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Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief) Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan BRILL LEIDEN . BOSTON 2009 Table of Contents, Volume I Prelims Preface vii List of Contributors ix Notes for Users xix Primary Sources xxi Primary Source Abbreviations xxv Journals and Series xxvii General Abbreviations xxxi Introduction xxxiii Regions and Regional Traditions (Hinduism in the Regions of India and South and Southeast Asia) Overview article 3 East Assam and the Eastern States 13 Bengal 25 Orissa 43 North Bihar 59 Himalaya Region 73 Jharkhand 87 Kashmir 99 Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh 127 Punjab 153 Uttar Pradesh 171 South Andhra Pradesh 187 Karnataka 201 Kerala 221 Tamil Nadu 233 West Goa 249 Gujarat 255 Maharashtra 271 Rajasthan 285 South Asia outside of India Bangladesh 301 Nepal 307 Pakistan 315 Sri Lanka 321 Historical Southeast Asia: Burma 337 Cambodia 345 Indonesia 353 Thailand 371 © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009 BEH, vol I Also available online - www brill nl Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Sacred Space and Time TIrtha and Tirthayatra: Salvific Space and Pilgrimage 381 Cosmic Cycles, Cosmology, and Cosmography 411 Festivals 429 Processions 445 Gods, Goddesses, and Divine Powers Overview article 457 Asuras and Daityas 469 Ayyappan 479 Bhairava 485 Bhudevi 491 Brahma 499 Dattatreya 513 Draupadi and Sita 517 Durga 535 Ganapati/Ganesa 551 Gandharvas and Apsarases 565 Gariga 571 Hanuman 579 Kali 587 Krsna 605 Kuladevi 621 Mahadevi 627 Murukan 637 Navagrahas 647 Parvati 655 Radha 675 Rama 681 River Goddesses 695 Rsis 703 Sacred Animals 711 SantosiMa 719 Sarasvati 725 Sitaladevi 733 Siva 741 Sri Laksmi 755 Vedic Gods 765 Verikatesvara 781 Visnu 787 Yaksas and Yaksinis 801 Yama 807 Yamuna 817 Yoginis 823 Glossary 829 Sections for Future Volumes 832 Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume II: Sacred Texts and Languages Ritual Traditions Arts Concepts Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief) Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan BRILL LEIDEN . BOSTON 2010 Table of Contents, Volume II Prelims Preface vii List of Contributors Lx Notes for Users xxi Primary Sources xxiii Primary' Source Abbreviations xxxiii Journals and Series xxxviii General Abbreviations xliv Sacred Texts and Languages Sanskrit Texts and Language 3 Tamil Texts and Language 19 Vedas and Brahmanas 27 LTpanisads and Aranyakas 41 Dharmasastra 56 Mahabharata 72 Bhagavadgita 95 Ramayana Ill Puranas 127 Vaisnava Samhitas 153 Tantras 168 Sutras 182 Stotras, Sanskrit Hymns 193 Languages and Literatures of the Vernaculars: North Indian 208 South Indian 225 Hagiography 237 Oral Traditions and Folklore 249 Ayurveda 267 Astrology' and Astronomy (Jyotisa) 281 Language and Linguistics 295 Mathematics and Geometry 309 Vastusastra 318 Ritual Traditions Temple Rituals: North India 327 South India 335 Domestic Rituals 347 Yajna 361 Puja and Darsana 380 Samskaras 395 Mantras 402 Possession 416 BEH,\ ol II Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Vratas 427 Purity and Impurity 435 Ritual Food 450 Intoxication 459 Rarigoli and Kolam 472 Death and Afterlife 479 Arts Temple: Form and Function 495 Drama and Theatre 511 Iconography and Images: Ancient Concepts 529 Art 536 A Methodology 550 Mandalas and Yantras 560 Music 574 KIrtan and Bhajan 585 Dance: Classical Tradition 599 Regional Tradition: Kerala 606 Martial Arts 615 Rasa Theory 623 Citrakatha, Paintings, and Popular Prints 630 Hinduism and Film: Bollywood 636 Tamil Cinema 651 Hinduism and Modern Literature 659 Concepts Adhikara 671 Ahimsa 675 Artha 680 Asrama and Samnyasa 684 Atman 689 Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness 693 Avatara 701 Avidya 706 Bhakti 710 Body 720 Brahman 724 Consciousness and Mind 729 Dharma 736 Divination 743 Gift and Gift Giving 747 Grace and Compassion 752 Guna 758 Isvara 762 Jivanmukta 768 Kama 772 Karman 778 Liberation 788 Lila 793 Madness (Unmada) 798 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii Mahabhutas 806 Maya 818 Meditation 822 Nirguna and Saguna 826 Prakrti 833 Purusa 838 Sakti 843 Samsara 848 Satya 855 Seva 861 Tapas 865 Time and Destiny 870 Untouchability 876 Wisdom and Knowledge (Jnana/Vidya) 881 Glossary 885 Sections for Future Volumes 888 Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Volume III: Society Religious Specialists Religious Traditions Philosophy Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief) Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON 2011 Table of Contents, Volume III Prelims Preface xv List of Contributors xvi Notes for Users xxvn Primary Sources xxix Primary Source Abbreviations liv Journals and Series lxi General Abbreviations lxix Society Adivasis 3 Administrative Division 4 Tribal Societies 5 Hunter-Gatherers 8 Akharas: Warrior Ascetics 11 Origins