can be heightened In this chapter, we have examined the skills of through practice and development, which political leadership through the concept of represents an opportunity for policy and capability, which covers the underlying practice. This analysis also undermines the characteristics of a person in that it may be a ‘born leader’ approach to leadership – leaders motive, trait, skill, aspect of one’s self-image or do increase their skills with experience. social role, or a body of knowledge that he or In five case studies, it has been possible to she uses. A political leader needs to draw on a examine the profile of the leadership group, wide set of behaviours, self-awareness and teasing out where it is particularly strong on attitudes in order to be effective. Earlier WPLQ specific skills and examining where the skills research had defined a skill set, comprising ten are less well developed. Three of those cases are skill clusters or dimensions. presented in this chapter. The authorities vary in This research has shown that elected their profiles. Kent stands out as taking an members in leadership positions do show skills innovative approach to its strategy and this is beyond those manifested by the ordinary confirmed through the analysis of questioning member. In an analysis of just over 200 elected thinking. Milton Keynes’ leadership group members in local government in England and profile shows skill in organisational Wales, political leaders (mayors, leaders and
57 Local political leadership in England and Wales
mobilisation. Warwickshire’s profile shows strength across the dimensions without being outstanding in any particular one.
58 8 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared
Introduction Formal powers Elected mayors have the constitutional right to Government’s approach to political leadership select cabinet colleagues, identify and allocate (see Chapter 1) places an emphasis on strong portfolios and decide the distribution of visible and outward-looking qualities. In decision-making responsibilities within the relation to its preferred executive option – the cabinet (individual–collective; between mayoral elected mayor – there exists a range of and other cabinet members). Some or all of underpinning powers and resources that, mayor these powers may be held by council leaders, and council manager option excepted, are but only if the council constitution so permits significantly greater than those that underpin (see Stoker et al., 2003). the leadership role in the leader and cabinet It should also be noted that the elected mayor model. This difference means that, if strong, and council manager model, of which there is but visible and outward-looking leadership behaviour is one example (Mike Wolfe in Stoke-on-Trent), facilitated by a strong power base in structural provides a greatly diminished set of formal terms, then we would expect to see some major powers for the mayor, compared with the mayor differences in the incidence of these behavioural and cabinet model. There is no cabinet, and the qualities among elected mayors, compared with formal power to make executive decisions is non-mayoral leaders. We would also expect to delegated to and exercised by the council see some differences in task orientation (see manager. At the appropriate point, all such Chapter 1). decisions will have been subject to policy advice In this chapter, we explore the extent of these from the elected mayor. differences, both within and between the two executive leadership models, drawing on our Democratic legitimacy case study material. Elected mayors, of both types, enjoy a heightened degree of legitimacy that is not Resources of mayoral and non-mayoral shared by their council leader counterparts. leaders They have been elected directly by the local electorate, unlike council leaders who have been Security of tenure elected by the council or, in reality, by the Elected mayors know that, once elected, their majority group on the council, assuming there is position is secure, assuming ‘disqualification’ is one. One implication is that, if mayoral avoided, until the next election in four years’ intentions are thwarted by the council – time. Leaders of councils do not enjoy this particularly intentions that have been signalled security and are vulnerable to removal at any in advance through the mayoral manifesto – the time by, for example, a coup within the ruling council is vulnerable to accusations of group (see Leach and Wilson 2000, 2002). unreasonable (anti-democratic) behaviour, a view likely to be highlighted in the local media.
59 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Visibility Nonetheless, the increased detachment that Recent evidence from a New Local Government elected mayors feel in relation to the party Network (NLGN) survey, conducted in group on council is apparent. Steve Bullock has November 2003, confirms that mayors are better expressed this view forcefully: known than council leaders to local people. On I know the mayoral model makes a difference … average, 57 per cent of people could identify this struck me most profoundly at the annual their mayor, from a list of five, compared with [post-election] meeting of the Labour group, 25 per cent who could identify their council which would have been a crucial event for a leader in non-mayoral councils. This level of council leader … it just washed over me … visibility is an important further indication of because I’m not dependent on the group for my democratic legitimacy, although interestingly it position, it means I can do things more quickly was not backed up by any greater level of and do more difficult things. satisfaction with mayoral performance, (Presentation at Constitution Unit seminar, compared with the performance of non-mayoral University College, January 2003) leaders. These constitutional strengths mean that, in Detachment from group discipline theory, there is greater scope for strong, decisive It follows from the fact of direct election that individual leadership from elected mayors than politically affiliated mayors are not subject to from council leaders. Indeed, there are the same processes of group discipline and circumstances where a mayor, who has been control from their party group on the council able to utilise his or her constitutional position that constrain a council leader. The group in this way, becomes the key reference point for cannot unseat an elected mayor and, although chief officers, with other cabinet members they could choose, collectively or partially, not sometimes being ‘bypassed’, whatever their to support mayoral proposals that require formal responsibilities. However, the extent to council support, they would normally be which the opportunities that these resources reluctant to do so in the interests of party unity. provided have been realised depends on some That does not mean that elected mayors with of the differences between elected mayors, in political affiliations can afford to ignore the particular their experience, their level of views of the party group, and none does so, support from the council membership and their partly to pre-empt resistance from disaffected, capabilities in exploiting these resources. unconsulted party group members when mayoral proposals come before the council, but Leadership tasks also in the knowledge that such members may be influential in supporting, or opposing, their The detachment of politically affiliated mayors renomination at the next mayoral election. from the traditional constraints of the party Although it is the local party that decides group is illustrated by the quotation from Steve mayoral nominations, local councillors typically Bullock (see above). This means that, for elected hold positions of influence within local parties. mayors in his position – i.e. with the support of
60 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared
