Brill's Encyclopedia of

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

BRILL

LEIDEN . BOSTON 2009 Table of Contents, Volume I

Prelims Preface vii List of Contributors ix Notes for Users xix Primary Sources xxi Primary Source Abbreviations xxv Journals and Series xxvii General Abbreviations xxxi Introduction xxxiii

Regions and Regional Traditions (Hinduism in the Regions of and South and Southeast Asia) Overview article 3 East

Assam and the Eastern States 13 Bengal 25 Orissa 43 North

Bihar 59 Himalaya Region 73 Jharkhand 87 Kashmir 99 Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh 127 Punjab 153 Uttar Pradesh 171 South 187 Karnataka 201 Kerala 221 Tamil Nadu 233 West 249 255 271 285 South Asia outside of India 301 Nepal 307 315 Sri Lanka 321 Historical Southeast Asia: Burma 337 Cambodia 345 Indonesia 353 Thailand 371

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Sacred Space and Time and Tirthayatra: Salvific Space and Pilgrimage 381 Cosmic Cycles, , and Cosmography 411 Festivals 429 Processions 445

Gods, , and Divine Powers Overview article 457 Asuras and Daityas 469 479 485 Bhudevi 491 499 513 Draupadi and 517 535 Ganapati/Ganesa 551 Gandharvas and Apsarases 565 Gariga 571 579 587 Krsna 605 Kuladevi 621 Mahadevi 627 Murukan 637 Navagrahas 647 655 675 681 River Goddesses 695 Rsis 703

Sacred Animals 711 SantosiMa 719

Sarasvati 725 Sitaladevi 733

Siva 741

Sri Laksmi 755 Vedic 765 Verikatesvara 781 Visnu 787 Yaksas and Yaksinis 801 Yama 807 Yamuna 817 Yoginis 823

Glossary 829 Sections for Future Volumes 832 Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Volume II: Sacred Texts and Languages Traditions

Arts Concepts

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

BRILL

LEIDEN . BOSTON 2010 Table of Contents, Volume II

Prelims

Preface vii

List of Contributors Lx

Notes for Users xxi Primary Sources xxiii Primary' Source Abbreviations xxxiii Journals and Series xxxviii General Abbreviations xliv

Sacred Texts and Languages Texts and Language 3 Tamil Texts and Language 19 and Brahmanas 27 LTpanisads and Aranyakas 41 Dharmasastra 56

Mahabharata 72 Bhagavadgita 95 Ill

Puranas 127

Vaisnava Samhitas 153

Tantras 168

Sutras 182 , Sanskrit Hymns 193 Languages and Literatures of the Vernaculars: North Indian 208

South Indian 225 Hagiography 237 Oral Traditions and Folklore 249 267 Astrology' and Astronomy (Jyotisa) 281 Language and Linguistics 295 Mathematics and Geometry 309 Vastusastra 318

Ritual Traditions Temple : 327 South India 335 Domestic Rituals 347 361 and Darsana 380 Samskaras 395 402 Possession 416

BEH,\ ol II Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Vratas 427 Purity and Impurity 435 Ritual Food 450 Intoxication 459 Rarigoli and Kolam 472 Death and 479

Arts Temple: Form and Function 495 Drama and Theatre 511 Iconography and Images: Ancient Concepts 529 Art 536 A Methodology 550 Mandalas and Yantras 560 Music 574 and 585 Dance: Classical Tradition 599 Regional Tradition: Kerala 606 Martial Arts 615 Rasa Theory 623 Citrakatha, Paintings, and Popular Prints 630 Hinduism and Film: Bollywood 636 Tamil Cinema 651 Hinduism and Modern Literature 659

Concepts Adhikara 671

Ahimsa 675

Artha 680 Asrama and Samnyasa 684 Atman 689 Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness 693 Avatara 701 Avidya 706 710 Body 720 724

Consciousness and Mind 729

Dharma 736

Divination 743 Gift and Gift Giving 747 Grace and Compassion 752 Guna 758

Isvara 762 768

Kama 772 Karman 778

Liberation 788 793 Madness (Unmada) 798 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

Mahabhutas 806 818 822 Nirguna and Saguna 826 Prakrti 833

Purusa 838

Sakti 843

Samsara 848 855 861 865 Time and Destiny 870 Untouchability 876 Wisdom and (/) 881

Glossary 885 Sections for Future Volumes 888 Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Volume III: Society Religious Specialists Religious Traditions Philosophy

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

BRILL

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2011 Table of Contents, Volume III

Prelims

Preface xv

List of Contributors xvi

Notes for Users xxvn

Primary Sources xxix Primary Source Abbreviations liv Journals and Series lxi General Abbreviations lxix

Society Adivasis 3 Administrative Division 4 Tribal Societies 5 Hunter-Gatherers 8 : Warrior Ascetics 11 Origins of the Akharas 11 Conflicts Involving Armies of Nagas 12 a Naga in an 14 The DasanamI SamnyaslAkharas 14 The Ramanandl Akharas 15 The Dadupanth Akhara 16 Sikh-Affiliated Akharas 16 Wrestlers 18

Caste 25 Childhood 39 Rituals of Childhood 39 Cultural Psychology Approaches to Childhood 41 Anthropological Approaches 42 Changing Childhoods 43 Family 46 Joint Family The Concept 46 Family and Household Numerical Size 47 Kinship Composition of Household 48 Interhousehold Family Relations 50 Changes in the Family 50 Marriage- In , Law, and Custom 52 Reproducing the Family 54 The Family and the State 55 The Normal and the Pathological Domestic Violence 56 Female Ascetics 60 Traditional Ambivalence toward Feminine Asceticism 60 Asceticism within Stridharma 61

Female Ascetics in Literature: Legends and History 62 Place within the Hindu Monastic Traditions Today 63 The Female 65

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Food 68 Violence, Power, and Consumption 68 and Cooking 69 Status and Caste 70 Ritual and 70 Body and Environment 71 Devotion 72 The Nation, Nationalism, and "" 72 Migration and Transnationalism 73 Foreigner (Mleccha) 76 Mleccha- A Sanskrit Word? 76 Early Brahmanic Context 76 Designation and Extended Meaning 77 Early Buddhist and Jaina Context 77 Mlecchas and the Decline of Order 78

Being Mlecchas - Explaining 79

Mlecchas - The Permanent "Other"? 79 Hijras 82 The Hijras and Hindu Constructions of Gender 83 The Hijras as Creative Ascetics 84 The Emasculation Ritual 85

Hijras as Ritual Performers 86 Ambivalence Regarding Hijras as Ascetics 87 Hijras as Persons in the Context of Hinduism 88 The Hijras as a Community 88 Changing Roles of the Hijras 89 Kingship 90 Vedic Kingship 91 Early Historic India 92 Early Medieval Kingship 94 Kinship and Marriage 97 Descent 98 Marriage 100 Affinal Prescription 104 Uncle-Niece Marriage 108 Laws of Brahman Kinship and Marriage 109 Brahman Practices of Kinship and Marriage in the Eastern Province of Orissa Ill Kinship among Peasants and Ex-untouchables in Northern India 112 Gifts and Hypergamy 114 116 Historical Considerations 116 Monasteries and Sacred Centers 119 Women and 121 Organization 122 Old Age 127 Old Age in Hindu Textual Traditions 127 Old Age in Contemporary India 130 Aging and the Hindu Diaspora 133 Politics and Economy 135 The Indus Civilization and Proto-Hinduism 135 The Invasion 135 The Articulation of the Hindu Royal Style 136 The Survival of Kingless Ganasanghas 137 Kautilya's Arthasastra 138 Elephants and Empires 140 The Rise and Decline of Heterodox Challengers of Brahman Orthodoxy 140 Hindu Seafarers and Maritime Trade 141 TABLE OF CONTENTS Vli

The Empires and Kingdoms of Ancient and Early Medieval India 143 Hindu "Feudalism"- The Rise of the Samantas 144 The Political Function of Royal Temples 146 The Politics and Economics of Muslim and Hindu Cavalry States 147 A Resurrection of the Hindu Royal Style. Sivajl of Maharashtra 148 Hinduism and the Right of Resistance 's Political Thought 149 Religious Endowments and Gift Giving 151 Religious Endowments in Precolonial India 151 Religious Endowments in Colonial and Post-Independence India 153 156 Semantic and Historical Considerations 156 Characteristic Features 158 Sampradaya and Caste 162 and Widowhood: SatI 165 Stories and Shrines 165 Sati Iconography, , and Auspiciousness 166

