arts

Article Rock Art of Soqotra, Yemen: A Forgotten Heritage Revisited

Julian Jansen van Rensburg

Excellence Cluster TOPOI, Freie Universität, 14195 Berlin, Germany; [email protected]



Received: 27 September 2018; Accepted: 28 November 2018; Published: 3 December 2018


Abstract: This paper presents a comprehensive review of historical and current rock art research on the island of Soqotra, Yemen and places these sites within a spatial framework from which it analyses themes concerning water and the visibility and invisibility of these sites within the broader landscape. The analysis of these sites shows how water was of fundamental importance to the indigenous inhabitants over the longue durée. It also highlights how rock art has not only been able to reinforce the ethnographic and historical accounts of the indigenous inhabitants, but also strengthen our temporal knowledge of the social and cultural lives of the inhabitants of Soqotra.

Keywords: Soqotra; Yemen; rock art; petroglyph; parietal art; water; invisibility

1. Introduction In 1996, the rock art researcher Michael Jung undertook a literary review of all the rock art sites on Soqotra (Jung 1996). Within this work, five open-air petroglyph sites and one cave containing pictograms were identified. While recognising that rock art on the island had probably been neglected during the numerous archaeological expeditions to the island, Jung suggested that the paucity of rock art sites on Soqotra was to be attributed to the fact that rock art had little importance for the inhabitants (Jung 1996, p. 79). With recent fieldwork undertaken by the author, however, this situation is changing and not only is the richness of Soqotra’s rock art tradition being recognised, but new rock art sites are being discovered and others for which few records existed are being comprehensively recorded (Strauch 2012; Jansen van Rensburg and De Geest 2015; Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, 2018; Jansen van Rensburg et al. 2018). The aims of this paper are twofold: firstly, to revisit Soqotra’s rock art heritage and catalogue the sites and motifs from historical and current studies. Secondly, to analyse the spatial relationship of the sites from natural and cultural perspective. This comprehensive record and analysis of the sites and their motifs provides an important step forward in enriching rock art studies on Soqotra.

2. Background The Soqotra Archipelago lies approximately 250 km northeast of Cape Guardafui, Somalia and 380 km south of Ras¯ Fartaq, Yemen. The archipelago is made up of four main islands, Soqotra, ‘Abd al-Kuri,¯ Samha and Darsa, and two rocky outcrops Sab¯ uniyah¯ and Ka‘al F¯ır‘un.¯ The main island of Soqotra is c. 135 km in length, c. 42 km in width and has a surface area of c. 3650 sq. km making it one of the largest of the Arabian islands (Edgell 2006, p. 423). Geologically, the island of Soqotra is composed of Precambrian basement rocks that are overlain unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary limestones that range from between 300 m and 900 m in elevation and cover almost half of the island’s surface (Beydoun and Bichan 1970, p. 414). The older igneous and metamorphic basement rocks are particularly well exposed along the H. agher, a granite mountain range that stretches across the centre of the island west south-westerly to east north-easterly ridge and reaches up to c. 1500 m above sea level

Arts 2018, 7, 99; doi:10.3390/arts7040099 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2018, 7, 99 2 of 19

(Figure1). The limestone plateau forms a rich karstic landscape that is composed of numerous natural rock cavities, or tafoni (sing. tafone), and several large cave systems (De Geest 2006, pp. 7–8). The tafoni openings have and continue to be used by the inhabitants for storage, living quarters, animal shelters, and in some cases burials. The cave systems, however, are avoided as according to folkloric belief they are inhabited by enormous white snakes believed to be capable of killing a man (Morris 2002, p. 214). Due to Soqotra’s unique geographical position and mountainous landscape, it is influenced by several large-scale weather phenomena, which include the seasonally reversing south-west and north-east monsoon winds. Unlike the low-lying neighbouring areas of Arabia and Africa, both these winds bring rain, although the majority of the rainfall occurs during the north-east monsoon. Average annual rainfall varies greatly between the coast and interior plains, which receive approximately 170 mm, and the mountains that receive approximately 1500 mm. Rainfall in the mountains generally occurs in the form of short convection thunderstorms that result in violent flash floods. The high precipitation in the mountains is also the result of dews, drizzle and fogs that, especially during the south-west monsoon, can contribute up to 357–567 mm of moisture (Scholte and Geest 2010, p. 1507). This precipitation is especially important during the drier south-west season as it generates a slow but persistent surface runoff, which is often the only source of water in the H. agher and surrounding limestone plateaux (Rossini 2014, p. 29). While the precipitation regime appears to be stable, the reality is that they do fail. The failure of these rains and the ensuing drought often has dire consequences, such as in 1847 when a severe drought caused wide-spread famine and decimated livestock (Hunter and Sealey 1986, p. 113). The north coast was, and remains, the most densely populated area on Soqotra with over twelve thousand people spread out between the three main villages of H. adiboh, Qalansiyah and Qadub.¯ This can be attributed to the morphological nature of the H. agher, which influences the drainage of water in an almost entirely north north-easterly direction across the northern coastal plains. The two exceptions to this are the westerly flow of the wadis in the valleys of Qalansiyah and Shu’ub, and the southerly flow of a limited number of wadis along the southern Noged¯ coastal plain (Beydoun and Bichan 1970, p. 415). The southern coastal plain on Soqotra is made up of one continuous arid plain of c. 80 km in length that reaches approximately 6 km inland where it ends at the sheer cliffs of the limestone escarpment (Cheung et al. 2006, p. 31). Settlement along the south coast was up until the 20th century limited to a few fishing villages, although during the wetter months some transhumance was practiced by Bedouins living in the interior (Morris 2002, pp. 221–22). Soqotra’s population is geographically and culturally divided into two groups of people, those who live in the mountains and those who live along the coastal plains. A geographical division that refers to those people who belong to kin-based tribal groups, own land, and have access to specific land and water resources; and those who have no tribal affiliation and are not land owning (Morris 2002, p. 223). The latter being mostly African and Arab settlers who live along the coast, and the former an array of different tribes that live in the mountainous interior and call themselves Bedouins. The island of Soqotra has a rich historical record that is inextricably linked to both its strategic position at the entrance to the Red Sea and the islands abundant supplies of incense, aloes and Dragon’s Blood (Jansen van Rensburg 2016b, pp. 6–16). The earliest detailed historical account of the people residing on Soqotra was written by an anonymous Greek trader from Egypt in the mid-1st century AD in a book entitled the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Casson 1989, p. 69). According to the Periplus, Soqotra was under the rule of the ‘king of the frankincense-bearing land’ (Hadhramaut) and was being leased to Arabian merchants. Moreover, we learn these merchants together with other traders from ancient Greece and India resided on the island’s north coast (Casson 1989, pp. 169–70). During the medieval period, there are prolific references to Soqotra in the writings of Muslim, Chinese, and European geographers, navigators, and travellers. These accounts tend to be primarily concerned with the procurement of aloes, dragon’s blood and ambergris and the presence of a Christian population (Jansen van Rensburg 2016b). The earliest account concerning Christians is in the 6th century AD, when the Greek Nestorian Christian monk and merchant from Egypt, Cosmas Indicopleustes, refers Arts 2018, 7, 99 3 of 19

to havingArts 2018 met, 7, x Greek FOR PEER Christians REVIEW from Soqotra in Ethiopia (McCrindle 1896, p. 119). While3 the of 19 exact date for the Christianisation of Soqotra is uncertain, it evidently took place no earlier than the 4th centuryearlier AD than (Müller the 4th2001 century, pp. 146–47). AD (Müller The presence2001, pp. of146–47). Christians The presence on Soqotra of Christians attracts a on lot Soqotra of attention in Muslimattracts and a lot European of attention accounts in Muslim from and the Europe 6th toan 17th accounts centuries from ADthe 6th (Biedermann to 17th centuries 2006). AD Within these(Biedermann accounts, however, 2006). Within there these are accounts, a number however, of authors there who are a alsonumber mention of authors that who the also Soqotri, mention notably thosethat believed the Soqotri, to be thenotably indigenous those believed inhabitants, to be th weree indigenous engaged inhabitants, in various were forms engaged of witchcraft; in various could forms of witchcraft; could change their shape at will and raise storms that would either bring ships change their shape at will and raise storms that would either bring ships back to the shore or conceal back to the shore or conceal the island from raiders (Yule and Cordier 1993, p. 407; Smith 2008, p. the island264). The from inhabitants raiders (were,Yule andup until Cordier the 20th 1993 centur, p.y, 407; also Smith known 2008 to have, p. practised 264). The selenolatry inhabitants and were, up untillitholatry the 20th and century, there remained also known a strong to have belief practised in witches selenolatry who were and often litholatry tried and and either there killed remained or a strongbanished belief in from witches the island who were(Snell often1955; triedBotting and 1958, either p. 204; killed Boxhall or banished 1966, p. 218; from Naumkin the island 1993, (Snell pp. 1955; Botting315–23). 1958, p. 204; Boxhall 1966, p. 218; Naumkin 1993, pp. 315–23). The archaeologicalThe archaeological exploration exploration of of Soqotra Soqotra has,has, si sincence its its beginnings beginnings in inthe the mid-19th mid-19th century, century, been been primarilyprimarily concerned concerned with with locating locating remains remains ofof thethe pre-Islamic occupation occupation of ofSoqotra, Soqotra, particularly particularly thosethose which which would would support support the the rich rich historical historical evidence evidence of of this this period. period. These These expeditions expeditions have have located located stonestone tools tools believed believed to dateto date to to the the Neolithic Neolithic and and OldowanOldowan period period (Naumkin (Naumkin and and Sedov Sedov 1993, 1993 p. 537;, p. 537; Amirkhanov et al. 2009, pp. 68–74); a pre-Islamic settlement dated to the c. 1st to c. 4th centuries AD Amirkhanov et al. 2009, pp. 68–74); a pre-Islamic settlement dated to the c. 1st to c. 4th centuries AD (Naumkin and Sedov 1993, p. 605), and several structures, settlements and graves believed to date (Naumkinbetween and the Sedov c. 6th 1993 to c., p.17th 605), centuries and several AD (Ben structures,t 1900; Shinnie settlements 1960; Doe and 1992; graves Naumki believedn 1993; to date Weeks between the c.et 6th al. to2002). c. 17th centuries AD (Bent 1900; Shinnie 1960; Doe 1992; Naumkin 1993; Weeks et al. 2002).