the majority group on the council – maintaining elected mayors of Watford, Lewisham and the leader–group relationship is indeed less North Tyneside were dominated by budgetary time consuming than it would be for council crises and/or critical CPA assessments, leaving leaders. However, for elected mayors not in this less scope than mayors would ideally have position, the challenge of gaining the requisite preferred for external networking in particular. critical mass of support in council for measures This ‘action orientation’, which can be seen that require it – especially the mayor’s budget as an expression of the fourth key leadership proposals – is a major consideration. task of ‘task accomplishment’, has a resonance Even for mayors who do not face party- for other mayoral leaders too. Mayors know based opposition in council, the task of re- that, if they are to be re-elected, they need to establishing unity within the majority group have established a positive reputation with the may still be an initial priority, particularly where local electorate. There are two principal ways in unity has been damaged by the adoption of the which this outcome can be achieved: first, by mayoral model and the subsequent contest for establishing a positive profile in the local media, the nomination. Steve Bullock was selected as particularly the local paper if one exists, and, mayoral candidate in Lewisham only after two second, by developing a reputation among local closely fought contests with the then council constituents as a ‘can do’ leader. Thus the leader, Dave Sullivan. The result of the first expectation that mayoral leaders will contest was declared invalid (see Bullock, 2002 necessarily accept the Government’s for details). In January 2003, he identified as his assumption that the move to local executive most satisfying achievement to date: government should result in a greater degree of delegation of decisions to officers is doubtful. … sorting out the cabinet and its relationship with Several of the mayoral leaders have emphasised the group in the difficult aftermath of the contest and publicised their accessibility in relation to for the mayoral nomination. individual constituents, and their readiness to The emphasis on the ‘strategic direction’ and ensure appropriate action in response to their ‘external networking’ leadership tasks, which is concerns. an explicit part of the Government’s democratic renewal agenda (see Chapter 2), particularly so Interpretations of the mayoral role – the in relation to mayors, has in some cases been capabilities dimension followed through. These two priorities have been emphasised by Mike Wolfe in Stoke-on- In two case study authorities, the elected mayors Trent, reflecting inter alia the limitations on his have experienced difficulty in playing the high- powers relating to executive action. Ray profile individual leadership role that the Mallon’s agenda since the election, and indeed legislation appeared to be encouraging. Other before, has emphasised these two elements, mayors have found their own inexperience a though not at the expense of a developing problem in this respect. Among the authorities concern with selected elements of service visited, the three mayors who have most clearly delivery. On the other hand, the agendas of the embodied the Government’s expectations
61 Local political leadership in England and Wales
regarding the mayoral role have been Steve experienced Labour member who retained a Bullock (Lewisham), Ray Mallon considerable degree of influence within the (Middlesbrough) and Mike Wolfe (Stoke-on- Labour group at large. Trent). All have used their personal capabilities to Ray Mallon’s strategic agenda, based on make the most of the opportunities facing them. genuine consultation with local people, In Steve Bullock’s case, he has drawn on his developed further as he relatively quickly long experience as a senior politician, and his identified the key services areas in conciliatory personal style, to rebuild bridges Middlesbrough that required his attention, for within the deeply divided Labour group, and to example, the looming social services overspend. overcome the financial crises that faced the Recognising the benefit of making an early council when he was elected. He is well aware of impact, he built on his previous experience as a the need to strengthen his visibility locally, which senior police officer to initiate a radical and was one of the reasons he decided to combine the original scheme for dealing with crime – a role of elected mayor with that of civic mayor. comprehensive, up-to-date information system His status as elected mayor has changed combined with a task force of community perceptions among key local stakeholders; for wardens, parking attendants and litter officers, example, from the local police commissioner: which has already had a beneficial impact. Thus ‘how can we help you achieve your mayoral he has succeeded in overcoming political objectives?’. His long-term interest in the local resistance, developing a strategic perspective strategic agenda will equip him well to move and achieving task accomplishment within an away from an ‘improve problematical services’ 18-month period. role emphasis to a community leadership role Mike Wolfe developed an imaginative, long- over the next year or so. term strategic vision based on a real Ray Mallon’s astute management of the understanding of the root causes of the decline hostile political environment that faced him in civic consciousness and low levels of after his election helped him generate a critical empowerment in the borough. He recognises mass of support within the council much more that community leadership is both his strength quickly than might have been expected. He and a realistic role for him to emphasise, given invited applications for cabinet membership the limitations in his executive powers in the from all councillors, knowing that those who mayor and council manager model. Like Steve were fundamentally opposed to him (roughly Bullock, his legitimacy as community leader, half of the Labour group on the council) would stemming from his election as an individual, has not apply. His first cabinet comprised one been increasingly recognised by local partners. Conservative, one Independent and seven He is a natural leader, though not interestingly Labour members, all of whom were prepared to the formal leader, of the local strategic put the interests of Middlesbrough above the partnership. He has developed a productive hurt pride of the Labour group, which had working relationship and a division of labour expected to win the mayoral contest. In with the council manager, and uses this particular he appointed as deputy mayor an relationship to influence executive decisions
62 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared
regarding council services, even though he has a formal cabinet system had made relatively no power to make them. little difference to the practice of leadership. What is apparent from the above analysis is Leicester, Gateshead and Warwickshire all that, whereas the structural underpinnings of emphasised the continuity between the two the directly elected mayor option provide systems rather than the differences. In Leicester, opportunities for mayors to develop a different the policy board, a private meeting between the interpretation of political leadership to non- political and administrative leadership elites, mayoral leaders, the extent to which they have which was the key arena for the discussion and responded to these opportunities is strongly choice of decision options, has operated in very influenced by the context in which they operate much the same kind of way under the new (particularly the local political context), the way system as under the one that preceded it. they have responded to these contextual Differences in leadership practice here have pressures and their capabilities in dealing with been much more a result of the personal them (see Chapter 7). preferences and skills of the leaders themselves than of the changes in formal structure. In Warwickshire CC, the leaders’ liaison group Political leadership in the cabinet and continues to provide a key reference point for leader model the council’s leader and minority Labour Although the move to the cabinet and leader administration in identifying which decisions model is less radical in structural terms than the they can expect to be supported and which they move to the mayoral model, and more capable of cannot, in which case there is a ‘search for a interpretation in ways that are congruent with compromise solution’. Although, in formal the prevailing organisational