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DEMIDOVICH, John William, 1927- THE INFLUENCE OF A COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION EXPERIENCE UPON THE ATTITUDES OF LOGISTICIANS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1975 Education, adult

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. THE INFLUENCE OF A COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

EXPERIENCE UPON THE ATTITUDES OF LOGISTICIANS IN

THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

John William Demidovich, B.S., M.B.A.

* * * *

The Ohio State University 1975

Reading Committee: Approved by

Dr. Robert W. McCormick Dr. William D. Dowling Dr. I. Keith Tyler

Adviser Education ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely appreciate the personal interest and guidance I received from the members of my doctoral supervisory committee. In particular, I offer my sincere gratitude

... to Professor Robert C. McCormick, my major adviser, whose personal interest in me as an individual and as a doctoral student has continually motivated me to do my best throughout my dissertation efforts.

... to Professor William D. Dowling, from whom I gained a deep respect for problems and approaches to

Adult Education Programs.

... to Professor Keith Tyler, under whose tutelage I have developed an enthusiastic interest in multi- media instruction.

I also offer my gratitude to the several authors who gave me permission to use and modify their computer programs and their attitude measurement instruments used in this research, specifically,

... to Doctor G. Ronald Christopher of The

Ohio State University.

ii ... to Doctor Ernest J. Anastasio of the

Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey.

... to Doctor Richard L. Solomon of the

University of Pennsylvania.

My special thanks are extended to Doctor John J.

Kennedy who established the Research Consulting Service

(RCS) on April 1, 1974 in the College of Education.

Outstanding computer support was provided by Roger Brown.

Susan Breinich and Mary Korfhage provided assistance in research procedures, instrumentation, design, and statistical analysis. I commend them all for their demonstrated research competencies.

I also sincerely appreciate the voluntary par­ ticipation of the many logisticians who provided guidance or completed the questionnaires, pre- post tests, and the experimental treatment which were essential to this re­ search effort.

Also, my sincere thanks are extended to Captain

Thomas Rooney and Mr. Richard Sowar who helped me by re­ programming the "demo" program from Coursewriter III to

Fortran and assisting in the analysis of the data produced in the CAI experiment.

Particular appreciation is extended to my colleagues at the School of Systems and Logistics who deserve recognition for their support of this research. Colonel William B.

Meharg, Chief, Continuing Education Division, provided impetus to this study. My close associate, Professor iii James D. Meadows, continuously rendered support throughout the research period but especially in determining the reliability of the attitude questionnaire; he assisted in administering both the pre-post tests and the experimental treatment. The Panel of Judges made up of Professors

Jerome Peppers, Virgil Rehg, Harold Rubenstein, Arren

Goodwin, Warren Barnes, and Roy Wood. Doctors Ronald R.

Calkins and Bruce C. Elwell assisted in determining the validity of the attitude questionnaire items.

In developing the CIU lesson, colleagues like

Professors Donald Benoit, Kerry Crane, Charles Sternberg,

Daniel Reynolds, Nicholas Lambiase, John McCann, Jimmy

Morris, and Ernest Spitzer provided suggestions for im­ proving the treatment instrument which was ultimately developed and used in this research.

The course directors who assisted in scheduling their managers to participate in the variety of research ac­ tivities deserve a special thanks. They are Professors

Ernest W. Spitzer, Duane A. Christopherson, Roger H. Terzian,

Donald Benoit, Robert See, and William Poe. Their spirit of cooperation made the data production experience a success­ ful one.

A colleague, Doctor George Bohlen, was extremely helpful in the data analysis phase of this study. I gained a deep respect for his patience plus expertise in a

iv variety of statistical analysis techniques available to

a researcher.

The Dean of the School of Systems and Logistics in

1974 was Colonel John J. Apple. He authorized the use of

the School resources to support this study. This leader was very encouraging to the researcher in pursuing doctoral

studies in Adult Education. I shall be eternally grateful

to him for his confidence.

In the early stages of this research effort Doctor

Joel Champion offered conceptual ideas that aided the re­ searcher in focusing in on the major issues of this study.

He graciously offered his time (including evenings and week-ends) to discuss and explore the different approaches an investigation could take in testing attitude changes.

I thank him publicly for this support.

The author wishes to thank Doctors John Ohliger,

Beth Wismar, and John Belland for their continued advice and encouragement during my entire doctoral program.

I also extend by thanks to Marie Rotert, our effic­ ient department secretary, who graciously contributed expertise to the preparation of this document and two years of typing effort. To Meredith A. Elwell, I offer my thanks for typing the final copy of this document.

I am very grateful to my wife, Virginia, without whose encouragement, love, and devotion I would not have undertaken a doctoral program. To my mother-in-law, Lucetta Eikelberry, a special thanks for her assistance in performing the chores in my home that normally were accomplished by the author. Last, but certainly not least, to my daughter, Becky, and to my son, Chuck, my deepest thanks for their encouragement, understanding, and patience.

vi VITA

June 23, 1927 ...... Born - Youngstown, Ohio

1948 - 1968 ...... Air Force Officer

1953 - 1956 ...... Assistant Professor of Air Science The Ohio State University

1955...... BS, The Ohio State University

1963...... MBA, George Washington University

1963 - 1965 ...... Faculty, Academic & Allied Officers School Maxwell AFB, Alabama

1964 - 1974 ...... Faculty, Annual Creative Problem-Solving Institute, State University College at Buffalo

1965 - 1968 ...... Faculty, Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, Ohio

1968 - 1971 ...... Research Associate The Ohio State University

1971 - Present ...... Professor, Computer Systems Analysis Air Force Institute of Technology

FIELDS OF STUDY

Adult Education Dr. Robert W. McCormick Dr. William D. Dowling Dr. John Ohliger

Instructional Technology Dr. I. Keith Tyler Dr.. John Bel land TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii

VITA ...... vii

LIST OF TABLES ...... xi

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Problem ...... 1 Background ...... 3 Purpose ...... 7 Significance ...... 8 General Design ...... 10

Literature Review ...... 10 P o p u l a t i o n ...... 11 S a m p l e ...... 11 Instrument Development ...... 12 Administration ...... 14 Data Analysis ...... 15

Assumptions ...... 15 Definition of T e r m s ...... 16 Limitations ...... 17 H y p o t h e s e s ...... 18 Organization of Study ...... 20

II REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH ...... 21

Military CAI Activities ...... 36

N a v y ...... 36 Air F o r c e ...... 38 A r m y ...... 39 United Airlines ...... 41

NSF CAI Projects ...... 42 S u m m a r y ...... 45

viii Chapter Page

III EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY ...... 50

Helmstadter Strategy ...... 50 Research Instruments ...... 55

Background Questionnaire ...... 55 Attitude Questionnaire ...... 57 V a l i d i t y ...... 58 Reliability ...... 62 Computerized Instructional Unit (Treatment) ...... 64

P o p u l a t i o n ...... 65

Identification ...... 65 Logistics Considerations ...... 67 Group Assignments ...... 68 Solomon Four D e s i g n ...... 72 Research Sample ...... 75 Age Distribution ...... 75 Service Category ...... 77 Prior CAI Experience ...... 77 Educational Level ...... 77 Data Analysis Techniques ...... 80

S u m m a r y ...... 80

IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA . 83

Introduction ...... 83

Experimental Design ...... 83 The Hypotheses ...... 85 Extended Analysis of Data .... 92

V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 107

Introduction ...... 107 Background and the Problem ...... 107 Statement of Hypotheses ...... Ill Findings of the S t u d y ...... 113 Conclusions ...... 116 Discussion and Interpretation .... 116 Recommendations ...... 118 Additional Research Areas ...... 119

ix Page

APPENDICES ...... 121

APPENDIX A - BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE . . 122 APPENDIX B - ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 127 APPENDIX C - SAMPLE COMPUTERIZED INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT (CIU) . . 134 APPENDIX D - SUGGESTIONS FOR WORDING QUESTIONS ...... 148 APPENDIX E - PANEL OF JUDGES ...... 151 APPENDIX F - RECODED ITEMS ...... 153 APPENDIX G - ITEM VARIANCES ...... 155 APPENDIX H - RELIABILITY COMPUTATION . . . 160 APPENDIX I - LETTER AUTHORIZING RESEARCH . 162 APPENDIX J - COURSE PREREQUISITES OF RESPONDENTS ...... 164 APPENDIX K - AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS ...... 166 APPENDIX L - TEN YEAR INTERVAL AGE DISTRIBUTION ...... 169 APPENDIX M - EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS ...... 171 APPENDIX N - VARIABLES ...... 173

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Time Required to Complete Experimental Design by Respondents ...... 56

2. The Four-Group Design for a CAI E x p e r i m e n t ...... 70

3. Research Sample ...... 71

4. The Factorial Arrangements of Groups . . 73

5. Administration of Research Instruments . 74

6. Research Population Under and Over 30 Years of Age ...... 76

7. Service Category ofRespondents ...... 78

8. Prior Computer Assisted Instruction E x p e r i e n c e ...... 79

9. Educational Level of Respondents .... 81

10. Pretest/Posttest Results of Groups 1 and 2 ...... 105

11. Posttest Scores of all Respondents . . . 106

xi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Problem

The objective of this study was to retest several propositions reported in the existing literature of computer assisted instruction (hereinafter referred to as CAI) as it pertains to adult learners' attitudes toward this new in­ structional methodology. Many of the previous CAI research efforts have involved young children or college students.

Since there is great emphasis today on lifelong integrated education involving adult learners, all multi-media in­ struction methods must be investigated by adult educators.

There is a proliferation of computers in most medium and large scale organizations throughout the United States.

It has been hypothesized that the Department of Defense

(hereinafter referred to as DOD) is the most advanced organization in the country in the use of data communi­ cations and data processing tools.1 The DOD comes closest to becoming the computerized organization of the future.

Frederick G. Withington, "The Long-Range Effect of the Computer," The World of the Computer, ed., John Diebold (New York: Random House, Inc., 1973), pp. 100-119.

1 One of the greatest areas of concern in the military today is the cost of operating and maintaining a weapon system during its life cycle rather than just its acquisition costs. The maintenance of the weapon system, including all its supporting supplies and procurements, is the reason for the existence of the DOD logistics system. Therefore, the logistics involved in keeping a weapon system opera­ tionally ready is receiving top attention of officials in the Office of Management and Budget (hereinafter referred to as OMB), DOD, all service secretaries, and their Chiefs of Staff. Integrated management information systems using computers are needed to provide logisticians with timely and accurate information which will assist them in making effective decisions.

Recently, there has been a great exit of qualified logisticians due to retirements created by the maturation from World War II service. Younger replacements need to be educationally broadened to assume their increased responsibilities. Not all of these new managers will be able to attend formal instruction courses to help in this effort. Travel restrictions, reduced manpower, reduced monies, and inflation will contribute to the situation in which thousands of managers will need continuing education programs conducted on-site, near their jobs. Since logisticians will continue to utilize the computer in the fulfillment of their responsibilities, and since negative attitudes towards tools are counterproductive, it is quite important that logisticians have positive attitudes towards computers. Hence, the primary concern of this study was to determine if the attitudes of logisticians towards com­ puters would be positively affected by an interactive com­ puterized instructional experience.

Background

The Federal Government is the largest single user of computers in the United States. The DOD's Automatic Data

Processing (ADP) program represents approximately 60 percent of the computers in the Federal Government. In a report to Congress in August 1972, the General Accounting Office

(GAO) said that in the Federal Government alone "annual operating costs of its thousands of computers is estimated at $4.6 billion." Today, almost every facet of business in DOD depends upon computer technology for its support.

The projected 1973 program includes 3700 computers, (not including 12,000 other special and general computers used to support operational and weapon systems) a $1.5 billion budget, and 77,370 personnel. In recent years the greatest influences on DOD ADP management, organization, policies, and operations are those of OMB and the committees and sub­ committees of the Congress. Congress passed an Act, PL 89-

306, to provide for economic and efficient purchase, lease, maintenance, operation, and utilization of ADP equipment by Federal departments and agencies. For the first time in the history of the ADP program, the OMB is imposing a fund­ ing ceiling and data processing officials have to do more with less. Duplication of effort presents the biggest problem the ADP program must overcome to accomplish objec- o tives with maximum effectiveness and optimum efficiency.

" Vital to the success of a data system is user-manage- ment involvement with its development. Many middle and higher level managers fear, or fail to comprehend, the impact of ADP.” The program's problems, delays, and failures are frequently attributed to a lack of user participation by the reports of inspections and studies conducted by various organizations throughout the United States. The basic decisions in systems design and development are those of the functional managers such as materiel manage­ ment, maintenance, supply, transportation, procurement, personnel, finance and accounting, to name a few. "The ADP

O personnel are in a supportive or services role!'

The Inspector General of the Air Force has in the past, expressed a concern because inspections indicate that some automated computer products in almost every func­ tional area are plagued with a "not" disease. The computer products are either "not" on time, "not" used, "not" under­ stood, "not" picked up, and/or "not" of value to anyone.

2 U.S. Department of Defense, DOD Commanders Digest (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, June 1973), p. 3.

3Ibid., p. 4. There seems to be no simple or immediate remedy which will cure all these ills. People who have not been adequately briefed or trained in the use and value of automated products constitute one of the most prevalent causes of the "not1' disease according to the Inspector General report. Assumptions that everyone concerned knows why the product is run and how to use it have been proven false.

Although an initial explanation is frequently given when a new system is begun, follow-up instruction of new people 4 is often omitted or inadequate.

It is therefore proposed that CAI be investigated as a possible solution to eliminating the "not" understood disease through controlled provisions of recurrent and updating of training. Acceptance of computer products, knowledge of their value, and hence reduction of the "not" disease must begin in the attitudinal arena so that accep­ tance will not be denied because of negative attitudes towards computers and their products.

The scope of this research effort was limited to an examination of several consequences of a CAI experience involving 147 logisticians representing a variety of DOD organizational levels. The complex organization selected for this study was the Department of Defense (DOD). Organi­ zation subsystems included personnel generally from the

4 U.S. Department of the Air Force, Office of the Inspector General. TIG Brief (Washington, D.C., December 31, 1971), p. 6. United States Air Force (USAF), United States Army (USA),

United States Navy (USN), and the Defense Supply Agency

(DSA). The managers were commissioned officers of all military services including second lieutenants to full colonel or equivalent, and civil service personnel ranging in grade from GS-5 to GS-14. Their current job positions were in the fields of procurement, production, maintenance, supply, weapon system acquisition, and logistics planning, which constitute what is collectively referred to as the logisticians functions.

The DOD is the largest single user of computers in the Federal Government, and spends over six billion dollars a year for training costs which tie-up about 350,000 persons 5 or some 16% of the active force. The results of this research effort may provide civil service and military leaders with documented support that CAI may reduce resistance to the acceptance of computers.

Martin and Norman describe the challenges that face man the rest of this century in his symbiotic partnership with computers when they state:

But like most of the greatest inventions, the computer has a potential for good that is matched by its potential for harm. Many factors are highly disturbing. To live with the computer of the future, new laws, new attitudes and many forms of social action are needed.... Because of this, it is important that the public, sociologists, teachers,

®John A. Gray, "The Bulletin Board," Air Force Maga­ zine, Vol. 58, No. 1 (January, 1975), p. 66. law makers, and all levels of government officials, should understand now what is the likely course of computer technology in the next decade or two.

In an ideal symbiotic partnership the computer and human functions should be divided according to their re­ spective abilities. In order to do this one must determine what the computer does best and what tasks are still best done by man in order to attain an optimum combination.

There is much research needed on the combined efforts of 6 man and computer.

Purpose

The purpose of this research effort is twofold; first to determine the influence of a CAI experience upon the attitudes of DOD logisticians toward the use of com­ puters in their business operations; second, to test results obtained to some degree by Christopher (1969) where the attitudinal effect of a CAI experience upon the attitudes 7 toward the medium (computer) was investigated.

CAI is one of many instructional technologies avail­ able to adult educators under the general heading of

"multi-media'' instruction. Although computer use has proliferated nation-wide in most medium and large scale

g J. Martin and A. R. D. Norman, The Computerized Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1970). 7 G. Ronald Christopher, "The Influence of a Com­ puter Assisted Instruction Experience Upon the Attitudes of School Administrators," Doctoral Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1969. 8 organizations, the body of literature pertaining to adult learners1 attitudes toward CAI is not extensive. Of this literature, only a very small portion deals with attitudes toward CAI as it occurs within complex organizations like the Air Force, Army, Navy and DOD.

Significance

There appear to be at least two areas in which this study offers potential contributions. First, this research was undertaken primarily to contribute additional evidence to support or modify certain propositions in the research

Q completed by Christopher. Second, new aspects of CAI attitudes have been explored here using the Solomon Four-

Group-Design for the first time involving logisticians in

DOD. Additionally, it seems reasonable to believe that the conclusions from this research, when taken in context with previous related research and experience, may provide relevant data for decisions on policies concerning the use of CAI throughout the DOD organizational structure.

Wherever computer terminals are available, CAI courses might be made available to logisticians to upgrade their educa­ tional levels and skills to perform their important logistical duties world-wide. This could be a great assis­ tance step in eliminating the "not" disease mentioned previously.

Q Christopher, o£. cit. 9

The implications of this study may be far reaching

in influencing military and civil service logistics leaders

to consider implementing CAI lessons throughout the lo­

gistics community to prepare managers for:

new computerized logistics systems,

introduction of new management science techniques,

training managers on the use and value of automated products,

conducting indoctrination programs for new personnel assigned to logistics assignments,

instructing managers to interrogate and utilize their logistics data bases.

In the continuing education courses conducted by the

School of Systems and Logistics, which is part of the Air

Force Institute of Technology, conventional methods of

instruction are generally used. The textbook, teaching

lecture, chalkboard and chalk, involving 20-25 adult

learners for daily periods of six hours in courses ranging

from 1 to 7 weeks in duration, is the norm. Managers come

to the courses with a varied background of experiences and

educational accomplishments and are immediately subjected

to a lock step pedagogical approach to instruction.

Following exposure to the art and science of helping

adults learn (andragogy), this researcher believes that the work of Pine and Horne identified a number of principles and conditions regarding learning and behavioral change

involving adult learners which should be considered to revitalize the adult continuing education programs 10

conducted in government, industry, and educational g institutions. Multi-media instruction should be pursued

with vigor. This inquiry will focus on only one dimension

of such instruction, that of computer-assisted instruction.

There are numerous articles and books concerning

computers and CAI. Most are of a rather general nature not

written specifically for the adult learner. Many of the

CAI studies involve young children or college students but

there is a scarcity of scientific research involving managers in government or industry regarding their attitudes

towards computers, CAI, or automated instruction.

General Design

Literature Review

Electronic searches were obtained from the Defense

Documentation Center (DDC) and Educational Resources

Information Center (ERIC) which identified previous re­

search efforts pertaining to adult attitude measurements

relative to CAI. The author contacted most of the

recognized leaders in the CAI movement and obtained the

latest developments in CAI applications among adults in

the United States. Minicomputer vendors and other selected

computer vendors were contacted for CAI applications In education, industry, and government relevant to adult

learners.

a G. J. Pine and P.J. Horne, "Principles and Con­ ditions for Learning in Adult Education," Adult Leadership (October, 1969). 11

Population

The setting of this study was the School of Systems

and Logistics located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,

Dayton, Ohio. The school has two major divisions; one is

the Graduate Education Division and the other is the

Continuing Education Division. Approximately 100 par­

ticipants, largely from the Air Force, attend the graduate

program each year to earn a degree of Master of Science in

Logistics Management. It is fully accredited by the North

Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.

Over 4500 participants attend 36 continuing education

courses which range from one to seven weeks in duration.