FigureFigure 1. Map 1. Map showing showing the the location location of of the the four four mainmain isla islandnd of of the the Soqotra Soqotra archipelago: archipelago: Soqotra, Soqotra, ‘Abd ‘Abd al-Kuri,¯al-K Samha,ūri, Samha, and and Darsa. Darsa.

3. Rock3. Rock Art Art DespiteDespite over over two centuriestwo centuries of intermittent of intermittent exploration exploration and and archaeological archaeological surveys surveys rock rock art remainsart one ofremains the most one neglected of the most areas neglected of study areas on of Soqotra. study on Indeed, Soqotra. the Indeed, earliest the documented earliest documented rock art rock sites that art sites that were recorded by Bent (1900) and Doe (1970, 1992) are some of the only records we have. were recorded by Bent(1900) and Doe(1970, 1992) are some of the only records we have. This situation This situation is exacerbated by the lack of location data that has hindered attempts by the author to is exacerbated by the lack of location data that has hindered attempts by the author to relocate these relocate these rock art sites. This situation has only recently begun to change with fieldwork rock artundertaken sites. This by situationthe author, has which only has recently relocated begun and torecorded change both with old fieldwork and new undertaken rock art sites by the author,throughout which has the relocatedisland. What and follows recorded is a catalogue both old of and rock new art sites, rock their art siteslocation throughout (where known), the island. Whatdescription, follows is and a catalogue a brief synopsis of rock of art the sites, motifs their found location (Figure (where2). known), description, and a brief synopsis of the motifs found (Figure2).

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FigureFigure 2. 2.Map Map showing showingthe the locationlocation of of the the known known rock rock artart sites. sites.

3.1. Cave3.1. Cave Rock Rock Art Art Sites Sites The beginningsThe beginnings of speleologicalof speleological explorations explorations on Soqotra Soqotra arguably arguably began began in the in the1940s, 1940s, although although the firstthe comprehensivefirst comprehensive explorations explorations were were undertaken undertaken by aby Belgian a Belgian Speleological Speleological Mission Mission (The (The Soqotra Soqotra Karst Project 2000–2008), led by Peter De Geest. These missions explored 50 caves and Karst Project 2000–2008), led by Peter De Geest. These missions explored 50 caves and mapped over mapped over 32 km of underground galleries throughout the island (De Geest 2006). During these 32 km of underground galleries throughout the island (De Geest 2006). During these speleological speleological explorations two caves containing only pictograms were discovered. explorations two caves containing only pictograms were discovered. 3.1.1. Cave-Drawings in the West 3.1.1. Cave-Drawings in the West The first cave art site on Soqotra was found sometime during the Second World War, when TheBritish first forces cave were art site stationed on Soqotra on Soqotra. was found The only sometime evidence during for this, the however, Second Worldcomes War,from whena report British forcesby were Douglas stationed Botting, onan Soqotra.explorer who The visited only evidencethe island in for 1956. this, Within however, his report comes he fromstated athat report he by Douglaswas Botting,unable to anvisit explorer the western who end visited of the theisland island were in cave-drawings 1956. Within had his been report found he statedduring thatthe last he was unablewar to (Botting visit the 1958, western p. 206). end Despite of the extensive island were speleo cave-drawingslogical explorations had beenand research, found during the location the last of war (Bottingthis 1958cave ,remains p. 206). an Despite enigma. extensive speleological explorations and research, the location of this cave remains an enigma. 3.1.2. Hoq Cave 3.1.2. HoqThe Cave discovery of Hoq cave was made during the first speleological mission undertaken by the Soqotra Karst Project (SKP) in 2000. The cave is situated in a limestone plateau on the north-east coast Theof Soqotra. discovery The entrance of Hoq to cave the wascave madelies midway during up the the firstside of speleological the karst plateau mission and is undertaken clearly visible by the Soqotrafrom Karst the shoreline Project (SKP)when inarriving 2000. from The cavea north-east is situated direction. in a limestoneAccess to the plateau cave is on possible the north-east by coastwalking of Soqotra. up a Thesteep entrance path towards to the a caveflat plateau lies midway situated up 50 them below side ofthe the entrance karst plateauwhere the and village is clearly visibleHoq from had the been shoreline located. whenThis village arriving was fromabandon a north-easted several direction.centuries earlier Access when to the the cave freshwater is possible by walkingresources up found a steep at the path entrance towards to the a flat cave plateau dried out. situated The cave 50 mconsists below of the a huge entrance main wheregallery, theup to village Hoq100 had m been wide located.and 30 m Thishigh, villageand stretches was abandonedc. 2.5 km from several the entrance centuries to the earlier end in an when east south-east, the freshwater resourceswest north-west found at the direction entrance (Figure to the 3). caveApproxim driedately out. 200 The m cave from consists the entrance of a one huge reaches main the gallery, limite up to 100 md’éclairement wide and (Rouzaud 30 m high, 1997, and p. stretches 259), or the c. point 2.5 km at which from theit is necessary entrance to to have the endsome in form an eastof artificial south-east, light. The first evidence for rock art is found approximately 1 km from the entrance and continues in west north-west direction (Figure3). Approximately 200 m from the entrance one reaches the limite what has been described as a processional path through to the end of the cave (Strauch 2012, p. 29). d’éclairementThe findings(Rouzaud within 1997 Hoq, p.cave 259), include or the a pointrange atof whichpictograms it is necessaryof Indian, toSout haveh Arabian, some form Ethiopian, of artificial light.Greek The firstand evidenceBactrian inscriptions for rock art and is foundimages approximatelydated to from the 1 1st km century from the BC entrance to the 6th and century continues AD in what(Figure has been 4). describedIn addition, as several a processional incense burners, path through shells, torches, to the endpottery of thefragments, cave (Strauch and a wooden 2012, p. 29). The findings within Hoq cave include a range of pictograms of Indian, South Arabian, Ethiopian, Greek and Bactrian inscriptions and images dated to from the 1st century BC to the 6th century AD (Figure4). In addition, several incense burners, shells, torches, pottery fragments, and a wooden tablet Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, 99 5 of 19 tablet inscribed in Palmyrene were found (Strauch 2012). This corpus of finds remains one of the Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 inscribedrichest sources in Palmyrene of evidence were for found seafarers (Strauch visiting 2012 Soqotra). This and corpus the ofisland’s finds remainsinvolvement one ofin thethe richestIndian sourcesOceantablet trade of evidenceinscribed networks in for Palmyrene (Dridi seafarers 2002; were visiting Dridi found Soqotraand (Strauch Gore and a2012). 2003; the island’sThis Strauch corpus involvement 2012). of finds Due remains into thethe one Indianvarious of the Ocean ship trademotifs,richest networks incense sources burners, (Dridi of evidence 2002 and; auspiciousDridi for seafarers and Goreasymbology visiting 2003 Soqotra; foundStrauch and within the 2012 island’s ).the Due cave involvement to found the various it in is theconsidered ship Indian motifs, to incensehave Oceanbeen burners, atrade mariner’s andnetworks auspicious religious (Dridi symbologysanctuary2002; Dridi (Dridiand found Gore 2 within002,a 2003; p. the 589). Strauch cave Evidence found 2012). it Duefor is considered theto the ancient various to indigenous have ship been motifs, incense burners, and auspicious symbology found within the cave found it is considered to ainhabitants mariner’s religiousof Soqotra, sanctuary however, (Dridi was 2002noticeably, p. 589). lacking. Evidence for the ancient indigenous inhabitants of have been a mariner’s religious sanctuary (Dridi 2002, p. 589). Evidence for the ancient indigenous Soqotra,inhabitants however, of Soqotra, was noticeably however, lacking. was noticeably lacking.

FigureFigure 3. Map 3. Map of ofHoq Hoq cave. cave. The The numbers numbers markmark the the location location of of the the rock rock art. art.

Figure 4. Image of a ship believed to date to the 2nd century AD, found at site 6 in Hoq cave (Photo: author).