biography, the very terms, the minority cabinet does not require the ‘break with tradition’ provides a parallel, support of another party in relation to the although different, range of opportunities for decisions for which it holds responsibility, the non-mayoral leaders. We discuss below the leadership knows that it is in existence only variations in political leadership that have because one or more of the other parties emerged in cabinet and leader authorities in supports it and it is vulnerable to any response to these opportunities, highlighting the breakdown in the inter-party ‘goodwill’ that importance of organisational biographies, cements its operation. including the attitude to individual or collective In Labour-dominated Gateshead, there was a leadership and the impact of the particular concern to sustain three important elements of circumstances of hung authorities. the old system: the role of the group, the primacy of full council and the ability of non-executive Impact of organisational biographies members to influence executive decisions, Three of the ten authorities in this category – previously exercised through committees. The which includes, for the purpose of analysis, response to the third priority provides a Brighton and Hove, the one ‘fourth option’ particularly interesting example of the scope for authority we studied – argued that the move to interpretation inherent in the 2000 Act.
63 Local political leadership in England and Wales
Gateshead has established five ‘cabinet advisory Impact of attitude to ‘individualistic’ groups’, which operate on an informal basis, each leadership reflecting one or more cabinet portfolios. This The Government’s preference for strong and practice might be viewed critically as an attempt visible individual leadership is most likely to be to reintroduce a committee system under a realised in respect of elected mayors. However, different guise; but it clearly works in Gateshead, in relation to the cabinet and leader model, there where there is little of the backbench discontent is a much greater scope for choice. Some experienced in other authorities. authorities may wish to develop the potential On the other hand, the introduction of new for individual leadership that is inherent in the structures has clearly made a big difference to legislation. Others may choose to resist it and the practice of leadership in Kent, Stockport and emphasise a more collective approach or a Brighton and Hove. In Kent, as noted earlier, shared approach to council leadership. because there was a strong commitment to the The authorities visited in the research concept of strong and visible leadership among exhibited a wide range of different approaches the majority Conservative group – and an in situ to this opportunity. In some cases (Milton leader, Sir Sandy Bruce-Lockhart, who was Keynes, Warwickshire, Brighton and Hove), a trusted to perform that role effectively – the shared approach to leadership was emphasised constitution was drafted in such a way as to with an explicit distribution of leadership tasks maximise the authority of the leader. This led to among a wider leadership group, sometimes the common use of the term ‘a mayor in all but service-based, as in Warwickshire, sometimes name’ to describe his leadership style. Although cross-cutting, as in Brighton and Hove. In other this concept of leadership would have been cases, there was an emphasis on the primacy of possible under the old system, it has clearly the leader, sometimes explicitly so (Kent, been facilitated in Kent by the new constitution Cardiff), sometimes through the ability of a new and the leadership opportunities it embodies. leader to develop a wide-ranging brief (e.g. In the other cabinet and leader authorities, Worcestershire). In three cases – Stockport, there has been more of a balance between the Gateshead and Leicester – a change in pressure for continuity and the pressures for leadership signalled a new view of the change. In Milton Keynes, the collective leadership role, to some extent reflecting the approach to leadership, which has been a different priorities and style of the incomer. feature of the Liberal Democrat group’s way of working, has survived the party group’s move Impact of ‘no overall control’ from a minority to a majority situation. It has often been argued that, whereas the However, the leader is aware of the cabinet and leader model was workable in ‘fragmenting’ forces operating within the authorities that enjoyed majority control, it was cabinet – the tendency of some cabinet members not appropriate to authorities where there was to ‘go native’ in relation to their particular no overall control. The reality, as our research service areas – and is working hard with the demonstrates, is that the fact of no overall new chief executive to counteract this tendency. control does not necessarily form an
64 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared
impediment to either an effective role for the leaders, would be likely to predispose them, all executive or effective political leadership. Much other things being equal, to the Government’s depends on the political context of the authority leadership priorities. They are, as we have seen, and the composition of the executive that is more detached from party politics, even when negotiated. There are three possible options: a party affiliated, and correspondingly more one-party minority executive, a coalition likely to adopt an authority-wide perspective executive or an all-party executive. (‘what is in the best interests of the authority?’), In each of our no-overall-control case including an externally oriented agenda, although studies, a way of working that enables not necessarily to the exclusion of a concern executives to operate in a way that was not with local council services. The implication is, dissimilar to majority-controlled authorities has first, that there is a greater potential area of been established. In each case, a decisive factor common ground and shared agenda between was the ability of the council leader to negotiate mayors and chief executives, and, second, that the form of executive involved, and then to the effectiveness of elected mayors can be sustain its viability. facilitated, or restricted, by the quality of the mayor–chief executive relationship. The interrelationship between the interests The crucial role of the relationship between of the mayor and the interests of the chief leaders and chief executives executive was widely recognised. The feeling of We noted in Chapter 1 the existence of two common purpose is particularly strong where different leadership agendas – political leadership, there is a compatibility between the perceptions which is geared towards the achievement of of leadership priorities on the part of the mayor political objectives, and organisational leadership, and the chief executive. But common purpose which is geared towards organisational does not imply duplication of role. What was performance. The primary concern of the leader, noteworthy in the three above authorities was or mayor, is political leadership, although he or the recognition that the contribution of leader she would normally also be concerned that the and chief executive respectively to this shared authority performs well, for example in CPA agenda should be distinctive. terms. The primary concern of the chief If the division of labour over leadership executive is organisational performance, tasks is well understood between a chief although she or he knows that support and co- executive and mayor, or indeed a council leader, operation is required from the political leader if then frequent meetings between the two may good organisational performance is to be not be necessary. Indeed, a situation in which achieved. The relationship between these two chief executive and mayor are ‘in and out of office holders is thus of crucial importance. each other’s offices on a daily basis’ may be an indication of role overlap and confusion, or an The chief executive–mayor relationship indication that the mayor wishes to extend his Some of the structural/constitutional or her influence into the area of detailed characteristics of mayors, vis-à-vis council implementation decisions, delegated to officers.