Managers from DOD agencies located throughout the United

States and overseas constitute the adult learner population.

The School of Systems and Logistics is administered by the

Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) which is also located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. AFIT, in turn, reports to the Air University which is located in Montgomery,

Alabama, at Maxwell Air Force Base. The population for this study was composed of adult learners attending the continuing education courses.

Sample

During the week of December 9, 1974, there were seven different courses in session. One-hundred and forty- seven managers attending six different courses participated in this study. 12 The subjects for this study included logistics managers from DOD agencies. Subjects represented the Army,

Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force plus the Defense Supply

Agency (DSA), and included military and civil service per­ sonnel. The research population included personnel with differences in age, experience, sex, functional job areas, organizational levels of assignment, rank, and educational level. Subjects were divided into four groups employing the Solomon design. One entire course population (normally

20-25 adult learners) was assigned to either an experi­ mental or control group following the Solomon design. Group assignments-were a sample of convenience based on the course director's ability to change his course schedule and make time available for pre-testing, treatment, and/or post­ testing of subjects. None of the subjects were contacted in advance nor given a choice as to which group they were to be assigned.

Instrument Development

All groups were administered the same background questionnaire. This demographic questionnaire contained a variety of questions pertaining to logisticians such as service of assignment, rank, age, sex, current job title, job location, educational level, years of logistics ex­ perience, and years of government service. These question­ naires were used to provide the researcher with a variety of demographic data. 13

Two groups (one experimental and one control) made up of a total of 75 students each were administered a pre­ test attitude instrument. This instrument contained a variety of questions concerning the subject's knowledge of computers and how they felt about them; whether they were recipients of automated products and if they were victims of the "not" disease; the exposure they had experienced in computer education; and any feelings describing their attitudes in using computers to perform their current jobs.

The computerized instructional unit (CIU) developed and used by Christopher (demo) was re-programmed from

Coursewriter III to Fortran in order to use a Honeywell

635 computer. The major modification was the inclusion of behavioral objectives. Following the changes, the CIU was evaluated relative to its acceptability as a bona fide lesson in CAI by a selected number of faculty and staff members of AFIT who were computer oriented. The CIU (demo) is a demonstration of computer capabilities and was designed to enable one to appreciate some of the potential of CAI.

Teletype computer terminals were employed as the input/output device which the experimental subjects employed to interact with the CIU stored in a computer located elsewhere. These research instruments provided a variety of data useful for statistical analysis relative to the hypotheses offered by this author. 14

Administration

Sixty-eight managers were assigned to the experi­ mental group and experienced the CAI lesson. The CIU was evaluated in terms of its ability to modify attitudes towards CAI. All groups were administered a post-test

(duplicate version of the pre-test attitude instrument) within three days of completion of the CIU.

A Honeywell 635 military time sharing computer system located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base was used to administer the CIU lesson. This time sharing computer system is available to Air Force logisticians at five Air Logistics Centers located at Sacramento, Calif­ ornia; Ogden, Utah; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; San Antonio,

Texas; and Warner-Robins, Georgia; in addition to organi­ zations at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

The author received approval from the Dean, School of Systems and Logistics, to use all necessary school re­ sources including access to all the logistics managers who were adult learners enrolled in continuing education courses during the period selected for pre-testing, treatment, and post-testing.

The author administered all the background question­ naires and was assisted in the administration of the pre­ test attitude instrument, CIU experience, and post-test attitude instrument by a colleague, Professor James

Meadows. 15

Seven respondents per hour were administered the

treatment (CIU lesson) using 7 Model 33 teletype input/

output teletype devices. Completion time ranged from 36 to

90 minutes. The treatment was administered to the experi­ mental group (groups I and III) during the hours of 8:30 am

to 3:30 pm, while the control group (groups II and IV)

attended normally scheduled classroom activities.

Data Analysis

Analysis of the data was dependent upon the hypothesis being tested and appropriate statistical tests were employed. A Solomon Four-Group design was used as the research model.

Assumptions

1. Negative attitudes toward computers are the result of ignorance and lack of understanding.

2. Favorable attitude modification toward CAI could best be accomplished through a hands-on experience with the computer.

3. Computer-assisted-instruction is a valid method of assisting instruction.

4. Data transmission and computer equipment mal­ functions would not contaminate the findings of this re­ search effort. 16

Definition of Terms

Attitude: The psychological disposition of a per­

son towards an entity.

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): The use of

computer housed instructional materials

to teach, entertain, and/or evaluate.

Computerized Instructional Unit (CIU): The lesson,

created by Christopher in 1969, called

"demo" which was utilized as the treat­

ment in this study. (Slight modifications

in content were effected so as to relate

more specifically to the primary audience

of this study. A different computer

language and computer were employed.)

Military Logistics: Logistics is a full system, an

integrated whole, which involves four

processes (requirements determination,

acquisition, distribution, and conserva­

tion) which must be employed, in part at

least, to perform four essential tasks

(procurement, transportation, supply,

maintenance) for support of the operational

commander in a military organization.1^

10Jerome G. Peppers, Jr., "An Overview of Logistics," Unpublished Monograph, School of Systems and Logistics, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, October 1973, p. 21. 17

Logistician: A person who functions in the logistics

environment of procurement, transportation,

supply, maintenance, and logistics

planning.

Tutorial Mode: A form of computer assisted instruc­

tion wherein instruction is directed by

the computer based on the learner's

response.

Limitations

The broad set of constraints within which the popula­ tion was established limits the generalizability of the con­ clusions to this study. It is important to point out that the reader who might believe he/she perceives policy impli­ cations deriving from this research effort should proceed with caution. The experimental subjects for this study were selected because they happened to be attending one of the thirty-six continuing education courses conducted by the School of Systems and Logistics, Wright-Patterson Air

Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, during the week of December 9,

1974.

All DOD personnel can apply and attend these courses if certain prerequisites are met and quotas are available in their respective services. Generalization of the find­ ings to a larger universe of DOD personnel in other career areas, or to persons in non-DOD organizations, must be based upon logical speculation rather than upon 18

statistical precision. In future studies these con­ straints upon external validity may be relaxed.

Additional limitations of this research effort were:

1. The research methods and data constituting this research effort were limited to a selected logistics manager population within DOD; that of a group of managers enrolled in a variety of logistics-oriented continuing education courses during one short period.

2. Computer reliability during the treatment period.

3. Duration of subject interaction time with the

CIU.

4. Longitudunal attitude retention is unavailable for this sample.

Hypotheses

Earlier it was stated that the primary stimulus for this study was Dr. G. Ronald Christopher's 1969 study.

Further interest in this topic was stimulated by the works of Professors Suppes, Bitzer, Hansen and Brown. In this section, the researcher formulates several hypotheses.

The major hypothesis was designed to test or retest some of the conclusions rendered by these researchers. The other hypotheses were designed to investigate new areas of concern on this topic as they relate to military lo­ gisticians.

The null hypothesis or hypothesis of no relation­ ship, (Hq ), is assumed for each of the following. 19

For the sake of brevity, only the alternative hypotheses are listed.

1. Research Hypothesis (E^) — There will be a statistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI as a result of par­ ticipating in a CAI experience, i.e., the attitude toward

CAI will move in a more favorable direction when compared to the attitude of those military logisticians who did not participate in a CAI experience.

2. Research Hypothesis (Hg) — There will be a statistically significant indication that military lo­ gisticians under the age of 30 will be more receptive to

CAI instruction than will be those military logisticians over 30 years of age.

3. Research Hypothesis (Hg) — There will be a statistically significant increase in positive attitude by military logisticians with previous CAI experience when compared to military logisticians with no previous CAI experience.

4. Research Hypothesis (H^) — There will be a significant change in attitude favorable to CAI instruction involving military logisticians who possess at least an undergraduate college degree when compared to those military logisticians who do not possess a college degree. 20

Organization of Study

In this chapter the researcher has provided a very general statement of the problem with which this research effort was concerned. A brief background, purpose, significance, general design, assumptions, definition of terms, limitations, and hypotheses were presented.

Chapter II provides a comprehensive review of the literature pertaining to attitudes toward CAI held by adult learners.

The design and methodological aspects of this study are provided and discussed in Chapter III. A detailed coverage of the data production techniques is described.

Group assignment and the research population is described, subject selection and placement within each Solomon Four-

Group cell is revealed and the research design is described.

Demographic data is presented and the four groups are com­ pared .

Chapter IV describes the data analysis techniques employed and results of this study are graphically portrayed.

Chapter V summarizes the analytical findings, presents conclusions, and suggests some areas for future research. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH

In a 1967 report on "Computers In Higher Education,"

the President's Science Advisory Committee made the follow­

ing statement:

No matter what his specialty, the student must be given the opportunity of using computers in learning and in doing, and the faculty member must be able to use computers in teaching.*

Later, Martin and Norman, in their appraisal of the impact

of computers on society over the next fifteen years (1969-

1984), stated:

Today's education is an inadequate preparation for tomorrow's computerized society.... The com­ puter provides both the requirement and means for continuing learning into old a g e . 2

Adult learning will go on throughout life in order to enable

adults to keep in tune with their constantly changing

environment. Logisticians, as well as other professionals,

will have new facts and management techniques available to

them, and will be constantly under pressure to learn be­

cause of the rapid obsolescence of their existing knowledge.

The key to success in a highly computerized society,

^Computers in Higher Education, Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee (Washington, D.C.: The White House, February, 1967), p. 2. 2 Martin and Norman, o£. cit., p. 2. 21 22 according to Martin and Norman, is improved and con- 3 tinued education.

Knowles observes that adult years become years of creeping obsolescence in work, in play, in understanding of self, and in understanding of the world. One mission of adult educators, according to Knowles, is to help individuals develop the attitude that learning is a life­ long process and acquire the skills of self-directed learning which will assist them to change. He views the greatest danger to civilization today as the accelerating 4 obsolescence of man.

Evidence is mounting that man's ability to cope with his changing world is lagging farther and farther be­ hind the changing world. Toffler coined the term "future shock" to describe the shattering stress and disorientation induced in individuals by subjecting them to too much change 5 in too short a time. How to "educate for change," or

"prepare people for the future," is the tough question facing educators and managers today. Knowles sees the need for a crash program to retool the present generation of adults with competencies required to function in a condition g of perpetual change.

3Ibid. 4 Malcolm S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy (New York: Associa­ tion Press, 1970), p. 23.

®A. Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random House), 1970. 0 Knowles, o£. cit. 23

Benjamin Franklin, in 1780, wrote a letter to a

friend stating that there were two things certain in life; 7 death and taxes. Today one must add "change" to the two

things cited by Franklin. To set the stage for society's

acceptance or rejection of Computer-Assisted-Instruction

(CAI), it is fitting that we re-read Dr. Irvin S. Bengels-

dorf's column which appeared in the November 20, 1966, 8 Los Angeles Times.

WHAT'S PAST IS JUST PROLOGUE

Once upon a time, nobody could write or read. Not because people were stupid. There simply was no alphabet with which one person could write to permit another person to read.

And so, the history and legends of each group of people were handed down from generation to generation by mouth, hands and feet: by telling stories, singing songs and dancing. These prac­ tices gave rise to a select group of individuals — an elite of "minstrel and ballet historians."

Then one day, a group of people living in a city of Hadros-on-Tigris invented a way of writing by making wedge-shaped marks or symbols on clay tablets. Obviously, this was a challenge to the continued existence of the story-tellers and dancers and they reacted as would be expected.

The minstrels shouted, "Imagine learning about history by means of a conglomeration of ugly, new­ fangled wedge-shaped marks instead of listening to well-established beautiful lilting melodies." And the dancers stormed, "Imagine learning of our ancestors' heroic feats through lifeless indentations rather than viewing a vibrant, stimulating, pul­ sating dance."

7 Martin and Norman, o£. cit., p. 69. Q Leonard C. Silvern, Systems Engineering of Education VI: Principles of Computer-Assisted Instruction Systems (Los Angeles: Education and Training Consultants Co., 1970). 24

And both minstrels and terpsichoreans unitedly warned, "Clay tablet writing will ruin people to people contact. Humanity will be depersonalized." But the clay tablets won out.

And then, one day, word arrived that the people of the country of Gyptos-on-Nilos were writing by using ink to make marks on scrolls made of papyrus. And the Hadronian clay tablet-writers screamed, "Imagine keeping records made with ink marks, that fade with time, written on thin, fragile, rolled-up paper sheets that could burn, instead of using solid, permanent clay tablets."

And the UHCTW (Union of Hadronian Clay Tablet Writers) warned, "The use of lightweight papyrus scrolls instead of heavy clay tablets will make knowledge dangerously portable. People will be able to carry their scrolls anywhere. This mobility will ruin people-to-people contact. Humanity will be depersonalized." But papyrus and parchment scrolls won out.

In the middle of the 15th century, Hans Schlechtenberg of Strasburg-near Rhinos invented movable type and printing. Now, instead of rare parchment scrolls, each laboriously lettered and turned out by hand, books could be made in mass- production for the common man to read.

And the "keepers of the scrolls" cried, "Imagine anybody indiscriminately learning of our glorious past by going off alone to a corner to read to him­ self from an inexpensive book written in his own language instead of hearing it from an elite selected few reading from a hard-to-get scroll written in a well-established special language."

And the scroll readers warned, "The easy avail­ ability of books not only will debase knowledge but also will lead to the secluded habit of isolated and solitary reading. It will ruin people-to- people contact. Humanity will be depersonalized." But the books won out.

Nor was all resistance confined to writing and reading. The late 18th century marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the country of Gross Angloterros. The introduction of engines, motors and machines could relieve the back-breaking drudgery of hard physical labor. 25

But the non-machine workers yelled, "Imagine shovelling snow with only one silent man seated on a snow plow instead of using thousands of conversing men each equipped with a teaspoon." And they warned, "Machines will ruin people-to-people contact. Humanity will be depersonalized." But the machines won o u t .

And 20 years ago, electronic digital computers were invented. Working swiftly, accurately and reliably, computers can carry out many tasks that previously were thought could be performed only by men. Computers, being the "mental equivalents" of engines and motors, could relieve the dull drudgery of repeated routine mental work.

And so it was suggested that computers be used in education, as an aid to the schoolteacher swamped with routine teaching and non-teaching chores.

And the educators exclaimed, "Imagine using new­ fangled machines to help teach children instead of using time-tested personal teaching techniques."

And the educators warned, "Computer-aided- instruction will ruin people-to-people contact. Humanity will be depersonalized."

MORAL: Old ideas never die. It is only their proponents that pass away.

Today it appears the man in the street holds many misconceptions, fears, and myths regarding the computer/man o partnership which exists. This includes highly educated people who are ignorant of this advancing technology and who are totally underestimating its potential and the speed with which changes are occurring. Teachers and managers

certainly fall into this category and their fears are

attributed to the possibility of personal technological

o Norman and Martin, o£. cit., p. vi. 26

unemployment.10 Unless their attitudes change regarding

effective utilization of computers in management and educa­

tion, they may become victims of the disease of change;

future shock. A great deal of lip service is being paid

to mottos such as "educating for change" or "preparing

people for the future" but most educators, psychologists,

managers, and others as yet know very little about how to

do it. Resistance to change by adults seems to overwhelm

educational leaders and managers.11

The United States spends over thirty billion dollars 12 a year for research and development (private and public).

With this great expenditure, disciplines are being ad­

vanced in every area of knowledge. Computer technology has

received credit for permitting research in many areas never

before possible because of the computation ability, speed,

accuracy, data generation and analysis, storage capacity,

manipulative capability, its retrieval speed and its

capability to facilitate communication through rapid

dissemination of information to researchers, decision 13 makers, government leaders, teachers, citizens, etc.

1Q Ibid.

11Ibid. 12 Society of Manufacturing Engineers, "Manufacturing Update," Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Vol. 74, No. 2 (February, 1975), p. 11. 13 Norman and Martin, o£. cit. 27

All of these capabilities properly utilized increase the power of man to adjust to and merge with computer tech­ nology.

"The computer is entering its second quarter-century and its fourth generation. During its short lifetime it has radically altered not only how we do things, but also what we do....Today, two and one-half percent of the US gross national product is tied up with computers and people 14 who use them." According to John G. Kemeny, President of Dartmouth College, the computer is man's most powerful intellectual tool; however, most of its past uses have been designed to improve efficiency, save costs, or perform previously impossible tasks.

Little effort has been extended thinking up new services to make life better. This may be one reason why the man in the street feels resentment towards computers.15

We are now roughly thirty years into the Computer 16 Age. During this time, computer use has expanded so rapidly it effects almost every facet of man's life. The computer is a machine for amplifying man's intelligence as 17 the motor is a machine for amplifying his muscle power.

14 John Diebold, The World of the Computer (New York: Random House, 1973), pp. 4-6.

15Ibid. p. 6 . Ifi John P. Eckert, Jr., and John W. Mauchly, "Elec­ tronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (US Patent)," The World of the Computer (New York: Random House, 1973). 17 Roger E. Levien, The Emerging Technology: Instruc­ tional Uses of the Computer in Higher Education (New York Mc6raw Hill Book Co., 1972), p. l” 28

Since DOD operates the largest educational and training 18 institutions in the country, and uses the greatest number 19 of computers, the author believes DOD should explore the

computer's potential for instruction.

Use of the computer as a direct instructional tool is commonly referred to as "computer-assisted instruction."

CAI made its debut in elementary schools in 1966 when Dr.

Patrick Suppes introduced computer terminals to first graders in Brentwood School in East Palo Alto, California. This first CAI application was used to assist in teaching reading and arithmetic. The learner, when taught by a computer, 20 carries on a two-way communication. The key to CAI, as in other uses of computers, lies in the skill with which the computer programs are written. CAI, if programmed considering principles of learning, can convey information 21 quickly and insure a high degree of retention.

The computer is ideally suited to certain types of teaching but not to all teaching; therefore, Martin and

Norman and others predict CAI will never replace the human teacher. However, adult educators must recognize both the 22 usefulness and the limitations of computers.

18 Gray, 0£. cit., p. 66. 19 Withington, 0£. cit., pp. 105-106. 20 Martin and Norman, 0£. cit., p. 123.

21Ibid.. p. 124.

22Ibid., p. 124. 29

Teaching in a classroom is instructor-centered.

Adult learners have to proceed at the speed and level of complexity of the instructor. The brighter adults, finding the pace too slow, are bored. Those not-so-bright adult learners, on the other hand, often become lost or fail to understand part of what is said. Also, any adult learner, bright or dull, can miss portions of the lesson through lapses in attention and attendance. With CAI, the process is learner-centered and the computer adapts its pace to that of the adult learner. Endless repetitions without em­ barrassment or segment skipping is the choice of the learner based on his/her requirements, performance and needs. The program constantly "examines" the learner to check that he is understanding the material. Progress through a CAI lesson is dependent upon the adult learner's ability to 23 assimilate the material successfully.

Writing elaborately structured teaching programs requires considerable time and skill on the part of the subject-matter expert. Authors must be flexible in modifying and improving programs based on responses and reactions of their adult learners (users). Following modifications the program can be duplicated, studied, and used in computers throughout any organization including DOD. Much educa­ tional research can be accomplished through CAI to assist

9*3 Ibid., p. 127. 30 adult educators to understand better the psychology of learning. Results of research efforts could lead to a body of knowledge which would indicate how to develop CAI programs and possibly give us a be ;ter insight into adult 24 learning in general.

Unfortunately, there are some poorly written CAI programs because authors and/or programmers are hurriedly attempting to demonstrate computers and the ease with which they can display their material on the video display unit.

It could be unfortunate if the adult educators and/or adult learners formed their attitudes on the basis of some poorly written programs now circulating. Production of CAI programs must become as elaborate and as professional as TV or movie 25 production is today.