FigureFigure3.1.3. 4. ImageDahaisi 4. Image of Cave a of ship a ship believed believed to date to date to the to 2ndthe 2nd century century AD, AD, found found at site at 6site in Hoq6 in Hoq cave cave (Photo: (Photo: author). author). 3.1.3. DahaisiDahaisi Cave cave is located in the eastern interior of Soqotra on the Mōmi plateau at the base of a 3.1.3.limestone Dahaisi Caveoutcrop on the north-eastern edge of a shallow valley. The entrance to Dahaisi cave is 5 m Dahaisihigh and cave10 m wide, is located yet it inis only the easternvisible when interior approached of Soqotra from ona southerly the Momi¯ direction, plateau and at then the baseonly of a limestoneDahaisiat a distance outcrop cave of is onapproximately located the north-eastern in the 100 eastern m. Entry edge interior into of a the shallow of cave Soqotra involves valley. on Theclambering the entranceMōmi down plateau to Dahaisia series at the of cave largebase is of 5 ma highlimestone and 10 outcrop m wide, on yet the it north-eastern is only visible edge when of approacheda shallow valley. from aThe southerly entrance direction, to Dahaisi and cave then is only5 m athigh a distance and 10 m of wide, approximately yet it is only 100 visible m. Entry when into approached the cave involves from a southerly clambering direction, down a and series then of largeonly rocksat a distance and relict of approximately speleothems that 100 appear m. Entry to be into related the cave to the involves collapse clambering of what was down an earlier,a series probably of large

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, 99 6 of 19 rocks and relict speleothems that appear to be related to the collapse of what was an earlier, probably larger,larger, entranceentrance (Jansen(Jansen van van Rensburg Rensburg and and De De Geest Geest 2015 2015).). The The main main gallery gallery is approximately is approximately 2 m high2 m highand 5and m wide5 m wide and branchesand branches right right almost almost immediately immediately after after entering, entering, and oneand need one need only travelonly travel 25 m 25before m before reaching reaching the limite the limite d’éclairement d’éclairement. At this. At point this point a narrow a narrow side gallery side gallery branches branches off to theoff south,to the south,while thewhile main the gallery main extendsgallery extends down a gentledown slopea gent inle aslope south-west, in a south-west north-east, north-east direction (Figuredirection5). (FigureA well-worn 5). A pathwaywell-worn is pathway clearly visible is clearly along visible the floor along of thethe cavefloor andof the in severalcave and areas, in several speleothems areas, speleothemshave been anthropogenically have been anthropogenically modified to provide modified easier to provide access ( Janseneasier vanaccess Rensburg (Jansen 2018van ).Rensburg The first 2018).pictograms The first are locatedpictograms 70 m are from located the entrance 70 m from and consistthe entrance of several and badlyconsist faded of several geometric badly patterns faded geometricand cruciform patterns shapes and ( Jansencruciform van shapes Rensburg (Jansen 2018 va).n The Rensburg remaining 2018). pictograms The remaining are all pictograms located in are the allfinal located chamber, in the within final whichchamber, a large within water-filled which a large sump water-filled extends in sump a north-easterly extends in a direction north-easterly under directionthe floor ofunder the cave.the floor The of pictograms the cave. The are spreadpictograms over are five spread panels over in the five southern panels in half the of southern the chamber half ofand the appears chamber to and surround appears the to water-filled surround the sump. water-filled The largest sump. panel The lies largest directly panel above lies directly the sump above and theis replete sump and with is a replete variety with of motifs a variety that of include motifs geometricthat include patterns, geometric a variety patterns, of cruciforma variety of shapes cruciform and shapesan Arabic andshahada an Arabicinscription. shahada inscription. The other panels The other have panels very similarhave very geometric similar geometric patterns and patterns cruciform and cruciformshapes, yet shapes, they include yet they what include have been what interpreted have b aseen ships, interpreted therianthropic as ships, and therianthropic zoomorphic figures, and zoomorphican animal with figures, rider, an and animal additional with rider, Arabic and inscriptions additional (Figure Arabic6). inscriptions Whilst no absolute (Figure 6). dates Whilst for the no absoluterock art weredates obtained, for the rock the authorart were was obtained, able to identifythe author four was phases able thatto identify could be four attributed phases tothat between could bethe attributed c. 1st century to between BC to the the c. c. 15th 1st century century BC AD to (Jansen the c. 15th van century Rensburg AD 2018 (Jansen). The van profusion Rensburg of motifs2018). Theover profusion such a long of timemotifs span, over and such that a theylong surroundtime span, the and water-filled that they surround sump in the the end water-filled chamber, suggestssump in thethat end the Dahaisichamber, cave suggests must havethat the functioned Dahaisi as cave an importantmust have nodal functioned point within as an important the landscape nodal that point was withinrelated the to thelandscape presence that of waterwas related within to the the cave. presence of water within the cave.

FigureFigure 5. 5. MapMap of of Dahaisi Dahaisi cave cave with with the the location location of the the various rock art sites marked in red.

