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Ecology, Value and Threats of Cryptic Marine Benthic Fauna in Southeast Asia

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Ecology, Value and Threats of Cryptic Marine Benthic Fauna in Southeast Asia School of Molecular and Life Sciences Ecology, Value and Threats of Cryptic Marine Benthic Fauna in Southeast Asia Maarten Bernard Yvonne De Brauwer This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University April 2018 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. The research presented and reported in this thesis was conducted in compliance with the National Health and Medical Research Council Australian code for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes 8th edition (2013) and in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) – updated March 2014. The research received animal and human ethics approvals from the Curtin University Animal Ethics Committee and Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval Numbers: AEC_2015_02, AEC_2015_03, AEC_2016_3, AEC_2016_19, RDSE-06-15. This research also received a Fisheries exemption from the Western Australia Department of Fisheries, Exemption number 2798. Research permits in Indonesia were granted by RISTEK, permit number 1316/FRP/SM/V/2015. Finally, research permits in Philippines were granted to Maarten De Brauwer by Dauin municipality mayor Neil B. Credo. Signature: _______________________ Date: 12/04/2018 ii “Travel makes one modest. You see what a tiny place you occupy in the world.” -Gustave Flaubert “Aut inveniam viam aut faciam” -Hannibal iii Abstract Infralittoral soft sediment substrates are the largest global marine habitat. Despite their high value for fisheries and scuba dive tourism they receive limited research or conservation effort compared to other habitats such as coral reefs. In Southeast Asia, a novel type of scuba diving (“muck diving”) focuses on cryptobenthic species on soft sediment habitats and attracts visitors to areas that were previously of little interest to tourism. In this thesis I investigated the value of muck dive tourism (Chapter 2), the ecology of cryptobenthic species on soft sediment sites (Chapter 4), and the impacts of dive tourism and flash photography on soft sediment fauna (Chapters 6, 7). Using a novel survey method, I examined which species drive muck dive tourism and critically assessed the research and conservation effort on these species (Chapter 3). Finally, I developed a novel, non-lethal survey method to study cryptobenthic fauna both on reefs and soft sediment habitats (Chapter 5). Muck dive tourism in Indonesia and the Philippines attracts more than 100,000 dive tourists per year, creating an annual revenue of $152 million, and employing more than 2200 local people (Chapter 2). The species that are most important for muck dive tourism are poorly studied and the conservation status of six of the top ten species remains unknown (Chapter 3). Species diversity on soft sediment habitats in Indonesia and the Philippines is very high, exceeding the diversity of cryptobenthic fish assemblages on many coral reefs. Abundances, however, are orders of magnitude lower than those on coral reef. Fish assemblages differed strongly between regions, with a limited effect of environmental drivers such as grain size characteristics or benthic cover (Chapter 4). Biofluorescence is widespread in cryptic fishes, and can be used to non-lethally survey cryptic species such as triplefins. The Underwater Biofluorescence Census (UBC) method developed in this thesis found abundances that were up to three times higher than conventional surveys (Chapter 5). Scuba divers behave differently when interacting with cryptobenthic fauna than when diving normally, and make more contact with the substrate when diving on soft sediment compared to coral reefs. During interactions such as photographing animals, divers frequently touch or otherwise manipulate marine life (Chapter 6). Touching animals elicits strong stress responses in animals compared to diver presence or the use of photographic flash. Flash photography does not affect hunting success of seahorses, nor does it have a pathomorphological impact on the retinal structure of seahorses (Chapter 7). iv The results of this thesis show that cryptobenthic fauna on soft sediment habitats is highly diverse, very valuable, and strongly lacking in research and conservation attention. Scuba dive tourism can be a sustainable source of income for coastal communities, but negative diver behaviour such as manipulating wildlife should be managed more efficiently. Further research should focus on the entire soft sediment fish assemblage, trophic links between soft sediment habitats and other biomes, and the development of efficient management methods for muck dive tourism. v Acknowledgements Saying that a PhD is a challenging project is an understatement, and this thesis truly would have never happened without the help of many