Subdividing the Savanna: the Ecology of Change in Northern Tanzania

Subdividing the Savanna: the ecology of change in Northern Tanzania Amy Elizabeth Cooke A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in the Curriculum of Ecology. Chapel Hill 2007 Approved by: Paul W. Leslie Melinda Meade Seth Reice Peter S. White Thomas Whitmore ABSTRACT Amy Elizabeth Cooke Subdividing the Savanna: the ecology of change in Northern Tanzania (Under the direction of Paul Leslie) East African savannas are persistent socio-ecological systems undergoing unprecedented change. This dissertation focuses on the emerging agro-pastoral system of Maasai herders in the savanna lands adjacent to Tanzania’s Tarangire National Park. As pastoralists adopt cultivation, the relationship between humans and the land is changed. The new dynamics threaten the resilience of savanna systems. I examine three aspects of the human ecology of Maasai subsistence: changes in territory and political ecology, changes to the local common property system resulting from territorial compression, and how Maasai are responding to the production constraints of cultivation. I employed ethnography, social surveys, soil surveys and livestock demography to take a political ecology approach to investigating human-environment relations. Maasai territory is being fragmented by forces from within and without Maasai society. Poverty is increasing, due to market integration, high cattle mortality and population growth. Despite this, the adoption of cultivation cannot be explained by poverty alone. Poverty interacts with land tenure insecurity and with environmental stochasticity to create conditions conducive to the adoption of cultivation. Subdivision fragments the pastures which support pastoralism, reducing mobility and flexibility critical to dryland ecosystems. A village zoning plan has led to the emergence of a new common property regime that appears sufficient for current grazing and cultivation needs ii yet the historical pattern of land allocation means some villagers have greater access to protected pastures and water than others. Rich soils from abandoned kraals are also unequally distributed across the landscape. Pastoralists must negotiate limited cultivation experience, wildlife raids and labor shortages to integrate pastoral and agricultural production. Several trends suggest negative repercussions for future resilience of the socio- ecological system. Unequal resource distribution among land allocations, the history of interactions between stakeholder groups, and land use patterns that inadvertently concentrate resources among a few households are decreasing the flexibility demanded by semi-arid systems. To reduce the negative effects of cultivation, efforts should focus on improving yields on small plots, supporting livestock husbandry and integrating local residents and wildlife interests to build a resilient future. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Any dissertation is a collaborative effort involving more people than just the writer. A dissertation involving fieldwork and ethnography involves many more, stretching across two continents. I apologize in advance for any names I’ve left out inadvertently, or misspelled. I will start with the village and then shift home. First, I must thank the entire village of Loiborsoit for being so generous with their time and lives. They put up with my silly questions and still invited us to parties. Jan Peter Jarl and his wife, Noreteet, graciously allowed us to add on to earlier research camp on their land. Noreteet also led us first to Mama Maria and then to Kisioki Kuya, who became excellent camp staff. “Mama Maziwa,” not only brought us milk daily but was a great friend. Johanna Siria and his somewhat crazy extended family were wonderful friends during our stay in Loiborsoit. Special thanks go to the bomas of Kone Ndimmu, Lopasio Kipaha, Ng’esee Leleshwa, all of the bomas down near the handpump in Olmotoo (Madawa, Leshagga, Mosson, etc), and the extended Shinini clan for making our stay in Loiborsoit enjoyable. My assistant, Isaya Ole Ramos, and his entire family were wonderful neighbors. Isaya showed up 6 days a week supporting my progress in Kiswahili through Scientific Argument. His family kept rainfall records for me, and both his sister Monika and brother the Mwalimu provided a welcome relief from Kimaasai. I also thank Samson and Jumanne for their assistance surveying fields. Their amusement over the tasks I set iv continues to amuse me in return. Partimbo Tendee, Leyan (of Mtendaji fame), Loltukai, Nengeliai Koney, Saningo Mpashi and the rest of the village and sub-village governments were invaluable in giving me permission to conduct research in Loiborsoit but also generous with their time when I had questions. Thaddeus Orpiay assisted me in organizing the livestock census. It went much more smoothly with his help. In searching for a study site, all of the Simanjiro and Monduli District and Officers were very helpful, but Claudy Losioki, Assistant District