Discourse on Sati in the Dharmasastras 168 Satim British India 168 The Case of Roop Kanwar 171 Widowhood 173 Widow Immolation 173 Widow Remarriage 174 Ascetic Widowhood 174 Residence, Maintenance, and Inheritance 175 Town and City 177 Periods of Urbanization and De-urbanization 177 City Images 180 Sacred Cities 181 Town Planning and City Mandala 182 Trade and Merchants 186 Transmission of Knowledge 194 Social Construction of Knowledge Educational Paradigms m Sruti and Smrti 194 Social Construction of Knowledge Formal Lines of Transmission 195 Social Construction of Knowledge Multiple Modes of Transmission 196 Social Construction of Knowledge The Eve of Colonialism 197 Social Construction of Knowledge Colonial Complexities 198 Social Construction of Knowledge: The 20th and 21 st Centuries 199 Social Construction of Knowledge Hindu Dharma in the Diaspora 201 Travel Regulations 203 A 19th-century Social Issue 203 The Interpretation of Sastras 204 The Sea-Voyage Movement 205 Crossing Limits 205 Village 208 Development of Village Studies 209 The Vlllage as Viewed by Vlllage Studies 210 Social Change in the Village 212 The Future of the Vlllage and Its Study 213

Religious Specialists Astrologers 217 Perceptions of Astrologers in Early Non-astrological Sources 217 Self-Perceptions in Astrological Sources 218 Astrologers in Society 218 Consulting an Astrologer 219 Vlii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Bards and Reciters 222 222 Epic and Puramc Bardic Traditions 223 Medieval and Ancient Bardic Traditions 224 Contemporary Bardic Traditions and Acaryas 227 229 (Diksa) 230 Divinity, , and Powers 231 Stages of Development 20th-century Developments 232 Healers 235 Pandas 240 Panda Identity 241 Panda-Client Relationships 241 Pandas and Social Change 243 Pandits 245 Priests 252 and Kings 255 Education 257 , Samnyasls, and 262 Definitions 262 Origins 263 Female Renunciants 265 Renunciant Orders 267 Internationalizing Renunciation 272 The Renunciant Life 274

Religious Traditions Aghorls 281 Issues of Representation 281 Hagiography of the Kina Ram Aghon 282 The Reformation of Aghor 283 Bauls 285 Baul Songs 287 Oppositional Elements 288 Philosophy 290 The Preceptor 291 Gender 292 Baul Esoteric Practices () 293 295 Multiple Uses of the Term 295 Bhagavatism and Aristocratic Patrons in the 2nd-1 st Centuries BCE 295 Literary Evidence from the First Centuries CE 296 Bhagavatas and Pitrbhaktas 296 Defining Bhagavatas 297 Bhagavatas in Cambodia 299 Bhagavatas in Modern Times 299 Dasanamls 302 Influence 303 The Normative Organization of the Dasanami Order 303 The Organization of the DasanamI Order Today 305 Historical Origins 309 Contemporary Controversies 310 Twin Ideals of Renunciation and Spiritual Knowledge in the Dasanami Order 310 Gaudlya Vaisnavism 312 Historical Development 312 Gaudlya Vaisnava Literature 318 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

Theological Reflections: , Practice, and Fulfillment 321 Knowing Fundamentals (Sambandhajnana) 321 Practices (Abhidheya) 322 Fulfillment (Prayojana) 324 Social Dimensions of Gaudlya Vaisnavism 325 Gaudlya Vaisnava 327 Haridasi Sampradaya 329 Scholarship 329 SvamI Haridas 330 Haridasi Sampradaya 332 333 Seva 335 and Samaj Gayan 336 Kabirpanthls 339 and His Time 339 The Kabir Legacy 340 The Kabirpanth. History and General Presentation 340 Sociography, Rites, and Beliefs 342 The Nonimtiated Kabir Followers 344 Kanphatas 347 Religious Orientation and Beliefs 347 Organization 349 Initiation 349 The Itinerant Yogis 351 The Communal or Pancayati Monasteries 351 The Private or Niji Monasteries 352 Householder Yogis 353 Studies Regarding the Yogis 353 355 The Lakulas 355 The -Kapahkas 356 Kapahka Practices in Early 358 Kashmir Saivism 362 Nondualistic Saivism and the Tantnc Quest for Power 362 Historical Transformations of Kashmiri - The Philosophical Rationalization of Nondualistic Saiva Traditions 364 Teachings of 's Sivadrsti 365 Religious and Philosophical Project of the System 366 Idealistic of Recognition 367 Conceptions of Identity and Egoity 368 Linguistic Speculations on the of Empowered Identity 369 Universalization of the Body and Reflected Identity 370 Classification of Means Types (Upaya) 371 Kashmir Saiva Impact on 372 Kashmir Saiva Ethics 372 Approach to Diversity 373 Contemporary Revivals 373 Lirigayats 378 Classification and Nomenclature 379 Origins of the Vlrasaiva Movement 380 Vlrasamsm and Gender Equality 383 Vlrasaiva Ritual and Ethical Behaviors 385 Vlrasaiva Philosophy 388 Final Rites 390 Madhva Sampradaya 393 The Madhva Sampradaya (Community and Institutions) 394 Madhvacarya's Works: The Sarvamulagrantha 394 x TABLE OF CONTENTS

Other Relevant Madhva Works 395 Basic Madhva 396 Mahanubhavs 402 Literature 403 Theology and Philosophy 403 Religious Practice 405 Nath Sampradaya 409 Elements of Nath Identity 411 Individual 412 Localized Nath Traditions 414 The Twelve Panths 417 Appearance 418 The Patradevata 419 Ad.es 419 Naths and Power 421 Places 421

Doctrine 422 Practice 422 Tantra 422 Alchemy 422 423 The Avadhuta 423 Texts 424 The Development of the Nath Sampradaya 425 Secondary Literature on the Nath Sampradaya 427 429 Doctrines 430 History and Organization 433 Religious Practices 439 Pancaratra 444 Early History 444 The Name "Pancaratra" 445 Literature 447 Concepts of Revelation and Transmission 449 Cosmology 451 The Concept of 452 Mantras 453 Religious Goals and the Social Structure of the Devotees 453 Rituals 454 The of the Pancaratra 455

Pasupatas 458 The Earliest Times 458 Pasupata Scriptures 459 The Pancartha System 459 Evolution of Schools and the Founder 461 Rites and Rules 453 Pasupatas and the 454 Pasupata Depiction of 455 Radhavallabha Sampradaya 457 Scholarship 4^7 Hit Harivams 4^9 The Radhavallabha Sampradaya 47O Theology 471 Sevd 473 Samaj Gayan 474 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Ramanandls 478 Present-Day Sampraday 481 Philosophical Approach 482 Tapasya (Physical and Mental) 483 Ghor Tapasya and Rebirth 484 Bhakti 486 Rasayana 489 Hindu Alchemy: Myth and History 493 Alchemy and Tantra 495 The Internalization of Hindu Alchemy 498 Ravidasls 500 The Biography of 500

Caste and Social Status in the Ravidasi Movement 501 The ADM and the Ravidas Movement 502 Theology and Praxis 505 Sahajiyas 507 in Buddhist Tantnc Traditions 507 The Caitanya Movement and the Caitanyacaritamrta 507 Vaisnava Sahajiya Lineages and Texts 509 Cosmogony, Cosmography, and the 509 Sexuality, Cognition, and Emotions 511 Decline and Later Developments 512 Saiva Siddhanta 514 Speciality of the Saiva Siddhanta 514 Saiva Siddhanta Doctrine: Triple Categories (Tripadartha) 514 Patt 515 Essential Attributes of Siva 516 Siva's Fivefold Function 518

Other Included in the Pati 518

Sakti as the Mother 520 The Individual Self (Pasu) 521 Liberation: Mukti 521 Historical Background 522 Texts 523

Inferential Argument as the Means for Establishing the of Siva 524 Saiva Siddhanta and Advaita 525 Spiritual Discipline 527 Concept of Mukti in Saiva Siddhanta 528

Mukti in the Second Phase of Saiva Siddhanta 528 Sants 532

Who were the Sants? 532 Sant Sadhana 534 Oral Transmission 535

Sants in Maharashtra 536

Sants in Northern India 537 Mixed Dadupanthi "Saguna-nirguna" Anthologies 541 Sants in Gujarat and Punjab 542 Saguna-mrguna: A Historical Survey 543 Saguna-nirguna. The First Reference 544 Smarta 546