One of the greatest advantages of CAI is that it permits education to proceed without the physical classroom restraint. A logistician with a spare half-hour or more could use a computer terminal to continue the essential process of self-education while on the job. Portable com­ puter terminals are now available which can extend this educational process to the home where the telephone would link the adult learner to the computer and its CAI 26 programs.

24Ibid.. pp. 129-130. 25Ibid.

26Ibid.. p. 131. 31

Simon Ramo of Thompson-Ramo-Woolridge (known as TRW), pointed out that the symbiotic age will bring together the potential of human intelligence combined with the best capabilities of machines when he said,

The extension of man's intellect by machine, and the partnership of man and machine in handling information may well be the technological advance dominating this c e n t u r y . 27

Clark Kerr, Chairman, Carnegie Commission on Higher

Education, observed that,

... many faculty members fear or mistrust the whole idea of teaching 'by machines,' and not enough information is available to guide policy making."

In 1972, Roger E. Levien, Rand Corporation, completed one of 28 the most comprehensive reports on CAI ever attempted.

It was an objective evaluation of the computer's potential for instruction. Some of the highlights of his study include:

1. Computers in educational institutions, including

DOD, perform in three distinct roles: as subject, as tool, and as agent of change.

2. Widespread use of computers can lead to the availability of instruction and information in the dormitory and office, as well as in the classroom. This may cause administrators to rethink their philosophy of what learners should learn. Off campus CAI may make it possible

27Ibid., p. 45. 28 Levien, 1972, og. cit., p. xvi. 32

to bring much of the experience of higher education to

those who are not formally a part of it. This may

eventually lead to a reshaping of the roles and forms of

higher education.

3. The computer's value as a tool in instructional

activities is still the subject of sharp controversy.

Extreme positions have been taken on both sides. At one

extreme, many educators resist CAI believing that computer

use will dehumanize the teacher-learner dialogue. The

other extreme include faculty who promote CAI because they

feel CAI can be tailored to meet individual educational

needs thus making the ideal of individualized and per­

sonalized instruction a reality. Because of these two

opposing positions, CAI has captured the concern of ad­ ministrators, hostility of some faculty members, and the 29 suspicion of some students.

Silvern provides an acceptable definition of CAI as a man-machine relationship in which the person is a learner 30 and the machine is a computer system. Two-way communi­

cation exists between them, with the ultimate objective

being human learning and retention. During instruction,

oq Levien, 1972, ojj. cit., pp. 8, 9, 60-61. 3 0 Leonard C. Silvern, "Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction - How They Can Be Used Effec­ tively in Our Training Programs" (Los Angeles, Calif.: Education and Training Consultants Co., 1967), p. 83. 33 the only humans in the system are learners and what is learned can be transferred to real life. He further believes that the term CAI should be reserved for those learning experiences in which a computer contains a stored instruc­ tional program designed to inform, guide, control and test the learner until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached. "To have CAI," he continues,

... there must be two-way communication between human and computer in which there is a stimulus - response - feedback relationship producing learn­ ing. 31

Learners communicate with and receive communication from the computer subsystem. This is normally accomplished at a remote terminal input-output device such as a teletype

33 KSR or video display unit such as a Hazeltine 2000. The learner sits at a remote terminal and performs two func­ tions: (1) reads what is typed or displayed on the device, and (2) types response and/or question inputs on the key­ board for transmission to the computer. Silvern emphasizes a third function which was not stated but is understood and that is that the learner conceptualizes the response through a mental, covert activity. To function in such an environment the learner must have the ability to read and interpret what is being printed or visually displayed and should have a minimum level of typing proficiency so his 32 input to the computer can be reasonably efficient.

32 Ibid, p. 86. 34

The wholistic concept of time sharing and the remote console, when fully embraced and implemented, should take instruction to the student rather than require the student to seek out instruction.33

The Silvern's believe this can occur either at a college or university, work, home, or education center.

It has been said many times that CAI will come of age when the cost per adult learner hour of interacting on-line is reduced to an acceptable level. The author believes that with the introduction of time-shared computer systems and the proliferation of minicomputers the prac­ ticality of CAI has become a reality. The major obstacles to universal acceptance of CAI are resistance to change by faculty and learners, and the shortage of instructional programmers (also known as lesson planner or author) who 34 can prepare effective CAI course materials.

Levien, in his extensive study on CAI, believes that:

Cost and lack of knowledge have not been the only gulfs between man and computer; there has been a psychic distance as well. To many, the machine-man relationship has appeared to be one of master to slave — with the machine the master. Especially to persons not trained in the sciences, the com­ puter has seemed:

Distant— isolated in a separate building or room.

33 Gloria M. Silvern and Leonard C. Silvern, "A Graduate Level University Course in Methods of Computer Assisted Instruction," IEEE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics, Vol. HFE 8, Nr. 2, June 1967, p: 100. 34 Leonard C. Silvern, 1967, o£. cit., p. 89.

9 35

Slow to respond— each dialogue consuming hours of waiting for an instant of the machine's time.

Impossible to speak to— requiring that an esoteric dialect be learned in which the simplest statements must be spelled out in excruciating detail.

Even harder to understand— results pouring forth in columns of numbers or rows of upper­ case letters sprinkled with symbols.

Prone to inexplicable misbehavior— requiring hours to be spent searching for errors that frequently originate in the computer.

Rigidly narrow-able to add numbers but not to compose sentences; to recall the value of * to 10,000 digits but not to retrieve the names of the early mathematicians who struggled to compute it to 100 digits.

In the next few years, many of those objections should be overcome. In fact, one of the most im­ portant features of the new era will be the fact that computer use will be convenient, even for the nonscientist.

Developments at universities such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Dartmouth, and Stanford are showing the way. But many other in­ stitutions are following a similar course. The re­ sults will be computer service that is:

Close at hand— a typewriter-like console will bring the computer to the place of work.

Quick to respond— dialogues that proceed at a conventional pace will enable the user to respond promptly to initial results.

Easy to speak to— the computer will be instruc­ ted, in reasonable detail, in a language natural for the interests of the user.

Easy to understand— the computer will reply in a convenient format, use conventional typography, and, in some cases, display line drawings.

Reliable— the computer will be ready to use at any hour. 36

Flexible and broad— through t. single console the user will have access to both a rapid reckoner and an encyclopedic memory, both a tireless draftsman and an uncomplaining secretary.35

According to David P. Yens,

... there has been a tremendous increase in the number and variety of mechanical and electronic devices aimed at the training and education markets.... The number of unevaluated educational devices on the market is large and is continually g r o w i n g . 36

CAI certainly falls into this area of concern. He further believes a complete evaluation of any educational device

should at least include the following three general require­ ments:

1. Its actual contribution to some learning process.

2. Its acceptance by learners, faculty and staff.

3. Its reliability of operation or the reliability of its results.

Military CAI Activities

Navy

In the Navy's Research Report SRR 73-13, the feasibility of integrating CAI into Navy training was 37 investigated. A total of 760 students were used during

3 5 Levien, o£. cit., p. 7.

36David P. Yens, "Evaluation of An Innovative Educa­ tional Device - A Case Study," The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 65, Nr. 2 (October, 1971), pp. 77-84. 37 John D. Ford, Jr., Dewey A. Slough, Richard Hurlock, "Computer Assisted Instruction in Navy Technical 37 student tryouts and operational tests and they logged more than 10,197 terminal hours of CAI. The IBM 1500 Instruc­ tional System and Coursewriter II author language were used and the curriculum was taken from the Basic Electricity/

Electronics School.

Five CAI modules were developed which could replace

92 hours of the class curriculum. Some of the findings of the research effort include:

1. CAI students scored higher than class-instructed students on both the School Examinations and the Supple­ mental Tests.

2. CAI required about 45% less training time than class instruction.

3. The most costly and time consuming part of CAI course development was the initial preparation of basic instruction.

4. An attitude questionnaire answered by CAI students at the end of the CAI training period indicated that if given a choice, students would prefer over 70% of their Basic Electricity/Electronics curriculum via CAI.

5. Extended experience with CAI does not have a detrimental effect.

6. CAI training was very effective but the 1500 system was not economically feasible for training in basic

Training Using a Small Dedicated Computer System: Final Report, San Diego, Calif.: Naval Personnel and Training Research Laboratory, November, 1972 (Research Report SSR 73-13). 38 electronics because of the limitation of 32 terminals and its relatively high cost.

Air Force

A fifty-three (53) month system development contract for the prototype Advanced Instructional System (herein­ after referred to as AIS) was awarded to McDonnell Douglas

Corporation in May, 1973. The prototype AIS is a training system being developed for the Air Training Command (ATC) which is part of the United States Air Force. Initial implementation of AIS will take place at the Lowry Technical

Training Center located in Denver, Colorado. This system will serve as a research testbed which will allow con­ trolled testing of new instructional techniques in an actual training environment. The current estimated con­ tract cost is $10.74 million. Over fifty (50) McDonnell

Douglas Corporation personnel plus twenty-four (24) Air

Force personnel are jointly developing the AIS.

Four technical training courses have initially been selected for AIS application:

Course Group-Paced Mode

Inventory Management 7 weeks

Materiel Facilities 6 weeks

Weapons Mechanic 13 weeks

Precision Measuring Equipment 30 weeks 39

In these four courses an estimated 7000 graduates per year 38 are planned utilizing AIS.

About fifty (50) interactive plasma panel graphic terminals will be used for operational computer-managed instruction (CMI) functions to support the prototype

AIS.39

Inventory Management and Materiel Facilities courses were fully implemented with individualized materials in early June, 1975. Students were completing these two courses in 35% less time than the group-paced courses.

Within-course measures indicate equal or better training.

A field follow-up evaluation will begin shortly. Student and instructor attitudes are being monitored informally 40 and have thus far been positive.

Army

The major computerized training project in the

United States Army (Project ABACUS) is located at Fort 41 Gordon, Georgia. The mission of the project is to

38 Joseph Yasutake, Advanced Instructional System Newsletter (Denver: Lowry Air Force Base, June, 1975).

39Ibid.

40Ibid.

41Joseph J. Rich and Kermit B. Van Pelt, "The Future of the Computer in Army Training"(Fort Monroe, Va.: US Army Training and Doctrine Command), CTS-TR-75-3, May, 1975. 40 design, develop, test and evaluate a 128 terminal multi­ minicomputer configuration. The US Army Signal Center and

School (USACSC), Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, became involved in CAI activities in 1966.

Initial investigations were conducted to determine the feasibility of CAI for teaching basic electronics in a tutorial mode. Results of feasibility studies indicated that the group utilizing the CAI approach completed its training in 10.8% less time and showed equivalent achieve­ ment in comparison with a conventionally instructed group.

These results stimulated increased CAI development. Between

1968 and 1971 the number of basic electronic hours taught utilizing the CAI approach was increased from 11 to 102 hours. Data acquired from 142 student participants re­ vealed a time reduction of over 35% while the class achieve­ ment was equivalent to conventional training. There was also a 21% reduction in attrition. Favorable attitudes and acceptance of CAI were also obtained.

In 1971 a Task Group was established at Fort Monmouth composed of nine representatives of the US Continental Army

Command (CONARC) schools to study the future of CAI in Army technical training. They recommended that the Army sponsor a large scale protype CAI system employing a minicomputer concept. This protype effort was to determine the cost, training, and technical effectiveness of such a system and was to develop a design that could be used Army wide. This recommendation was approved and Project ABACUS was born. 41

The official start date was August 1, 1972 with a comple­

tion date of August 1, 1976. The design and implementation

of the Computerized Training System (CTS) was then re­

located to Fort Gordon, Georgia.

Although conclusive results of this project are not

yet available, each phase evaluation has been favorable.

United Airlines

Although not a military activity the CAI project

of United Airlines contains numerous components which have

distinct relevancy to the military use of CAI.

United Airlines installed a Computer Assisted In­

struction System called UCAI effective April, 1974. Over

nine thousand (9000) personnel have access to over four

thousand (4000) remote terminals connected either to an IBM

360/195 computer in Denver, Colorado, or a UNIVAC 1108

computer located in Chicago, Illinois. Personnel learn

many of the procedures and input requirements, and they

interpret output reference from their own data base.

Reservation agents, ticket agents, and airport operation

planners are trained using a variety of CAI lessons. The

parts store keepers located in the maintenance area have

access to programs which train them how to query their data

systems. Programs in CAI help train the food services managers, food services menu planners, and the food ser­

vices purchasers. Air Freight agents are taught how to 42 query the data systems to find the current location of cargo. There are several thousand cost centers in United

Airlines and manpower productivity figures are continually available to appropriate managers for review and decision 42 making purposes.

NSF CAI Projects

The National Science Foundation (NSF) awarded separate contracts in January 1972, to the University of

Illinois, and the MITRE Corporation, to develop and demon­ strate the classroom use of computer based instructional 43 systems. These are two attempts to implement innovative curricular systems in the United States and today represent major efforts in instructional development. Under the contracts, the University of Illinois is obligated to provide PLATO IV System and the MITRE Corporation is obli­ gated to provide the Time-Sharing, Interactive, Computer

Controlled Information Television (TICCIT) System.

According to the original proposals and contracts, the community college component of the PLATO IV System was to begin classroom demonstration of materials in September,

1973, and TICCIT was to begin demonstrations in January,

43Steve Rugg, United Airlines, telephone interview, March 19, 1975.

43Donald L. Alderman and William A. Mahler, "The Evaluation of PLATO and TICCIT: Educational Analysis of the Community College Components," Project Report 73-49, Educational Testing Service, 1973. 43

44 1974. These projects provide an opportunity to gather critical information on the impact of large scale CAI computer technology.

The PLATO IV materials are not being designed to supplant the course work for an entire term (quarter or semester). However, the TICCIT materials are being de­ signed to provide mainline instruction to cover the 45 topics of present courses with almost identical emphasis.

The PLATO IV System was developed by the Computer-

Based Education Research Laboratory (CERL) of the University of Illinois. The hardware includes a CDC 6400 with large extended core storage. The terminals employed are quite A f t advanced, using plasma display technology. The terminal includes a keyboard, a touch panel, and a microfiche slide projector which operates under computer control as well as a random-access computer controlled audio unit. The main authoring language, TUTOR, is utilized. Courseware is being developed with University of Illinois staff assis­ tance in the Chicago Community College system and at

44 Hunter M. Breland, Marianne Amarel, Spencer Swinton, "The Evaluation of PLATO: Educational Analysis of the Elementary School Components," Project Report 74-4, Educational Testing Service, 1974. 45 Alderman and Mahler, 1973, o£. cit. 46 Ernest J. Anastasio, "Evaluation of the PLATO and TICCIT Computer-Based Instructional Systems— A Preliminary Plan," Project Report 72-19, Educational Testing Service, 1972. Parkland Community College located at Champaign, Illinois

Specific faculty members have been given release time for

one year or longer, on a half or full time basis, to 47 develop course materials in TUTOR.

The MITRE TICCIT project’s main processor is a

Data General Nova 800 (minicomputer) with associated

peripheral standard equipment. Each participating

community college required a full complement of equipment

A communications processor to transmit messages from the

central site to the terminals required an additional Nova

800. This project attempts to use minicomputers and off-

the-shelf terminals - color TV's. Courseware development

is being accomplished at Brigham Young University, Provo,

Utah.T T * u 4 8

Due to unforeseen difficulties in courseware de­

velopment and hardware reliability, both systems were 49 granted implementation delays until September, 1975.

Shortly after the University of Illinois and the

MITRE Corporation received the NSF contracts to develop

operational large scale computer-based instructional

47Ibid. , p. 14.

48Ibid., pp. 7-12.

49 Breland, Amarel and Swinton, 1974, o£. cit., Preface. 45

systems, the Educational Testing Service (ETS), Princeton,

New Jersey, was awarded a separate contract by NSF to

evaluate the educational effectiveness, technical di­ mensions, and costs of the PLATO IV and TICCIT projects.

The major task facing ETS was to develop the in­ struments for evaluating the cost performance and educa­ tional benefits of PLATO IV and TICCIT. Areas of concern include assessment of learner achievement, acceptance of and reactions to instructional technology (both the learner and faculty attitudes), course materials, instructional 50 practices, and the role of computer-based instruction.

Summary

The ready availability of military time-sharing systems and minicomputers can lead to the availability of instruction and information in the dormitories, offices, homes, alert crew facilities, Bachelor Officers' Quarters,

Visiting Officers' Quarters, functional work areas, libraries, and classrooms. This can make it possible to bring much of the experience of higher education and technical institutes to those who are not formally a part of them. The potential of mass distribution of infor­ mation and instruction by the computer may force DOD leaders to re-think their philosophy of what managers

®®Ahastasio, 1972, 0£. cit. 46 should learn, since the skills they once had to acquire are now performed routinely by the computer and the facts previously required to be memorized are accessible from large information storage and retrieval systems. The computer's three distinct roles as subject, tool, and agent of change may eventually lead to the reshaping of the roles of managers in DOD pertaining to problem solving and de­ cision making activities. In the symbiotic partnership involving man and computers, DOD leaders must determine the role of each position in the management of the limited available resources to insure that the most cost-effective 51 national defense can be provided.

The computer's value as an instructional medium is still the subject of sharp controversy. Levien believes that the computer will not replace the teacher but will supplement and amplify the teacher's effectiveness by aiding the learner in the tasks that must be performed on his own.

This new technology has become an additional participant in the instructional process and, if used creatively, should assist immensely in improving that process throughout 52 society and not just in the DOD.

51 Levien, 0£. cit.

52 Ibid. 47

The computer may extend the constituency of DOD schools to millions of military and civil service per­ sonnel off campus who, by means of computers and efficient communications, will be able to tap the DOD school's fund of information and instructional skills. All of this may lead to reshaping of the roles and forms of education and training. Substantial savings are possible through ex­ pansion of joint-service training by exploiting instructional technology such as CAI throughout DOD. Defense Secretary

James E. Schlesinger has stated that training costs in DOD total more than six billion dollars ($6 billion) annually involving about 350,000 persons; some sixteen percent (16%) 53 of the active force. One must add to this the Reserve

Forces personnel who also need extensive and recurrent training in order to be ready when called to active duty.

The future of instructional computer use will be strongly affected by the attitudes of administrators, faculty, and students in any academic institution. "Un­ fortunately, however, no satisfactory survey of campus attitudes toward the computer's use in instruction exists," according to Roger E. Levien, who directed the Carnegie

Commission on Higher Education and the Rand Corporation

Study investigating the instructional uses of the computer 54 in higher education.

53 Gray, o£. cit., p. 66. 54 Levien, oj>. cit. 48

Continuing education is big business in our society today. Due to the investments by the United States in research and development efforts, both in the private and public sectors, new technologies are continuously emerging.

Adult learners must manage their own continuing education programs in order to win the battle against obsolescence.

The information explosion era makes it even more essential that better ways be found to store, retrieve, and dissemi­ nate knowledge to learners of all ages in all segments of our society. Multi-media instructional techniques must be integrated into schools, colleges, and universities, company programs, DOD schools, church programs, government manage­ ment and development programs, public library learning re­ source centers, and other educational facilities. The proliferation of computers in society today introduces the potentialities of computer-assisted instruction in adult education programs to facilitate learning.

What is the attitude of adult learners toward CAI?