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Figure 6.FigureEast-facing 6. East-facing photo andphoto line and drawing line drawing of the of motifsthe motifs found found on on panel panel 1 in1 in Dahaisi Dahaisi cave cave(Photo: (Photo: author). author). 3.2. Open-Air Petroglyph Sites 3.2. Open-Air Petroglyph Sites Sites containing petroglyphs were amongst the first archaeological remains found during the mid-19thSites century containing expeditions petroglyphs to Soqotra were (amongstWellsted the 1835 first). archaeological However, it was remains not untilfound the during 20th the century mid-19th century expeditions to Soqotra (Wellsted 1835). However, it was not until the 20th century expeditions that the majority of these sites on Soqotra were recorded. expeditions that the majority of these sites on Soqotra were recorded. 3.2.1. Eriosh 3.2.1. Eriosh ErioshEriosh is located is located on on Soqotra’s Soqotra’s north north coast coast approximatelyapproximately 20 20 km km south-west south-west of the of thecapital capital adibohH. adiboh and 500and m500 south m south of theof the village village Alm Almah.¯ āh. The The sitesite consists of of a aflat flat subhorizontal subhorizontal reefal reefal limestone limestone plain plain 2 measuringmeasuring approximately approximately 10,000 10,000 m m2 (1(1 ha). After After the the rains rains of the of themonsoon monsoon period, period, most of most the site of the is site is coveredcovered by by water, water, whichwhich is is used used locally locally to water to water livestock. livestock. Petroglyphs Petroglyphs can be found can beacross found the entire across the entiresite, site, although although they theyare densest are densest towards towards the central the pa centralrt of the partsite, which of the was site, reported which to was have reported had a to haveroughly had a roughly built wall built built wall along built its alongnorthern its extent northern (Doe extent 1970, p. (Doe 5; 1992, 1970 p., p. 55). 5; 1992The site, p. was 55). first The site was firstrecorded recorded by Lieutenant by Lieutenant Wellsted Wellsted in 1834, inwho 1834, rema whorked remarkedon the presence on the of presenceinscriptions of he inscriptions believed he believedto be toEthiopic, be Ethiopic, figures figures of men and of men camels, and feet, camels, crosses feet, and crosses ‘figures andhaving ‘figures a snake’s having head’ a (Wellsted snake’s head’ 1835, p. 196). A subsequent visit by Hunter (1878, p. 371), mentions that he was unable to locate the (Wellsted 1835, p. 196). A subsequent visit by Hunter(1878, p. 371), mentions that he was unable inscriptions, but did record numerous hieroglyphs that were spread across the site. In addition, he to locatementions the inscriptions,that the most numerous but did recordpetroglyphs numerous found at hieroglyphs this site were that the wereoutlines spread of feet, across mostly the in site. In addition,pairs (Hunter he mentions 1878, p. 371). that The the inscriptions most numerous continue petroglyphs to attract attention found atand this during site werean expedition the outlines to of feet, mostlySoqotra inin pairs1881 the (Hunter naturalist 1878 George, p. 371). Schweinfurth The inscriptions visited continueEriosh and to described attract attention seeing hieroglyphs and during an expeditionas well toas Soqotra letters from in 1881 the Greek the naturalist and Roman George script. Schweinfurth He also comments visited on Eriosh finding and several described crosses, seeing hieroglyphscircles and as wellfigures as lettershaving from a snake’s the Greek head and (Schwe Romaninfurth script. 1891, He p. also 52). comments Several years on finding later the several crosses,archaeologist circles and Theodore figures Bent having documented a snake’s what head he ( Schweinfurthdeemed to be a 1891‘purely, p. Ethiopic 52). Several script’ yearssimilar later to the archaeologistthat he had Theodore seen in Aksum Bent documented(Bent 1900, p. 354). what Amon he deemedgst the script to be he a ‘purelyalso recorded Ethiopic seeing script’ images similar of to that hecamels, had snakes, seen in numerous Aksum ( feetBent drawn 1900 ,side p. 354).by side, Amongst and crosses. the Some script of he the also crosses recorded were said seeing to have images been drawn between the feet, while others were drawn within a circle that were believed to be similar of camels, snakes, numerous feet drawn side by side, and crosses. Some of the crosses were said to to those found on Ethiopic coins (Bent 1900, p. 354). In 1956, as part of an Oxford expedition to haveSoqotra, been drawn the archaeologist between the Shinnie feet, whilevisited others the site were and recorded drawn within several amotifs, circle remarking that were that believed many to be similarof them to those were found camel on brands, Ethiopic possible coins inscriptions (Bent 1900 and, p. feet 354). (Shinnie In 1956, 1960, as p. part 107). of He an also Oxford provides expedition one to Soqotra,of the the first archaeologist published dr Shinnieawn record visited of motifs the site from and the recorded site, much several of which motifs, he remarkinghad copied thatfrom many of themdrawings were that camel were brands, done during possible the inscriptionsearlier visits of and Hunter feet (andShinnie Schweinf 1960urth,, p. but 107). never He published also provides one of(Shinnie the first 1960, published p. 109, Figure drawn 7) record. Theseof drawings motifs fromdepict the a number site, much of cruciform of which shapes, he had feet copied and from drawingsoutlines that of werefeet, a done camel, during inscriptions, the earlier and a visits number of Hunterof indeterminable and Schweinfurth, geometric butpatterns. never Shortly published (Shinnieafter 1960 Shinnie,, p. 109, Eriosh Figure was 7). visited These by drawings Captain depictPeter Boxhall a number who of mentions cruciform that shapes, in addition feet and to the outlines inscriptions, feet, camels and crosses found there were also portrayals of hands, goats and ‘symbolic of feet, a camel, inscriptions, and a number of indeterminable geometric patterns. Shortly after Shinnie, plants’ (Boxhall 1966, p. 220). In 1967, the archaeologist Brian Doe also sought out Eriosh, remarking Eriosh was visited by Captain Peter Boxhall who mentions that in addition to the inscriptions, feet, camels and crosses found there were also portrayals of hands, goats and ‘symbolic plants’ (Boxhall 1966, p. 220). In 1967, the archaeologist Brian Doe also sought out Eriosh, remarking that the inscriptions he observed bore resemblance to early South Arabian inscriptions on the mainland with Ethiopic Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, 99 8 of 19 that the inscriptions he observed bore resemblance to early South Arabian inscriptions on the mainland with Ethiopic characteristics (Doe 1970, p. 5). He mentions that amongst the motifs there characteristicsare numerous (depictionsDoe 1970, p.of 5).outlines He mentions of feet, that geometric amongst shapes, the motifs animals there andare numerousanthropomorphs depictions (Doe of outlines1992, p. of57). feet, In addition, geometric Doe shapes, drew animals 40 motifs and from anthropomorphs the site, remarking (Doe 1992 that, p. it 57). had In not addition, been possible Doe drew to 40take motifs photographs from the due site, remarkingto the lack thatof a itshadow had not cast been by possible the shallowness to take photographs of the pecking due (Doe to the 1970, lack ofpp. a shadow31–33, Figures cast by 8–10; the shallowness 1992, p. 43, ofFigure the pecking 4; p. 54, (Doe Figure 1970 12;, pp. p. 31–33,56, Figure Figures 13). 8–10;The drawings1992, p. 43, depict Figure the 4; p.inscriptions, 54, Figure12; feet p. 56,and Figure outlines 13). The of drawingsfeet, cruciform depict the shapes, inscriptions, crosses feet within and outlines circles of feet,and cruciformsquares, shapes,anthropomorphs crosses within (described circles andby squares,Jung (1996, anthropomorphs p. 80) as orants), (described several by Jung indeterminable(1996, p. 80) asgeometric orants), severalpatterns, indeterminable and what has been geometric described patterns, by Jung and (1996, what hasp. 80) been as ibex, described sheep, by or Jung oxen,(1996 and, Boxhall p. 80) as (1966, ibex, sheep,p. 220) or as oxen, goats and (Figure Boxhall 7).(1966 During, p. 220)the as1980s goats a (Figurejoint Soviet-Yemeni7). During the 1980sstudy aof joint the Soviet-Yemeni island and its studyinhabitants of the was island undertaken and its inhabitants by Vitaly Naumkin, was undertaken who remarked by Vitaly that Naumkin, at Eriosh whothere remarked were depictions that at Erioshof feet, therea camel were being depictions hunted ofand feet, inscriptions a camel being that did hunted not resemble and inscriptions an early that South did Arabian not resemble script anas earlywas proposed South Arabian by Doe script (1992, as p. was 57). proposed In addition by Doe to these(1992 descriptions, p. 57). In addition he also torecorded these descriptions 23 motifs that he alsoincluded recorded inscriptions, 23 motifs feet, that a included cruciform inscriptions, within a ci feet,rcle, acamels, cruciform and withinvarious a indeterminable circle, camels, and geometric various indeterminablepatterns (Naumkin geometric 1993, p. patterns 97, Figures (Naumkin 4 and 19935a,b;, 20 p.12, 97, p. Figures 136, Figure 4 and 12). 5a,b; In 2012 conclusion,, p. 136, FigureNaumkin 12). In(1993, conclusion, p. 93) proposed Naumkin dating(1993 the, p. motifs 93) proposed at Eriosh dating to the thesecond motifs half at of Eriosh the first to themillennium second half BC, ofbased the firston data millennium obtained BC, from based a cemetery on data obtained excavated from in aRa cemeteryquf, in the excavated north-eastern in Raquf, interior in the of north-eastern the island. interiorHowever, of no the explanation island. However, concerning no explanation the reasoning concerning behind thethis reasoninghypothesis behind is given. this Moreover, hypothesis the is given.dating Moreover,of the cemetery the dating has also of thebeen cemetery disputed has (Weeks also been et al. disputed 2002, p. 120). (Weeks Despite et al. 2002these, p.various 120). Despitereports theseand drawings various reports made, andthe site drawings of Eriosh made, has thenever site been of Eriosh fully hasrecorded never and been it fully is not recorded clear as andto the it isexact not clearnumber as toof themotifs exact that number are present. of motifs This that situation are present. was exacerbated This situation by wasroadworks exacerbated that in by 2003 roadworks cut a c. that10 m in wide 2003 swath cut a through c. 10 m wide the eastern swath throughpart of the the site eastern destroying part of up the to site10% destroying of the motifs up (Van to 10% Damme of the motifset al. 2004). (Van Damme et al. 2004).

Figure 7. Overhead image showing a series of foot motifs found at Eriosh (Photo: author).

3.2.2. SHP_067 SHP_067 lies on the north-eastern edgeedge ofof thethe H a. adibohdiboh plain, c. 350 350 m so south-westuth-west of the modern town of Suq and and c. c. 2.5 2.5 km km west west of of the the capital, capital, aH.diboh.adiboh. The The site site is iscomposed composed of ofan anoutcropping outcropping of ofseveral several flat flat plates plates of ofCalcarenite Calcarenite limestone limestone that that extends extends 176 176 m m in in an an east-west east-west direction direction and are interspersed withwith aeolian and alluvial sands, gravel,gravel, and scrub. Petroglyphs can be found throughout the entire outcrop, although thethe mainmain concentrationconcentration lieslies c.c. 103 m west of the eastern-most edge of the outcrop inin anan area area spanning spanning approximately approximately 11 11 m m× 5× m.5 m. The The first first documented documented evidence evidence of this of sitethis wassite bywas Boxhall by Boxhall(1966, p.(1966, 20) who,p. 20) other who, than other mentioning than mentioning having found having the site,found provided the site, no provided description no ofdescription the motifs. of Shortlythe motifs. thereafter, Shortly the thereafter, site was the visited site was by Doe visited(1961 by, 1992 Doe) who(1961, recorded 1992) who a ‘number recorded of a pecked‘number designs’, of pecked that designs’, included that cruciform included shapes, cruciform a foot, shapes, and motifs a foot, that and were motifs ‘fanciful that andwere flowerlike’ ‘fanciful inand design flowerlike’ (Doe 1992 in design, p. 82). (Doe According 1992, p. to 82). Doe, According some of the to motifsDoe, some were of made the motifs by the Portuguesewere made duringby the theirPortuguese short-lived during occupation their short-lived of Soqotra, occupation while others, of Soqotra, particularly while some others, of the particularly cruciform shapessome of were the

Arts 2018, 7, 99 9 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19 peckedcruciform during shapes the were early pecked foundation during of the Christianity early foun ondation Soqotra of Christianity (Doe 1992, p.on 82).Soqotra He attributes (Doe 1992, this p. early82). He date attributes to the similarities this early date between to the the similari cruciformties between shapes found the cruciform at SHP_067 shapes and thosefoundfound at SHP_067 in the vicinityand those of found a sixth in century the vicinity AD text of recordeda sixth century at H. u s.ADn al-Ghur text recordedab,¯ present-day at u n Bi’ral-Ghur ‘Al¯ıā inb, the present-day Southern HBi. aʾʿd r. ramawtAlī in the (Doe Southern 1961). a ramawt Doe’s description (Doe 1961). and hisDoe’s sketches description of ten and motifs his sketches (see Doe of 1970 ten, motifs pp. 84–85, (see FiguresDoe 1970, 29 pp. and 84–85, 30; 1992 Figures, pp. 82–83, 29 and Figures 30; 1992, 19 pp. and 8 20)2–83, were, Figures up until 19 and recently, 20) were, the soleup until record recently, of this site.the sole Further record work of this undertaken site. Further by the work author undertak in conjunctionen by the with author the Soqotrain conjunction Heritage with Project the Soqotra in 2018, hasHeritage expanded Project upon in 2018, this corpus,has expanded locating upon and recordingthis corpus, 187 locating rock art and motifs recording that include 187 rock feet, art cupules, motifs athat ship, include various feet, geometric cupules, patterns, a ship, cruciformvarious geometric shapes, several patterns, plant-like cruciform motifs, shapes, and a several script (Jansen plant-like van Rensburgmotifs, and et a al. script 2018 (Jansen) (Figure van8). Rensburg The script et found al. 2018) at SHP_067 (Figure 8). is similarThe script to thefound inscriptions at SHP_067 recorded is similar in Erioshto the inscriptions (Doe 1970, pp. recorded 84–85, in Figures Eriosh 29 (Doe and 1970, 30; 1992 pp., 84–85, pp. 82–83, Figures Figures 29 and 19 and30; 1992, 20), both pp. 82–83, of which Figures have recently19 and 20), been both identified of which as have being recently the same been or identifi closelyed related as being to a the script same recorded or closely in Dhofar,related to known a script as Scriptrecorded 1 (Al in¯ı Dhofar, Mah. aš¯ al-Ša knownh. r¯ı andas Script King. 1 n.d.(Al īn.d. Ma , p.āš 2).al-Ša r Whilstī and this King script n.d., is known p. 2). Whilst to be related this script to the is familyknown ofto South be related Semitic to scriptsthe family it has of not South yet beenSemiti datedc scripts or deciphered. it has not yet The been initial dated dating or ofdeciphered. the site by DoeThe initial suggests dating a 6th of century the site AD by Doeterminus suggests post quema 6th. century However, AD in terminus light of the post recent quem. historical However, evidence in light forof the the recent conversion historical of the evidence population for the at aconversion much earlier of the period population than had at previously a much earlier been period considered than (hadBukharin previously 2012 ,been pp. 522–26),considered it is (Bukharin possible to 2012, extend pp. the522–26),terminus it is postpossible quem toto extend at least the the terminus 4th century post AD.quem Unfortunately, to at least the this4th sitecentury liesin AD. one Unfortunately, of the most populated this site areaslies in on one Soqotra, of the and most large populated swaths ofareas the siteon Soqotra, are already and dividedlarge swaths into plots of the for site housing. are already divided into plots for housing.