65 Local political leadership in England and Wales
If there is no chief executive in post or a chief emerged from the discussion of mayoral executive is felt to be unresponsive, there is a leadership. Chief executives under both temptation for the mayor to encompass that executive models play a crucial role in shaping role. That was the situation facing Dorothy the agenda of the political leadership in a way Thornhill (Watford) when she came to power. that meets the wider (non-political) Her experience convinced her that a different performance goals of the authority. In doing so, type of lead officer was required in a mayoral he or she will sometimes want to draw the authority – a ‘managing director’ rather than a leader away from the logic of party politics ‘chief executive’. She wanted a capable towards a concern with the future of the individual who would be the ‘chief of staff’ and authority as a whole and in particular to argue recognise the leadership authority of the mayor: against any political initiative that might impede the performance objectives of the I know there are some chief executives who authority. This is the essence of the symbiotic really think they run the authority’s agenda. That relationship between council leader and chief isn’t going to happen here and the managing executive. The former needs the latter to deliver director knows this. on political priorities; the latter needs the former There are other examples of ‘high-profile’ to remove obstructions to achieving corporate mayors who have provided a challenge to chief priorities. executives who previously enjoyed a significant As with elected mayors, if the leader–chief agenda-setting role. Strong mayoral agendas executive relationship is working well, it can force a chief executive into a predominantly provides a forum in which the chief executive implementational role, which may become a can identify ‘gaps’ in the strategic agenda that source of frustration. he or she needs to fill, and on which the leader So far the mayor–chief executive can either generate the requisite political support relationships described have been between or assure the chief executive that he or she can individuals who each had relevant experience get on with it. The chief executive’s contribution as leaders, or who quickly developed a sense of to the fine-tuning of council strategic priorities what each expected of the other. For less in Worcestershire is one illustration of this experienced mayors, such as Stuart Drummond process. The division of labour that operates in (Hartlepool) and Frank Branston (Bedford), the Stockport in relation to work with partners, relationship may have a greater degree of with the leader playing the key role in the dependency in it, with the mayor relying on the formal partnership meetings, whereas the chief chief executive to steer him or her through the executive manages the informal one-to-one agenda, while developing the experience meetings with key partners, is another. Where necessary to play a more proactive role. these reciprocal expectations cannot be fulfilled then the authority’s performance will suffer. For The chief executive–non-mayoral leader example, the difficulty that one chief executive relationship experienced in trying to persuade the political The experience of leadership in the cabinet and leadership of the need for a priority-based leader model confirms the evidence that
66 Elected mayors, and cabinets and leaders: two executive models compared
corporate strategy in the 2001–03 period • Mayors have generally emphasised and probably hindered the achievement of a better publicised their accessibility in relation to CPA assessment. individual constituents, and the readiness to There is a further significant impact of the sort out problems, using a variety of different CPA regime on member-officer leadership mechanisms. patterns in a broader sense. Particularly in • There are several examples of elected mayors authorities where the responsibilities of retaining a ‘hands-on’ approach to the portfolio holders and chief officers are matched, implementation of initiatives in which they it is not uncommon for portfolio holders to have invested a good deal of personal become very close to chief officers, which, in the credibility. context of CPA, can turn councillors into apologists and defenders of services rather than • Leaders and chief executives have a common commissioners. interest and a crucial role in mediating between political pressures and organisational (authority-wide) pressures. Conclusions • For elected mayors facing a hostile council, • The resources enjoyed by elected mayors – the constitutional constraints on their power for example, security of tenure, formal power have become apparent, particularly in base, democratic legitimacy and freedom relation to the budget. from group discipline – all provide a basis for a stronger, more proactive and individualised • There is a particularly strong feeling of style of leadership than in the other models. ‘common purpose’ between elected mayors There is, however, a great deal of diversity in and chief executives. However, common the personal capacity of elected mayors to purpose does not imply duplication of role. exploit these resources. In many cases, there was a recognition of distinctive roles that each played in relation • Even for mayors who do not face party-based to the shared agenda. opposition in council, the task of establishing unity within the majority group may still be • For inexperienced mayors, there may be a an initial priority, especially where unity has degree of dependency in the relationship, been damaged by the adoption of, or contest with the mayor relying on the chief executive for, the mayoral model. to steer him or her through the strategic agenda facing the authority. • Mayors differ in the emphasis they give to the four key leadership tasks in ways that sometimes reflect contextual pressures and sometimes personal preferences.