With the exception of Christopher, Scanlon, Brown and

Robardey's research efforts there is a paucity of attitude research involving adult learners' attitudes toward CAI and computers. Various portions of our society are intro­ ducing CAI into their adult continuing education programs but there have been few true experimental research efforts conducted to determine the attitude of adult learners toward CAI. This study was conducted to produce experimental data which will assist adult educators in determining the role CAI should play in their adult education programs. CHAPTER III

EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the experimental approach utilized and in addition to answer three basic questions:

1. What strategies were selected to produce the necessary data to test the research hypotheses?

2. Precisely how were these data produced?

3. What specific data were produced?

Helmstadter Strategy

Helmstadter offers seven logical steps in applying the experimental approach to the study of behavior.^ The steps are identified and briefly described in the following:

1. Defining the Problem

Careful specification is necessary for both the variables of importance and the role they will play in the experiment. The experimental variables are identified first. The researchers must decide what variable or

G. C. Helmstadter, Research Concepts in Human Behavior - Education, Psychology, Sociology (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970)7 pp. ill-117.

50 51 variables will be manipulated plus the type and number of treatments which will be administered. Dependent vari­ ables which will be used must be carefully considered since so many are available to the researcher. Also, the de­ pendent variables which must be controlled should be con­ sidered by asking, "Which characteristics or conditions other than the experimental variables will influence the results?" Specific, operational definition terms should be provided when technical terms may be interpreted in several ways.

2. Formulating the Hypothesis

The expected relationship between the experimental variable(s) and the dependent variable(s) should be specified in advance of the experiment. A scientific hypothesis must be offered which will reflect directly that which the re­ searcher expects to find. Caution must be exercised to avoid formulating a hypothesis that is true for all situations and all times.

3. Specifying the Population to be Sampled

A "sample of convenience" is used in most prac­ tical situations and that includes a group of adult learners which are available to the researcher. The type of adult learners and the situation must be clearly described. A good question to keep in mind is, "Of what population might these subjects be a representative sample?"

4. Instituting Proper Controls

Following the formulation of specific hypotheses 52

of an experimental study, a specific experimental design

must be developed. If possible, the researcher should

strive to establish equivalent groups and must avoid bias

in formulation and selection of the groups.

5. Measuring the Criterion Variables

A very important step is to obtain a satisfactory

measure of the dependent variables against which the pre­

sumed effects of the experimental variable can be evaluated.

A clear statement of the objectives of the study can guard

the researcher against using an invalid or irrelevant cri­

terion. Appropriate criterion measures have to be defined.

Once the needed criterion variable(s) have been specified,

then an appropriate instrument must be selected or constructed which will serve the researcher's purposes. Criteria for a good measuring device must be kept in mind by the researcher.

The researcher will need to carry out test development pro­ cedures fully; writing the items, plus planning and carrying out substudies to establish the reliability and validity of the instrument.

6. Data Production

The three instruments developed, such as the background questionnaire, attitude measurement questionnaire and treatment (CIU) must be administered to the test sub­ jects. The investigator must double check to be sure his careful planning has not been in error. 53

7. Analysis and Interpretation of the Data

In this final step in applying the experimental

approach to the study of behavior, the researcher must

determine what kind of analysis is appropriate. A clear

distinction between a result which is statistically signifi­

cant from that which is of practical importance must be made

by the researcher. Helmstadter states that,

... the test of statistical significance only involves the question of whether the observed re- » suits can be considered to be a chance phenomenon. 3 Campbell and Stanley state that,

... the experiments we do today, if successful, will need replication and cross-validation at other times under other conditions before they can become an established part of science, before they can be theoretically interpreted with confidence.

It is for this reason that the researcher was motivated to

build on Christopher's work of 1969.

There are 12 factors which jeopardize the validity

of various experimental designs. Eight are labeled as in­

ternal dangers to the validity of experiments. If the

results of a study are to be usable, then control over

those factors other than the experimental treatment under

investigation must be precise.

2 Helmstadter, op. cit. q Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experi­ mental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963), p. 3. 54

The remaining four factors are labeled as external dangers to the validity of experiments. Internal validity and external validity distinctions are provided by Campbell and Stanley:

internal validity is the basic minimum with­ out which any experiment is uninterpretable: e.g., Did the experimental treatments make a difference in this specific experimental instance? ... external validity asks the question of generalizability: e.g., To what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables can this effect be generalized?4

A variety of experimental designs are available to researchers. After a review of 16 designs presented by

Campbell and Stanley, and considering the internal and ex­ ternal dangers to the validity of experiments, this re- 5 searcher chose the "Solomon Four - Group Design."

Helmstadter strongly believes that where gain or change in behavior is the desired dependent variable, the Solomon

Four - Group Design must be used. Helmstadter continues by stating that this design is the most desirable of all the really basic experimental designs, both quasi and true.

Both the main effects of testing and the inter­ action of testing and the 'treatment' are deter­ minable. 6

In this way, not only is generalizability increased but, in addition, the effect of the "treatment" is replicated 7 in four different fashions.

4 Ibid.

5Ibid.

^Helmstadter, o£. cit. 7 Ibid. 55

Research Instruments

This research project required three instruments:

1. Background questionnaire,

2. Attitude measurement questionnaire, and the

3. Treatment (CIU).

Background Questionnaire

A 31 item background questionnaire was developed

(see Appendix A). These items requested responses per­

taining to the subjects* experience in military logistics,

age, sex, educational level, teaching experience, rank or

grade, job title, years of government service, and computer

knowledge. This background questionnaire was previously

tested to determine the time necessary to complete. It was

found that 15 minutes were required. To minimize class

interruptions, the researcher coordinated with the School’s

registrar and then administered the background questionnaire

immediately following the orientation session for all new

courses which were held in the large auditorium.

All incoming logistic manager students report to the

auditorium for a general orientation to the School, the air

base, and the community, prior to commencing their course work. As a result of this early administering of the back­

ground questionnaire, class interruptions were reduced to

one, two, or three depending upon which experimental group

the managers were assigned (see Table 1). All 147 subjects TABLE 1

TIME REQUIRED TO COMPLETE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN BY RESPONDENTS*

Experimental Control Background Pre Post Group Group Group Questionnaire Test Treatment Test Total

1 Pretest Treatment (CIU) Posttest 15 35 60 35 145

2 Pre & Post Test 15 35 35 85

3 Treatment (CIU) Posttest 15 60 35 110

4 Post Test 15 35 50

♦All time is expressed in minutes.

CJi 05 57 were administered the background questionnaire. The demo­ graphic data acquired in this manner were manually extracted and compiled by the researcher utilizing the background questionnaires.

Attitude Questionnaire

In this research study, a questionnaire was used to produce data relating to certain attitudes and opinions of certain military logisticians in DOD.

The first step in the development of any question­ naire or opinionnaire study is that of translating the stated general purpose of the study into the specific information needed from the individual subject,8

The researcher must carefully state in detail exactly what information is needed to answer the questions raised by the research problem. The major purpose of the attitude questionnaire is to translate the research objectives into specific information and to assist the researcher in moti- g vating the subject to communicate the required information.

A guide to preparing questionnaire items, supplied by The

Ohio State University Research Consulting Service, was utilized (see Appendix D).

A questionnaire was developed with 204 items using the Likert scale. These items were obtained from

Christopher10 (22 items), the Naval Academy CAI

8Ibid.

9 Ibid. 10Christopher, o£. cit., p. 13. 58

Report11 (42 items), Educational Testing Services PLATO IV 12 1 2 and TICCTT project reports (65 items) , and 75 additional items constructed by the researcher based on his readings and experience. The principle of deferred judgement was employed knowing there might be some duplicative items.

In some cases these items were edited with the experimental population in mind.

Validity

The validity of the attitude measurement question­ naire had to be determined prior to actual use. Helmstadter reminds one that the problem of validity arises because psychological measurement is indirect and that it is never possible to be completely certain that a questionnaire measures the precise characteristic for which it was de- 14 signed. Considering the source of many of the items, this researcher decided to use a panel of judges (six members) to assist in determining the validity of this attitude questionnaire. Sufficient copies were reproduced to provide the panel of judges (Appendix E ) with an envelope containing the individual items. This panel included faculty

^Gerald Frincke and LeRoy C. Rivers, "CAI-1500 Project Evaluation Report, Supplement G," Educational System Center, U.S. Naval Academy, October, 1971, pp. 56-58. 12 Alderman and Mahler, 1973, 0£. cit. , pp. 46-49. 13 Anastasio, 1972, o£. cit. , Appendix B, pp. 13-14. 14 Helmstadter, 0£. cit. 59

members of both the Graduate Education Division (GED) and

the Continuing Education Division (CED) of the School of

Systems and Logistics. They were told that some managers

would be given a CAI experience (treatment) and others

would not (no treatment). This panel sorted the 204 items

into six groups privately and individually, but at the same

time and place.

Each judge was provided six 5 x 8 inch cards, left to

right, with "Strongly Agree (SA)," "Agree (A)", "Undecided

(U)", "Disagree (D)", "Strongly Disagree (SD)", "Throw Out

(TO)", (Likert scale) printed on them. The judges were

asked to sort each individual item into one of the six groups.

No other function was performed by them. The researcher

then retrieved all the items under the SA group for all six judges and placed them into an envelope identified as "SA".

This procedure was repeated for the five other groupings.

The tally sheets were then reviewed and items which had ratings distributed across the scale (SA - SD) were deleted from further consideration. Duplicate items were flagged and dropped. All the "Throw Out" items were dis­ carded. The remaining items became candidates for inclusion in the questionnaire. These items were either favorable or unfavorable toward CAI and computers. Those identified as favorable were generally in the SA or A groupings and those unfavorable were clustered in the D or SD groupings. The researcher then selected 80 items clustered at either end of the scale and prepared the first draft of the question­ naire. 60

Fifty-one items were favorable toward CAI and com­ puters and 29 items were unfavorable. In the first draft of the questionnaire the researcher insured there were never more than three items listed consecutively which were either favorable or unfavorable in classification.

This was done to minimize respondent rating structure.

The first draft was discussed with a member of The

Ohio State University Research Consulting Service. Follow­ ing this coordination effort, 22 items were deleted for a variety of reasons such as ambiguity, inappropriateness to subjects who would not get the treatment, and those not considered appropriate to any of the experimental hy­ potheses. Other items were edited and improved, some other duplicates were located and deleted, and ten new items were added from the original pool of 204 items. The subsequent draft included a total of 68 items with 38 items favorable to CAI and computers and the remaining 30 items unfavorable.

This second draft, containing 68 items, was repro­ duced in sufficient copies and administered to:

a. Six faculty members — Two different faculty members were recruited because two members of the original

Panel of Judges were not available due to teaching commit­ ments (Appendix E ).

b. The participants in two courses (41 logistics managers) who were representative of adult learners who attended the CED courses were given this questionnaire 61 in their classroom. Each recorded his/her responses on an

Optical Scanning Corporation Standard Answer Sheet - C.

Each manager was requested to enter his/her name

(last, first, middle initial) in the blank boxes provided on the form. They then blackened the letter box below which matched each letter of their name. Since many managers may not have been experienced in filling out an optical scanning form, a brief orientation was provided. This form does not follow the normal vertical recording (top to bottom). The first five responses are listed vertically then one must move to the right and back to the top of the set for the sixth response and so forth.

The questionnaire defined what CAI is and then a question was asked: "Have you ever studied CAI?" Yes __

No __. The answer to this question was to be entered in

Column 70 on the answer sheet. A "1" was yes and a "2" was no. This numerical code was placed on the chalkboard in the classroom. The results of this first question indi­ cated that all six faculty members had studied CAI. Eight of the managers attending the courses had studied CAI and

33 had not.

The questionnaire employed the Likert scale with the scale elements numbered SA=1, A=2, U=3, 0=4, and SD=5.

These numbers corresponded to the numbers found on the optical scanning form and a subject could choose one of five responses for each item. 62

The managers and the faculty members completed the

68 item questionnaire the same day in three different class­

rooms within a two hour period. The time to complete the

questionnaire varied by individual. The fastest completion

time was 15 minutes and the longest was 35 minutes. Mean

completion time was 21 minutes.

Following completion of this pilot test of the

attitude questionnaire, the researcher personally entered

the course number (a three digit code) for the student

managers and arbitrarily assigned a two digit student number

for each scanning form. For the faculty the letters "FAC"

were entered in lieu of course number, plus a two digit code

to distinguish them from the pilot test student managers.

These optical scanning forms were then processed via

an optical scanning device and punched cards were produced.

Reliability

In order to determine the reliability of this in­

strument , selected Nies SPSS canned computer programs were 15 employed to produce selected statistical results.

However, since 38 items were favorable to CAI and the

rating ranged from a high of one (1) to a low of five (5),

a recoding was required. These items were recoded to make a

one rating equal to five, and two rating equal to four,

15 Norman H. Nie, Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company), 1970. 63

threes were not recoded, a four rating equals a two, and a

five rating equals a one. This was necessary in order to

perform the variety of statistical computations. The co­

efficient alpha formula is the statistical method used to

establish reliability.16

Reliability of_ Total number of items____ Questionnaire Total number of items - 1

Sum of the item variance Variance of the Total

Nies' SPSS program provided the "variance of the

total" but the researcher had to manually extract each item

variance (68 items) and then sum them to arrive at the "sum

of the item variance." Once this was accomplished then the

reliability of the questionnaire taken by the Panel of

Judges and the 41 managers was computed.

The reliability of the questionnaire established

through the Panel of Judges was .822 and the reliability

of the questionnaire established through the managers was

.828. Based upon the acceptable reliability of the co­

efficient attitude questionnaire, this questionnaire was utilized in the experiment.

X6 Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967. 64

The 68 item questionnaire was then administered to

147 DOD logistics managers at the School of Systems and

Logistics to measure their expressed attitudes towards CAI

and computers during the week of December 9, 1974. Ex­

tensive information concerning opinions about computers as

well as attitudes toward the use of CAI in the classroom

were obtained from the questions.

Computerized Instructional Unit (Treatment)

The CIU developed and used by Christopher was

modified for use with logistic manager students. Modifica­

tions included a list of behavioral objectives. A major

effort was required to reprogram the CIU from Coursewriter

III to Fortran. The CIU was evaluated relative to its

acceptability as a bona fide lesson in CAI by eight AFIT

faculty and staff members who were computer-oriented

(Appendix C). A Honeywell 635 military time sharing computer

system was used to administer the CIU lesson. Seven indi­

vidual Model 33 teletype devices were used as the input/ output device. Sixty-eight subjects assigned to the experi­ mental group received the hands-on CAI experience. The

time to complete the CIU ranged from 36 to 90 minutes with a mean completion time of 48 minutes. 65

Population

Identification

A population study was made from the School of

Systems and Logistics (Continuing Education Division) regis­

trar's records for the resident program offerings for

Fiscal Year 1975. There were 36 short courses offered

ranging from one week to seven weeks in duration. There

were multiple offerings of all courses ranging from one to

19 offerings for the fiscal year. The number of courses

which can be conducted at one time is limited by the number

of classrooms available in Building 288, Area "A", Wright-

Patterson Air Force Base, and assigned to the CED. Fourteen

classrooms were available for CED use. An average of 25

managers attended each course offering. Therefore, a

maximum of 350 managers could be in attendance for CED

courses at any given time.

The Defense Management Education and Training (DMET)

Catalog (DOD 5010.16-C) describes the course prerequisites.

The qualifications which DOD personnel attending must meet

are stated in terms of military or civil service grades, prior schooling or experience, security clearance, etc.

Waivers of stated prerequisites may be obtained with the approval of the appropriate course director. Appendix J describes course prerequisites for subjects involved in this research effort. 66

Graduate students had a need for computer support

and competed with the managers attending the CED courses for

access to the School's computer which is a Honeywell 635

third generation computer. The School had nine Model 33

teletype terminals, two Hazeltine 2000 video display units,

one GE Terminet terminal, and one Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

connected to the CREATE time sharing system. However,

these terminals were dispersed in five areas of the two

floor building. In order to maintain control and in con­

sideration of the terminal availability, the researcher

decided to use the Model 33 teletype terminals to support

this research. Seven of the nine Model 33 terminals were

located in one area on the second floor and the CED class­

rooms were nearby. Five of the seven terminals were in

semi-private cubicles. The other two terminals were positioned

side by side with no separating partitions and both were

close to other cubicles used for team exercises and simula­

tions. These terminals were available on a first come-first

served basis except when reserved to support a scheduled course requirement.

It was necessary to consider the limited number of remote terminals available and the limited access to the computer because of heavy academic use by CED, GED, faculty, and staff. Additionally, other government agencies used the

CREATE system for computer support so the researcher selected a period to conduct his research when access to the computer and terminals would be assured. Following a detailed 67

review of the Fiscal Year 75 (FY75) schedule, the week of

December 9, 1974 was selected to conduct the research. This was the last class group for calendar year 1974 and the

computer was not heavily scheduled. There were eight

courses in session with 204 managers in attendance.

Logistics Considerations

In preparation for the research the investigator administered each instrument to be used in the experiment to volunteer members of the School faculty and to logistics managers who were attending one of the short courses.

These trial activities permitted assurance of the managerial reasonableness of the research design and serve to improve the overall design and the instruments since the individuals involved provided several good suggestions.

One of the eight courses was selected to participate in a pilot test to determine the reliability of the pre-post questionnaire. The remaining seven course directors were contacted to determine their attitude toward this research effort. The researcher, impressed by his study of previous good research techniques, decided that all activities in­ volved with the experiment would be accomplished during the normal daily course schedule. All courses were regularly conducted during the period 8:30 A.M. to 3:30 P.M. with an hour off for lunch. Courses were in session six hours a day, five days a week, excluding time required for homework, reading, and other out-of-class preparation. Background questionnaires would require about 15 minutes to complete.

The attitude measurement questionnaires would require from

15 to 35 minutes depending upon individual comprehension

rate. The treatment (hands-on experience with the computer

through a remote terminal) was found to require from 36 to

90 minutes depending upon keyboard dexterity, progress and

personal confidence of the individual. Table 1 reflects

the maximum involvement time required of each of the four

groups and interruptions (ranging from one to three which

would have to be permitted in their normal course schedule)

to support this research effort.

Group Assignments

The researcher initially wanted to assign the seven

classes randomly to the different groups of the Solomon

Four-Group Design but this was not feasible since not that much liberty could be taken with each course director’s prerogatives. Additionally, the researcher did not know the details of all course schedules which further made random

assignment not feasible. All course directors involved in

this experiment were concerned about the time required for class participation and the number of interruptions of their schedules. This was not unexpected. One course director decided not to permit his students to participate because of the tight course schedule and the fact that staff members from Air Force Headquarters in the Pentagon would be monitor­

ing the course during the proposed schedule for the 69

experiment. This left six courses and through personal

contact, the researcher obtained the support of these

course directors to participate in the experiment.

The selection of courses for assignment to the four

experiment groups was accomplished by the researcher in

coordination with the respective course directors, based

on the course schedules for the days selected for the experi­ ment (December 10 - 13, 1974) and the number of manager participants in each course. Those whose schedule would permit numerous interruptions and extended periods of time

for the experiment were assigned to Group 1 (two courses) or Croup 3 (one course). The one course director who could

least afford interruptions had his participants assigned to

Group 4. The final courses were assigned to Group 2 which required only two interruptions to the course schedule.

In this manner, a degree of random assignment was accom­ plished (see Table 2).