Clues in Smarta Beginnings for Understanding Their Characteristics 547 Smarta Worship- , Istadevata, and Pancayatanapuja 548 Smartas as Gatekeepers, Harmomzers, and Updaters 550 Connections (How a Smarta May Change His Stripes) 552 The Role Smartas Play in a Self-Corrective System 553 Xil TABLE OF CONTENTS

Srivaisnavism 556 Brief History 556 The Many Forms of Visnu 558 Srivaisnava Literature 560

Sri in the Srivaisnava Literature 564 Srlvaisnava Society 565 Srivaisnava Temples and Sacred Places 565 Orientation of Srlvaisnava Temples 565 The Paradigmatic Temple at Srirangam The Temple of ("The Lord of the Stage") 566 The Distinctive Personalities of the Regional Manifestations and Images in Snvaisnava Temples 568 Temple Rituals 569 Special Rituals in Temples The Auspicious Wedding of Visnu and Laksmi 570 Performative Rituals in Srivaisnava Temples 571 Distinct Markers of the Srlvaisnava Community 572 Srlvaisnavas outside of India 572 Tantra 574 Emergence of Hindu Tantra 575 The Royal Pivot 576 Tantnc Texts and Traditions 579 Esotericism and Tantnc Sexuality 584 Tantnc Ritual 586 Vaikhanasa 589

Vaikhanasas as Vedic Seers and Hermits 589 The Followers of the Vaikhanasa Sakha 590

From the Period to the Samhita Period 592 Medieval Vaikhanasa Temple Priests and the Samhita Corpus 593 The Era of Vaikhanasa Non-canonical Literature 595 The Vaikhanasa Community from the Late 19th to 20th Century 597 The Emergence of Leaders 599 Rise and Development of Associations 600 Publishing Activities in the 20th and 21 th Centuries 601 and Ayurveda in the 20th Century 603 Sampradaya 606 Foundation of the Vallabha Sampradaya 606 The Organization of the Vallabha Sampradaya 607 The Primary Svarupa and the Institution of Worship m the Vallabha Sampradaya 608 The of Seva 611 The Purpose of Seva 612 Seva and the Encouragement of Literature and Art in the Vallabha Sampradaya 613 The 19th-century Crisis in the Vallabha Sampradaya 613 The Contemporary Vallabha Sampradaya 615 Varkari Sampraday 617 History 617 Vitthal 618 Key Figures 619 Beliefs and Practices 621 The Van 622 Literature and Philosophy 623 Kirtan 624 Varkaris and Modern Society 624

Philosophy Lokayata 629 The Original Meaning of the Term Lokayata 630 Ajita Kesakambalin 633 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

King Paesi 634 Carvaka/Lokayata in the Classical Period 634 Mimamsa 643 The Origins of Mimamsa 643 An Overview of the System 644 Kumarila, Prabhakara, and Their Schools 650 The Age of the Digests 654 The Scholastic Turn and the "New Mimamsa" 655 and Navyanyaya 657 Enumerating Vaisesika 658 The Nyaya Canon 659 Modern Development 660 From Absence to the Ultimate 661 Theoria and -\ite 661 Navyanyaya 662 Nyaya, Navya, and God's Theodicity 664 672 Brahmanical Presuppositions and the Birth of Sanskrit Linguistics 672 Buddhist Systematic Philosophy and the Role of Language 673 as Language Incorporated 675 The Word as Source of Knowledge 676 The Linguistic Crisis 678 Bhartrhari 680 Sentence Meaning 681 The Meanings of Words and Their Parts 682 Language, Philosophy, and Science 683 685 Plurality of Samkhya Traditions 685 The Term Samkhya 688 The Separateness of the Self 689 691 Later Samkhya 693 695 Contemporary Samkhya 697 Vaisesika 699 The Legendary Founder of Vaisesika and Its Religious Affiliation 701 The Historical Background 703 The Vaisesikasutra and Its Commentaries 705 The Literature of Classical and Postclassical Vaisesika 707 A Sketch of Vaisesika Philosophy 711 Vedanta: and the Schools of Vedanta 719 Developments in the Tradition 725 Scriptural 729 Some Critiques 730 Modern Vedanta 735 737 and Vivekananda 738 740 Radhakrishnan 741 Yoga: Patanjala Yoga 745 , Hagiography, and Authorship of the Yogasutra 745 Patanjala Yoga as Samkhya-Yoga 747 The Term "Yoga" 749 Yoga before the Yogasutra 750 Yoga in the Upanisads 752 XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

752 Yoga in the Yoga and 754 The Teaching of the Yogasastra 755 Contemporary Samkhya-Yoga 757 Patanjala Yoga and the Plurality of Yoga Traditions 758 Raja Yoga 760 760 Raja Yoga in Sanskrit Sources Nath Yoga and Yoga Upanisads 760 Yogavasistha Tradition 762 Outsiders'Perspectives 763 765 Raja Yoga after Vivekananda 766 The Raja Yoga of the Sahaj Marg 766 767 770 Texts 771 Early Hatha Yoga 771 The Hathapradipika and Classical Hatha Yoga 772 The Principles of Hatha Yoga 774 The Practices of Classical Hatha Yoga 775 Practitioners 778 Further Reading 780 Modern Yoga 782 Swami Vivekananda 783 Theosophical Society 783 784 Medicalization 784 Physical Culture 785 T Knshnamacharya 786 B K S. Iyengar 786 K Pattabhijois 787 T K.V. Desikachar 787 Swami Sivananda 787 Other Developments 787

Glossary 789 Sections for Future Volumes 793 Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Volume IV: Historical Perspectives Poets, Teachers, and Saints Relation to other and Traditions Hinduism and Contemporary Issues

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

' ' / 6 8 "!>

BRILL

LEIDEN . BOSTON 2012 Table of Contents, Volume IV

Prelims Preface xiv

List of Contributors xv Notes for Users xxviii Primary Sources xxx Primary Source Abbreviations lx Journals and Series lxviii General Abbreviations lxxviii

Historical Perspectives Indus Civilization (-1750 bce) 3 Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization 3 Harappan Language 8 Harappan Religion 8 The Indus Script 13 Vedic Period (1750-400 bce) 19 The Migrations of the Arya/Airua and the Post-urban Harappan Phase 20 The Rgvedic Period: Clans, Chieftains, and Migratory Pastoralism (c. 1500-1200 bce) 21 The Period of the Late Rgveda and the , , and Mantras: Ascendancy of the Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200-1000 bce) 23 The Period of Brahmana Exegetical Prose (c. 1100-600 bce) 25 Conclusion 26 Historical Perspectives: Between 400 bce and 600 ce 29 Prelude and Beginnings, circa 400-200 bce 30 The Formative Stage, circa 200 bce-300 ce 33 Puranic Hinduism, circa 300-600 ce 41 Hindu Medieval Regional Kingdoms (600-1526 ce) 51 Periodization of Medieval India 51

The Medieval Hindu State: Issues and Debates 52 The Regional Kingdoms of Early Medieval India: An Overview 57 Interregional Conflicts and Warfare 63 Regional State Formation: Two Case Studies 64 Vijayanagara (1336-1646) 73 Mughal Empire (1526-1759) 81 The Creation and Administration of the Mughal State 82 The Structure of the Mughal State 82 The Mughal Economy 83 Religion and State in the Mughal Empire 84 The Decline of the Mughal State 89 Mughal Court Life 90 Mughal Women 91 Arts and Literature 93 Maratha (1674-1818) 96 Maratha Kingdom: Mystery of Sivaji's Hindavi Svarajya 96 Struggles against Tamramukhi (Mughals) 97 Pesvai: Maratha Kingdom under Peshvas 97 Vatan System: Structure of Local System 98 Development of Market Economy 99

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Maratha Government and Local Society 99 Brahmanical Rituals Yajna,$anti, and Prayasatta 100 Devi Worship Santi as Village Ritual 101 Downfall of Maratha Kingdom (Peshva Government) 102 British Rule (1757-1947) 103 "Hinduism" 103 The Nature of British Imperial Rule 104 "Reform," "Revival," and "Tradition" 109 Nationalism 113 The Politics of Hindu 116 Diaspora 119 Independent India (1947-) 121 Partition Hinduism 122 "Neo-Hindu" Hinduism 123 Folk Hinduism 128 Literate Hinduism 129 Monastic Hinduism 132 Pilgrimage Hinduism 133 Diaspora Hinduism 134