67 9 Conclusions
The diversity of leadership approaches involves a concern with ‘task accomplishment’, the way in which they approach this latter task At the end of Chapter 2, a number of research is extremely varied. The evidence from the six questions were set out. Most of them are mayoral case studies in this research signals the addressed in this final chapter, but not in the same diversity of practice as Gerry Stoker’s order in which they were posed earlier. It was fourfold categorisation of elected mayors felt more helpful to the reader to incorporate the (Stoker et al., 2003) conclusions organically into the text, where they The same point can be made about political seemed most appropriate. Key points related to leadership in councils that have opted for the the research questions are highlighted in the cabinet and leader model. Interpretation of the text. The only question not directly addressed in leadership role in the eight relevant case studies the text is the extent to which attitudes to demonstrated a variety of practice ranging from leadership vary among the three major parties de facto mayoral interpretations (Kent and and influence political behaviour. We found Cardiff), to collectivist interpretations little evidence of significant variation, either in (Warwickshire, Milton Keynes), to a form of interviews or from the WPLQ analyses. leadership that can only be described as One impact that the introduction of local nominal (Charnwood, pre-May 2003). Although executive government, mayoral and non- the scope for reinterpreting leadership that is mayoral, has clearly not had is to generate a inherent in the Local Government Act 2000 had move towards a more uniform pattern of been exploited creatively in some cases political leadership. As we have demonstrated, (Worcestershire, Stockport), in others one sensed there is a profound degree of diversity in the that there had been very little real change approach that elected mayors have taken to associated with the introduction of the new their leadership role. Some have developed and political management structures. are committed to a long-term strategy, others The first important general conclusion to operate with a handful of disconnected emerge from the research reflects these findings. priorities. Some see external networking as a The degree of diversity in the role interpretations major priority, others see it as a relatively and task priorities of both mayoral and non- unproductive use of time, or as something that mayoral leaders indicates that the new structures, is important in theory, but has become, and associated powers, have so far proved less temporarily, marginalised by more important decisive an influence on political leadership than tasks – for example, dealing with a weak or would have been forecast, from a structuralist poor CPA result. Some pay a good deal of perspective. Context and personal capabilities have attention to ‘getting things through council’, been equally influential, often more so. others have either delegated the task to a This conclusion is worth unpacking further. cabinet colleague or do not regard it as a The reason for the expectation of a convergence problem. While all elected mayors are of leadership styles follows from the concerned about developing a positive profile in Government’s clear statements of how it wanted the local media and with local people, which local leadership to change and their enactment
68 Conclusions
of a piece of legislation that facilitated these mayoral leaders have operated in this way. Indeed, changes. The Government’s ‘ideal type’ some have gone out of their way to emphasise involved a strong, visible, individualised form their belief in a collective approach to leadership of leadership, where the leader’s responsibilities that rejects the concept of strong, visible were much more transparent than under the individual leaderships. previous system and with an associated Similarly although some, but by no means heightening of accountability. Hence the all, mayoral leaders have been successful in preference for elected mayors, where all these detaching themselves from the demands of features were potentially accentuated, not least clearing everything with the group, and thus by the stronger power base enjoyed by elected have been able to free up time for more strategic mayors (cf. non-mayoral leaders, and excepting and partnership-oriented concerns, there is no the mayor and council manager model). It structural guarantee that this will be possible, involved a new emphasis on setting strategic even if desired. As the elected mayors of North policy direction and a corresponding retreat Tyneside and Bedford would be the first to from policy implementation, where a greater acknowledge, the existence of a hostile council degree of delegation to officers was encouraged. makes it almost inevitable that one of the mayor’s It implied a greater emphasis from leaders on priority tasks will be negotiating a critical mass of external networking, partnerships and support. Mayors have to depend on council stakeholders’ engagement – i.e. the community support for a range of policy and budgetary leadership role. And it included the hope, rather measures almost as much as non-mayoral than the expectation, that party politics, in the leaders. In the authorities that have opted for the traditional adversarial sense, would play a less cabinet and leader model, there is little evidence of dominant role in the new arrangements, freeing any weakening of group discipline or, with a few leaders to seek the best interests of the authority, exceptions, adversarial party politics. and the area, rather than the narrow party- It is also apparent that external networking and based interests. At the same time, it would community leadership have yet to be given the role reduce the need for a constant ‘reference back’ emphasis among political leaders that the of decision intentions to party groups. Government’s agenda implies. Most of the elected The reality, as we have seen in previous mayors see it as a key role, especially, though chapters, is that examples of the realisation of with one notable exception, those who are not this ideal type in practice are rare indeed. In just party affiliated. However, other priorities that a few of the mayoral authorities – Lewisham, have become apparent since the enactment of the Middlesbrough, Stoke-on-Trent – has anything Local Government Act 2000, and that were not approaching this ideal been manifested. foreseen in the run-up to the Act, have Elsewhere, crucial ingredients are missing, in sometimes switched the priorities of both elected some cases most of them. Thus, although elected mayors and council leaders away from an mayors have generally recognised the need for a high external to an internal emphasis, particularly in degree of visibility and responsiveness to public and relation to preparing for, or responding to, the stakeholder concerns, only a small number of non- CPA process. Although non-mayoral leaders are
69 Local political leadership in England and Wales