A letter from the Director, CED, was prepared in advance encouraging support of this research effort. This letter was addressed to the involved course directors, with an information copy provided to their respective department heads, after the course directors had agreed to participate in the research effort and to make their manager partici­ pants available (Appendix I ). The specific continuing education courses involved and the number of manager participants in each, are listed in Table 3. TABLE 2

THE FOUR-GROUP DESIGN FOR A CAI EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL GROUPS GROUPS

Events 1 3 2 4

Pretest on Present Attitude Yes No Yes No

Experimental Treatment (Computerized Instructional Unit) Yes Yes No No

Posttest on Final Attitude Yes Yes Yes Yes TABLE 3

RESEARCH SAMPLE COURSE LENGTH AND ENROLLMENT

MANAGERS PARTICIPATING IN THE EXPERIMENT TOTAL EXPERIMENT COURSE CLASS NON-COM MANAGERS GROUP NUMBER COURSE TITLE DAYS OFFICER OFFICER CIVILIAN ENROLLED

210 Maintenance Manage­ 13 13 3 3 19 ment & Information Systems 279 Production Manage­ ment II 13 4 11 *17

161 Advanced Property 8 1 19 **21 Administration 178 Advanced Contract 13 4 17 21 Administration

; 194 Evaluation of Per­ 13 13 21 34 formance Measure­ ment System

175 Contract Administra­ 15 9 29 38 tion TOTAL 44 3 100 150 (30%) (2%) (68%) * T*wo failed to take treatment. ** One faculty member auditing the course. 72

Solomon Four Design

The Solomon Four-Group experimental design was used in this study. This design provides a control strategy that enables the researcher to assess the effects of pre­ testing, the effects of the treatment, as well as the inter- 17 action of the effects of pretesting and treatment. The design requires two experimental treatments with the 2 x 2 factorial design. The factorial arrangement of groups is reflected in Table 4. Subjects of Group 1 (experimental group) were administered the pretest, the treatment and the posttest; subjects of Group 2 (control group) were only administered the pre and posttest; subjects of Group 3

(experimental group) received the treatment and posttest without pretesting; subjects of Group 4 (control group) were only administered the posttest (Table 5).

The Solomon Four-Group Design was first used by

Solomon (1949) in order to control for interactions between pretests and experimental treatments in experimental studies of attitude change, in educational experiments, and in

^ 18 transfer of training experiments.

17 Michael S. Lessac and Richard F. Solomon, "Effects of Early Isolation on the Later Adaptive Behavior of Begals: A Methodological Demonstration," Developmental Psychology. Vol. 1, No. 1 (American Psychological Association, Inc., 1969). 18 Richard L. Solomon and Michael S. Lessac, "A Con­ trol Group Design for Experimental Studies of Developmental Processes," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 70, No. 3 (1968). TABLE 4

THE FACTORIAL ARRANGEMENT OF GROUPS

EVENTS GROUPS

PRETEST NO PRETEST

Computerized Instructional Unit (CIU) 1 3

No CIU (Control) 2 4 TABLE 5

ADMINISTRATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

1 . Background Questionnaire All Four Groups

2. Pre Attitude Assessment Groups 1 and 2

3. Treatment (CIU) Groups 1 and 3

4. Post Attitude Assessment All Four Groups 75

Research Sample

There were six different logistics classes that

participated in this study comprised of 147 logistics managers during the week of December 9, 1974. The sample

population was comprised of 100 civil service personnel

(68%), 44 officers (30%), and three non-commissioned officers (2%). The officers grades ranged from 0-1 (Air

Force Second Lieutenant) through 0-5 (Air Force Lieutenant

Colonel). The civil service personnel ranged in grade from

GS-5 to GS-13.

Age Distribution

The youngest subject was 22 years of age and the oldest subject was 63 years of age (Appendix K ). Table 6 provides mean age for the experimental and control groups.

It was noted that the mean age for the experimental group was 38.66 years and the mean age for the control group was

41.07 years. The composition of the sample population by age in ten year intervals can be found in Appendix L .

Both groups had 15 managers under 30 years of age. The experimental group had 53 managers over 30 years of age and the control group had 64 managers over 30 years of age.

This is shown in Table 6 . Of the six different logistics classes which participated in the study, three classes in the experimental group had a total of 68 subjects (46% of the sample population). The control group also had three TABLE 6

RESEARCH POPULATION UNDER AND OVER 30 YEARS OF AGE

Course Number Experimental Group Control Group Total Subjects Mean Age

Group 1______Group 3______Group 2 Group 4 Years

210 7/12* 19

279 4/11 15 36.12

194 4/30 34 41.20

Total Experimental Group 15/53 38.66

161 0/20 20

178 2/19 21 46.46

175 13/25 38 35.68

Total Control Group 15/64

Grand Total 11/23 4/30 2/39 13/25 30/117 41.07

♦First entry reflects number of respondents under 30 years of age and the second number reflects number of respondents 30 years of age or older.

0) 77

different logistics classes which included 79 subjects

(54% of the sample population).

Service Category

The distribution of the subjects by service category

is shown in Table 7. The Air Force provided 59 subjects or

40% of the total sample population. The Army had 21 sub­

jects (14%), the Navy had 33 subjects (22%), the Defense

Supply Agency had 31 subjects (21%) and there were three

subjects from the National Security Agency and the Defense

Mapping Agency (2%).

Prior CAI Experience

There were 24 subjects who reported they had prior

CAI experience according to the definition provided in the

questionnaire. This was 16% of the research questionnaire

population. Refer to Table 8 for group composition.

Computer assisted instruction was defined as the use of

computer housed instructional materials to teach and/or

test.

Educational Level

The formal education of the respondents can be found

in detail in Appendix M. Within the experimental group

33 managers had at least an undergraduate degree or 49% of the group. In contrast 35 control group subjects had at

least an undergraduate degree or 44% of the group. TABLE 7

SERVICE CATEGORY OF RESPONDENTS

Experiment Course Air Defense Supply Total Group Number Force Army Navy Agency (DSA) Other Subjects

1 210 11 1 7 19

1 279 8 1 6 15

2 161 6 3 11 20

2 178 8 4 4 4 1* 21

3 194 13 5 12 4 34

4 175 13 7 10 6 o ( * D 38 _(**!)

59 21 33 31 3 147

40.14% 14.29% 22.45% 21.09% 2.04% 100.1%

* National Security Agency (NSA) ** Defense Mapping Agency (DMA)

oo TABLE 8

PRIOR COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION EXPERIENCE

Experimental Group Yes No

Group 1 7 27

Group 3 4 30

TOTAL 11* 57

Control Group

Group 2 6 35

Group 4 7 31

TOTAL 13** 66

* 7% of sample population. **9% of sample population. 80

Refer to Table 9 for review of the three major breakouts

of formal education.

Data Analysis Techniques

Scores on the pre and posttest of expressed attitude

toward CAI were then computed. Groups 1 and 2 were ad­

ministered pre and posttests. A "paired" t test of means

was calculated for testing the difference between two

population means based upon the observed difference between

the pairs of individual sample means.

Groups 3 and 4 were not administered the pretest.

An independent t statistic was calculated for the posttest

scores. An independent t statistic was also calculated for

the posttest scores for Groups 1 and 2.

Tests used to determine statistical significance in

attitude scores due to treatment and the interaction of

treatment with other independent variables were multiple

linear regression with attitude scores as the dependent variable and the independent variables as dummy variables.

Summary

This chapter described the experimental design, pre­ sented a summary of the characteristics of the sample population, and identified the data analysis techniques employed.

The structure and validity of each instrument was discussed as was the composition and desirability of the TABLE 9

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS

Some Undergraduate Group College Degree Advanced Degree Total Subjects

Experimental

1 11 14 9 34

3 6 19 9 34

Total Experimental

17 34 18 68

Control

2 26 12 3 41

4 12 23 3 38

Total Control

38 35 6 79 82

Solomon Four Design. The nature and assignment of the groups from the sample population, although not random, were shown to exhibit sufficient common characteristics to permit group comparisons.

The following chapter will include an analysis and interpretation of the data acquired relevant to each hypotheses. CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA

Introduction

This chapter describes how the data were organized,

analyzed and evaluated. First, the experimental design

employed in this study is described. Second, the analytical

process involved with each hypothesis was tested. Finally,

the findings are presented.*

Experimental Design

According to Campbell and Stanley, the Solomon

Four-Group Design represents the best available method which requires explicit consideration of external validity

factors. For readers not familiar with this design, the

following description is provided:

R Oj X 0 2

R 0 3 04

R X 0 5

R 0 6

*Campbell and Stanley, 1963, o£. cit., p. 24. 83 84

A symbol, "R", indicates random assignment to separate treatment groups is necessary. Randomization assumes group equality at time "R". "0" refers to some process of observation or measurement and, in this study, it reflects either the pretest or the posttest. An "X" represents the exposure of a group to an experimental variable or event, the effects of which were measured.

In this study it was a hands-on experience with the CIU.

The "X"s and "0"s in a given row are applied to the same specific subjects. "The left-to-right direction for any 2 group indicates the temporal order."

In the Solomon Four-Group Design, both the main effects of testing and the interaction of testing and "X" are determinable. As a result, the generalizability is increased plus the effect of "X" is replicated in four fashions:

(A) 02 > 01

(B) 04 > 03

(C) o2 > o4

(D) 05 > 06

If A, C, and D comparisons above are in agreement, 3 the strength of the inference is greatly increased. Compari­ son B above should not be in agreement or one would expect an insignificant change.

2 Campbell and Stanley, o£. cit., p. 6.

3Ibid, p. 25. 85

The Hypotheses

The following is an analysis of the four effects

of "X" described above.

A. 02 > 01

There will be a statistically significant change in

the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as a re­

sult of participating in a CAI experience; i.e., the

attitude toward CAI will be in a more favorable direction

after the CAI experience vthan prior to the CAI experience.

The experimenter was interested in assessing whether

a military logistician's attitude towards computers could

be significantly increased in a favorable direction as a

result of a "hands-on" CAI experience.

The null hypothesis HQ :

m < M Posttest - Pretest

The alternative research hypothesis H^:

Posttest y Pretest.

The researcher set a = .05 (one-tail) as the signifi­

cance level. A paired t test of means was calculated for

testing the difference between two population means based upon the observed difference between the pairs of individual

sample means. A value of t was calculated according to the

following general formula: 86 (6) average difference (Og - 0^) for each subject t m a D i.e., if we let be the difference between the pretest and posttest scores for an individual subject (i.e., the i^*1 subject), then

e = £ Di where n = the number of subjects in the sample and <* = .05.

n 9 E D i=l n - 1

The sampling statistic t was used to test the null 4 hypothesis against the alternative research hypothesis.

Thirty-four managers assigned to Group 1 (part of experimental group) were administered the pretest, the treatment and posttest. Given the measures of the two samples (posttest and pretest), the average difference (D) between the posttest attitude score and the pretest attitude score was 6.647.

A value of t was calculated to be 2.693. The difference was significant at the a = .05 level. The probability of obtaining this value as a function of

Thomas H. Wonnacott and Ronald J. Wonnacott, Intro ductory Statistics for Business and Economics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1972). 87 5 sampling error is .01 < p < .02 .

The differences observed between the pairs of sample scores would occur in fewer than 2 out of 100 cases if the difference were due to chance alone.

Since the probability value meets the criterion for significance (p - .05), the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative research hypothesis.

There is evidence to support the research hypothesis that there will be a statistically significant change in the attitude, in the favorable direction, toward CAI of military logisticians as a result of the treatment.

B. 04 > 03

The hypothesis is as follows:

There will be a statistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as demon­ strated in a posttest as a result of having taken a pretest without any intervening treatment.

The null hypothesis HQ :

Post " Pre

The alternative research hypothesis H^:

Post f Pre

Samuel M. Selby, CRC Standard Mathematical Tables (Cleveland, Ohio: The Chemical Rubber Company, Twentieth Edition, 1972), p. 588. 88

The researcher sets a= .05 (two-tailed) as the

significance level.

Forty-one managers assigned to Group 2 (part of

control group) were administered the pretest and posttest

and not the treatment. A paired t test was again used to

test the hypothesis. Given the measures of the two samples

(posttest and pretest), the average difference (D) between

the posttest attitude score and the pretest attitude score

was - 0.524.

A value of t was calculated to be - .231. This

indicates that the posttest scores tended to have lower

values than the pretest scores. A t value of 2.021 would

have been required in order for the difference in scores to

be statistically significant at the a = .05 level. There is

evidence to support the research hypothesis that the post­

test mean score is not statistically different from the

pretest mean score when there was no intervening treatment

(CIU experience).

Group 1 received a pretest, treatment, and posttest.

The difference in attitude scores met the criterion for

statistical significance at the a = .05 level. Evidence was provided to support the research hypothesis that a change

in attitude in the favorable direction toward CAI as a result of the treatment.

g Wonnacott, o£. cit. 89

Group 2 received a pretest and the posttest but not the treatment. The difference in attitude scores was not statistically significant at the a = .05 level. Evidence was provided to support the research hypothesis that the posttest mean score would not be significantly different from the pretest mean score.

With this support, the researcher concludes that there is evidence to support the hypothesis that a sta­ tistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians in a favorable direction toward CAI is the result of the treatment and not the effects of pretesting when compared to military logisticians who did not get the treatment.

C. 02 > 04

The hypothesis is as follows.

There will be a statistically significant difference in attitude toward CAI between the military logisticians who participated in a CAI experience and those who did not participate in a CAI experience.

The null hypothesis H^:

M < M Posttest - Posttest °2 °4

The alternative hypothesis H^:

Posttest v Posttest A / A 90

The researcher sets ot = .05 as the significance level.

An independent t test of difference of means was conducted to test the hypothesis. The mean attitude test score (X„) A for 0g was 264.912. The mean attitude test score (X^) for

04 was 249.833.

The mean difference in attitude scores (Xg ” ^ 4 ) was 15.079.

The t statistic was calculated as follows:

X 1 2 t as

and the degrees of freedom (0 ) by

-2

The t statistic was calculated to be 3.07 which is significant at the «= .05 level. In fact, the difference in scores is also significant at the a = .01 level.

The hypothesis is as follows.

There will be a statistically significant difference in attitude toward CAI between the military logisticians

who participated in a CAI experience and those who did not

participate in a CAI experience.

The null hypothesis HQ :

V y M Posttest - Posttest °5 °6

The alternative hypothesis H^:

Posttest y Posttest °5 °6 The researcher sets a = .05 as the significance level.

An independent t test of difference of means was conducted

to test the hypothesis. The mean attitude test score (Xg)

for 0^ was 257.382. The mean attitude test score (Xg) for

0,, was 240.947. 6 The mean difference in attitude scores (Xg - X g ) was 16.435.

The t statistic was calculated as follows:

t ■

and the degrees of freedom (0 ) by The t statistic was calculated to be 3.08 which is

significant at the a= .05 level. In fact, the difference

in scores is also significant at the a= .01 level.

The above two statistical tests provided the re­

searcher with statistical evidence conclusively to state

the results to support the research hypothesis that a change

in the attitude of military logisticians in a favorable

direction toward CAI is the result of the treatment and not

the effects of pretesting.

Extended Analysis of Data

The preceding analysis by the researcher assumed

that there was no effect due to the interactions of age

and treatment, educational level and treatment, prior CAI experience and treatment. The remaining part of this chapter will examine these interactions to determine if there was a significant effect.

E. 02 > 04

The hypothesis is as follows: 93

There will be a statistically significant difference in the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as a result of the following effects due to:

(a) the interaction of treatment and age (XjXg),

(b) the interaction of treatment and previous

CAI experience (X^X^),

(c) the interaction of treatment and educa­

tional level (XjX^ and X^Xg). Educational

level included three categories.

The method chosen to test for statistically signifi­ cant differences in attitude scores due to the interaction of treatment with other independent variables was multiple linear regression with attitude scores as the dependent variable and the independent variables as dummy (or category) variables. This method permits one to determine if the difference in test scores is statistically significant for each of the items of interest and does not have the compu­ tational restrictions of equal size cells as in an ordinary

ANOVA calculation. The effects of using multiple regression with dummy variables is that the results do in fact con- 7 stitute an ANOVA. The model chosen to do this analysis is as follows:

Y " B0 + B 1X 1 + B2X 1X 2 + B3X 1X 3 + B4X 1X4 + B5X 1X 5

7 Wonnacott, o£. cit., pp. 314-318. 94

where:

X^ takes on the value 0 if the treatment was

administered and 1 if no treatment was given,

X 2 takes on the value "0" if the subject was less

than thirty (30) years of age and "l" if they

were (30) years of age or older,

Xg takes on the value "0" if the subject had

previous CAI experience and a "1" if he had no

previous experience,

X^ takes on the value "0" if the subject had no

college and a "1" if he had some college work,

Xg takes on the value"0" if the subject did not

possess an undergraduate college degree and a

"1" if he did possess an undergraduate degree.

(1) Test of significance of the interaction of

treatment and age. The null and alternate hypotheses are

as follows:

H q : Bg - 0 which implies that

Y - V Bl V B3Xl V B4XlX4+B5XlX5

H 1 : B2 ^ 0 whictl imPlies that

YssB0+B1X1+B2X1X2+B3X1X3+B4X1X4+B5X1X5*

The null hypotheses states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and age variable is 0 (i.e., Bg=0 ) 95

which implies there is no difference in attitude test scores

due to the interaction of treatment and age given that the

differences due to treatment alone and due to the interaction

of treatment and the other independent variables have been

accounted for.

b2 6.636 W c = t71 = = =0.384 76-5 71 s bz 17.261

The researcher sets a= .05 (one-tail) as the signifi­

cance level. A sample value of t = 0.384 was obtained. In

order to reject the null hypothesis, and absolute t value

of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample t value

is less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null

hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment

and age is not statistically significant at the a= .05 level.

(2) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience. The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows:

Hq : Bg - 0 which implies that

y=b0+b1x 1+b2x 1x 2+b4x 1x4 +b5x 1x5

H j : Bg > 0 which implies that

Y-B0+BlXl+B2XlX2+B3Xl V B4XlX4+B5Xl V

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience 96

variable is 0 (i.e., Bg = 0 ) which implies there is no

difference in attitude test scores due to the interaction

of treatment and previous CAI experience given that the

differences due to the interaction of treatment and pre­

vious CAI and the other independent variables have been

accounted for.

9.452 t t = - 0.835 76-5 71 11.314

The researcher sets a = .05 (one-tail) as the

significance level. A sample value of t = -0.835 was ob­

tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute

value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample is

less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null

hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment

and previous CAI experience is not statistically significant

at the “ = .05 level.

(3) Test of significance of the interaction of

treatment and educational level (some college/no college).

The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows:

Hq: B4 ” 0 which implies that

H j : > 0 which implies that

Y“V B1X1+B2X1X2+B3X1X3+B4X1X4+B5X1X5 97

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of

the interaction of treatment and educational level (some

college/no college) variable is 0 (i.e., = 0 ) which im­

plies there is no difference in attitude test scores due to

the interaction of treatment and educational level (some

college/no college) and the other independent variables

have been accounted for. -0.901 t 76-5 " t 71 0.060 15.085

The researcher sets a= .05 (one-tail) as the

significance level. A sample value of t = -0.060 was ob­ tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample

is less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment and educational level (some college/no college) is not statistically significant at the a= .05 level.

(4) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and educational level (undergraduate degree/no undergraduate degree). The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows:

Hrt: Be - 0 which implies that u o

H.. : B_ > 0 which implies that

Y * V B 1X 1 + B 2X 1X 2 + B 3X 1X 3 + B 4X 1X 4 + B 5X 1X 5- 98

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and educational level (under­ graduate degree/no undergraduate degree) variable is 0

(i.e., Bg = 0 ) which implies there is no difference in attitude test scores due to the interaction of treatment and educational level (undergraduate degree/no under­ graduate degree) given that the differences due to the interaction of treatment and educational level (under­ graduate degree/no undergraduate degree) and the other independent variables have been accounted for.

^5 3 544 t7«-s = t7l = * l s ^ n - - 0.231

The researcher sets ot = .05 (one-tail) as the significance level. A sample value of t = 0.231 was ob­ tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample is less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment and educational level (undergraduate degree/no undergraduate degree) is not statistically significant at the a * .05 level.