Poets, Teachers, and Saints 139 Life 139 Major Works 140 Religious and Philosophical Project of the Pratyabhijna System 141 Idealistic Epistemology of Recognition 142 Conceptions of Identity and Egoity 143 Linguistic Speculations 143 Universalization of the Body and Reflected Identity 144 Classification of Means Types (Upayas) 145 Aesthetics 146 Ethics 146 Approach to Diversity 147 Akkamahadevi 150 Life 150 Poetry 151 Hagiographical Literature 154 Akkamahadevi in Modern Time 155 157 The Poems of the A|vars 158 Biographies of the Alvars 158 The Revealed Nature of the Poems 160 Theology in the Poems of the Alvars 161 Tamil Conventions in the Alvar Poetry 164 Role Playing in Alvar Poetry 168 Alvar Poetry in the Performing Arts 170 Awaiyar 172 177 Basava through His Vacanas 177 Basava's Biography 180 Conclusion 183 Bhartrhan 185 Previous Scholarship 185 Sources 186 The Limits of His Worldview 187 Religious Imagery 188 Conclusion 192 TABLE OF CONTENTS vil

Caitanya 193 Early Years Tradition and Transformation 193 Later Years Peregrination and Divine Rapture 194 Three Key Episodes in Caitanya's Life 195 Caitanya's Teachings 197 Conceptions of Caitanya's Divinity and Practicse of His Worship 198 Cokhamela 201 Sacred Biography and Poems 201 Karmamela and Banka Mahar 203 Soyrabal and Nirmala 204

Cokhamela in Marathi Film and Drama 205 Cokhamela and Dalit Movement and Literature 206 209 Life 209 Work 211 Teaching 212 The Dadupanth 212 Ritual 216 Eknath 218 Biography 218 Hagiographical Sources 220 Compositions 222 Legacies 224 Gargi 227 GargI and the Vedic Context 227 Gargi at the Tournament 228 Gargl's Achievement and Contributions 230 Hit Hanvams 234 Biography 234 Literary Works 237 Theology 238 Seva 239 Jayadeva 241 Jayadeva In and Out of Tradition Who Is Jayadeva? Who Was Jayadeva? 241 Form 244 Content 246 Context 246 GosvamI 249 Life 249 Works 251 Theological and Philosophical Contributions 252 The Bhagavatasandarbha 253 Literary and Poetic Contributions 255 Gopalacampu 255

Influence on Later Tradition 256 Jnandev 258 Biography 258 Legacy 259 Compositions 260 Kablr 265 Kablr's Time Sants, Bhaktas, and Wandering Ascetics of Various 265

Kablr's Life m Sources and Traditions 266 Singing and Composing From Performance to Written Collections 267 Traits, Elements, and Perspectives in Kablr's Compositions 268 Lalla 272 Life and Legends 272 Lalla's Verses The Text 272 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Inner Journey 273 Relationship with the £aiva Tradition 274 Teachings 276 Relationship with the RisI Sufi Tradition 277 Conclusion 278 Madhva 280 The Life of Madhva 280

Madhva as Commentator 283 Difference and the Inner Witness 283 The Independent Reality and Dependent 284 The Individual Selves 285

Brahman as God 285 Madhva's Major Works 286 Conclusion 287 Mirabal 288 The Life of 288 The Songs of Mirabal 291

Mirabal as a Model 293 296 Biography 296 Sources 300 Manuscript Sources 300 Printed Collections 301 Cinematic Sources 301 Mehta 303 Life 303 Poetry 305 Narasimha as a Cultural Icon 308 Narasimha and Gandhi 308 Conclusion 308 310 310 Tirumuraikantapuranam 310 Tiruttontattokai and Tiruttontartiruvantati 312 Lives and Poetry of the Muvar 312 Tirunavukkaracar or Appar 313 Tirunanacampantar or Campantar 314 Cuntarar 316 Other Nayanmar Compositions 318 Nayanmar Hanographic Patterns in the Periyapuranam 318 Temple as Body Pucalar, Vayilar, and Gananatar 319 Caste and the Nayanmar 320 Nantanar 321 Koccenkat Colar 322 Esotericism in the Canon Tirumular 322 Tirumular 323 Women and the Nayanmars Karaikkal Ammaiyar 323 Violence among the Saints 325 Cantlcan or Candesvara 326 Ciruttontar 327 Kannappan 327 Icons and Worship 328 Iconography of the Nayanmar 329 Cooption and Contention with the Sramanas 331 Nayanmar in Film 332 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

Ramananda 335 Hagiography and Legend 335 Works 338 Studies, Interpretations, and Constructions 340 344 Ramdas 358 Biographical Framework 359 365 Biography 365 Ramprasadl Songs 367 Ramprasad Sen and Bengali Saktism 369 Ravidas 371 Early Traditions 371 Early Print Cultures and the Lives of Ravidas 373 Post-Independence Lives of Ravidas 376 Conclusion 378 Rupa GosvamI 379 The Life of Rupa 379 The Works of Rupa 380 Rupa's Teachings 383 The Legacy of Rupa 386 Sankara 388 Dates of Sankara 388 Biography 389 Texts 391 Philosophy 392 Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva 397 Sankaradeva's Life and Historical Context 397 Literary and Dramatic Works 398 Sankaradeva's Vaisnava Philosophy Ekasarana Namadharma and Mahapurustya Dharma 398 Caste, Gurus, Women, and Social Reforms 400 Madhavadeva's Life and Work 401 Institutional Structures Satras and Namghars 402

Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva in the 20th and 21st Centuries Cultural Heroes of Postcolomal India 402 405 The Blind Poet 405 Beyond the Vallabhite Surdas 407 Translator of the Bhagavatapurana? 408 Courtly Frames for Surdas 409 Collective Authorship and the Expanding Sursagar 410 Tarigonda Vengamamba 413 Tukaram 420 The Pilgrimage 420 Tukaram and the Varkari Tradition 421 Themes of Tukaram's Poetry 422 Publications, Translations, and Interpretations of Tukaram 424 Tulsldas 429 Life and Legend 429 The Works of 433 Tyagaraja 438 Biographies of Tyagaraja 438 Tyagaraja's Works from a Religious Lyric Perspective 440 A Further Consideration of Themes in Tyagaraja's Work 442 Interplay of the Old and the Young in Tyagaraja 443 Tyagaraja's Contributions to 445 Conclusion 446 X TABLE OF CONTENTS

Vallabha 448 448 Vallabha in Hagiography and Autobiography Vallabha's Fundamental Doctrine 450 Vallabha's Life 453 Vallabha's Personality 460 Vedantadesika 462 462 Narrative Images in the Sacred Biographies The Master Philosopher. Venkatanatha, Ramanuja, and Visistadvaita 463 Venkatesa and His Srivaisnava Tradition 464 465 North and South A in the Community The Acaryas of Snrangam and Venkatesa of Kanchipuram 466 Venkatesa's "Jewels and Coral" 467 Venkatesa the Poet 468

Venkatesa's Regional Sanskrit Depth over Breadth 468 Yamunacarya 470 Biographical Sketch of Yamunacarya 471 Yamunacarya and the Stddh i traya 471 Yamunacarya and His Agamapramanya 472 Yamunacarya's Catuhsloki and Stotraratna 473 Yamunacarya's Gitarthasamgraha 474

Relation to Other Religions and Traditions Hinduism and Buddhism: Ancient Period 479 Terminology 479 Previous Scholarship 481 Sources 484 Historical Interconnections 485 Conclusion 492 Modern Period 494 Hindu Inclusion of Buddhism 494 The Buddhist Symbols of the Nation of India 497

Rebirth of Buddhism in India 498 Ambedkar's Buddhism 499 Buddhism and Dalits 500

Buddhism as a Critique of Hinduism 501 Conclusion 502 Hinduism and 505 Historical Contacts 505

The Hindu Response to the Christian Colonial Presence in India 510 Christianity Embraces Hinduism Indian Christian Theology 514 Indian Christian Art 518 Hinduism and -

Medieval and Premodern Period 521 Textual Contacts The Persian Texts on Indian Learning 521 Islamic and Hinduism 525 Adverse Reactions 527