also affected by CPA and other pressures, there is delegated to a cabinet colleague, or a member of evidence that, if they are personally interested in the mayor’s office. But it would be unrealistic not the wider partnership-based agenda, it becomes to recognise the legitimate interest of political leaders a high priority. If they are not, however, it is in the effective implementation of their priorities. either delegated to a cabinet colleague who has a Much of the diversity associated with the greater level of interest or the key task moves introduction of the new structures can be into the officer domain, where it may well be explained by variations in the context and competently handled but with dangers of an capabilities of leadership. Context is multilayered, adverse reaction from key stakeholders – ‘if the such as the effect of the different traditions and leader isn’t interested, why should we be?’. cultural expectations surrounding leadership – One of the misconceptions of the thinking Kent compared with Gateshead, or Milton behind the introduction of the new leadership Keynes compared with Cardiff – and the impact forms was that leaders – mayoral and non- of the external context in terms of both central mayoral alike – would concentrate their government and the characteristics of the energies on the strategic agenda and delegate an locality. Two features of the context are increasing range of executive decisions, interesting, as shown from the interviews and formerly made by committees, to officers. This the WPLQ analysis. First, context is not immutable expectation reflects a political naivety. Elected and there are opportunities for the role of political mayors in particular know that they have to leadership in shaping some limited degree of change convince the voting public that they can deliver over an often extended period of time. Second, there ‘on the ground’ whatever they promised in their is an interaction between context and capability, manifestos, for example, safer cities, cleaner in that leaders vary in the way that they ‘read’, streets, revitalised town centres. It is service interpret and articulate the political, economic, social delivery and perceptible change on which they and environmental context, and the opportunities for will be judged rather than glossy strategic and constraints on action. Furthermore, they documents, whether corporate or partnership- become more skilled at this over time, both with based. There is the same political imperative to longer experience of being a councillor and in a ‘deliver’ for non-mayoral leaders, although, in senior leadership role. If politics is indeed ‘the this case, it is less personalised and more a art of the possible’, then having the skills to read concern of the dominant party group, or and interpret context is important and builds coalition. For all leaders, there will be a with greater experience. This is also reflected in particular concern to follow through issues of the varied ways in which political leaders view service delivery, or problem resolution, in the challenges they face in achieving outcomes, relation to poorly performing services (in the with different leaders paying different degrees context of the CPA) or local crises (e.g. the of time and attention to priorities in a range of incinerator proposal in Milton Keynes). A arenas of activity. variety of different methods of ensuring Diversity is also associated with the delivery, or task accomplishment, is apparent. It variations in the capabilities of individual is not unusual for ‘progress chasing’ to be leaders. This key part of the research is
70 Conclusions
elaborated on below. Overall, structure appears to involvement of members in policy matter less than might have been expected. implementation. In all these ways, chief executives try to negotiate common ground and resolve tension between political and The leader–chief executive relationship organisational agendas, as the political The focus of this project is political leadership, leadership is striving to do, though from a but it has proved necessary to include different starting point. The political leader consideration of the role of the chief executive, attempts to find ways of taking forward a and sometimes other senior officers, in the political agenda within which ‘re-election’ is a analysis of political leadership. Chief executives key component, in a way that does not hinder are rarely simply implementers of political the organisational agenda, i.e. the perceived leaders’ wishes. They are active participants in a performance of the authority. The chief dialogue that shapes and amends political executive is striving to ensure that the latter is priorities. In all the key political leadership not impeded by the former. Hence the crucial tasks – including that of developing or importance of the relationship between the two maintaining a critical mass of political support – individuals, and the importance of the capacity of chief executives can play a major role that helps each to challenge the other and to accept the shape outcomes. Some of the examples set out legitimacy of robust challenge. in Chapter 3 – for example, Bedford – illustrate the way in which chief executives can become The importance of leadership capabilities involved, legitimately, in this ostensibly purely political task, although, in other cases, they have In the conceptual framework, it was argued made a point of distancing themselves from this that, notwithstanding the importance of kind of involvement. In respect of the other key structure and context, (including local political leadership tasks, their involvement has often culture), there remains in all authorities an been more widespread. Chief executives are adept interpretive space within which a leader’s at ‘filling gaps’ in the leadership agenda of the personal values, attitudes and capabilities come authority, provided they are allowed to do so. For into play. However, leadership capabilities are example, chief executives help to shape the strategic not divorced from context and task priorities – agenda, or help to extend it beyond the limited we should not see leadership as a universal set set of priorities that may be provided by the of skills regardless of context, but rather political leadership in a way that they judge will capabilities interacting with context. We noted satisfy external inspectors. They facilitate, and earlier the importance of the ability to read the sometimes lead, partnership processes for context and in particular the identification of the similar reasons, where there is a political scope for choice within legislative requirements disinclination to do so. They also negotiate with and local political and organisational culture. political leaders to agree and regulate a viable This is not simply a reactive skill, identifying division of labour, from their perspective, in what is currently possible, but one that has a relation to task accomplishment, including the proactive element – ‘what would I need to do to
71 Local political leadership in England and Wales
make possible a choice that isn’t currently include the ability to read the emotions and possible?’