Figure 8.8. OverheadOverhead image image of theof the densest densest area ofarea petroglyphs of petroglyphs found atfound SHP_067, at SHP_067, showing theshowing cruciform the shapescruciform (Photo: shapes author). (Photo: author). 3.2.3. Di Seberho 3.2.3. Di eberho. The site of Di Seberho lies at the western extremity of the southern coastal plain, c. 1 km west The site of Di eberho. lies at the western extremity of the southern coastal plain, c. 1 km west of of the village of Di Seberho. The site, located in 2015, is the first recorded instance of rock art in the the village of Di eberho.. The site, located in 2015, is the first recorded instance of rock art in the south south coast of Soqotra (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a). The petroglyphs recorded were all pecked onto coast of Soqotra (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a). The petroglyphs recorded were all pecked onto a flat, a flat, quaternary limestone outcrop that has been exposed along a well-worn track that runs east to quaternary limestone outcrop that has been exposed along a well-worn track that runs east to west west from Di Seberho to Ras Qatanan, and is still used by local herders. The actual size of the site is as from Di eberho. to Ras Qa anan,. and is still used by local herders. The actual size of the site is as yet yet unclear, as large areas remain covered by aeolian and alluvial sands and scrub. The petroglyphs unclear, as large areas remain covered by aeolian and alluvial sands and scrub. The petroglyphs that that were recorded include various foot motifs, orants, cupules, a three-leaf clover-shaped motif were recorded include various foot motifs, orants, cupules, a three-leaf clover-shaped motif and and geometric patterns that have been interpreted as wasum, or signs that are used to indicate tribal geometric patterns that have been interpreted as wasum, or signs that are used to indicate tribal identity, affiliation or ownership (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 150) (Figure9). The site is believed to identity, affiliation or ownership (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 150) (Figure 9). The site is believed have functioned as a religious site and/or milestone along a ritualistic pathway. Due to the lack of to have functioned as a religious site and/or milestone along a ritualistic pathway. Due to the lack of cross symbology found at this site it is further supposed that the inhabitants had either not adopted cross symbology found at this site it is further supposed that the inhabitants had either not adopted Christianity, or that this site had been abandoned before the arrival of Christianity on the island in the Christianity, or that this site had been abandoned before the arrival of Christianity on the island in 4th to 5th century AD (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 151). the 4th to 5th century AD (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, p. 151).

Arts 2018, 7, 99x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Figure 9. Image of the large number of foot motifs found at Di eberho (Photo: author). Figure 9. ImageImage of the large number of foot motifsmotifs found at Di S eberho. eberho (Photo: author). 3.2.4. Simar Qar 3.2.4. Simar Qar Simar Qar is located within a wide bay on the north-west coast, approximately 7 km south of Rās BidohSimar and QarQar 11 isis locatedkmlocated east within ofwithin Rās aShu’ub. a wide wide bay Thebay on petroglyphson the the north-west north-west are found coast, coast, approximatelyon approximatelya large rectangular 7 km 7 km south limestone south of R asof¯ blockBidohRās Bidoh that and and 11appears km 11 eastkm to ofeasthave R as¯of formed Shu’ub.Rās Shu’ub. part The petroglyphsofThe the petroglyphs southern are foundwall are foundof on a alarge largeon a abandonedlarge rectangular rectangular settlement. limestone limestone block The limestonethatblock appears that blockappears to have has to formedtwo have deep formed part depressions of thepart southern of the cut southern wallinto ofthe a wallfront large of abandonedsurface a large and abandoned settlement. what appear settlement. The to limestone be fiveThe abradedblocklimestone has geometrictwo block deep has depressionsmotifs two deepalong cutdepressions the into side the (Figure front cut surface into10). Accordingthe and front what surface to appear Doe, and tothe be whatlimestone five abradedappear block to geometric wasbe five an ‘alter’motifsabraded stone along geometric with the side two motifs (Figure libation along 10 cupules). the According side and (Figure an to Doe,abbreviated 10). the According limestone inscription to block Doe, or was the monogram anlimestone ‘alter’ stonein block early with was South two an Arabianlibation‘alter’ stone cupulesscript. with He and two also an libation remarks abbreviated cupules that inscriptionthe and inscriptio an abbreviated or monogramn also bears inscription in similarities early Southor monogram with Arabian a geometric script.in early Hepattern South also recordedremarksArabian thatscript.by the the He Bents inscription also in remarks Zimbabwe also that bears (Doe the similarities inscriptio 1970, pp. withn 1–2, also apl. geometricbears 5–6; similarities 1992, pattern p. 46, with recordedpl. 26). a geometric When by the analysing Bentspattern in theZimbabwerecorded images by (ofDoe the the 1970Bents limestone, pp.in Zimbabwe 1–2, block pl. 5–6;it is (Doe 1992clear 1970,, that p. 46, thepp. pl. two1–2, 26). so-called pl. When 5–6; analysing 1992, libation p. 46, theholes pl. images are26). not When of theonly analysing limestone aligned, butblockthe imagesare it also is clear ofcut the thatto limestonethe the same two depth. block so-called itThis, is libationclear together that holes the with two are thenot so-called fact only that aligned, libationthey do but holesnot are occur are also noton cut theonly to same the aligned, same face asdepth.but the are inscriptions This,also cut together to thewould withsame seem thedepth. factto indicate This, that theytogether that do they not with occurwere the probablyfact on the that same th postey face dosupports not as theoccur rather inscriptions on thethan same libation would face holes.seemas the toinscriptions indicate that would they seem were to probably indicate post that supportsthey were rather probably than post libation supports holes. rather than libation holes.

Figure 10. Image showing the ‘alter’‘alter’ stone (Photo: author). author). Figure 10. Image showing the ‘alter’ stone (Photo: author).

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3.2.5. Haidi, Qalansiyah During the travels of Mabel and Theodore Bent they recorded a number of petroglyph sites, including one that was said to be near Haidi village ‘some distance in the direction of the mountains’ from Qalansiyah (Bent 1900, p. 351, Appendices VI). Despite several attempts, it has been impossible to relocate this site as there is no known village known as Haidi, and Qalansiyah has several mountains in its vicinity. According to the Bents, the site consisted of a large upright rock with inscriptions believed to be either late Himyaritic or Ethiopic (Bent 1900, p. 351). The inscriptions that were copied, however, appear to be the same or closely related to the scripts that were recorded in Eriosh and SHP_067, which have been identified as being similar or closely related to a Script 1 that was recorded in Dhofar (Al¯ı Mah. aš¯ al-Šah. r¯ı and King. n.d. n.d., p. 2).

3.2.6. Dihaiterere The site of Dihaiterere remains another enigmatic site that was recorded by the Bents during their travels around Soqotra. Within the appendices, there are eight cross designs that were said to have been copied from the rocks of Dihaiterere on the hill Ditrerre, a spur of Hamar (Bent 1900, p. 438). While this site is not directly mentioned in the text it is likely that the reference to ‘a rock at the top of a hill to the east of the island which had been covered with rude representations of the Ethiopic cross’ refers to this site (Bent 1900, p. 356). The name Dihaiterere is not known locally, although it is possible that it could refer to a hill in the vicinity of wadi Dirhor, known as Dihaher, which lies in the east (Bezdˇeket al. 2012, p. 39). This far, however, it has not been possible to relocate the site.

4. Discussion Rock art is by its very nature part of the landscape insofar as it is a permanent inscription upon the land that creates a place from space. The signing of landscape and with it the act of place making is a practice that is widely known and has been in use for millennia. Nonetheless, it still provides a useful insight into the relationship between people and their natural surroundings, and how they included this into their social and ideological realms. To grasp even a rudimentary understanding of this space and the symbols therein one needs to see the landscape as a palimpsest that is multi-layered and continually changing both temporally, spatially and cognitively. Moreover, by going beyond the limits of seeing place as small, culturally significant locales within a specific temporal setting, one can also explore how visual signs were used within the overall natural and cultural environment of Soqotra. To achieve this, I analyze the above-mentioned sites and their motifs (see Table1) in a social, cultural and environmental context in an attempt to gain an insight into the social, ideological, and cultural lives of the indigenous inhabitants’ of Soqotra.