Modern Period North India 530 North Cultural Areas Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, , and Uttarakhand 530 West Cultural Areas Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra 533 North Central Cultural Areas , Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh 539 East Cultural Areas Bihar and West Bengal 542 Northeast Cultural Area Assam and Nagaland 544 Conclusion 545 Modern Period South India 546 Kerala 547 Andhra Pradesh 548 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Karnataka 550 Tamil Nadu 552 Conclusion 557 Hinduism and 559 Stereotypes 559 The Ancient Period 560

Hindu-Jain Relations in Medieval India 561 Sanskrit 562 Philosophy 562 Holy Places 564 Satire 565 The Epics 565 Ritual Culture 567

Deities 567 The Modern Period 570 Hinduism and 573 Definitional Challenge 573 Punjabi Religion 574 Models of the Relationship 574 Historical Relationship 577 Theological Overlap 581 Attitude to the Vedas 583 Cultural Resemblance 583 584 Caste 585 Gender 585 Diaspora 586 The Internet 586 Hinduism and Tribal Religions in India 588 Discussing Caste and Tribe 588 Hindu Kings and Tribal Chiefs 591 The Tribal Pantheons and the Hindu Gods and Temples 592 Paradigms of Religious Indigeneity 594

Tribes and Castes in Interaction 594

Hinduized Rituals as a Common Idiom between Tribal Groups and Castes? 595 Tribal Groups from the Nilgins 595 Hinduized Priesthood and Bhakti Movements 597 Hierarchization and Reform Movements 597

Bhakti and Hinduization in the Northeast 599 Reasserting Tribal Identity 600 Tribal Eschatologies and Hindu Values 600 Hinduism Imposed on Tribal Groups through Propaganda by Fundamentalist Groups 601 Conclusion 601 Hinduism and Zoroastnanism 605 The Rgveda and the Avesta 605 Iconographical Convergence in Central Asia 609 Magas and Bhojakas 610 The Parsis 611

Hinduism and Contemporary Issues Animal Rights 619 Buddhism and Animals 619

Animals in Jainism 620

Animals in Hinduism 621

The Bisnol and Animal Protection 622 Pinjrapoles and Gosalas and Mahatma Gandhi 623 Contemporary Animal Advocacy 623 Human Responsibility toward Animals Indian Perspectives 624 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS

Atheism and 626 626 Rationalism 628 Bioethics 633 633 Bioethics in India 634 Hindu Perspectives on Bioethics Decision Making, Informed Consent, and Patient Autonomy 634 Pain and Suffering 635 Contraception 635 Abortion 636 Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technologies 637 Cloning 638 Organ Donation and Transplantation 638 Commodification 641 Consumer Culture and Hinduism A Marginal Field 642 Commodification Processes and Hinduism A Strange Alliance? 642 Puja Items: Production, Circulation, and Markets 644 Theorizing Consumption of Puja Items 646 Dalit Critiques of Hinduism 650

Debates on Nomenclature 650 Modern Dalit Movements 652 Dalit Critiques of Hinduism 655 Dalit Religions and Conversions 658 Constitutional Measures and Critiques of the State 659 Ecology 663 Potential Resources 663 Problematizing Sacred Rivers, Earth, and Groves 667 Reincarnation, Anthropocentrism, and Animals 670 Hindu Thought as World Denying 670 Historical and Contemporary Environmental Activism 672 Conclusion 674 Ethics 677

Ethics in the Vedic Literature 677 The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras 679 Epic and Puramc Narratives. Exemplary Figures, Ethical Choices, and Conflicting 682 The Ethics of the Bhagavadglta 686 The Ethical Challenge of Devotional Hinduism 687 Gandhi's Practical Ethics of and Nonviolence 688 The Contemporary Study of Hindu Ethics 689 Human Rights 692 The Introduction of Human Rights to India by Hindu Renaissance Thinkers and by the 1949 Constitution 693 Dharma and Human Rights for Today 695 Specific Dharma and Universal Dharma 696 Conclusion 698 Internet 700 Early Years 700 Number and Diversity of Hindu WebSites 700 The Use of the Internet by the Kanchi Math and Its Supporters 701 Jostling for Influence within Hinduism 702 Pujas Facilitated by the Internet 704 Online Darsan 705 Conclusion 706 Modern Legal Framework 707 as Personal Law 707 Hinduism and the Modern Indian Legal System 710 Hinduism and the Law Outside of India 714 Conclusion 715 TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll

New Age 718 Spirituality in Historical Context 719 A 721 Hinduism and New Age Spirituality Phase Three 723 Conclusion 724 Science 726 Epistemological Tensions 727 Hinduism and Astronomy in Ancient India 729

Hinduism and Medicine in Ancient India 732

Hinduism and Science in the Colonial and Postcolonial Periods 735 Conclusion- Social Contexts and Cognitive Foundations 737 Sexuality 740 Tolerance and Responses to 754 The Classical Period 754 Hinduism's Encounter with Islam 758 Hinduism and the Sikhs 759 Hinduism and Christianity 760 Hinduism and Secular India 764 Constitution 766 Tourism 768

Appendix Dalits/Ex-Untouchables 779 Who Are Dalits? 779 Dalits and Hinduism 780 Are Dalits Hindus? Anthropological and Political Considerations 780 Dalits and the Resignification of Caste and Religion 783 Dalits and Hinduism in the Administrative and Legal Codes of Modern India 785 Gender 788 "Gender" and "Sex" 788 Boundaries 789 Alternatives 795 Challenges 800 Jadugars 806 Lexical Meanings 806 The Magician in the Ancient Period 807 The Medieval Period 809 The Modern Period 811 Sorcerers and Magic Today 812 Srividya 815 The Nitya Cult and the Emergence of Srividya 816 Srividya, Brahmanism, and the Cults of the Local Goddesses 817 Classification 817 Srividya Literature 818 Practices 821 Ajlvika 823

Glossary 829 Sections for Future Volumes 833 Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Volume V: Religious Symbols Hinduism and Migration: Contemporary Communities outside South Asia Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

s '6 8^

BRILL

LEIDEN . BOSTON 2013 Table of Contents, Volume V

Prelims

Preface xvn List of Contributors xvin Notes for Users xxxni

Primary Sources xxxv Primary Source Abbreviations lxvin Journals and Series lxxvn

General Abbreviations xc

Religious Symbols Cakra 3 Symbolic Meanings of the Cakra 3 History 4 Worship of Sudarsana 5 Cakra in New Age Movements 6 Conclusion 6 Colors 7

Color in Medicine, Magic, Metaphysics, and Ritual 7 Elements, , and the Cosmos 9 Colorlessness, Purity, and Transcendence 10 Deities, Devotion, and Iconography 11 Red, Gold, and "Shining". Vitality, Agm, Rudra, and the 11 Blue, Black, and "Dark". Krsna, Siva, and Kali 12 White and Ash Gray: Soma and Siva 12 Perspectives on Color 13 Conch 14 Mythology 14 Iconography 14 The Conch as a Sign of Visnu 14

The "Presence" of Visnu's Conch on Earth 15

Use in Ritual 15 Divine Attributes and Emblems 16

The Term "Emblem" in the Present Context 17 Ornaments 18

Aksamala (String of Seeds or Beads Used for a Contemplative Practice) 18 Animal Skin (Carman) 18 Arrow [Bana, Sara) 19

Axe or Hatchet (Parasu, Kuthdra) 19 Banner, Flag (Dhvaja, Ketu) 20 Begging Bowl (Bhtksapatra) 20 Bell () 20 Book, Palm-Leaf Manuscript (Pustaka) 20 Bottle, Waterpot, or Ewer (Kamandalu, Kundika, Kalasa, or Bhrngdra) 20 Bow (Capa, Dhanus, or Sarnga) 21 Chisel or Related Implement (Tanka) 21 Cloth (Vastra) 22 Club (Gada, Lakuta, Musala [Pestle]) 22 Cobra (See Serpent) 23

(O Komnklijke Brill NV leiden,2013 Bbli \ol \

Also a\aildble online -www brill com TABLE OF CONTENTS

23 Conch Shell (Sankha) 23 Dagger (See Knife) 23 Deer (Mrga) 23 Discus or Wheel (Cakra) 23 Drinking Vessel (Pdtra, Panapatra) 24 Drum (Damaru [a Small Hourglass-Shaped Drum]; Dhakka) 24 Earth (Mahi, Dharam) 24 Elephant (Gaja) 24 E)e (Netra, Nayana, or Aksa) 25 Fire (Agm, Jvala) 25 Flag (See Banner) 25 Flute (Venn, Murall) 25 Fly Whisk {Camara) 25 Fruit (Phala) Goad, Elephant Driver's Hook (Ankusa) 26 Hammer (Mudgara) 26 Head, Bald Head (Munda) 26 Jewel-Filled Vessel (Ratnapatra) 26 26 Knife or Dagger (Kartari, Kartr, or Churi) 26 Ltnga (Sign, Emblem, or Phallus) 27 Lotus (Padma, Pankaja, or Kamala) Mace (See Club) 28 Mirror (Darpana) 28 Money Bag (Matrabhastra) 28 Mongoose (Nakula) 28