. Context should not determine a motivations of others, to work with others leadership agenda, rather it should shape it. effectively, taking these interpersonal issues into This is a key element of the WPLQ analysis and account, and to handle difficult relationships. it has been supported in interview. Some have described these skills as ‘emotional Reading context is a skill that is included in intelligence’. Second, political intelligence is the cluster concerned with the capability of arguably the political equivalent of emotional strategic direction. This includes being able both intelligence: being able to understand and to take an overview of the internal and external interpret the interests, values, desires and conditions and opportunities, and to move motivations of others who are acting in a between ‘the balcony and the battlefield’ in political context, formal or informal, and being terms of being able to link small detail to a able to work with and influence political bigger picture. No leader, even an elected mayor currents, with a clear understanding of the operating in ‘favourable’ circumstances, can formal and informal rules but also a capacity to hope to transform an ongoing council agenda shape these. Third, organisational mobilisation is a ‘at a stroke’. The capability lies in the ability to critical capability: the ability, not only to read sense the ‘soft’ points in the political/ and analyse conditions, but also to influence organisational culture where the leader’s others in ways that achieve substantial change priorities can be introduced without eliciting in the local authority, i.e. influencing officers as stubborn resistance. This includes being able to well as members to engage in cultural as well as identify the ‘art of the possible’ and act on it. other aspects of change. This is the essence of strategic thinking and What is also interesting is that some of these action. Leaders with these kinds of capabilities capabilities are learnt on the job – through being can transform the leadership agenda within an an elected member and through being a leader. authority and the way their own role is The skills of strategic direction and political perceived. Those who lack them will be much intelligence are honed, not only through more limited by ‘what exists’ – the views of the maturity, but also through work as a senior majority group, the content of the constitution, member. These are acquired skills and this the legal officer’s interpretation of the finding has important implications for the ‘requirements of the Act’. development and support of political leaders, as The research found three further skill sets, or it suggests that they need the opportunities to capabilities, to be important and these can be learn from their experience; they cannot simply seen as relevant to the capacity to put strategic be selected as ‘good leaders’. This also resonates vision into action. First, personal effectiveness is with some of the themes contained within the found, both from interviews and the WPLQ, to recent Green Paper, Vibrant Local Leadership be important. Sensitivity is a key skill and we (ODPM, 2005), which argues for the need to can unpack this using the conceptual identify and develop skills of political leaders. framework of the WPLQ to mean a cluster of This research goes some way to filling the gap behaviours, attitudes and motivations that of understanding about skills, set in the context
72 Conclusions
of constraints and opportunities of the base (indeed, sometimes without the advantage organisational and political context. of formal leadership position per se). Nor is strong individualistic leadership necessarily effective leadership, in the sense of sustaining high Rethinking effective leadership performance, member motivation and good member– The final set of conclusions focuses on the officer relations. Such outcomes can be and are nature of effective leadership. We drew a achieved in situations where leadership is explicitly distinction in Chapter 1 between strong shared or operates on a collective basis. Effective leadership, which can be defined in terms of the leadership does not appear to correlate with scope of the power base and/or the proactive, mayoral status, full-time commitment or individualistic exploitation of that power base, charismatic, individualistic leadership and effective leadership, which reflects the behaviour. It is as likely to be found in hung ability to interweave political and organisational authorities as in those in majority control. agendas in a way that helps to steer the There is perhaps an implication here that, if authority towards high performance. Effective the Government’s highest priority is ‘improving local authority leadership can be characterised, performance’, as assessed by CPA scores, it in our view, by the ability to achieve synergy needs to pay little, if any, attention to between two separate agendas – the political strengthening leadership by structural means, and the managerial. It involves the capacity to such as encouraging the spread of mayoral create a culture within the authority where the options and strong, individually visible and managerial requirements for ‘good accountable leaders. performance’ can be synthesised with the The Government’s recent publication Vibrant political priorities set by the party or parties in Local Leadership (ODPM, 2005) continues to power. It involves the ability to develop a clear emphasise the merits of ‘strong’ leadership. Our and mutually acceptable division of labour research shows that this vision is too narrow between members and officers, and a stable and inappropriate to the overall aim of climate of member–officer relations. Effective improving leadership within local government. political leadership delivers the political side of It is based on a misleading and unhelpful this equation, effective managerial leadership interpretation of the term ‘strong leadership’ the other. seen in isolation from the variety of contexts It is clear from the case study and the WPLQ and leadership responses required in the field. material that the possession of a wider range of The debate needs to move beyond such formal powers, as in the mayoral option, does not oversimplification to a concern with what necessarily result in the proactive individualistic constitutes effective local government leadership exploitation of those powers, i.e. leaders with a and to examine the complex interplay between strong power base do not necessarily behave as structures, contexts and capabilities, with a strong leaders. Indeed, strong leadership in the recognition of the legitimate diversity of behavioural sense – proactive, individualistic, political leadership. high profile – can develop without a strong power
73 Bibliography
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75 Appendix: Methods
In this research, we have used a range of working as part of a joint administration or methods of data collection, both qualitative (e.g. as part of the explicit decision-making body interviews, workshops, documents) and of a council under no overall control. In total, quantitative (e.g. the Warwick Political 47 elected members completed the WPLQ, Leadership Questionnaire or WPLQ), but both out of 73 to whom it was sent. (Some largely within an interpretive framework. questionnaires were returned after analysis The research has been developed using the and so are not included in this report, following data sources. although individuals received personal feedback reports, as promised.) This is a 1 Case studies of nine local authorities in response rate of 67 per cent. Two authorities England and Wales (eight English and one were not able to return many questionnaires Welsh) to reflect a diverse range of authorities because of changes in office (Brighton and in terms of political arrangements, political Hove, Charnwood) and two authorities control and culture, size and type of produced too few returns for analysis. authority. The cases have been selected to Therefore, we have concentrated our analysis explore the varieties of contexts and tasks of on the five authorities where there was a high political leadership, rather than as being return rate. In these authorities, 36 out of 48 typical, which would not be possible with Questionnaires have been returned, which is such a small number. However, the case a response rate of 75 per cent. studies are in-depth and intensive – interviews with a range of stakeholders both 4We have also analysed the WPLQ national inside and outside the local authority. database with responses already collected prior to this research on 201 elected members 2 Interviews and visits in a further seven local from more than 60 local