Agricultural Officer of Simanjiro was particularly welcoming. In Arusha, Patricia Moehlman helpfully led us to Abe Sulieman of Tuckman mines. Abe, or rather his incredible staff, were instrumental in finding us a vehicle during high season and an apartment in the city. The library and staff of the African Wildlife Foundation were very helpful, particularly Dr. James Kahurananga. Peter Toima, formerly of Inyuat e maa first introduced me to Loiborsoit. Dr. Ngatoluwa and his staff at the Soils Laboratory of the Selian Agricultural Institute were wonderful to work with, efficient and quick. In Dar es Salaam, I thank COSTECH for giving me clearance to do research in Tanzania. At the University of Dar es Salaam, Professor R. B. B. Mwalyosi and Dr. Sosovele were very helpful in obtaining research clearance with a minimum of fuss. The American Embassy was fabulous in helping us get our visas through immigration, a favor I very much appreciate. Haji O. Suliemani, of the National Herbarium in Dar, helped me identify hundreds of grass and herbs over the space of a week, taking the time to explain the fine differences between grass species. We also had great network of American friends who kept us from going crazy. Mara Goldman, Lauren Persha, Stacy Lynn, Anna Estes, Brian Doench and Paula v Gremley were great company both in town and as visitors at our boma for holidays. In Dar es Salaam, Ned Bertz and Joy Baumgartner were, and remain, fantastic friends. The government of the United States of America has most generously paid for nearly all of my time overseas, beginning with the Peace Corps—yet another reason to hang my flag out on the Fourth of July. My dissertation field work was funding by a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Research Abroad Fellowship through the U.S. Department of Education and a Dissertation Improvement Grant from the National Science Foundation through their offices of Geography and Regional Science Program and the Africa Program in the National Science Foundation’s Office of International Science and Engineering. UNC’s University Center for International Studies (now the Global Education Center), supported both pre-dissertation research and language study through a Summer Travel Grant and a Foreign Language and Areas Studies (FLAS) grant. The American Association of University Women (AAUW) funded the first year of write-up, immediately following the return to the western world. Finally, the Curriculum in Ecology assisted me in finding many teaching opportunities to help fund my time in Chapel Hill, sometimes when I hadn’t even counted on it. In North Carolina I must thank my committee: Paul for not letting me quit and being incredible with finding (and getting) funding, Seth for cheerleading, Peter for fantastic explanatory emails, Tom for reminding me of the big picture and Melinda for believing in me at the very beginning when I needed to be believed in. Major thanks to all the admin folks the Curriculum has had over the years: Cottie Pasternak, Karen Hunt and Denise Kenner. Jack Weiss, the stats guru, does a great job of pulling information out of data I thought was a lost cause. Although they are not at UNC, Lew Lama of vi Viterbo University, Peter Rogers, recently of Bates College and Jim Igoe and Terry McCabe of the University of Colorado, Boulder have been sources of information and interest in my work that has helped me push on at various times. I have a strong network of friends who have helped along the way: Brandie and Barker Fariss, Mary James Stevenson, Chris Brooks, Allison and Alan Weakley, Janet Peterson, Rebecca Asbury, Reba Vidra, Eileen Vandenburgh, Dane Kuppinger, Flora Lu, Greg Gangi and others I know I’m forgetting. Janice Howard has been a great babysitter throughout the last few years, allowing me to work knowing my daughter was happy. The online community, Phinished, helped me start writing around a toddler. Its helpful to know someone is working when you are—even at 3am! Special thanks go to Mara and Brandie. I probably never would have made it through without them. Our collaborative discussions and mutual encouragement have supported me throughout this process I’d like to thank my family for putting up with this seemingly unending dissertation. My parents, John Cooke, Patricia Essex and Mark Asman, were sources of financial and emotional help as they have all been through the process of graduate education. Thanks for raising me to ask questions. My parents-in-law, Cheryl and Jim Eyster, came to North Carolina a number of times to help with Iris so I could focus on work. Helen Maddock assisted with finances but was also an example that women can be scientists. I hope she finds this dissertation worth reading! Finally, I must thank my husband, Darin Eyster, for his (over-extended) patience, willingness to move across the planet for two years and excellent grasp of logistics. Without Darin, my life in Loiborsoit would have been more austere than necessary, even in a mud hut.

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