Table 1. A brief synopsis of the location, size, motifs, and period of the sites mentioned in the text.

Site Location and Size Motifs Period Cave-drawings in Unknown Unknown Unknown the west North-eastern coast. 248 pictograms consisting of Indian, South 1st century BC to 6th Hoq cave A 2.5 km long Arabian, Ethiopian, Greek and Bactrian century AD underground gallery. inscriptions and images. Eastern interior. Momi 104 pictograms that include geometric lines and 1st century BC to Dahaisi cave Plateau. A 175 m long patterns, cruciform shapes, ships, therianthropic 15th century AD underground gallery. and zoomorphic figures, and an Arabic script. 63 petroglyphs have been recorded. The motifs North coast. The site spans documented include feet (singularly and in pairs), Doubtful date of Eriosh an area of approximately zoomorphic figures, a South Semitic script, 500 BC 10,000 m2. cruciform shapes, anthropomorphic figures, and various geometric patterns. North coast, near the village 187 petroglyphs that include feet (singularly and in of Suq. The site is 173 m pairs), cupules, a ship, various geometric patterns, 4th to arguably the SHP_067 long and spans an area of cruciform shapes, several plant-like motifs, and a 16th century AD approximately 1500 m2 South Semitic script Arts 2018, 7, 99 12 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Site Location and Size Motifs Period South-western coast. The 51 petroglyphs were recorded. These consisted of Terminus ante quem of Di Seberho actual size of the site feet (singularly and in pairs), an orant, hoof prints, . 4th century AD. remains unclear. and two geometric shapes. West coast. A large cut 5 geometric petroglyphs believed to be Simar Qar Unknown limestone block. an inscription. An unknown number of petroglyphs believed to North-west coast. Haidi be inscriptions, one of which has been identified as Unknown A large rock. a South Semitic script. Eastern interior. The size of 8 petroglyphs were recorded. These consisted of Dihaiterere Unknown the site is unknown. various cruciform shapes.

4.1. Water The location of rock art near sources of water is a recurring theme throughout the world (Bahn 2010, pp. 140–47). Whilst the reasons for this are varied and many hypotheses have been put forward one inalienable fact remains, water is necessary for human survival. This is especially true for Soqotra, which has a semi-arid climate with a highly variable precipitation regime that is influenced by its large geographical variation and two clearly distinct monsoon seasons, the drier south-west monsoon period (June to September) and the wetter north-east period (October to April). These factors play a significant role in the lives of the inhabitants as they are directly related to the presence and absence of water throughout the island. The importance of water for Soqotra’s inhabitants, especially during the drier south-west monsoon period is clearly reflected in the historical, archaeological and ethnographic record, which demonstrates not only the various management techniques employed in the preservation and use of water but also the devastating effects a drought can have on the population (Hunter and Sealey 1986, p. 113; Morris 2002; Jansen van Rensburg and Hopper 2017). Looking at the importance of water in relation to the rock art found throughout Soqotra two sites stand out, Eriosh and Dahaisi cave. At Eriosh, the rock art occurs within a slight basin that especially during the rains of the monsoon period fills with water, submerging the petroglyphs (Figure 11). In the past it was reported that the northern extent of the site had been encompassed by a roughly built wall to hold the water in place so it does not spread out and dissipate (Doe 1970, p. 5; 1992, p. 55). Today the site is no longer walled, although it is still used by herders to water their livestock as it retains water for several weeks after the north-east monsoon rains. While the chronological sequence of the rock art at Eriosh is not clear, that it was likely to have been in use from arguably the second half of the first millennium would imply that it had some special significance. To understand what this significance may have been, it is necessary to look at how the symbology present interacts with the natural environment. To do this I look at what is purportedly the most common motif found at the site, the foot. Foot symbology occurs in many cultures throughout the world and much like the foot symbology found on Soqotra can occur by themselves and in conjunction with other symbols. This has given rise to a number of different interpretations relating to an associated with birth, death, fertility, places of power or/and sacredness (Achrati 2008; Hawkins 1987; Nayeem 1996; Jung 1993; Cerviˇcekˇ 1986; Bahn 1998). Indeed, Jung(1993, p. 175) uses this point to argue that the cross symbology associated with the feet found at Eriosh suggests that this site was considered to be sacred during the Christian period on Soqotra. Whilst this interpretation would certainly fit with the historical record it is quite possible that the cruciform shapes may have been added later in an apotropaic manner, to reinforce what was already a sacred site. That this site may have been considered sacred lies in the fact that water has a direct correlation with birth, death and fertility, and that this site is the only large body of water with this area. Moreover, it is also likely that the annual submergence of the motifs held some form of special significance that was related to this site, probably as some form of ritual that was related to the monsoon rains and the life-giving water it would bring. Arts 2018, 7, 99 13 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Figure 11. Westward viewview overover the sitesite ofof ErioshEriosh showingshowing how the site is submerged during the wet

season (Photo: author). Figure 11. Westward view over the site of Eriosh showing how the site is submerged during the wet The secondseason (Photo: site isauthor). situatedsituated deepdeep withinwithin thethe aridarid easterneastern interiorinterior ofof thethe island.island. Dahaisi cave is unique in that it is easily accessible and that within the final chamber there is a water-filled sump unique inThe that second it is easily site is accessiblesituated deep and within that withinthe arid theeastern final interior chamber of the there island. is a Dahaisiwater-filled cave is sump surroundedunique in by that pictograms it is easily (removedaccessible andfor that peer within review)review the) (Figurefinal chamber 1212).). Whilst there is this a water-filled cave, like sump othersothers on Soqotra,surrounded is is shunned shunned by pictograms by by Soqotra’s Soqotra’s (removed indigenous indigenous for peer inhabita inhabitants reviewnts) (Figure today today 12).it clearly it Whilst clearly held this held somecave, some likeimportance importanceothers on in the in thepast, past, Soqotra,whether whether is as shunned a asgeneral a generalby Soqotra’s source source of indigenous water of water for inhabita humans for humansnts and/or today and/or itlivestock, clearly livestock, held or some a place or importance a from place which from in the whichwater waterwouldpast, would only whether be only obtained as be a general obtained in times source in of times ofextremis. water of extremis.for That humans it is That and/orlikely it islivestock,to likely have tobeen or have a placeonly been fromused only which during used water times during of timesextremiswould of extremiswould only be wouldseem obtained the seem in most times the mostoflikely extremis. likely scenario That scenario itwhen is likely when considering to considering have been theonly the ethnographicused ethnographic during times evidence. evidence. of However,extremis this would is contrary seem tothe the most presence likely ofscenario rock art when surroundingsurrounding considering the the water-filledwater-filled ethnographic sump evidence. in the finalfinal chamber,However, which this spans spans is contrary a a period period to thefrom from presence the the 1st 1st of century rock century art BC surrounding BC to tothe the 15th 15ththe century water-filled century AD. AD. Whilstsump Whilst in it theis itlikely final is likely that chamber, which spans a period from the 1st century BC to the 15th century AD. Whilst it is likely that thatover overthis thislong long period period of use of use Dahaisi Dahaisi would would have have been been appropriated appropriated in in different different ways, ways, the motifs over this long period of use Dahaisi would have been appropriated in different ways, the motifs surrounding the water-filled sump indicates that, much like at Eriosh, it was the presence of water, surroundingsurrounding the thewater-filled water-filled sump sump indicates indicates that,that, muchch like like at at Eriosh, Eriosh, it wasit was the thepresence presence of water, of water, and itsand importance its importance for for the the inhabitants inhabitants thatthat that providedprovided provided thethe motivation motivationmotivation for forfor the thethe marking markingmarking of this ofof thisthisplace. place.place.

Figure 12. The water-filled sump in the final chamber of Dahaisi cave (Photo: Dan Britton, used by permission).

Arts 2018, 7, 99 14 of 19

Looking at the significance of other sites and their natural environment it is possible that some of the sites that have not yet been located may have a water source in their vicinity, and others may have had water in their vicinity sometime in the past. However, there remain those sites which are unlikely to have ever been directly associated with a water source. I would argue that in this case, some of the motifs could have been used as nodal points within the landscape. Points that could, amongst other functions, have been areas within which the motifs would have been indicators of nearby water sources. This is likely to have been the case at Di S. eberho, which lies in the western extremity of the arid southern coastal plain. The motifs at this site are predominately feet, the majority of which face in a westerly direction. It has been argued that these feet represent some form of ritualistic pathway, yet the purpose of this was not discussed (Jansen van Rensburg 2016a, pp. 149–50). When looking at the broader landscape, notably the hydrological conditions within this area, it becomes immediately apparent that to the west of this site there are a number of sources of water, that include non-perennial wadis, a spring and hand-dug wells. The spring and hand-dug wells, however, are virtually impossible to locate without local knowledge and their actual location is not readily shared with others outside of the community. Moreover, this is the only available source of water along the western half of the south coast (Othman 1996, p. 213). Consequently, it is likely that the rock art at Di S. eberho could have been an important waypoint within the landscape from which one could learn where water sources were, who had access to them and possibly even when water was available.