people. While I might have written the final thesis, that would not have been possible were it not for the support of collaborators, supervisors, friends, and loved-ones. I’d like to use this opportunity to thank all of them. This project started off as a vague dream while I was still working my way around Southeast Asia and Lizard Island as a dive instructor and fieldwork assistant. I will never be able to thank Euan Harvey enough for initially accepting me as an Honours student, which then led to this PhD. He took me in, even if all he knew about me was that my undergraduate studies had been years ago and that I’d spent most of my days since traveling the world as a beach bum. Thank you for your trust Euan. I also want to thank JP Hobbs, who set me on my way as a scientist during my Honours and the first half of this PhD. His work ethic, writing skills, and enthusiasm for the ocean are truly inspiring. Ben Saunders was kind enough to join the team halfway through, and his input has been invaluable. Thank you Ben for vastly increasing my understanding of statistics, rigorous experimental design, and attention to detail. Jennifer McIlwain accepted me as a student even when she hardly knew me, or that I liked sand so much. Thank you Jen for urging me to include research in the Philippines, the thesis is much more interesting for it. This PhD was very fieldwork-intensive, which was only possible thanks to the collaborations with passionate people working in dive tourism in my study region. In particular, I would like to thank Fabien Audibert for planting the initial seed of those collaborations, that breakfast in Bali had such far-reaching outcomes. Other people without whom my fieldwork would not have been possible were Cedric Genet (Black Manta Bali), Anne-Sophie Lejeune (Safari Bali), Lauren Siba (Critters@Lembeh), Jack Mika (Scuba Seraya), Christian Gloor and Chiara Sola (Froggies Lembeh), Daniel Geary (Atmosphere Resort Dauin), Cedric Saveuse and James Rees (Geko Dive), Bruce Moore (Black Sand Dive Retreat), and Simon and Sophie Foote (Nomad Divers Bangka). Thank you all for going the extra mile in assisting with the logistics of this project. Working in Southeast Asia can be challenging and getting the required permits might be the biggest challenge of them all. My Indonesian collaborators have been unfailingly helpful, providing time, effort, and advice to ensure this project ran smoothly. A special thanks for pak Jamaluddin and ibu Rohani, I sincerely hope to work together again in the future. Radhiyah Ni (Dion) was the crucial link between Australia and Indonesia, putting me in touch with pak vi Jamaluddin and ibu Rohani, by doing so she helped this project get a great start. Miss Arlene K. Cursame, from the environmental office at the Dauin municipality in the Philippines was very kind and helpful when organising permits. Her insights in the dive industry and her advice on local administrative procedures turned what could have been a long and painful process into a breeze, thank you! In the field I was assisted by Luke (“science hobbit”) Gordon. He has been a true friend for many years, is the best fieldwork colleague anyone could wish for, and is a great scientist on top of it. While it is doubtful he will have time to read these words, I will never be able to thank him enough for all his hard work. Dragos Dumitrescue and his beautiful family provided me with a home away from home in the Philippines, thank you for making my Dauin-fieldwork such a pleasant experience. The Fish Ecology Lab at Curtin University helped keep me sane throughout the entire process. Thank you Laura, Lauren, Damo, Jordan, and my fellow students Aisling, Jack, Jarrad and Etienne for laughs, coffees, beers, and shared whinges. Rowan Kleindienst was extremely helpful with fish husbandry advice and smartass comments. Joey DiBattista, Emma Camp, and Eva McClure provided useful feedback on life in academia and how to keep on going. I’d like to thank my family for their support, even if they live on the other side of the world. Tanika Shalders has shared much of this journey with me and supported me throughout all of it. She shares my passion for the ocean and has been the kindest, most generous partner anyone could wish for, thank you. Finally, I would like to recognise and thank the anonymous reviewers for the chapters in this thesis that have already been accepted or published. While their comments might have been a bit vexing at times, ultimately they improved each paper. I was supported by a Curtin Strategic International Research Scholarship (CSIRS) and a Small Grant for the Society for Conservation Biology. Travel grants from SyngBio and the Australian Coral Reef Society allowed me to attend their respective conferences. vii Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................ ii Abstract .................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................
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