of the Akharas 11 Conflicts Involving Armies of Nagas 12 Becoming a Naga in an Akhara 14 The DasanamI SamnyaslAkharas 14 The Ramanandl Akharas 15 The Dadupanth Akhara 16 Sikh-Affiliated Akharas 16 Wrestlers 18 Caste 25 Childhood 39 Rituals of Childhood 39 Cultural Psychology Approaches to Childhood 41 Anthropological Approaches 42 Changing Childhoods 43 Family 46 Joint Family The Concept 46 Family and Household Numerical Size 47 Kinship Composition of Household 48 Interhousehold Family Relations 50 Changes in the Family 50 Marriage- In Religion, Law, and Custom 52 Reproducing the Family 54 The Family and the State 55 The Normal and the Pathological Domestic Violence 56 Female Ascetics 60 Traditional Ambivalence toward Feminine Asceticism 60 Asceticism within Stridharma 61 Female Ascetics in Literature: Legends and History 62 Place within the Hindu Monastic Traditions Today 63 The Female Guru 65 © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2011 BEH, vol III Also available online - www brill nl Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Food 68 Violence, Power, and Consumption 68 Sacrifice and Cooking 69 Status and Caste 70 Ritual and Worship 70 Body and Environment 71 Devotion 72 The Nation, Nationalism, and "Hindutva" 72 Migration and Transnationalism 73 Foreigner (Mleccha) 76 Mleccha- A Sanskrit Word? 76 Early Brahmanic Context 76 Designation and Extended Meaning 77 Early Buddhist and Jaina Context 77 Mlecchas and the Decline of Order 78 Being Mlecchas - Explaining Difference 79 Mlecchas - The Permanent "Other"? 79 Hijras 82 The Hijras and Hindu Constructions of Gender 83 The Hijras as Creative Ascetics 84 The Emasculation Ritual 85 Hijras as Ritual Performers 86 Ambivalence Regarding Hijras as Ascetics 87 Hijras as Persons in the Context of Hinduism 88 The Hijras as a Community 88 Changing Roles of the Hijras 89 Kingship 90 Vedic Kingship 91 Early Historic India 92 Early Medieval Kingship 94 Kinship and Marriage 97 Descent 98 Marriage 100 Affinal Prescription 104 Uncle-Niece Marriage 108 Laws of Brahman Kinship and Marriage 109 Brahman Practices of Kinship and Marriage in the Eastern Province of Orissa Ill Kinship among Peasants and Ex-untouchables in Northern India 112 Gifts and Hypergamy 114 Monasteries 116 Historical Considerations 116 Monasteries and Sacred Centers 119 Women and Monasticism 121 Organization 122 Old Age 127 Old Age in Hindu Textual Traditions 127 Old Age in Contemporary India 130 Aging and the Hindu Diaspora 133 Politics and Economy 135 The Indus Civilization and Proto-Hinduism 135 The Aryan Invasion 135 The Articulation of the Hindu Royal Style 136 The Survival of Kingless Ganasanghas 137 Kautilya's Arthasastra 138 Elephants and Empires 140 The Rise and Decline of Heterodox Challengers of Brahman Orthodoxy 140 Hindu Seafarers and Maritime Trade 141 TABLE OF CONTENTS Vli The Empires and Kingdoms of Ancient and Early Medieval India 143 Hindu "Feudalism"- The Rise of the Samantas 144 The Political Function of Royal Temples 146 The Politics and Economics of Muslim and Hindu Cavalry States 147 A Resurrection of the Hindu Royal Style. Sivajl of Maharashtra 148 Hinduism and the Right of Resistance Mahatma Gandhi's Political Thought 149 Religious Endowments and Gift Giving 151 Religious Endowments in Precolonial India 151 Religious Endowments in Colonial and Post-Independence India 153 Sampradaya 156 Semantic and Historical Considerations 156 Characteristic Features 158 Sampradaya and Caste 162 Sati and Widowhood: SatI 165 Stories and Shrines 165 Sati Iconography, Dharma, and Auspiciousness 166 Discourse on Sati in the Dharmasastras 168 Satim British India 168 The Case of Roop Kanwar 171 Widowhood 173 Widow Immolation 173 Widow Remarriage 174 Ascetic Widowhood 174 Residence, Maintenance, and Inheritance 175 Town and City 177 Periods of Urbanization and De-urbanization 177 City Images 180 Sacred Cities 181 Town Planning and City Mandala 182 Trade and Merchants 186 Transmission of Knowledge 194 Social Construction of Knowledge Educational Paradigms m Sruti and Smrti 194 Social Construction of Knowledge Formal Lines of Transmission 195 Social Construction of Knowledge Multiple Modes of Transmission 196 Social Construction of Knowledge The Eve of Colonialism 197 Social Construction of Knowledge Colonial Complexities 198 Social Construction of Knowledge: The 20th and 21 st Centuries 199 Social Construction of Knowledge Hindu Dharma in the Diaspora 201 Travel Regulations 203 A 19th-century Social Issue 203 The Interpretation of Sastras 204 The Sea-Voyage Movement 205 Crossing Limits 205 Village 208 Development of Village Studies 209 The Vlllage as Viewed by Vlllage Studies 210 Social Change in the Village 212 The Future of the Vlllage and Its Study 213 Religious Specialists Astrologers 217 Perceptions of Astrologers in Early Non-astrological Sources 217 Self-Perceptions in Astrological
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