(5) 05 > 06

The hypothesis is as follows:

There will be a statistically significant difference in the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as a result of the following effects due to:

(a) the interaction of treatment and age

( X ^ ) ,

(b) the interaction of treatment and previous

CAI experience (X^Xg),

(c) the interaction of treatment and educa­

tional level ( X ][X 4 and X^X^). Educational

level included three categories.

There were 34 managers assigned to Group 3 (part

of the experimental group) and they received the treatment plus the posttest. In Group 4 (part of the control group)

there were 38 managers assigned and they took the posttest

only — they were not administered the treatment. The

researcher is interested in assessing the effects of the

interactions of treatment and age, previous CAI experience

and education without either group taking a pretest but both taking the posttest.

The model for this analysis is the same one employed

in the Og ^ 04 described in the immediately preceding

section.8

(la) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and age. The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows:

H q : Bg - 0 which implies that

Y- V Bl V B3XlX3+B4Xl V B5XlX5

8Ibid. H Bg> 0 which implies that

Y=V BlXl+B2Xl V B3XlX3+B4Xl V BSXlX5-

The null hypotheses states that the coefficient of

the interaction of treatment and age variable, is 0 (i.e.,

Bg = 0 ) which implies there is no difference in attitude

test scores due to the interaction of treatment and age

given that the differences due to treatment alone and due

to the interaction of treatment and the other independent

variables have been accounted for.

b2 *3.308 n + - + - =--- * “ 0.394 72-5 “ t 67 ~ sb 8.396 2

The researcher sets ot= .05 (one-tail) as the significance level. A sample value of t = 0.394 was ob­ tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis, an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample is less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment and age is not statistically significant at the a = .05 level.

(lb) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience. The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows:

H q : Bg - 0 which implies that 101

Hl* B3 > B which implies that

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience variable is 0 (i.e., Bg = 0 ) which implies there is no difference in attitude test scores due to the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience given that the differences due to the interaction of treatment and pre­ vious CAI and the other independent variables have been accounted for.

8.136 t 72-5 ~ t 67 " lU.bUT" = °*775

The researcher sets a = .05 (one-tail) as the significance level. A sample value of t = 0.775 was ob­ tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample is less than 1 .66 , the researcher cannot reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment and previous CAI experience is not statistically significant at the “=.05 level.

(lc) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and educational level (some college/no college).

The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows: 102

< 0 which implies that

H i ; B, >0 which implies that

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and educational level (some college/no college) variable is 0 (i.e., = 0) which implies there is no difference in attitude test scores due to the interaction of treatment and educational level

(some college/no college) and the other independent variables have been accounted for.

b* -10.911 * 72-5 t 67 » 0.734 s ^ ~ " 117873

The researcher sets a= .05 (one-tail) as the significance level. A sample value of t =-0.734 was ob­ tained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. Since the sample is less than 1.66, the researcher cannot reject the null hypothesis and concludes that the interaction of treatment and educational level (some college/no college) is not statistically significant at the a= .05 level.

(le) Test of significance of the interaction of treatment and educational level (undergraduate degree/no 103 undergraduate degree). The null and alternate hypotheses

are as follows:

H-.: B_ - 0 which implies that 0 5

Y=B0+BlXl+B2Xl V B3XlX2+B4XlX2

H,: B_ > 0 which implies that 1 5

Y- V BlXl+B2XlX2+B3XlX3+B4XlX4+B5Xl V

The null hypothesis states that the coefficient of the interaction of treatment and educational level (under­ graduate degree/no undergraduate degree) variable is 0

(i.e., Bj. = 0) which implies there is no difference in attitude test scores due to the interaction of treatment and educational level (undergraduate degree/no under­ graduate degree) given that the differences due to the interaction of treatment and educational level (under­ graduate degree/no undergraduate degree) and the other independent variables have been accounted for.

- t - _ 2 L _ ■ ■ 0.495 72-5 67 sb5 13,848

The researcher sets c t = .05 (one-tail) as the significance level. A sample value of t = 0.495 was obtained. In order to reject the null hypothesis an absolute t value of 1.66 or greater is required. This value of t is not large enough to reject the null hypothesis, therefore the researcher concludes that there is no evidence to indi­ cate that the interaction is significant. To better visualize the results of this study

Tables 10 and 11 are provided. The next chapter will summarize the results of this research effort and will include appropriate recommendations. 105

TABLE 10

PRETEST/POSTTEST RESULTS OF GROUPS 1 & 2 RESPONDENTS

265 264 912 (Treatment)

260 Grp I 258.265 A,

255

250 Grp II 250.357 249.833 (No Treatment) An

245

Score Bi B2 Pretest Posttest

B 1 1 Pretest & Treatment 1 2 Posttest & Treatment 2 1 Pretest-No Treatment 2 2 Posttest-No Treatment TABLE 11

POSTTEST SCORES OF ALL RESPONDENTS

265 Grp I & III 264.912

260

255 257.382257.382 (Treatment)

250 Grp 249.833 II & IV

245

240 240.947 (No Treatment)

A1 2 Pretest Un Pretest

A B 1 0 Pretested 2 0 Un Pretested 0 1 No Treatment 0 2 Treatment 1 1 Pretest & No Treatment 1 2 Pretest & Treatment 2 1 Un Pretest & No Treatment 2 2 Un Pretest & Treatment CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

A scarcity of controlled research was found to exist

in the area of attitudes toward the computer medium among

adult learners. In the belief that attitude affects

acceptance this research project attempted to determine if

adult attitude toward computers could be positively affected

through a hands-on interactive learning experience using

the computer medium.

Background and the Problem

Computers made their entrance into society in the

1946 time period. Commercial computer usage did not occur until the early 1950s. Today there are tens of thousands of computers installed throughout the United States.

The DOD is the largest single user of ADPE in the country. Many management information systems have been installed throughout DOD in a variety of functional areas such as logistics, personnel, finance and accounting, civil engineering, procurement and production, etc. DOD managers

107 108 face managerial obsolescence as well as their counterparts in industry and academia. Information handling needs to be streamlined in DOD in order to provide decision makers at all levels the minimum, reliable information, at the right time, in a format easy to ready, interpret, and analyze in order for them to make the best decision concerning the costly and complex weapon systems they manage. These weapon systems are dispersed throughout the world to provide national defense and to support the various military treaties the United States government has signed.

The military logisticians throughout DOD perform one of the most important functions in that they not only assist in the acquisition of weapon systems but also are responsible to maintain them during their life cycle. Computers are affecting managers' approaches to logistics management.

Man-machine communication and dependency will increase in the remaining years of this decade. There are many ex­ amples where past employment of computers in DOD and other governmental agencies have not lived up to expectations reference improved information handling, manpower reductions, improved decision making, reduction of operating costs, etc. These unfulfilled promises have affected the attitudes of many managers toward computers. One author in the ADPE field has stated that there is a love-hate relationship that exists in our country today. 109

Approximately eighty-five percent (85%) of the managers dislike computers and only fifteen percent (15%) of the managers have harnessed some of the potentialities of computers to the point where they consider them cost effective. If this estimate is true, educational programs must be instituted throughout government (federal, state, and municipal), industry, and academia to assist adult learners to correct this deplorable situation.

In this study the basic question addressed was,

"do logisticians' attitudes change in a favorable direction toward computer assisted instruction and computers as a result of participating in a CAI experience?" From this basic question, additional hypotheses were formulated, each of which was tested in several ways.

The Computerized Instructional Unit (CIU) developed by Christopher was employed. Changes were made to address the different target population also, behavioral objectives were added at the beginning of the unit in order for each adult learner to understand what he/she should be able to perform at the end of the CAI experience. The CIU had to be reprogrammed from an IBM 360 to a Honeywell 635 time sharing computer system. The CIU was used through

Model 33 TTY terminals in this research effort due to the number of such terminals available. Acceptability of this

CIU was determined through critiques provided by faculty and staff plus managers attending short courses who had completed the CIU lesson. 110

In the development of the pretest version of the attitude measurement device, 204 items were initially con­ sidered. These items were obtained from Christopher's re­ search efforts, Naval Academy CAI Report, Educational

Testing Service (ETS), PLATO IV and TICCIT project reports plus items constructed by the author based on his ex­ perience and readings. A panel of judges composed of AFIT faculty members sorted these items into stacks corresponding to the Likert scale plus a throwout stack. Eighty items were then selected based on a clustering in either end of the scale. This list was further refined by personnel at the Research Consulting Service at The Ohio State University.

Ultimately, 68 items were selected with 38 items favorable to CAI and 30 items unfavorable to CAI. These 68 items were again sorted by a panel of judges made up of AFIT professors. In addition, 41 managers were administered this draft pretest instrument. The reliability of this 68 item attitude instrument was found to be 0.822 for the judges and 0.828 by the managers. Based on these results, the 68 item questionnaire was accepted as the pretest attitude measurement instrument. The identical 68 items were randomly rearranged and administered as the posttest attitude measurement.

The research population consisted of 147 DOD personnel

(59 Air Force, 21 Army, 33 Navy, 31 Defense Supply Agency,

3 other - National Security Agency and Defense Mapping Ill

Agency) attending six different continuing education courses at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Subjects were divided into four distinct groups according to the Solomon

Four Group Design. All subjects completed a demographic background questionnaire at the beginning of this study.

Group I, composed of 34 managers, was administered the attitude pretest, CIU treatment and attitude posttest.

Group II, made up of 41 managers, was administered the pre and post attitude test instruments only. Group III had 34 managers who were administered the CIU treatment and attitudde posttest. Group IV had 38 managers and they re­ ceived the attitude posttest only.

Statement of Hypotheses

The hypotheses developed for this research effort were as follows:

1. Research hypothesis (Hj) — There will be a sta­ tistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI as a result of military logisticians participating in a CAI experience; i.e., the attitude toward

CAI will be in a more favorable direction after the CAI experience than prior to the CAI experience.

2. Research hypothesis (Hg) — There will be a statistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as demonstrated in a posttest as a result of having taken a pretest without any intervening treatment. 112

3. Research hypothesis (Hg) — There will be a

statistically significant difference in the attitude of

military logisticians towards CAI (pretests were ad­

ministered) as a result of the following:

a. the interaction of treatment and age,

b. the interaction of treatment and previous

CAI experience, and

c. the interaction of treatment and educational

level.

4. Research hypothesis (H^) — There will be a

statistically significant difference in the attitude of

military logisticians towards CAI (no pretests administered)

as a result of the following:

a. the interaction of treatment and age,

b. the interaction of treatment and previous

CAI experience, and

c. the interaction of treatment and educational

level.

5. Research hypothesis (H,.) — There will be a

statistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI as a result of partici­

pating in a CAI experience, i.e., the attitude toward CAI will be in a favorable direction, when compared to those military logisticians who did not participate in a CAI

experience. 113

The null hypothesis or hypothesis of no relation­ ship (Hq ) is assumed for each of the above hypothesis.

Findings of the Study

The findings were:

1. Research Hypothesis (H^) — There was a sta­ tistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI as a result of participating in a

CAI experience, i.e., the attitude toward CAI was in a more favorable direction after the CAI experience than prior to the CAI experience.

Evidence supports and the difference between pre and post attitude tests was statistically significant at u= .05 level which was the result of the treatment.

2. Research Hypothesis (H2) — There will be a statistically significant change toward the favorable po­ sition in the attitude of military logisticians toward CAI as demonstrated in a posttest as a result of having taken a pretest without any intervening treatment.

This hypothesis was designed to determine the effects of a pretest on the attitudes of military logisticians who did not receive the treatment but were administered a post­ test .

For this research sample the evidence does not support H2 * In fact, the posttest scores tended to have lower values than the pretest scores. 114

3. Research Hypothesis (Hg) — There will be a

statistically significant difference in the attitude of

military logisticians towards CAI (pretests were ad­

ministered) as a result of the following effects due to:

a. the interaction of treatment and age,

b. the interaction of treatment and previous

CAI, and

c. the interaction of treatment and educational

level.

This hypothesis was designed to determine the effects

due to the interaction of treatment with other independent

variables such as age, previous CAI experience, and educa­

tional level on the attitudes of military logisticians who

also were given pretests.

The evidence fails to support Hg. There were

differences noted but they were not significant at the

a = .05 level.

4. Research Hypothesis (H4) — There will be a

statistically significant difference in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI (no pretests administered)

as a result of the following effects due to:

a. the interaction of treatment and age,

b. the interaction of treatment and previous

experience, and

c. the interaction of treatment and educa­

tional level. 115

The hypothesis was designed to determine the effects due to the interaction of treatment with other independent variables such as age, previous CAI experience and educa­ tional level on the attitudes of military logisticians who were not given pretests.

This hypothesis (H4 ) cannot be supported based upon the data. There were differences noted but they were not significant at the a = .05 level.

5. Research Hypothesis (H_) o — There will be a statistically significant change in the attitude of military logisticians towards CAI as a result of par­ ticipating in a CAI experience, i.e., the attitude toward

CAI will be in a favorable direction, when compared to those military logisticians who did not participate in a

CAI experience.

Evidence supported this hypothesis at the oi ■ .05 level. The researcher can conclusively state that the attitude change is the result of the treatment and not the effects of pretesting.

In summary, then, the evidence consistently supported the conclusion that a "hands-on" experience (treatment) did statistically change the attitudes of military logisticians toward a more favorable direction. 116

Conclusions

The following are the conclusions drawn from the

findings:

1. CAI experience can significantly change the

attitudes of military logisticians toward the computer

medium in a favorable direction.

2. CAI experience was an effective attitude change

agent in one military adult education program.

3. No significant difference in attitudes towards

CAI experience were found when educational level, age, and

prior CAI experience were examined.

Discussion and Interpretation

It must be stressed it was not possible to assign

the subjects to the four groups on a random basis. How­

ever, examination of certain factors and similar back­

ground suggest differences among groups were not signifi­

cant.

No standardized CAI attitude measurement instruments

or norms wers available pertaining to valid and reliable

attitude measurement questionnaires pertaining to adult

learners' attitudes toward CAI or computers. Therefore,

the investigator had to develop a new research instrument

utilizing selected items from previous research efforts plus creating new items appropriate for this sample 117

population. The validity and reliability was determined

utilizing a Panel of Judges and logistics managers

representative of the subjects involved in this study.

These managers used to test the reliability of the instru­

ment were involved in the pilot test only. The relia­

bility of the instrument was .828. An increase by how

many units would constitute a significant and lasting

attitude change upon an adult learner is not currently

known to researchers in the absence of norms.

The researcher also recognizes that the treatment

(CAI hands-on experience) was a brief experience covering

a short period ranging from 36 to 90 minutes in duration.

What would happen to an individual adult learner if a

series of periodic CAI experiences were scheduled over an

extended period of time? Resources were not available to

this researcher to permit follow-up of the subjects in this

study to determine their attitudes months subsequent to

the treatment administered in this research effort.

Christopher's (1969) study tested the attitude of

71 experienced school administrators who were advanced students in an educational administration course. The experimental group comprised of 28 subjects was given the treatment (CIU). His findings indicated that the subjects attitudes toward CAI became more favorable but not at a statistically significant level. The results of this research effort also indicated that subjects attitudes 118 towards CAI and computers changed in a favorable direc­ tion but at a statistically significant level.

Recommendat ions

The following are recommendations stemming from this research effort:

1. Additional CAI lessons should be introduced into courses conducted by the Continuing Education

Division, School of Systems and Logistics.

2. CAI programs developed for resident courses could be distributed to support non-resident courses in many agencies throughout the Air Force and Department of Defense.

3. All adult learners who attend the AFIT short courses should have access to the CIU as an introduction to computer potential.

4. The CIU should be made available to Air

University for adult learners while in attendance at the

Academic Instructor School, Air War College, Air Command and Staff College, and Squadron Officers' School.

5. The Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) should analyze the results of this study to determine if CAI can be utilized to educate its managers in the Advanced

Logistics System (ALS) environment. 119

6. The Data Systems Design Center (DSDC) should

analyze the results of this study to determine if the

CAI approach can be utilized effectively in support of

its standardized computer systems.

7. Portable remote terminals should be procured

to permit adult learners to have access to CAI programs

in the Visiting Officers' Quarters or other non-classroom

environments.

8. CAI should be considered as a medium for con­

tinuing education by training directors in industry,

academia, government, and professional societies.

9. Professional organizations like the Association

for the Development of Computer-Based Instructional

Systems (ADCIS) and Adult Education Association of the USA

should encourage, support and guide the development of

valid and reliable attitude measurement devices for use in

future CAI research efforts involving adult learners.

Educational psychologists and their professional organi­

zations should provide intellectual leadership and pro­

fessional stimulus in efforts to establish national valid

and reliable attitude measurement instruments.

Additional Research Areas

As a result of this study the researcher believes

additional research is warranted in these areas:

1. Efforts should be continued in validating attitude measurements pertaining to CAI in adult education programs. 120

2. Studies should be conducted which use a re­ search population in another career field (personnel, comptroller, etc. ) to determine whether the findings in this study are career area specific.

3. A CAI research effort should be conducted in an operational environment (non-academic) where managers de­ pend on computer support.

4. A study should be conducted to determine the level of acceptance of CAI among military and civilian faculty members in Air University and the Air Training

Command.

5. Longitudinal studies should be conducted to determine the long range impact of a CAI experience. APPENDICES APPENDIX A

BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE

122 BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Please check those areas in logistics in which you have experience.

Inventory Management _____ Acquisition Logistics__ Maintenance Management Production Management__ Procurement _____ Integrated Log Support_ Transportation _____ Contract Law ___ Logistics Planning _____ Contract Administration Distribution _____ Other (Specify) ___ '

2. Years of logistics experience ______(Civilian&Military)

3. Have you had managerial experience in logistics? Yes ____ No_____

4. If Yes to question 3, years of managerial experience ______.

5. Do you anticipate working in logistics in the Federal Government the next five years? Yes _____ No____

6. Your age

7. Your sex: Male Female

8. What is your highest education level attained?

a. Non-high school graduate a. b. High school graduate b. c. Some college c. d. Undergraduate degree d. e. Less than a master's degree e. f . Master's degree f . g. Less than a doctorate g. h. Doctorate h. i. Associate degree (Community College or Technical Institute) i. j • Other (Please Specify) j.

9. Have you had teaching experience? Yes J

10. If yes to question 9, What subjects have you taught? At what level?

123 124

11. Current grade or rating (Officer/NCO, Civ)

12. Current job title ______

13. Current organizational level

DSA ____ Air Staff ___ Army______Command Hq ___ Navy Wing AFLC, AMC, NMC Base ___ ALC (AMA) Hq ____ Other (Specify)_

14. Years of non-supervisory experience in logistics_____

15. Years of non-logistics management experience______

16. Years of government service (civilian or military or both) ______

17. Do you expect to leave government service voluntarily in the next five years? Yes No______

18. Have you ever witnessed a computer demonstration? Yes ____ No ____

19. If so, what was the computer application (topic) presented and in what year?

Topic Year

20. Indicate below how knowledgeable you consider yourself in the use of computers for logistics purposes. 125

21. Have you ever taken any computer courses?

Self-study ____ Military Schools ____ College Course(s) ____ Programmed Instruction ____ Computer Assisted Instruction ____ Computer Vendor ____ Dept of Defense Computer Institute (DODCI) ____ Military Correspondence Courses ____ Civilian Correspondence Courses ____ Other (Specify) ______

22. Are you capable of writing a computer program?

Yes _____ No ______Don't Know ____

23. Specify what computer programming languages you can use in writing programs.

FORTRAN _____ APL ALGOL COBOL _____ PL/1 _ Other (Please Specify) BASIC SIMSCRIPT _ GASP GPSS

24. Have you ever written a paper (not necessarily published) about computers and/or their application? Yes ______No____

25. Have you on your own, attempted to learn about computer assisted instruction (CAI)? Yes ______No_____

26. Have you ever volunteered to use a computer for self-instruction? Yes ______No ______

27. Have you taken any educational courses using the CAI approach?

Yes ______No Don't know ______

28. If yes, to question 27, describe course, place, date, etc. ______126 29. Have you personally used the CREATE time sharing computer system? Yes ______No Don't know______

30. If you answered "Yes" to 29 then describe whether you employed canned programs, wrote your own program (specify language used), recipient of what type products, how did you utilize the system to support what functions, etc. ______

31. Please indicate your feelings toward utilizing digital computers in logistics management/education (Circle a number)

1 2 34567 89 10 Strongly Neutral Strongly Positive Negative

NAME CRSE NR._____ (No information will be released without your approval on your individual response to any of the aforegoing questions)

***** THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATIVE ASSISTANCE *** APPENDIX B

ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT QUESTIONNAIRE

127 MANAGERS' ATTITUDE TOWARD COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI)

Computer Assisted Instruction is defined as the use of computer housed instruc­ tional materials to teach and/or test.