Moon Crescent {Balacandra - Young Moon) 28 Noose, Lasso (Pasa) 29 Parasol (Chattra) 29 Parrot {Suka, Tam. Kilt) 29 Peacock Feathers (Mayurapattra, Mayurapiccha) 29 Pen, Reed Pen (Lekha.nl) 30 Phallus (See Ltnga) 30 Plow {Halo) 30 Pot of Riches (Nidhipatra) 30 Radish (Mulaka) 30 Rooster (Kukkuta, Krkavaku) 30

Sacrificial Ladles (Sruk or Sruc, Sruva) 30 Serpent, Cobra (Sarpa, Naga, or Bhujanga) 30 Shield {Khetaka) 31 Skull, Skull Cup (Kapala) 31 Spear, Lance, or Javelin (Sakti, Sula, Tam Vel) 32 Staff (Danda) 32 Stringed Instrument Resembling a Lute or Stick Zither {Vina, Vallaki) 32 Sweet Balls (Modaka) 33 Sword {Khadga, Also Asi) 33 Thunderbolt or Bolt of Lightning (Vajra) 34 Tooth or Tusk {Danta, Svadanta [One's Own Tooth or Tusk]) 34 Treasure (See Pot of Riches) 34 Trident (Trtsula, Sula) 34 Water Lily (Kalhara or Kahlara, Utpala, Nllotpala, or Indlvara) 35 Waterpot (See Bottle) 35 Winnowing Fan (Surpa) 35 Wreath or Garland {Mala) 35 Divine Musical Instruments 36 Musical Instruments 37 Myth, Drama, and Religious Practice 43 Dress and Adornment 45 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

Fire 50

Agni in Comparisons and Metaphors 50 Agni's Hiding 51 The Trifunctional Fire 52 Sexual and Procreative Fire 53 Gems, Gold, Seed, and Soma. The Multiforms of Fire 56 Concluding Remarks 57 Gemstones 59 The Conventional Properties and Meanings of Gemstones 59 The Origins of Gemstones 60 Diamonds, Pearls, Snake Gems, Emeralds, and Sapphires 61 Crystal 62 Notable Individual Hindu Gemstones 63

Magical, Idolatrous Hindu Gems in the Western Imagination 64 Hair 65 Practices 65 Meanings 69 Liriga 72 Textual Sources 72

Linga in Ritual 77 Iconography 79 Lotus 82 The Lotus and : Auspiciousness and Generative Power 83 Detachment 84

The Lotus and the Sun 85 Mala 87 Fresh Flowers and Puja 88 Making Malas. Devotion or Work? 89 Mudras 91

Mudras in Theatre 91

Mudras in Iconography 92

Mudras in the Tantric Texts and Rituals 92

The Mudras as States of Consciousness in the Krama 96 New Field and Ancient Echoes 97 100

Om in the Vedas and Upanisads 100

Om in Later Literature 101 Regional Traditions 101 Conclusion 102 Prasada 103

Material Prasada in Hindu Ritual 103

Prasada in Vaisnava Contexts 104

Prasada in Saiva Contexts 105

Prasada in Sakta Contexts 106

General Observations on Contemporary Hindu Prasada 107

Prasada in Sanskrit Sources 108

Understanding Prasada in Classical and Contemporary Terms 110 Ram 112 Literary Sources for Ram and Ramnam 113 The 114 Tantric Tradition and Literature 114 Medieval Vaisnava Upanisads 114 SvamI and His Sampradaya 115 Ihe Written "Ram" 116 Ramnam Banks 117 Sacred Threads 119

Sacred Threads in Hindu Rituals 119 Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Sacrificial Cord of the Brahmans 120 The Ascetics' and Others' Threads 121 Salagrama 123 History of Salagrama Worship 123 Kinds of Salagramas 124 Area and Salagrama 124 Narratives about the Origins of the Salagrama 125 Smell 127 The Sense of Smell and the Nature of Odors 127

Important Odors in Hinduism 128 Aromatic Materials and Perfumes 129 Later Developments 132 Sound 134

The Veda as a Paradigm of Sacred Sound 134 Brahman in the Early Rgyeda 135 The Language Goddess Vac 136 Mantras, Melodies, and Nonsemantic Sthobas 136 Om in the Upamsads 139 Holy Hearing and Acoustic Piety in Postvedic Literature 140

Tantnc and Devotional Mantras - Power and Musicalized Devotion 141

Fluid Signs and Sonic Symbols - Language and the Alphabet in Scientific Contexts 143 The Postvedic Language Goddess and the Alphabet as Primordial Sound 145 Linguistic Metaphysics 146 The Nadabrahman as a Cultural and Transcultural Symbol 148 Svastika 150 Tilaka and Other Forehead Marks 152 Origins of the Mark 154 Life-affirming and Life-negating Values 154 Concepts of the Deity: Gods and Goddesses 155 Sectarian Traditions 156 Sectarian Marks and Their Connection to Caste and Stage of Life 156 The Three Horizontal Lines of Saiva Devotees 157 The Sounds of the Sacred Name Mantra and Meaning 157 Pilgrimage and Sacrality of Local Places, Physical and Moral Purity 158 Purity: Physical, Ritual, Moral 159 Meditation and the Eye of Wisdom 159 The Auspicious State of Being Married 159 Conclusion 160 Trees and Plants 161 Important Plants and Trees 162 Conclusion 166 Vahanas 168 Vahanas in Iconography 169 Aja (goat) 170 Akhu (mouse, rat) 170 ("Endless," "Infinite", also called Sesa) 170 Asva (horse) 170 Bhasa (vulture), see grdhra 170 Bhuta (lit. living being), see 170 Gaja (elephant) 170 Gardabha (ass, donkey) 171 ("Devourer") 171 Go (cow) 171 Godha, godhika (lizard, iguana) 171 Graha (crocodile) 171 Grdhra (vulture) 171 Hanuman ("Having [Large] Jaws") 171 Hamsa (wild goose) 171 Harm see mrga 171 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

Kabandha (a category ofgana) 171 Kaka (raven) 171 Kamadhenu ("Wish-fulfilling Cow") 171 Kapota (dove, pigeon) 171 Khara (ass), seegardabha 171 Kola (boar) 171 Kukkuta (cock) 171 (tortoise) 171 Mahisa (buffalo) 171 Makara (dolphin, crocodile) 171 Manduka (frog) 173 Marjara (cat) 173 (fish) 173 Mayura (peacock) 173 Mesa (ram) 173 Alma (fish) see matsya 173 Mrga (gazelle, antelope, deer) 173 Mrtaka (corpse) seesava 173 Nakra (crocodile) seegraha 173 Ndga (snake) 173 ("Rejoicing," "Gladdening") 173 Nara (man) 173 Preta (the dead, departed) 173 Ravana ("Roaring" or "Causing to Cry") 173 Rksa (bear) 174 Sardula (tiger, lion, panther, leopard) 175 Sarpa (serpent) see naga 175 Sava (corpse) 175 Sesa ("Remainder") 175

Sikhin (peacock) see mayura 175 Simha (lion) 175 Suka (parrot) 175 Sukara (boar) see kola 175 Srgala (or srgala, jackal) 175 Svan (dog) 175 Syena (hawk) 175 Uluka (owl) 175 Ustra (camel) 175 Vanara (monkey) 175 Vrka (wolf) 175 Vrsan, vrsabha (bull) 175 Yah (leogryph) 175 South Indian Temple Vahanas 175 181 Yoni 184

Hinduism and Migration: Contemporary Communities outside South Asia Afghanistan 189 Developments in the Late 20th Century 190 Restriction, Religious Persecution, and Expulsion Since 1992 190

The 21st Century - Discrepancies between General Improvements for Muslims and the Precarious Situation of Hindus and Sikhs 191 Summary 192 Australia and New Zealand 193 Australia 193 "Coolie" Diaspora 193 White Australia Policy 194 The Post-Independent Hindu Settlement 194 The Postcolonial and Postmodern Phase 195 x TABLE OF CONTENTS