4.2. Visibility The visibility and intervisibility of rock art sites are a major theme in rock art studies with technologies such as GIS being used to analyse the landscape through various algorithms (Wienhold and Robinson 2018). These tools provide archaeologists with new methods through which to statistically and spatially analyse rock art and its position in the landscape, and allow new insights to be obtained. However, in many cases, the research questions posed are modified or even driven by the available technology (Lock 2000; Tschan et al. 2000; Wheatley and Gillings 2000). Whilst the low number of rock art sites on Soqotra precluded a detailed analysis using GIS, it allowed their distribution to be plotted throughout the island. Once plotted it became abundantly clear that there was a clustering of rock art sites in the north, especially those near the coast. Whilst much could be read into this apparent distribution, the reality is that this is more to do with the focus of archaeological missions that have all but ignored the southern half of Soqotra (Weeks et al. 2002, p. 98). When looking at the sites on a micro-level, however, it was possible to see some patterns emerge. With the exception of Haidi, Qalansiyah and possibly Dihaiterere, for which little information is known, all of the petroglyph sites are found on flat slabs of rock within a flat plain that has few if any distinguishing marks, and are all but invisible until one almost walks over the site. This so-called invisibility is likely to have been the initial intention when the site was first marked. The location of the site being as important as the motifs that were displayed there. One could take this further and argue that these sites had various spatial meanings that were related to how one found the site, which in turn would influence how one would interpret the motifs therein. Therefore, the site could be experienced in different ways according to whether it is found in a chance encounter or was located with prior knowledge. This is not to say that these meanings remained static in a temporal sense, but rather that the meanings at various points in time could have been related to the difficulties, and ways in which one located the site. Di S. eberho is probably the clearest example of such a site, which is virtually impossible to find without prior knowledge (Figure 13). Moreover, not knowing what the various motifs represented one would not understand their meaning or be able to locate the available water sources to the west. Arts 2018, 7, 99 15 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

Figure 13. A westward view over the site of Di S eberho. eberho (Photo:(Photo: author).

The site of SHP_067 also lies hidden within a flatflat plain with few visiblevisible landmarks within its vicinity, however,however, it it also also lies lies within within a denselya densely populated populated plain. plain. What What is interesting is interesting about about this this site issite that is thethat foot the motifs,foot motifs, which which are arguably are arguably earlier, earlier, are found are found spread spread out to out the to east the and east west, and west, while while the main the clustermain cluster of motifs of inmotifs the centre in the contain centre mostly contain cruciform mostly shapes. cruciform This wouldshapes. appear This towould demonstrate appear that to withdemonstrate the arrival that of with Christianity the arrival not of only Christianity did the sites not function only did potentially the sites function change, potentially but also the change, area of thebut sitealso that the wasarea consideredof the site that to have was importance. considered Theto have presence importance. of the cruciform The presence shapes of outsidethe cruciform of the mainshapes central outside area of are the likely main to central have been, area much are likelikely Eriosh, to have added been, in anmuch apotropaic like Eriosh, manner added (Figure in 14an). Whenapotropaic comparing manner these (Figure two 14). sites When it is clearcomparing that they these both two functioned sites it is clear as a that place they inspace both functioned within the landscape,as a place in and space the within motifs the therein landscape, were part and of the this moti processfs therein of creating were part this of space. this process While Diof Screating. eberho appearsthis space. to haveWhile been Di eberho used as aappears place from to have which been one used could aslearn a place the from location which of theone water could sources, learn the at SHP_067location of the the creation water sources, of this space at SHP_067 appears the to have creati beenon of related this space to the appears importance to have of the been place related within to the landscape,importance especially of the place during within the the Christian landscape, period. especially That this during place the may Chri havestian been period. considered That this to haveplace amay sacred have Christian been considered function isto interesting have a sacred in that Ch atristian Suq, approximatelyfunction is interesting 500 m away, in that there at Suq, was aapproximately church (Doe 1992500 m, p.away, 88), there which was served a church the local(Doe 1992, congregation p. 88), which up until served at leastthe local the congregation 15th century (upFoster until 1967 at least, p. 33). the That15th thiscentury site had(Foster been 1967, chosen p. 33). and That marked this withsite had over been 70 cruciform chosen and shapes, marked and with that itover was 70 in cruciform such close shapes, proximity and to that a church it was couldin such be close related proximity to the incorporation to a church could of what be wasrelated initially to the a paganincorporation site within of what a Christian was initially ideology, a pagan which site would within certainly a Christian explain ideology, why many which of would the foot certainly motifs haveexplain crosses why peckedmany of in the their foot vicinity. motifs have crosses pecked in their vicinity.

Arts 2018, 7, 99 16 of 19 Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

Figure 14. An eastward view of the site of SHP_067 (Photo: author).

4.3. Indigenous Knowledge The neglect neglect of of rock rock art art studies studies on on Soqotra Soqotra has, has, up until up until recently, recently, resulted resulted in a much-skewed in a much-skewed view viewof Soqotra of Soqotra and andits inhabitants. its inhabitants. In cataloguing In cataloguing and and analysing analysing the the various various rock rock art art sites sites found throughout thethe island island not not only only is itis now it now possible possible to begin to begin to better to understandbetter understand the breadth the breadth and richness and ofrichness Soqotra’s of Soqotra’s rock art rock tradition, art tradition, but also but to glimpsealso to glimpse elements elements of the indigenousof the indigenous inhabitants’ inhabitants’ social, ideological,social, ideological, and cultural and lives.cultural Moreover, lives. Moreover, these rock these art sites rock and art the sites motifs and therein the motifs are allowing therein for are a betterallowing understanding for a better ofunderstanding the often skewed of the view often of the skewed historical view and of ethnographicthe historical narrativeand ethnographic by taking annarrative indigenous by taking point an of indigenous view. Firstly, point it of appears view. Firstly, that with it appears the arrival that with of Christianity the arrival of the Christianity cruciform shapethe cruciform became shape the most became predominant the most predominant symbol. However, symbol. it However, appears that it appears the cross that may the havecross beenmay placedhave been besides placed the besides foot symbology the foot symbology not only in not an apotropaiconly in an apotropaic manner, but manner, also as abut form also of as syncretism. a form of Thissyncretism. syncretic This behaviour syncretic is behaviour noted in both is noted historically in both and historically ethnographic and accounts,ethnographic which accounts, remark thatwhich in spiteremark of thethat inhabitants in spite of the being inhabitants Christian being and revering Christian the and cross, revering they werethe cross, also involvedthey were in also a number involved of paganin a number rituals of (Snell pagan 1955 rituals; Yule (Snell and 1955; Cordier Yule 1993 and, p. Co 407).rdier It 1993, could p. also407). be It arguedcould also that be this argued was verythat muchthis was the very case withinmuch Dahaisithe case cave, within with Dahaisi its long cave, sequence with rock its long art that sequence appears rock to demonstrate art that appears a change to fromdemonstrate earlier pagan a change symbology, from earlier to later pagan Christian symbology, cruciform to later shapes Christian and Arabic cruciform inscriptions. shapes and This Arabic long sequenceinscriptions. also This shows long that, sequence despite also recent shows folkloric that,traditions despite recent to the folkloric contrary, traditions the Soqotri to werethe contrary, not only enteringthe Soqotri caves were but not spending only entering time within caves them.but spending That Hoq time cave within is purported them. That to have Hoq had cave no isindigenous purported involvementto have had no would, indigenous therefore, involvement in light of would, the findings therefore, in Dahaisi,in light of seem the doubtful.findings in Indeed, Dahaisi, further seem surveysdoubtful. and Indeed, a reappraisal further surveys of the motifs and a within reappraisal Hoq cave of the are motifs likely towithin provide Hoq deeper cave insightsare likely into to theprovide relationships deeper insights between into the the visiting relationships foreign betw sailorseen and the merchants visiting foreign and the sailors indigenous and merchants inhabitants. and Finally,the indigenous looking atinhabitants. the rock art Finally, in the contextlooking ofat thethe geographical rock art in differentiationthe context of ofthe the geographical indigenous inhabitantsdifferentiation mentioned of the indigenous in the historical inhabitants and ethnographic mentioned in sources, the historical there does and not ethnographic appear to be sources, a clear culturalthere does distinction not appear in the to stylebe a ofclear the cultural motifs.However, distinction there in the is certainly style of athe change motifs. in theHowever, types of there motifs is fromcertainly arguably a change the Christianin the types period. of motifs This canfrom be arguably seen when the comparing Christian period. the motifs This at can Di S.beeberho seen inwhen the southcomparing and SHP_067 the motifs and at ErioshDi eberho in the in north. the south In all and these SHP_067 sites similar and Eriosh foot motifs, in the geometric north. In patternsall these andsites orantsimilar figures foot motifs, are all present,geometri yetc patterns Di S. eberho and is orant the only figures site thatare a hasll present, no cruciform yet Di shapes. eberho is the only site that has no cruciform shapes. 5. Conclusions 5. ConclusionsRevisiting the rock art heritage of Soqotra has demonstrated that, contrary to earlier reports, the indigenous people of Soqotra were actively engaged in the production of rock art for millennia. Revisiting the rock art heritage of Soqotra has demonstrated that, contrary to earlier reports, the This long sequence, especially within Dahaisi cave, has shown that the aversion to entering caves indigenous people of Soqotra were actively engaged in the production of rock art for millennia. This as described in various ethnographic account is not a true reflection of the cultural beliefs of all the long sequence, especially within Dahaisi cave, has shown that the aversion to entering caves as described in various ethnographic account is not a true reflection of the cultural beliefs of all the