Have you ever studied CAI? YES_ NO (CIRCLE ONE)

CIRCLE one of the five responses located to the right of each statement to indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with the statement. Use the "Uncertain" response only when you absolutely cannot decide whether you tend to agree or disagree with a statement. There is no "right" answer for any statement. The best answer is what you feel is true. Your responses will be kept confidential and will have no effect on your grades at AFIT/SLC.

SA (1) * If you strongly agree with the statement.

A (2) - If you tend to agree with the statement but not strongly.

U (3) ■ If you are undecided.

D (4) ■ If you tend to disagree with the statment but not strongly.

SD (5) - If you strongly disagree with the statement.

Be sure to respond to each statement. Work as rapidly as you can without sacrificing the honesty of your responses. REMEMBER: the most desirable response is your genuine opinion. For the following statements, CIRCLE the number that represents the response closest to your opinion.

SA A U D SD

1. I am apprehensive about using computers for logistics education. 3 5

2. I don't have much difficulty discarding the old and accepting the new. 2 3 5

3. I think that most managers would be adversely affected by computerized instruction 2 3 5

4. Teaching machines could effectively replace managers. 2 3 5

5. The potentialities of CAI should be understood by each manager. 2 3 5

6. The CAI mode would make me tense since all my responses are recorded and analyzed.

128 129

SA A U D SD

7. A CAI experience would make me feel as if I had a private tutor. 2 3 4 5

8. CAI should Improve Instructional programs. 2 3 4 5

9. Computer assisted Instruction should be a personal teaching approach.

10. CAI should be accepted as a major tool for providing individualized instruction for adult learners only. 3 5

11. Monitoring the progress of an adult learner In a CAI mode should not be allowed. 3 5

12. All adult learners belong in one class since they learn in about the same way. 3 5

13. Access to CAI programs should be available to adult learners any time of the day or night.

14. One of the advantages of CAI should be that it provides individualized instruction to adult learners according to their capacities and individual speeds. 2 5

15. A CAI lesson should be authored by a computer programmer only. 2 3 5

16. Computer assisted instruction would be an efficient use of a manger's time. 2 3 5

17. Course material presented via computer remote terminal devices should be presented slowly. 2 3 5

18. Material which is otherwise boring would be interesting when presented by CAI. 2 3 5

19. Military logisticians should be receptive towards the use of computers for instruction. 2 3 5

20. All adult learners should learn best via the live lecture method of Instruction. 2 3 5

21. In order for adults to learn they should be active in the learning process. 2 3 5 130

SA A U SD

22. Computer assisted instruction should be use^ by children only. 2

23. All military loglstlcans should be knowledgeable in the different uses of computers. 3 4

24. All managers today should use computers on the job. 2 3 4

25. I should learn more about computer assisted Instruction. 2 3

26. Excessive use of computer assisted Instruction by managers could eliminate useful teacher-manager dialogue.

27. My past experience with computers should not prevent me from using them for educational purposes.

28. Computer Assisted Instruction should be geared to the characteristics of each adult learner. 3 5

29. The value of CAI does not depend on the quality of the Instructional material. 3 5

30. Managers should be allowed to study job related subjects using CAI methods any­ time computer time is available.

31. Managers should be allowed to take CAI lessons on the job during slack working periods.

32. Logistics courses should only be taught in the classroom with the manager attending regularly scheduled classes.

33. An unreliable computer system can contribute much to a manager's education experience.

34. Keeping abreast of computer technology should be a continuous process for logistics managers. 131

SA A U D SD

35. I feel the computer's use In Instruction should enable educational Institutions to Individualize Instruction. 1 2 3 4 5

36. Detailed adult performance analysis should be of little Interest to the classroom instructor. 1 2 3 4 5

37. Frequent and objective evaluations should Influence adult learning by providing more immediate reinforcement than is possible in the traditional classroom situation. 1 2 3 4 5

38. The computer should generally supplement» rather than replace, conventional instruction. 1 2 3 4 5

39. Managers should know at least one computer programming language. 1 2 3 4 5

40. As computer technology advances it will open new opportunities for adult education. ] 2 3 4 5

41. Logistics managers should have a positive image of the computer. 1 2 3 4 5

42. Computers are too impersonal for manager instruction. 3 2 3 4 5

43. Since many logistics systems are computerized, logistics managers' continuing education should include some instruction about computers. 1 2 3 4 5

44. Computers are a valuable tool which will benefit mankind. 1 2 3 4 5

45. Computers should become more important in the everyday functioning of our society. 1 2 3 4 5

46. Teaching by machine will dehumanize the curriculum. 1 2 3 4 5

47. 1 have become familiar with computers through my previous experience. 1 2 3 4 5 132

SA A U D SD

48. CAI could effectively take over most of the Instruction In logistics oriented courses. 2 3 4 5

49.' The Immediate feedback which Is found with CAT makes It a highly desirable teaching aid. 2 3 4 5

50. CAI should be one of the many teaching methods available to managers and Instructors. 2 3

51. Manager Interest In a subject could not be developed In CAI courses. 2 3

52. CAI will make managers more active In their own education. 2 3

53. CAI could never overcome problems In the development of acceptable course materials. 2 3 5

54. The success of CAI should be Judged In terms of manager achievement. 2 3 5

55. The success of CAI should be judged In terms of financial considerations. 2 3 5

56. The success of CAI should be judged In terms of manager satisfaction. 2 3 5

57. The success of CAI should be judged In terms of faculty acceptance. 2 3 5

58. Computer assisted Instruction is an inefficient use of the manager's time. 3 5

59. Computer Assisted Instruction will Improve Instructional programs. 3 5

60. Computer service should be provided to home and place of work, as well as to academic institutions. 2 3 5

61. Managers should recognize that CAI Is an inflexible medium. 2 3 5 133

SA A U D SD

62. I feel comfortable working with computers. 1 2 3 4 5

63. CAI Is one of the most significant develop­ ments In education today.

64. Managers should hold fundamentally hostile attitudes toward Instructional computer use. 3 4

65. Managers should not have a choice in the method used in their instruction. 3 4

66. CAI could relieve instructors of routine duties. 3 4

67. The success of CAI should be Judged in terms of technical sophistication. 3 4

68. CAI allows managers to assume greater responsibility for their course progress. 3 4

NAME (PLEASE PRINT) ______

AFIT/SLC COURSE NUMBER _____

DATE QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATIONt APPENDIX C

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TUIPP, YOU LEAR CEP THE MEAFIFO A FP OPERATIPFAL FUfCTIor OF A PAFIO TECHflCAL TERM - - - FOP. PERFORM OFF row pi.e a s e . vnm.p voir like to leapt more apomt twf opfpattofal n»rcTior afo capabilities of computer affiftfp irsTPHCTior? (yr? op fo arn • •rfturk•> ' zYFF FITE TRFf, LFT’F COFTIf’MF. If cnwr irFTAFrrp a nrtFFTIOF may PE POSER VMICH EFPRIRFF THAT vnn A FEVER If' A FFFTFFPE. PLEASE AFFVFR THIF oi?r?TTOf If FFFTEFPE EOPm. V'HAT ACTIOf V'OMLP von FEFP to TAKF to nETERMIFF THF PRODUCT OF a X F? rMlfLTJPl.v FIOHI TIMEF EIOHT PLFAFF OFF A PFPIOP AFTER YOMR FFFTFFOF. RFFFTFR YOUR AFFVFR. :MI»LTIPIY F TIMFF P. ' APPOLMTFi.v rnpnrpT! ? TV'O THIFOF VFPF CHECKED IF vnup AFFVTP. FIPFT THE COMPUTER CHFCYEn'TO FEE IF YOU »AP FFPFP vn|iR FEFTFFCE VITH A PERIOD, FFCOf’P, YOHR AFFVFR VAF FFARCHFD FOR-THE V'OPP ’MIIL.TIPLY*, *MH!.T!PLICAT!OF *TIMEF ' OR 'PRODUCT'. FIFCF POTH COfPITIOfF V-'FRF YET, YOU WERE CORRECT. * '•

4 140

HF*F I? AWTMFP FAFY CMFFTIOf. (9F CAPFFML WITH YOfFR AHFVFP) WUAT IF THF !A*F nr T»F riTY VHFRF THF vAFHirnmr mniMFn* if i.ora t f d ? =WAFHirnvnr,n,r. OFLY THF TA^F OF THF c m (IF. *TTRO?OL IF) WAF d PPMFFTFH. PLHAFF TRY ARAIP. rVAFWILOTOf’ WRO^o, THFpr IF f'O FHCH PLACF. rHTFP ANOTHER ANFWf p PLFAFF. rnAVTnr’,n«To nn.v T«F ha/T nr T«r CITY (IF.*rTPOPOLI$) w a s PFPWFFTrr>, PLFAFF TRY- ARAIP. = Nl'TS . • , CONFHFFP??? npoFT??? OF COHPFF T'JF WAFHINOTON N.ONH^NT to jr VARWINnTor, n. r, Tvp 'FrFpnACK’ vni' PFrTIHrr» rpn" jur OONPHTFP' WAF INTFNorn TO ofoo|'ctratf T,,F PRINCIPLE or •Pino*. APPAPFNTLV , ForTPNF oawr ru r rnrpnTFP c-ppprjrppc; ^ATFPIAL (OARPAOF) - CO THF 0 0MPM7FP RFFPONPFO If’ LIKF rAfVIor, IF.‘ 'VRONO, TWF°F IF NO FHC« PLACF’!!

WHO V'Olfl.n VOM rnfFIOFP TO PF PFFPOf’FIPLF FOP THF FRPONFon? FFrPPACK IN THF PPFl/IOH? CMFFTION? TYPF ONLY THF LFTTFP WHICH PPFCFPFF VOMR CHOICF. A. T"F COHPHTFP P. TWF AUTHOR OF TUF COURSE (CONTENT FPFCIAl.IFT) C. THF PROOPAnHFP (THF PFPFOf WHO WPITFF THF niprcTIOLF TO TUF c o m p u t e r ) P. POTH THF COMPHTFR ALP T”E A.HTHOP F. P-OTH T^F AUTHOR Af’P THF PPOOPA^FP F. POTH TUF PPORPAOOFP Af,r» TVF COMPUTER C. ALL THPFF (COMPUTER, AUTHOR AND PROGRAMMER) rP COPRFCT. vOM OTPH'T PLA^F T’JF COMPUTER ppop.ap^v t?FCAHFF von PEALI7F IT, (T*»F POOP THING) 0FLv POFF WHAT IT IF TOIP. T^r V'PITFP (AUTHOR) OF THF OF^Of’FTRATIO?’ HAF T’»F PRIMARY PFFPOf’F IP XL ITY TO PRPWTpr ACCMPATF INFORMATION.

S 141

THF FPPFROiro MMLTIPl F p'uoipf OHFFTIor WAF PRFFFLTFD in FMPMAFI7F THF TfvpopTAfCF OF T«F HtfMAf’ If THF P R nprp HTILI7ATI0r OF THIF TFPHLOLORIPAL TOOL.

THOFF V’WO FFl.FFT^P Af'FVF^ LFTTFP P APOVF WFPF THF ORLY ORFF TO APFWFR TUF Fi'FFTIOH P OHPl.FTFLv PORPFPT. PFRCOf’F WHO HA OF AT FRFOP pv TvP!f'R P , F OR R Op THF PREVIOUS P'ir FTtO?' V:FDF A'>TPf’1ATlPALLv DROUGHT t o . this point aptcp coppfptivf fffppaph was giv/fn. THOFF V«n TVPFP A, n OP F WF^F PFPI'IRFD TO. TRY ANOTHER ANFWFP. THROUGH PPOPFR POYYANDF TO THF COVPIITFP (popiro), SHOH VARIATION IF EASILY accomplished .

POFFinFP FOP A m o ^FFT -WWAT ^IGHT HAPPEN IF A OMFFTIOr V!FPF PRESENTED FOR VHIP.w THF MANAGER (YOU) HAD NO IDEA OF FVFN A POSFIPLE PORPFPT ANSWER. FOR FXAYPLF, PONSIPEP THIF OHFSTION: HOW MANY W S a p f porTAirrn ir a f i v e pnurn p a r ?? (p l f a f f r u f f s TVPF A NUMDFP) =1?7 4?G7SQ THAT WAS A?' INTFPFSTINO RUFFS, MORE INTERESTING MIGHT Pr HOW voti ARRIVED AT THAT NUMFFP. LET’S PONTINUE

WWFN IT IF LIFFLV TWAT TUF VANAPFR HAS NO IDEA AND HFPPF WOULD nn.v pr PUFFS If’G FOR A PORPFPT ANSWER , Tvr ('OHPMTrP PPOpoAfHirp HAY POOF A. VFANF FOR PROVIDING THF HSFP V'lT'J A FTPONG AFFIFT. IF SUP" A SITUATION, THF HANAGFD WOlJl.n TVPF THF WORD ’UELP’. THF p o m p m t FP WOULD THEN PROVIDE T”F POoprrT ANFWFP. T'^F MAHARFP WOULD THEN pr., proviprn TO FP’T^p THAT ANSWER If OPDFR To PPOPFFD, AS If OTWFP Ff’FTAf'PFF, TUF WAPARFD WOULD P'FFD TO PPrSF THF 'PFTHPN’ FRY AFTFp TWF WOPO ' HFLP * A HD AFTFP ENTERING Tl,F ANFWFP PPOVIDED Pv THF oouPUTFP.

4 142

LFT*q npTrpNlNF IF vpji Mf'PFPBTANO THF 'HELP* ppnrrni?PF. mbino V ’F. ppfviohr omestion roNFFPNINO THF N»»MPFP OF M A w '? IN A FIVE POUND PAP. PLFAFF OPTAir THF cn^PFCT APFWFP pv FOLLOWING THF 'HFLP* ' PROOFPifRF. rWFLP 952 = 952 vOM FWPIILP BE APVIFFP THAT PFVCPAL HOf'fiRY YOUNG CHILDREN PIP THF COUNT!NO. THF TOTAL THEREFORE FAY LOT PF FYTPFMFLV ACCURATE. (IF vOM RAVE OOCABION TO COUNT THEN, PI.FAFF NOTIFY TWF AUTHOR.) FIfTF vOH Hf’PFPFTAf’o THF ’HFLP* PROCEDURE, ANOTHER COMPUTER CAPABILITY Whtth CAN ABBIBT THF VANAOPR WILL PP PXPLAIfFP. ponftIMEB IT IB NrCFBBAPV TOP A ^ANAOER TO FOI.hc- a MATwFMATIOAL PROBLEM PFFORE HF FAN °FPLV TO A nHFBTION. Tl»F "ANAOEP ^AY PIPFOT THF rn^PMTFP TO no THE CALCULATION? FOR him cv TYPING THF C0N**ANP * APF * (FHOpT rop A94CUB, A COMPUTER BMP- cvcjpr-i) f roi.LOV^P PV THF P»OPLFN. OF COURSE THF ' FOPMA.T 0^ THE PROPLF* IB FRHOIAL TO THIF OPFPATIOr.

ABB!,rT FOP Tl,F PUPPOcrc op THTS DFNONBTRATION THAT A FMFPTIPr WERE POBFP WHTfiw»>FPHIREP THAT YOU DETERMINE THF BOMARF POOT OF, 7A7-. TO OBTAIN THE ANFWFP onirvj vf PLFAFF f o l l o w THEBF FTEPB: 1. TVPF THF VOFP ’APT*. 2.. PFPPFBF THF 'PFTHPN * KFV . 3. WHEN THF APPEAR?, TVPF \C0R(74 7) ' ppjrcc* rvrp •pr*mT’f" vry, 5. AFTFP YOUR ANBWFP IB PIBPLAYFP A '?* (QUESTION NARK) WILL FF niPPLAvFP. muFN Thtr HAPPFNB. PPFSB •ppp •prTiipf • k f v . IF v0!l PO NOT PFOFIVF A N'lVFRICAL A NBWFR, von m a r e AN FTP-OP IN TVPINO• YOlf VILL NFFp TO INPUT YOUR PFPHFBT A0AIN. •=ARC ■'

7SPRC74 7) = 27.331301

* 143 • • , . , . COPPFOT. T«IF FAMF PPOrFnopr MAY PF UFFP TO PO APOITIOr (PFf’OTFP Fv +), FHBTPACTION (RFNOTFP BY -), multiplication

Af'P mviFinr c p f n o t f p PY /) AF WFLL AF FOP LOGARITHM, COFINF, FIf'F, APFOLUTF VALMF, APP TANCFNT, FTP.

■' • ' ' ) t h i f *a p p * pporrnupF p a n ° f u f f p p.v t h f k a p a o f p AT ANY TIMF PiiPim ►’OpMAL roypriTFP OPERATION. IF YOU WIFH TO CONTINUE T*'F VAPP* PFFOFSTPATIOr FOP ANOTVFR FrV MIM'TFF, PLFAFF TVPF *VFF*. IF vOH FLFPT TO FTOP THF VAPP' PFMONFTPATIor n o w , PLFAFF TYPF To*. IF vfjff TYPF *NO*' AT TWIF TIMF, VAPP’ WILL NO l.Of’FFP R F AVAILAPLF PilPirn TV if; PFMOr?TPATIOf\ CTVPF VFF OR NO) = no THRFF. APDITIOf’AL rnvpuTFP CAPABILITIES MAVF RF^T RFVFALFP, IT WAF PFMONFTOATFP T°AT A MANAOFE MAV PFO!,rFT wrj p vwr*- rrrrcc:APv , Th t f CAPABILITY MAY pr prfirn o y THF a h t u o p rr vr npcrprq, FFCONP, IT COULP Pr INFFPPFP THAT T ’-'F* "AKAOF^ MAY ALTFP Mi

OFLv A VFPV FEW OF THF MOFT PAFIC CAPABILITIFF OF COMPUTER AFFIFTFP INFTPMCTION HAVF PFFN PFWONFTPATFP VFT THFFR FEW c a w op c o m p i n FP If’ MANY PPOFITABLF WAVF pv CPFATIVF PFPFONNcL. SINCE THIF ,CONCLUDES THF PFM0 NF TP A T10 f ’, THF A HTHOP wnifl.n LIFE TO AFCFPTAIN h o w SUCCESSFUL UF HAS PFFr IN CAUSING LEARNING TO occur d u r i n g t h c p a f t MINUTES. wrrpp rur a u t h o r VO'll.P LIKE YOU TO ANFWFP A FFW OMFFTIOf’F ABOUT THIS PFCONSTRATION,

DID YOU FF’JOY THIF ■ FXPFPIFNCF? (VFF OP F'O) = YFF PO YOU THINK vOI|R TIFF WAF VFLL FPFNT? (YFF OP NO) =YFS

4 144

u t i l i t i e s nn.v v o u p f y p f p i f f c f t h u s s a p v i t h t h i s Cn^puTFP PPOOFA*, PLFASr TYPF THE FU^PFP OF FACH (IF. FVPPY) STATFMFf'T PEL01’ I'ujrH T«y TPOF. PF SUPF THAT vonp AFSVTP APPFAPS WITHOUT A.FY PLAFF? OP OTHFP YAPFS (IF. rn«YA?). (IF. THF IFPUT SHOULD PF OF THF FOPM: * 4? 57K?’) THF OOYPifTFP rAF PF OIPFOTFP TO.... ' l) FXPi.Air w o r d s op t f p y s . ?) rOFTHOL htciial DISPLAYS. 3) PFOALL AFP PPIFT V’WAT THF W A S E R uAS FFTFRFD. A) PFSPOFD USIFS THF FA LASERS FAFF. 5) YFFP A TIYF RECORD. 6) CORRECT OOFTFFT YISTAKFS FAOF PY THE AUTHOR OF THF DFMOf’STpATIOF. " 7) PERFORM OF1.Y FOP HiOtM v TPAIFFP.PFPSOFFFl.. S) PROVIDE ropprrTIHF FYPLAt'ATORY FEEDBACK. S) ASSIST LFARFIFS.