Adaptation 196 Conclusion 199 New Zealand 199 Canada 206 China 212 212 Indians in China since the 1980s 214 Religious Practices among the Indian Traders in China Conclusion 216 Denmark 217 The Indian Hindus 218 The Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus 219 Keeping Up Hindu Traditions in a New Setting and Under New Circumstances 221 East Africa 222 Social Background 224 Temples and Spiritual Gatherings 225 Conclusion 227 Fiji 229 The Religious Life of the First Generation 230 The Period as a Farming Community 230 Independence and Development of a Political Community 232 Conclusion 233 France 235 Gulf Countries 240 Hindu Communities 241 Hindu Traditions 241 Temple Worship 241 Life-cycle Rituals 242 Festivals 242 Oman 242 United Arab Emirates 242 Bahrain 243

Kuwait 243 Saudi Arabia 244 Qatar 244 Yemen 244 Concluding Remarks 244 Guyana 246 A South Indian-Based Religious Tradition 246 The North Indian-Based Religious Tradition 247 The Modern Challenges 248 International Connections 250 Conclusion 250 Indonesia 252

Religion in Indonesia 252 The Idea of Agama Hindu 253 Hindu Community 254 Of Solidarity, Place and Person 254 The Good, Collective and Otherwise 255 Italy 257 Malaysia 263 Mauritius 269 Temples and the Social Structure 270 Modern Developments 271 Conclusion 272 Netherlands 274 Processes of Loss, Maintenance, and Reorientation 274 Successful Integration? 276 Analysis and Typifkation 277 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Norway 279 Portugal 285 Migration to Portugal after Mozambican Independence 285 Adaptation Economic Integration 287 Sociocultural Integration 288 Russia 291 Singapore 295 South Africa 300 Social History of South African Indians 300 Emergence of Temple Culture 301 A Challenge to Ritualistic Hindu Culture Neo-Hinduism 303 Bollywood Influence on Hinduism 305 Recent Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in South Africa 305 Conclusion 306 Sunname 307 Religious Reproduction and Group Formation 307 Postwar Institutionalization 309 Some Specific Religious Issues 310 Conclusion 311 Sweden 312 Diaspora Hindus and Their Shrines 312 Diaspora Temples in Stockholm 313 Gujaratis in West Sweden 314 Shrines of the Guru Movements 314

Yoga in Sweden 315 Integration, Representation, and Vlsibility 316 Switzerland 317 Hindu Migrant Communities 318 New Religious Movements with a Hindu Background 320 The Presence of Global Hindu Movements 321

Yoga in Switzerland 322 Thailand 324 The Thai Brahmans 324 Various Communities of Indian Hindus due to Migration 325 The Hindus' Position inThai Society 327 Trinidad and Tobago 329 Religion in the Village Setting 329 The New Hinduism of the Postwar Era 331 Conclusion 332 334

Hinduism in Britain Sources 334 Hindu Settlement and Communal Development 335 Home and Family 337 National Initiatives and Global Interconnections 338 United States 342 History of Hindu Ideas and Practices 342 Vivekananda and the Ongoing Messages of "" 343 Yoga 345 History of Hindus in the United States 346 Statistics and Taxonomy of Hindu Institutions in the United States 346 Domestic/Informal Groups 347 Global Organizations 347 Temple Communities 347 Cyber Societies 347 Cultural Groups 348 Temple Hinduism 348 Community Activities 351 Vietnam 353 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS

Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers Ad Dharm 359 Mangoo Ram and the Founding Circle 359 360 The Ideology of a Political Religion 361 , Census, and an Epic Fast Politics and the Decline of Ad Dharm 363 Ad Dharm Anew 364 366 Anandamayi Ma's Life 366 Ma's Teachings 368 369 Anandamayi Ma, an of Kali The Human Kali after Her Death 371 Conclusion 372 AramugaNavalar 373 Life, Activity, and Teaching 374 Criticism of Protestant 376 Agamas and Rituals 376 Caste 377 Images of Navalar 378 Art of Living Foundation 380 The Founder 380 The Teachings 381 Free Education Ved Vignan Maha Vidya Peeth 385 Transforming Rural India 385 Peace 386 Politics 387 The Future 387 389 Origins, Doctrinal Basis, and Early Development 389 The Social Project of Aryanism Education, Caste Reform, and Women's Uplift 391 The Political Entanglements of the Arya Samaj 393 The Arya Samaj in Independent India and Overseas 395 Aurobindo 397 Early Life 397 Major Works 398 Life during the 1920s and 1930s the Mother and the Founding of the Asram 400 Three Formulations of His Yoga 401 Later Life and Writings and Death 1938-1950 402 Legacy 403 Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh/Osho 405 The Early Years 405 The First Phase 1960-1974 405 Core Teachings under the Various Names Rajneesh Used 407 The Second Phase The Pune Asram, 1974-1981 407 The Disciples in Pune 409 The Third Phase. Passage to America, 1981-1985 409 The Fourth Phase The Buddha Returns to Pune, 1986-1990 411 The Fifth Phase The Contemporary Movement, from 1991 412 The Legacy 412 Bhaktisiddhanta 415 Historical Context 415 Early Life 416 Religious Practice 417 Work 418 The in Europe 420 Crises of Succession 420 Modern Hindu Personalism 420 Studies of Bhaktisiddhanta's Work 421 TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll

Bharat Sevashram Sangha and Swami Pranavanandaji Maharaj 424 The Child Manifestation of Siva 425 Athletic Asceticism and 426 Organization Development 427 The Divine Guru 428 Bochasanwasi Shn Akshar Purushottam Sanstha 432 Early History of BAPS 432 Line of Succession 432 Growth 433 Transnational Growth 434 and 437 Chinmayananda and 445 Life 446 Teachings 448 Organizations 450 453 Modern Search for Truth 453 Dayananda's Thought and Philosophy 454 Constructing Vedic Religion 454 Defining Ethical Hinduism 455 , Aryavarta, and Unity among Hindus 458 and State 459 Conclusion 460 Female Gurus and Ascetics 461 Women and Classical Definitions 461 Social Expectations for Women 464 Authority 466 Community 466 Hans Ji Maharaj and the Divya Sandesh Panshad 470 Biography 470 Contested Academic Sources 472 The Teachings of Shn Hans Ji Maharaj 473 The Heritage of Shn Hans Ji Maharaj 474 Hariharananda Aranya 476 Kapil Gupha (Cave of Kapila) 477 Preparation for Meditation 480 Meditation 481 Conclusion 483 ISKCON and Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada 485 A C Bhaktivedanta Swami (Snla Prabhupada) 485 History and Development 487 Tradition, Doctrines, and Practices 488 ISKCON's Position About Its Relation to Hinduism 489 Jiddu Knshnamurti 491 Biographical Details 491 Philosophical Foundations 494 Dialogue 496 Education 496 Relationship 497 Knshnamacharya 498 Lakshman Joo 502 Life and Works 502 Philosophy and Spiritual Practice 504 Mahanshi Mahesh and Transcendental Meditation 508 and 515 515 Legendary Origins Youth and Initiation 515 516 First Disciples and the Asrama in Khaliapali XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

Disappearance and Succession 516 Themes of Bhima Bhoi's Poetry 516 Bhima Bhoi The Blind Ascetic? 519 The Subaltern Voice 520 The Lay Guru 521 Institutional Splits with the Mahima Dharma Movement 521 Mission Trust and Embracing The World 523 Mata Amritanandamayi 523 Disaster Reliet 526 Housing/Care for Children/Fighting Hunger 527 Empowering Women 528 Education 529 Medicine 529 Critics 529 Melmaruvathur Movement 531 Origins of the Temple 531 The Goddess and Bangaru Adigalar 532 Innovative Rituals and Tradition 532