authorities in authorities to supplement and extend the England and Wales. The responses are from findings gained from the intensive case elected members in all roles, i.e. leaders and studies, in particular to gain knowledge of a mayors, cabinet members, scrutiny chairs and wider set of authorities with mayoral panel members, regulatory committee arrangements and the one authority with a members and so-called ‘backbench’ leader and city manager. members. The profile of member 3 Completion of the Warwick Political demographics is typical of members Leadership Questionnaire (WPLQ) by the nationally, compared with the most recent leading members in each of the nine case census survey in England and Wales (IDeA, study authorities. The WPLQ was sent to the 2002). We analysed these data to provide leader or mayor and all members of the information about differences between cabinet or equivalent senior group that steers members in senior roles – i.e. leader, elected policy and strategy in the authority – for mayor or executive – and all other roles example, senior members with portfolios across a range of variables. Analysis of working with the mayor, or senior members differences was undertaken using a technique
76 Appendix
called analysis of variance and statistically involved in key roles in authorities with no significant differences are reported at the p < overall control. 0.05 level. This cut-off for significance means 3 Interviews with senior managers – the chief that we can be reasonably certain that the executive in every authority and a range of differences are ‘real’ differences and have not senior officers, for example, head of policy, occurred by chance. head of key services. 5Workshops with elected members about the 4 Interviews with external stakeholders, for conceptual basis and design of the research example, partners in the private, public and/ (early workshop) or emerging findings (two or voluntary sector. later workshops). The first workshop took place at the annual conference of the 5 Analysis of documentation about the Warwick University Local Authorities authority, for example, CPA report, strategy Research Consortium in January 2003 and and planning documents, manifestos, etc. was a two-hour session. The second took 6 In some authorities, we were able to observe place with leaders/mayors, or their meetings, for example, by attending a council nominated representative, at Warwick meeting or a meeting of the cabinet. University over a day. (Also present was the Director of the IDeA Leadership Academy 7We tracked some critical incidents across the and a representative of the Joseph Rowntree period of the research in some cases. Foundation.) The third was a session with the We visited each of the nine major case study Leadership Academy, during a development authorities on two occasions with an interval of module on political leadership, and the nine months between visits. This enabled the group consisted of a range of elected researchers to track political leadership, not as a members from across England. snapshot but as an ongoing set of challenges and tasks. Case studies The seven shorter case studies consisted of visits and interviews with the leader or mayor, Case studies are a research approach, containing and chief executive or city manager. These a range of methods (Hartley, 2004). In this investigations are, inevitably, more research, our case study approach included the circumscribed but have the value of extending following. the work to a wider range of settings, especially 1 Interviews with leaders or mayors in all in mayoral constitutional arrangements. authorities. Each set of interview notes was written up by the interviewer and circulated to the research 2 Interviews with other senior elected members team. The team held a number of meetings to in all authorities. This consisted of all or most explore key themes arising from the research cabinet members, in most cases opposition and to look, not only for patterns in the data, leaders and, in some cases, those members but also for situations that did not meet the
77 Local political leadership in England and Wales
emerging theme, in order to ensure that both Thomas (2003) undertook detailed multivariate disconfirming and confirming data were statistical analyses of the construction and scale discussed. properties of the WPLQ, and it is satisfactory for use in research. It might be argued that the WPLQ use in the Use and interpretation of the WPLQ case studies is based on small numbers. The WPLQ is both a research and a member However, its use is justified on several grounds. development instrument, used here in research First, the majority of cabinet, or equivalent, but with reports giving feedback to all who members completed the WPLQ – for example, participated in the Joseph Rowntree Foundation eight out of ten, six out of seven – and this gives (JRF) study. The WPLQ has been designed and us some confidence in presenting the developed on the basis of systematic and aggregated profile for the senior political detailed research over a number of years with a leadership grouping. Second, we are dealing wide range of elected members from England here not with a sample but with a population and Wales. for each of the six authorities. In other words, in The Questionnaire is based on a model of examining the results of, say, Kent, we are not political leadership that takes into account the trying to generalise the results about Kent to following. county councils in general but, rather, trying to understand the contexts and capabilities of this • How the elected member ‘reads’ the particular leadership at this particular time, and context they are working in. to use the data in an idiographic way to • What challenges or tasks elected members illustrate and explore features of political are prioritising at the moment. leadership alongside the data from the qualitative interviews. The focus is on • What capabilities (skills and attributes) the triangulation and interpretation. elected member needs to be effective as a By contrast, the analysis of the UK database, political leader and democratic (which excludes data collected through the case representative. studies), can take a statistical approach aiming The JRF research used Version 1 of the to explore significant differences across types of WPLQ, which is a self-report version with 187 leader and local authority as a whole. items: 27 questions on context, aggregated into It is not a feasible operation to combine all of scales; 52 items on challenges, aggregated into the WPLQ profiles of the executive members in scales; 93 items on capabilities, aggregated into the nine case studies to examine aggregate ten scales. Since this research, Version 2 of the responses. This is because such an aggregation WPLQ has been launched with a shorter and is not a meaningful unit; the case studies were more focused self-report version and a 360-degree not chosen to represent ‘typical’ or feedback givers’ version. (We mention both representative local authorities, but rather to versions here to avoid any confusion across explore a range of constitutional arrangements. different publications.) Hartley and Morgan- In this analysis, although the collection of data
78 Appendix
is quantitative, it is being used and interpreted contexts and challenges as reported by the in a primarily qualitative way, in that the senior political leadership. Separate analysis profiles are triangulated with the data obtained shows that political leaders are more likely to from interviews, to assess the capabilities, underrate than overrate their skills.
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