4 145

1345* TWFPr APT FIY

SFVFPAL OFF I OP FORUATF F'op OMFFTIOPF WHICH ARF < AVAI1.APLF TO AOT^OpF 0^ rowpHTFP' AFFIFTFD IPFTPMCTIOP OF^npFTPATIOPF w a v e PHFP USED, 0 Of'FIPER FA OH FTATF^FPT rTrLOV !»' LIGHT OF voup FXPFPIFPCF nruv op THIF PFUOPSTPATIOP, A PP FFLFOT THE OPF (1) TVPF OFFIOP WHICH WAF POT UTILIZED. 1) *A PAGER OETEPEXPEP PEFPOPFE VITl»OI!T A LIFT. 2) Prvc ic a .L PERFORM*PCE ACTIVITIF.F TO PROVF HPPFPFTAPPIPO. 3) IPTFPPAL COPTROL OF wAf’AGEP'S PROGRESS THROUGH THF DEMOPFTPATIOP, A) ESFAY TYPF OMESTIOP I'ITu Iv m r o IATFLY FCOPFD PFFPOPFF. 5) MULTIPLE PHOTCF OMFFTIOPF IIFIPG PUMPFRF OP LFTTFPF. 6) FORCEP OPFFPUATIOP PFFOPF PFSPOPFF VAF POFFIPLF.

4 146

F = 4 ~ ''...... TRUE. THIS CAP4PILITV vrAP f’flT UTILI7FD IF THIS nrMOPSTPATIop. vnn nr INTERESTED TO vfnw that rapid pponprsc is p f i f o m a d f ir nFUFLOPipn t h i s c o m p u t e r CAPAPIt.ITv• Al.PFADvf EYPFPIYFFTAL PROGRAM? PAVF PFFF p ps i o p f d a f d a p f p e i f o t e s t e d uwFRrpv f s s a y p f s p o p s f ? SAP PF ACCEPTED APD SCORED pv TUF rOMPMTFR• FVFP POW, IP THIS PPOnRAf'’, FSSAV TvPr PFSDOPSpS ARr ACCEPTED (Apn PFCORDFO) puT Tur SCORIPO WAS pot pffp perfected. ; TO PFSPOpo ro^?rr;Tl.v IT To o k von 05 SFrnpPS. IF YOU WOULD LI*'17 t o m a u f a p y o f Tu p OTRFP altfppatihfs e x p l a i f f d , TYRE vFS a t t h i s t i m e . if you no POT, TYPF po. CIF. ’VFS * OP ’PO* APD PETMRP) rPO f i p f . sipof you w a u f ropTiPtFpn THPOHOUOHT Tw~ TOTAL DFMOPPTPATinp, von WILL PFCFIVF A RFV4DD. vnu WILL POT PF on/EF A OUT? PUFSTIOP rOHFPIPO ttjtq laST SFOTIOP OF THF DEMOPFTPATIOP. IPFTFAD, YOU UA.v u/wF A COPY OF TUF OAPAPILITIFF (SEVFP) WHICH, I'upp ADDED TO voup PREVIOUS MATERIAL, WILL PROVIDE A OOmPLFTF RECORD OF THF COMPUTER ! OAPAPILITIFF PPFFFPTFn Ifi THIS DFPOPFTPATIOP. TO ACOUIPF j jup PPVIFW MATERIAL TYPF THE WORD ’REVIEWIF Y'OIJ WAFT TO STOP WITHOUT-TUIF FATFPIAL, TYPF THE WORD ’P O ’. rREVIFW \ OTHER OAPAPILITIFF OF ’OAI’ WHICH WERE FHOWP | IPOLMPFD: | 1) thf ii?f o f TuF ’HELP* PROCEDURE, i ?) THE MPE**OTIOFAL PATIFFCE OF THE COMPUTER. 1 3) THF AHAILAPILITY or m a PAOFP PESPnpsES TO THE ( MAPAOEP APD THE AUTHOR. : 4 ) THE An II.TTy TO ppcopp THE A.UOUFT OF TIPF | PFOFSSAPY TO A PSWFP A OUp?T!OP, ’ ?) THF AVA.ILADILITV or 4 PFRMApFFT PFOOPD FOP | TWF UAPAOFP OF u t c /hfp PERFORMAPOF, (pr cupr to TAPE vnupc WHFP vpu FIPISH.) f) T'JF AHAILAPILITV o f THF c o m p u t e r TO AOT AS A CALCULATOR, 7) THF POTrpTTAL o f COMVupiCATIop PFTWFEP THF I MAPA0ED APD THE AUTHOR.

THIS LAST CAPADILITm WILL POW DE DEMOpSTRATFD.'

« 4 147

.THF At'TFOp WIFWFF TO TWANF von FOP VCWR PAFTiFiPATinr w i r e v*F. last j<5 MIHJTFF. IF vni! npc;7pr ft pv a.nniTIOrTU. If’FOPMATIor, PLrAFF COFTACT TFF MONITOR OP CALL vp. ,iOHr DAVIDOVICH AT ??7-74Al OR ??7-7AA2 ,

SyFTrpi ?pyr CRFATF OFF* AT 10.P H

cp ni^cnrrpci?

j

• i

i

s APPENDIX D

SUGGESTIONS FOR WORDING QUESTIONS

148 SUGGESTIONS FOR WORDING QUESTIONS

1. Use simple words which are familiar to all potential informants.

2. Make the questions as concise as possible.

3. Formulate the questions to yield exactly the information desired.

4. Avoid "double-barreled" or multiple-meaning questions.

5. Avoid leading questions.

6. Avoid ambiguous questions.

7. Decide as to your use of prestige names.

8. Avoid "danger words," catchwords, stereotypes, or words with emotional connotations.

9. Decide whether to include indirect questions.

10. Be cautious in the use of phrases which may reflect upon the prestige of the informant.

11. Decide on whether to personalize some of the questions.

12. Allow for all possible responses.

13. Make the alternatives in multiple choice questions realistic.

14. When a long checklist is used, either use card questions (p. 188) or see that the items are rotated on different runs on the schedules.

15. Keep to a minimum the amount of writing required on the schedule.

16. Plan to include a few questions that will serve as checks on the accuracy and consistency of the questions as a whole.

149 150

17. Avoid questions that call out responses toward socially accepted norms or values.

18. Avoid apparently unreasonable questions by using a brief explanation justifying the question.

19. Plan to compare the responses to many single questions with responses to other questions which put the same issue in different contexts. APPENDIX E

PANEL OF JUDGES

151 PANEL OF JUDGES

1. Mr. Warren Barnes Course Director - Logistics Management Professor of Logistics Management M.E.D. University of Rochester

2. Lieutenant Colonel (Dr.) Ronald R. Calkins Graduate Education Division Associate Professor of Research Management Ph.D., University of Denver

3. Captain (Dr.) Bruce C. Elwell Graduate Education Division Assistant Professor of Systems Analysis & Logistics Management D.B.A., University of Southern California

4. Major Arren L. Goodwin, Jr. Course Director, Integrated Logistics Support M.B.A., University of Alabama

5. Mr. Harold L. Rubenstein Course Director - AFLC Materiel Management Professor of Logistics Management M.A., Rutgers University

6. Mr. Virgil R. Rehg Course Director - Reliability Professor of Quantitative Methods & Statistics M.B.A., St. Louis University

Additional Members

7. Mr. Jerome G. Peppers, Jr. Course Director - Maintenance Management Orientation Professor of Maintenance Management Master of Liberal Studies - University of Oklahoma

8. Mr. Roy W. Wood, Jr. Course Director - Surveillance/Performance Measurement Systems Professor of Quantitative Methods and Statistics Master of Industrial Engineering - Syracuse University

152 APPENDIX F

RECODED ITEMS

153 FAVORABLE ITEMS TO CAI THAT WERE RECODED

Pre--Test Item Post Test Item

2 38 1 33

5 40 4 36

7 41 5 38

8 43 6 40

9 44 8 41

13 45 11 42

14 47 13 43

16 49 15 45

19 50 17 46

21 52 18 49

23 53 20 50

25 55 22 52

27 56 24 58

28 59 25 59

30 60 26 61

31 62 28 62

34 63 30 63

35 66 31 65

37 68 32

TOTAL 38 TOTAL

NOTE: Favorable Recoding

5 - 1 4 - 2 2 - 4 1 - 5

154 APPENDIX G

ITEM VARIANCES

155 ESTIMATING THE RELIABILITY OF THE 68 ITEM

ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE

ITEM VARIANCES

PANEL OF JUDGES (6) PILOT TEST-MANAGERS (41)'

I 0.267 I .460

2 0.400 I .578

3 0.300 I .020

4 0.267 0.930

5 I .367 1.376 6 0.300 0.928

7 I .767 1.201

8 0. 167 0.772

9 0. 167 I .505

10 0.300 0.870

I I 0. 167 0.710 12 0.000 0.706

13 0.300 I.161

14 0.267 0.801

I 5 0.300 I . 160 I 6 I . 100 I . 151

17 0.400 0.955

18 0. 667 I .052

156 157

ITEM PANEL OF JUDGES (6) PILOT TEST-MANAGERS (41)

19 0.400 0.378

20 0.557 1.280

21 0.267 0.455

22 0.300 0.555

23 0.567 1.161

24 0.400 1.728

25 0.167 0.495

26 1.067 1.755

27 1.500 0.528

28 0.667 1.199

29 0.267 1.578

30 1.200 0.510

31 0.967 0.890

32 0.300 I.201

33 1.367 2.072

34 0.957 0.874

35 I.200 0.930

36 0.267 0.526

37 0.167 I. 126

38 2.400 0.502

39 1.467 1.548

40 0.167 0.489 158

ITEM PANEL OF JUDGES (6) PILOT TEST-MANAGERS (4 1)

41 0.167 0.839

42 0.267 0.574

43 0.300 0.412

44 0.267 0.455

45 0.267 1.070

46 0.667 1.572

47 0.267 I .655

48 0.167 1.122

49 0.000 0.720

50 0.000 0.612

51 ' 0.300 0.922

52 0.667 . 0.505

53 0.267 I .306

54 1.067 I .298

55 0.667 0.861

56 0.267 0.730

57 0.967 1.106

58 0.167 0.976

59 _ 0.400 0.510

60 0.400 I .302

61 0 . I 67 0.826

62 0.567 I .202 ITEM PANEL OF JUDGES (6) PILOT TEST-MANAGERS (41)

63 0.267 0.894

64 0.267 0.644

65 0.667 0.951

66 0.967 1.089

67 0.967 0.995

68 0.167 0.606 Sum of Item 36.715 66.870 Variances APPENDIX H

RELIABILITY COMPUTATION

160

r Reliability of whole - total number of items -/Sum of the item variances] J J total number of items ^Variance of the total J J _ 68 /, / 36.715 \\ 67 I1 \ 193.367 JJ

= || ^1 - 0.1898721^

= §8 / \ 67 ( 0.8101279J

= 1.0149253 (0.8101279) Reliability of whole questionnaire taken = .822 by the judges ----

Reliability of whole = M /, / 66.870 \\ questionnaire 67 yA \364:360 ))

= || ^1 - 0.1835272^

= || ^0.8164728^

= 1.0149253 (0.8164728) Reliability of whole questionnaire taken = .828 by the managers ---- APPENDIX I

LETTER AUTHORIZING RESEARCH

162 FROM: SLC

SUBJECT: Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) Research

TO:

1. The proliferation of computers In logistics and in society requires research on Its impact. As educators we should explore ways computers can augment our classroom efforts. Computer assisted instruction (CAI) has been getting a lot of attention in elementary and secondary school systems plus college programs. Since we are in the "Adult Education" arena and in the Continuing Education business, research should be conducted as to how CAI can be used with adults. With the implementa­ tion of ALS, STALOG, UNIVAC 1050-11 and other automated systems, research in this method of instruction is timely.

2. A colleague of ours, John Demidovich, is currently researching this CAI area with specific emphasis to current attitudes of our managers (students) toward computers and CAI. John will contact you personally to discuss in detail the procedures he will employ and the number of managers required. Approximately two-hundred managers from a variety of SLC courses will make up the experimental and control groups represent­ ing the logistics spectrum. It is estimated that no more than three hours during three different periods will be required to administer a variety of background questionnaires, pre-tests, treatment instruments, post-tests, etc. These activities will be accomplished either in your classrooms, remote terminal rooms, or cubicles.

3. Your cooperation is requested in supporting this worthwhile project.

WILLIAM B. MEHARG, ColdneF, UMVF Chief, Continuing Educatioiu'Dlvision School of Systems and Logistics

163 APPENDIX J

COURSE PREREQUISITES OF RESPONDENTS

164 COURSE PREREQUISITES OF RESPONDENTS COURSE GROUP NUUBER PREREQUISITES

1 210 Officers - Grades 03-05 Civil Service - GS-11 and above High School graduate or equivalent is required 279 Minimum 2 years production experience or graduate of Production Management I Course Officers - 02 and above Civil Service - GS-11 and above

2 161 Experienced Property Administrators or Industrial Management Specialists Civil Service - GS-9 - 13 with over 2 years experience in the property field 178 At least 3 years experience in contract administration Completed Contract Administration Course 175 Officers - Grades 0-3 or higher Civil Service - GS-11 or higher

3 194 Officer 0-1 or higher Civil Service - GS-11 or higher

4 175 Officer - 01 or higher Civil Service - GS-5 or higher Assigned in Procurement/Production field NOTE: 1 - Personnel not meeting the prerequisites may submit an application for a waiver and each case will be evaluated on its individual merits. NOTE: 2 - All six courses are DOD sponsored which permits officers and civil ser­ vice employees from all services to apply. APPENDIX K

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

166 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE AGE 210 279 161 178 194 175

22 2 2 23 1 4 24 2 2 25 2 3 26 1 2 3 27 1 2 4 28 4 1 2 9 29 2 1 1 4 30 1 1 3 31 1 1 6 32 1 1 2 33 1 2 2 7 34 2 1 2 2 7 35 1 2 36 1 1 2 37 2 2 38 1 2 8 39 2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS (Continued)

CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE CRSE AGE 210______279______161______178 194 175 TOTAL

40 1 1 1 2 5 41 1 2 1 4 42 1 1 2 1 5 43 1 1 2 2 6 44 1 3 1 2 7 45 1 1 46 1 1 2 4 47 3 3 48 1 1 1 1 4 49 1 1 2 4 50 1 1 2 51 1 1 52 1 3 2 1 7 53 1 1 54 2 1 2 5 55 1 1 56 1 2 1 4 57 1 1 2 4 58 59 1 1 60 1 1 2 61 2 1 3 62 63 ______1 1 581 963 942 1409 1356 147 15 20 21 34 38

33.52 38.73 48.15 44.85 41.20 35.68 NOTE: 115 Under 50 36.12 46.46 41.20 35.68 78.23% ^ 3 3 0 v e r 5 0 68 @ 38.66 79 @ 41.27 22.44% APPENDIX L

TEN YEAR INTERVAL AGE DISTRIBUTION

169 % 4.08 99.98 27.89 29.25 21.08 6 26 17.68 31 41 43 1 1 10 13 38 147 13 175 TOTAL CRSE Group 4 8 5 9 11 34 194 CRSE Group 3 2 8 0 1 4 21 178 2 CRSE Group 3 3 0 20 161 CRSE 31 5 4 279 1 TEN YEAR INTERVAL AGE DISTRIBUTION CRSE Group 30 3 9 7 0 79 4 19 15 210 CRSE - 29 50 - 59 20 30 - 39 60 - 69 40 - 49 AGEGROUP

170 APPENDIX M

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS

171 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

CRSECRSE CRSECRSE CRSECRSE EDUCATIONAL LEVEL 210 279 161 178 194 175 TOTAL 1. Non-High School Grad.

2 High School Graduate 3 2 1 2 . 5 8 21 I 55 38% 3. Some College 1 5 14 9 1 4 34 J

4. Undergraduate Degree 6 4 5 6 16 37 i 68 5. Less than a Master's 46% Degree 4 3 4 13 7 31

6. Master's Degree 5 3 1 1 7 3 20 I

7. Less than a Doctorate 1 1

8. Doctorate 1 1 1

9. Associate Degree 24 (Community College i 16% or Tech Inst.) 1 1 2 I 19 15 20 21 34 38 147 SEX MALE 17 15 17 17 33 29 128 87% FEMALE 2 0 3 4 1 9 19 13% APPENDIX N

VARIABLES

173 VARIABLES

1 Dependent Variable

2 Age

3 CAI

4 Treatment

5 Pre/post

6 Education (SC)

7 Education (UD)

8 Education (AD)

9 Treatment X Age (Variables 4X2)

10 Treatment X CAI (Variables 4X3)

11 Treatment X Education (Variables 4

12 Treatment X Education (Variables 4

174 BIBLIOGRAPHY

175 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

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176 177

Nunally, Jum C. Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1967.

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Silvern, Leonard C. Systems Engineering of Education VI: Principles of Computer - Assisted Instruction Systems. Los Angeles, California: Education and Training Consultants Company, 1970.

^______. Progrrmmed Instruction and Computer Assisted Instruction - How They Can Be Used Effectively in Our Training Programs. Los Angeles, California: Educa­ tion and Training Consultants Company, 1967.

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Mathis, Arthur, Timothy Smith, and Duncan Hansen. "College Students' Attitudes Toward Computer- Assisted Instruction," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 61, No. 1 (1970).

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Public Documents

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Reports

Anastasio, Ernest J. "Evaluation of the PLATO and TICCIT Computer-Based Instructional Systems— A Preliminary Plan," Project Report 72-19, Educational Testing Service, 1972. 179

Alderman, Donald L. and William A. Mahler. "The Evalua­ tion of PLATO and TICCIT: Educational Analysis of the Community College Components." Project Report 73-49, Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1973.

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Computers in Higher Education. "Report of the President's Science Advisory Committee to the President of the United States. Donald F. Hornig, Chairman. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967.

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Unpublished Materials

Christopher, G. R. "The Influence of a Computer Assisted Instruction Experience Upon the Attitudes of School Administrators." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1969.

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Robardey, C. P., Sr. "A Study of Selected Michigan Elementary and Secondary Teachers' and Principals' Attitude Toward Computer Assisted Instruction." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971. Yasutake, Joseph. "Advanced Instructional System News­ letter," Denver: Lowry Air Force Base, June, 1975.