The Goddess Focuses on Social Problems 533 Local and Pan-Indian Deity 533 Modern Astrologers 535 Translators and Educators 535 The Appeal to (and of) Nadigranthas 537 Cultural Transmission and Western Practitioners 538 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 542 Biography 542 Concepts and Practices 545 Tht Bhagavadgita 549 Muktananda and Yoga 552 The Practices 555 Guru 559 Life and Education 559 Literary Works 560 Philosophy 561 Religious and Social Reforms 562 Radhaknshnan 566 Radhasoamis 572 The Utopian Society of Dayalbagh 572 The Spiritual Kingdom of Beas 576 Ramaknshna 573 The Life and Teachings of Ramaknshna Primary Sources 578 The Early Life of Ramaknshna 579 Spiritual Apprenticeship 580 A Brahman Guru and Middle-Class Devotees 581 The Gospel of Ramaknshna 582 Ramaknshna Math and Mission 586 Emic and Etic Literature on the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 586 The Origins and Early Development of the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 587 Landmarks in the Subsequent Development of the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 590 Conclusion 59I 594 Life and Works 595 Philosophy 597 Rammohun Roy 602 Rammohun's Life 602 Rammohun's Works 604 Rammohun's Ideas 606 Rammohun's Legacy 608 TABLE OF CONTENTS XV

SaradaDevi 610 and Sri Ramakrishna 610 Ramakrishna's Passing and the Emergence of the Holy Mother 613 Her Later Years Family Anxieties 616 Charisma, Wit, and Wisdom of the Holy Mother 617 Satguru 619 Religious Lineage. Kadaitswami, Chellappaswami, and Yogaswami 622 The Hinduism Today Magazine 623 625 The Conquest of Death Charisma in the Imagination, Globalization, and Transcendence 625 Constructing the Sacred Person in Indie Theology. A Philosophy of Intimate Charisma 625 Sathya Sai Baba's Life Story, Personhood, and Charisma 626 Extending Sacred Personhood and Charisma 628 Theories of Charisma and Sathya Sai Baba's Personhood Relationahty, Affect, and Persuasiveness 629 Constructing and Deploying Sacred Personhood, Strategies, Narratives, Durabilities, and 630 Beyond Humanity and Divinity. Tactical Captivity and Strategic Liberation 631 Towards Nomadic Charisma 631 Satnamis 634 Satnamis in Early Modern India 634 The Satnampanth of Chhattisgarh 635 Formation of the Satnampanth 635 Critical Elaborations 637 Issues of Gender 639 Questions of Politics 639 Shirdi Sai Baba 641 The Life 641 The Teachings 646 Conclusion 648 Sivananda and the 651 Sivananda and M Eliade 652 Sivananda and Tantrism 653 Building the Divine Life Society 654 Sivananda and the All-India Tour 655 Creating a Transnational Community: The Divine Life Society and Worldwide Yoga 657 and Pandurang Shastn Athavale 659 Swadhyaya after Athavale 662 Swaminarayan and Swaminarayan Hinduism 664 The Life Story of Sahajanand Swami 664 Swaminarayan Teachings 665 Swaminarayan Social Reform and Discipline 666 Division 668

Transnational expansion 670 Conclusion 671 Tagore 672 Budding Poet 672 Religious Training and 672 Jivandevata, God of Life 673 Public Universahst Hinduism and the Hindu Nation 674 Theology of Hindu Modernity 675 The Religion of Man 677 Theosophical Society 679 Theosophy, Evolution, and Spirituality 684 "No Religion Higher Than Truth" 686 Vivekananda 689 Vivekananda's Life 689 Points of Contention 691 Xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Vivekananda's Works 692 Vivekananda's Ideas 692 Vnekananda's Legacy 695 Vivekananda Kendra 698 Eknath Ranade, the Founder of the Vlvekananda Kendra 699

Emic and Etic Literature on the Vivekananda Kendra 699 The Origins and Development of the Vivekananda Kendra 700 Vivekananda Kendra's Yoga Way of Life 702 Conclusion 703 Yogananda and the Self-Realization Fellowship 704 704 Early Life in India Traveling 705 Autobiography ofa Yogi and Intersections 705 Self-Realization Fellowship-Then and Today 709 Conclusion 711

Appendix Devadasls/Courtesans 715 Courtesans between Power, Shame, and Fame 715 Power The Eye of the Beholder 716 Power A of Practice 717 Between Shame and Fame Shame 720

Between Shame and Fame Fame 722

Pow er Revisited 723 Hinduism and Dravidian Identity 725 The First Key Moment. The Separation of Brahmans and Non-Brahmans 726

The Second Key Moment Linking Dravidian Ideology with Tamil Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta ... 728 The Indigenization of Dravidian Ideology 728 P Sundaram Pillay (1855-1897) 729 J M Nallaswami Pillai (1864-1920) 730 Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950) 731 Feminism 734 The Woman Question 734 Catalyst by Elite Men 734 Women's Voices 737 Post-Independence and Post-colonial Feminisms Methods and Issues 741 Nature and Praxis of Feminism 742 Interventions 743 Nationalism 750 Early Developments 750 Who Is a Hindu? 753 The Sangh Panvar 755 Conclusion 758 Politics and Media 760 Media and Religion in Colonial India 760 Media Theory and Practice in the Era of National Independence 761 A New Phase of Hinduism? 764 Mediatic Differences and Linguistic Divisions 766 Conclusion 767

Glossary 771 Sections for Future Volumes 775 Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism

Volume VI: Index

Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief)

Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan

s 1 6 8 "!>

BRILL

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2015 Table of Contents, Volume VI

Prelims

Table of Contents, Volumes I-VI Vll

Preface XVI

List of Editors and Contributors XVII

Notes for Users XX

Primary Sources XXII Primary Source Abbreviations lvi Journals and Series lxv General Abbreviations lxxvill

Narmada 3 Saiva Texts 10 Lay Saivism 10 Initiatory Saivism 11 Chronology 11 The Atimarga 12 The Mantramarga 14 The Saiddhantika Scriptures 14 The Saiddhantika Exegesis 14 The Siddhanta s Pratisthatantras and Pratisthapaddhatis 18 Saiddhantika Liturgical Hymnography 18 The Scriptures of the Non Saiddhantika Mantramarga 18 Classifications of the Mantramarga s Scriptures 20 The Non Saiddhantika Mantramarga s Exegesis 23 The Kulamarga 28 Exegetical Literature of the Kulamarga 32 Salvific Alchemy and Procedures for Victory m Battle 33 Pratyabhijna and Spandapratyabhijna 34 Non Saiddhantika Saiva Hymnography 35 Later Developments 35 Nonprescnptive Evidence 40 Hinduism and 43 Indo Judaic Studies and the Jews of India 43 The Comparative Study of 45 Hindu Jewish Dialogues 46 Secularism Secularism and Religion State Relations in Modern India 50 Meanings of Secularism 50 Religion and State in the Colonial Era 51 Independence and the Constitution 53 Contemporary Practices and Problems 55 Secularism A Search for Conceptual Spaces 57 Background Conditions 58 Hinduism 59 The Idea of Conceptual Spaces 60 Background Conditions of Religious Freedom in the Ancient Hindu World 61

Secular Elements in the Pre nationalist World of Hindus 62 Guru Pir Tradition 63

© Komnkhjke Brill NV Leiden 2014 BEH \ol VI

Also available online - www brill com Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Akbar 64

Unorthodox Social Movements in the 19th and Early 20th Century 66

Ancient Ideas in New Forms. Gandhian Secularism 67 Political Hinduism and Political Secularism 68 Nagas 72 Tnmurti 81 Historical Development 81 Iconographic Testimonies 85 Western Encounters 86 Conclusion 88 Austria 91 "Hindus" and the "Hindu Religious Organization Austria" 91 Hindu Mandir Gemeinschaft (Hindu Mandir Community), Vienna 92 Hindu Mandir Gesellschaft (Hindu Mandir Association), Vienna 92 Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Sanstha 93 Sri Sri Radha-Govinda Mandir (Gaudiya Math Vienna) 93 Sri Om Sanatan Dharm Mandir 94 Conclusion 94 Germany 95 "Indian" Migration to Germany 95 Low-scale Organizations as Associations 95 Temples and Communities of Tamil Hindus 96 Afghan Hindus 97 Further Tokens of Plurality 98 Conclusion Hindus in Public Society 98 Brahma Kumans and 100 Founder Dada Lekhraj and His Vision 100 The Early Years. Om Mandali and the Move to Mount Abu 102 The Teachings of the Brahma Kumans 102 Membership and Practice 105 The Movement Today 106

General Index 109 Additional Indices 401 Gods, Goddesses, and Powers 403 Groups of Gods, Goddesses, and Powers 420 Religious and/or Philosophical Traditions (pre-1900) 423 Religious Specialists/Roles 427 Poets, Teachers, Saints (pre-1900) 431 Festivals 446 Performance Traditions 449 Primary Sources 451