ArtsArts 20182018,, 77,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 1717 ofof 1919 Arts 2018, 7, 99 17 of 19 indigenousindigenous inhabitantsinhabitants ofof Soqotra.Soqotra. CataloguingCataloguing thesthesee sitessites hashas alsoalso helpedhelped inin ourour understandingunderstanding ofof thethe temporal,temporal, spatial,spatial, andand cognitivecognitive factorsfactors thatthat playedplayed aa rolerole inin thethe locationlocation ofof sites.sites. ThisThis hashas beenbeen especiallyindigenousespecially apparentapparent inhabitants whenwhen of looking Soqotra.looking atat Cataloguing thethe presencepresence these ofof water.water. sites hasWhileWhile also itit helped maymay notnot in bebe our clearclear understanding asas toto whetherwhether of waterthewater temporal, waswas meantmeant spatial, toto symbolisesymbolise and cognitive life,life, deathdeath factors oror thatfertilityfertility played thatthat a itit role heldheld in anan the importantimportant location ofrolerole sites. inin thethe This liveslives has ofof been thethe indigenousespeciallyindigenous apparent inhabitantsinhabitants when isis clearlyclearly looking demonstrateddemonstrated at the presence throughoutthroughout of water. thethe While islaisland.nd. it may AtAt thethe not northnorth be clear coastcoast as sitesite to ofof whether ErioshEriosh aswateras withwith was thethe meant interiorinterior to sitesite symbolise ofof Dahaisi,Dahaisi, life, deaththethe rockrock or fertilityartart isis directlydirectly that it relatedrelated held an toto important aa sourcesource roleofof water,water, in the whilewhile lives at ofat the the southindigenoussouth coastcoast inhabitantssitesite ofof DiDi eberho eberho is clearly itit is demonstratedis thethe presencepresence throughout ofof waterwater inin the thethe island. vicinityvicinity At thatthat the northnotnot onlyonly coast makesmakes site of thisthis Eriosh sitesite important,asimportant, with the butbut interior helpshelpssite usus toto of betterbetter Dahaisi, understandunderstand the rock artwhatwhat is meaning directlymeaning related thethe motifsmotifs to a soughtsought source toto of convey.convey. water, while InIn additionaddition at the tosouthto thethe coastpresencepresence site ofofof Diwater,water,S. eberho thethe itlocaloca is thetiontionpresence ofof thethe petroglyphpetroglyph of water in sitessites the vicinitywithwithinin large thatlarge not featurelessfeatureless only makes plainsplains this alsoalso site indicatesimportant,indicates thatthat but theirtheir helps locationlocation us to better waswas considered understandconsidered toto what havehave meaning anan importanceimportance the motifs thatthat sought isis likelylikely to convey. toto havehave Inbeenbeen addition initiallyinitially to relatedtherelated presence toto thethe of difficultydifficulty water, the ofof location findingfinding ofthethe the site.site. petroglyph ArguArguably,ably, sites thisthis within meaningmeaning large changedchanged featureless laterlater plains whenwhen also thethe indicates sitesite waswas re-located,thatre-located, their location asas cancan be wasbe seenseen considered atat SHP_067,SHP_067, to have wherewhere an importance thethe ChristianChristian that symbologysymbology is likely to appear haveappear beenss toto initiallyhavehave supplantedsupplanted related to thethe difficultyearlierearlier paganpagan of finding signs.signs. theTheThe site. changingchanging Arguably, symbologysymbology this meaning seseenen inin changed thethe longlong later sequencessequences when the ofof site rockrock was artart re-located, providesprovides furtherasfurther can be insightsinsights seen at intointo SHP_067, thethe ethnographicethnographic where the Christianandand historichistoric symbologyalal record,record, appearsshowingshowing to howhow have thethe supplanted syncretismsyncretism the thatthat earlier waswas recordedpaganrecorded signs. isis reflectedreflected The changing inin thethe rock symbologyrock art.art. Moreover,Moreover, seen in the comparingcomparing long sequences thethe differencesdifferences of rock art betweenbetween provides differentdifferent further areasareas insights hashas begunintobegun the toto ethnographic allowallow usus toto and teasetease historical apartapart record,thethe geographicgeographic showingalal how differentiationdifferentiation the syncretism betweenbetween that was differentdifferent recorded indigenousindigenous is reflected groups,ingroups, the rock showingshowing art. Moreover, alsoalso howhow comparing ideologicalideological the beliefs,beliefs, differences suchsuch as betweenas Christianity,Christianity, different diddid areas notnot hasreachreach begun allall partsparts to allow ofof thethe us island.toisland. tease FurtherFurther apart the findingsfindings geographical andand analysisanalysis differentiation ofof thethe relarela betweentionshipstionships different betweenbetween indigenous sites,sites, theirtheir groups, motifs,motifs, showing andand theirtheir also positionhowposition ideological withinwithin thethe beliefs, landscapelandscape such as willwill Christianity, undoubtableundoubtable did pr notprovideovide reach moremore all parts detailsdetails of the fromfrom island. whichwhich Further itit maymay findings bebe possiblepossible and toanalysisto furtherfurther of ourour the understandingunderstanding relationships between ofof thethe indigenousindigenous sites, their deve motifs,developmentlopment and their ofof rockrock position artart ofof within Soqotra,Soqotra, the andand landscape ultimatelyultimately will Arabia.undoubtableArabia. However,However, provide withwith more thethe currentcurrent details fromlacklack ofof which formalformal it may prprotectionotection be possible forfor culturalcultural to further heritageheritage our understanding sitessites onon SoqotraSoqotra of andand the givenindigenousgiven thatthat thethe development WorldWorld HeritageHeritage of rock statusstatus art of ofof Soqotra, thethe islandisland and reflectsreflects ultimately naturalnatural Arabia. heritage,heritage, However, manymany with rockrock the artart current sitessites maymay lack notofnot formal survivesurvive protection longlong enoughenough for cultural forfor futurefuture heritage researchresearch sites toto taketake on Soqotra place.place. and given that the World Heritage status of the island reflects natural heritage, many rock art sites may not survive long enough for future Funding:researchFunding: This toThis take researchresearch place. receivedreceived nono externalexternal funding.funding.

Acknowledgments:Funding:Acknowledgments:This research II wouldwould received likelike nototo thankthank external PeterPeter funding. DeDe Geest,Geest, DanDan BriBritton,tton, DirkDirk VanVan DorpeDorpe andand thethe SoqotraSoqotra HeritageHeritage ProjectProject teamteam forfor theirtheir helphelp inin thethe findingfinding andand recorecordingrding ofof manymany ofof thethe rockrock artart sitessites onon Soqotra.Soqotra. Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Peter De Geest, Dan Britton, Dirk Van Dorpe and the Soqotra Heritage ConflictsProjectConflicts team ofof Interest: forInterest: their helpTheThe authorauthor in the finding declaresdeclares and nono recordingconflictconflict ofof of interest.interest. many of the rock art sites on Soqotra. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. ReferencesReferences

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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Scholte, Paul, and Peter De Geest. 2010. The climate of Socotra Island (Yemen): A first-time assessment of the timing of the monsoon wind reversal and its influence on precipitation and vegetation patterns. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 1507–15. [CrossRef] Schweinfurth, Georg. 1891. Erinnerungen von einer fahrt nach Sokotra. Westermanns Illustrierte Deutsche Monatshefte 35: 29–53. Shinnie, Peter L. 1960. Socotra. Antiquity 34: 100–10. [CrossRef] Smith, G. Rex. 2008. A Traveller in Thirteenth-Century Arabia, Ibn al-Mujawir’s¯ Tar¯ ¯ıkh al-Mustabir. London: The Hakluyt Society. Snell, Ian E. 1955. Witch Trials on Soqotra. Typescript; pp 7. Mukulla, Aden Protectorate; The Residency. Coral Gables, Florida: Miscellanea Asiatica Orientalis Series. American Documentation Institute Microfilm (ADIM) No. 5624. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress. Strauch, Ingo. 2012. Foreign Sailors on Socotra: The Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq. Bremen: Hempen Verlag. Tschan, Andre P., Wlodizimierz Raczkowski, and Malgorzata Lata lowa. 2000. Perception and viewsheds: Are they mutually inclusive? In Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies. Edited by Gary Lock. Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 28–48. Van Damme, Kay, Peter De Geest, and Julian Jansen van Rensburg. 2004. Socotra Island: Conservation Issues. Available online: www.academia.edu/586488/Socotra_Island_Conservation_Issues (accessed on 23 September 2018). Weeks, Lloyd, Miranda Morris, Bernadette McCall, and Khalil Al-Zubairy. 2002. A recent archaeological survey on Soqotra. Report on the preliminary expedition season, January 5th–February 2nd 2001. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 13: 95–125. [CrossRef] Wellsted, James Raymond. 1835. Memoir on the Island of Socotra. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 5: 129–229. [CrossRef] Wheatley, David, and Mark Gillings. 2000. Vision, perception and GIS: Developing enriched approaches to the study of archaeological visibility. In Beyond the Map: Archaeology and Spatial Technologies. Edited by Gary Lock. Amsterdam: IOS Press, pp. 1–27. Wienhold, Michelle L., and David W. Robinson. 2018. GIS in Rock Art Studies. In The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art. Edited by Bruno David and Ian J. McNiven. New York: Oxford University Press. [CrossRef] Yule, Henry, and Henri Cordier. 1993. The Travels of Marco Polo. New York: Dover Publications.

© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).