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Afro-Creole Spiritualism in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans” Is Organized in Six Chapters Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2014 A Luminous Brotherhood: Afro-Creole Spiritualism in Nineteenth Century New Orleans Emily Suzanne Clark Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES A LUMINOUS BROTHERHOOD: AFRO-CREOLE SPIRITUALISM IN NINETEENTH- CENTURY NEW ORLEANS By EMILY SUZANNE CLARK A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Religion in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2014 Emily Suzanne Clark defended this dissertation on March 26, 2014. The members of the supervisory committee were: John Corrigan Professor Directing Dissertation David Kirby University Representative Amanda Porterfield Committee Member Martin Kavka Committee Member Michael McVicar Committee Member The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements. ii To my spirit guides: Ross, Ruth, Dean, and Roberta iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It seems standard-fare to begin a dissertation’s acknowledgements by admitting that the author could not have completed it alone. This one is no different. I am incredibly grateful to my committee: John Corrigan, Amanda Porterfield, Martin Kavka, Michael McVicar, and David Kirby. John Corrigan was a wonderful advisor—encouraging, critical, and supportive. Graduate courses with him, Amanda Porterfield, Amy Koehlinger, and Chip Callahan helped shape the way I think about religion in America. They have made me a better scholar and they have been wonderful mentors, along with Ed Blum and Paul Harvey. In fact, a conversation with Ed convinced me that there was a great story to be told with the Cercle Harmonique’s records. Religinoles make the best colleagues. I am lucky to have critical and insightful colleagues who are also friends. Conversations about American religion over coffee, evenings of beer and board games, or kickball matches with them were essential to the completion of this project. Particular thanks are due to: Cara Burnidge, Mike Graziano, Charlie McCrary, Adam Park, and Jeff Wheatley. Additionally, Mike Pasquier has been a wonderful conversation partner and friend over the past few years. Dr. Florence Jumonville and the rest of the special collections staff at the University of New Orleans’s Earl K. Long Library were immensely helpful, as were Sean Benjamin of the Louisiana Research Collection housed at Tulane University, Christopher Harter and Andrew Salinas at the Amistad Research Center at Tulane University, and the staff at the Williams Research Center of the Historic New Orleans Collection. I also thank the graduate school at Florida State University who awarded me a research travel grant. My family is the most amazing cheering section. The support they provided was vastly different from that of an advisor, colleague, or archivist but theirs was the most important. I promised my mom a while ago that I would dedicate my first book to her, my dad, my sister, and my brother. And so this dissertation is dedicated to my parents’ parents. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii INTRODUCTION: THE NEW ORLEANS CERCLE HARMONIQUE .........................................1 The Category of African American Religion ..........................................................................4 Religion, Power, and Politics ..................................................................................................7 The Gulf South and the Atlantic World ................................................................................10 Afro-creole Spiritualists in New Orleans ..............................................................................13 1. “WORKING IN THE MIDST OF CORRUPTION TO PRODUCE A BENEFICENT RESULT”: RELIGION AND AFRO-CREOLES IN NEW ORLEANS .....................................19 “The Latin influence among our people”: French and Spanish Colonial Rule .....................22 “A Snake Story”: The African Diaspora and New Orleans Voudou .....................................27 “The City of New Orleans where flesh gains ground on spirit”: American Rule .................35 “Between two worlds”: Educational Opportunities and Legal Restrictions .........................47 2. “THERE WILL BE AN HOUR OF TRIUMPH FOR YOU”: SPIRITUALISM IN THE U.S. AND SPIRITUALISM IN NEW ORLEANS .......................................................................53 “The benign influence of a rational Spiritualism”: Spiritualism in America .......................54 “Parlez-leur, il vous répondront”: French Spiritualism in New Orleans ...............................61 “Always follow your path”: Formation of the Cercle Harmonique ......................................64 An “instructive lesson, a solemn meditation, and exchange of thought”: Séance Meetings ................................................................................................................................73 “Always be vigilant about the state of your heart”: Spiritualism According to the Spirits ...84 3. “ALL OF YOU, AT THIS TABLE, WHO HAVE BEEN RAISED UP AS ROMAN CATHOLICS”: SPIRITUALISM AND CATHOLICISM IN NEW ORLEANS .........................92 “We do not neglect those who suffer down here”: Former Catholic Locals .........................96 “Courage, therefore, my children, with the support that we are always eager to give you” ................................................................................................................................... 102 “Once the penance is accomplished, each spirit enjoys happiness”: Catholic Terminology and Ideas ..............................................................................................................................108 “They blessed the Confederate flags”: Anti-Catholicism among the Cercle Harmonique .........................................................................................................................114 “Shun the Priest!”: Anti-Clericalism and Religious Authority ...........................................122 4. “TRUTH AND JUSTICE TRIUMPHED”: THE LEGACY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN THE ATLANTIC WORLD .........................................................................134 “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights”: French Revolutionary Thought ........139 v “The triumph of the Idea”: Ideals of the French Revolution and Humanity’s Progress .....146 “Dear France in triumph free”: The Influence of French Literary Culture .........................150 “If Catholicism were entirely free”: Spiritualism Reimagines French Catholicism ...........155 “Death to Tyranny. Long live Liberty”: Revolutions Around The Caribbean ....................161 “Better than these servile despots”: The Struggle against Despotism and Oppression ......170 “I am he who believed that France could still be saved by becoming a Republic!” ...........176 5. “AN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE RIGHTS OF EACH HUMAN BEING”: A SPIRITUAL REPUBLIC .............................................................................................................181 “Banish injustices from your heart”: Justice, Wealth, and Power .......................................185 “Forward march, humanitarian soldier”: Slavery and the Civil War ..................................192 “The same rights as you”: Republicanism After the Civil War ..........................................202 “Political clowns will go to dust!”: Reconstruction Politics and Spirits .............................207 “Praise Jesus and Lincoln”: U.S. Celebrities, America’s Past, and America’s Destiny .....222 6. “THE BLOOD OF THE MARTYRS OF THE IDEA”: VIOLENCE, DEATH, AND THE MATERIAL BODY.....................................................................................................................233 “To die for his brothers is walking towards the Spiritual Life”: Violence and Martyrdom ...........................................................................................................................236 “The martyrs of July 30 surround the song of victory”: The Mechanics’ Institute Riot .....242 “Your rights acquired, proclaimed, and maintained”: The Battle of Liberty Place ............249 “Freed from matter”: Death and the Material ......................................................................255 “Black in the land of America”: Violence towards Raced Bodies ......................................260 CONCLUSION: “I TELL YOU, MY CHILDREN, IT DEPENDS ON YOU”: BEYOND THE CERCLE HARMONIQUE ...........................................................................................................267 Postscript .............................................................................................................................274 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................275 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................300 vi ABSTRACT This study focuses on the practice of Spiritualism among a group of Afro-creole men from 1858 until 1877 in New Orleans. It contends that Spiritualism was the process in which these Afro-creoles envisioned
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