CURRENT CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY Vol. Vol. 22, 22, No.5, No. 5, October October 1981 © ? 1981 1981 by by The The Wenner-Gren Wenner-Gren FoundationFoundation forfor Anthropological Research Research 0011-3204/81/2205-0001$02.450011-3204/81/2205-0001$02.45

Research Research andand DevelopmentDevelopment in the Stone Age:Age:

Technological Technological Transitions among

Hunter-Gatherers Hunter-Gatherers11

byby Brian Brian Hayden Hayden

THE THE TRANSITION FROMFROM PALEOLITHIC PALEOLITHIC TO TO MESOLITHIC MESOLITHIC andand the variablesvariables and and point point out out the theshortcomings shortcomings of current of current population­ population- homologoushomologous transitiontransition inin thethe New New WorldWorld fromfrom Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian toto growth growth models.models. Archaic Archaic lifewayslifeways are are amongamong thethe mostmost importantimportant developmentsdevelopments TheThe generallygenerally acceptedaccepted characterizationcharacterization ofof PleistocenePleistocene (Pa­(Pa- inin world world prehistory. prehistory. The The MesolithicMesolithic and Archaic notnot onlyonly repre-repre­ leolithic leolithic and and Paleo-Indian) Paleo-Indian) adaptationsadaptations includesincludes nonpermanentnonpermanent sentsent aa major change inin technology,technology, but also constituteconstitute thethe habitations, habitations, little little in in the the way way of oftrue true midden midden accumulation, accumulation, and and stagingstaging groundground forfor domestication. domestication. TheirTheir emergence is thus cen-cen­ a a relatively simplesimple technology. MostMost indicatorsindicators show thatthat traltral to to our our understanding understanding ofof cultural cultural change.change. The following is anan groups groups were were -highly -highly mobile mobile and and that that the theexploitable exploitable reSOUl;ce resource exploratoryexploratory essay essay forfor explaining explaining thethe emergenceemergence ofof thethe Meso­Meso- basebase was was much much more more limited limited than than in succeeding in succeeding periods. periods. Conse­ Conse- lithic/Archaic.lithic/Archaic. TheThe analysis reliesrelies on thethe pioneeringpioneering work and quently,quently, populations populations were were smaller, smaller, and and marginal marginal hahitats habitats may may ideasideas ofof others. others. Though Though thethe basic basic premise-thatpremise-that stressstress makes havehave been been uninhabited. uninhabited. Once Once the the Pleistocene Pleistocene hominid hominid hunting hunting changechange adaptive-is adaptive-is hardlyhardly new,new, II shallshall introduceintroduce severalseveral newnew adaptation adaptation was was established, established, large large to medium-sized to medium-sized game game became became thethe preponderantfaunal preponderant faunal staple staple (Isaac (Isaac 1971: 1971:291); 291); whether whether meat meat 1 1Some Some of ofthe the basic basic concepts concepts proposed proposed in this in paper this werepaper first were for· first was for-was moremore importantimportant thanthan plantplant foodsfoods cannot be determined.determined. mulated mulated during during 1974 1974 in ain field a field school school dealing dealing with withthe Rogers the Rogers site, site, TechnologicalTechnological andand stylisticstylistic traditions traditions with with very very wide wide geograph­ geograph- aa Paleo-Indian,Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and WoodlandWoodland sitesite inin thethe suburbssuburbs ofof Rich-Rich­ ical distributions (e.g., the Clovis, Folsom, Mousterian, and mond,mond, Va. Va. II am gratefulgrateful for thethe cooperationcooperation andand assistance ofof thethe ical distributions (e.g., the Clovis, Folsom, Mousterian, and Department Department ofof SociologySociology and AnthropologyAnthropology of Virginia Common-Common­ AurignacianAurignacian traditions)traditions) oftenoften characterizecharacterize thesethese Pleistocene wealth wealth UniversityUniversity and and toto R.R. G. Matson of of thethe UniversityUniversity ofof British adaptations. adaptations. The succeedingsucceeding Mesolithic/ArchaicMesolithic/Archaic traditionstraditions ColumbiaColumbia forfor stimulating stimulating conversation. conversation. lowe I owe specialspecial thanks to Brian were were characterized characterized by by two two major major trends: trends: general general diversification diversification Spurling Spurling (Simon(Simon Fraser University) forfor introducingintroducing me toto thethe conceptconcept ofof resources resources exploited exploited inin areasareas of poor-to-moderatepoor-to-moderate resourceresource of of rand r and KK selection, toto JohanJohan KammingaKamminga (La TrobeTrobe University, University, Victoria),Victoria), CharlesCharles Morgan (University(University ofof Victoria), MichaelMichael Schiffer Schiffer richnessrichness and and a a tendencytendency towardtoward specialization specialization inin habituallyhabitually ex­ ex- (University (University of of Arizona), Arizona), AubreyAubrey CannonCannon and PeterPeter BrobrowskyBrobrowsky ploitedploited resources resources in inresource-rich resource-rich areas areas (e.g., (e.g., fish fish on theon theNorth­ North- (Simon(Simon FraserFraser University),University), RichardRichard Shutler (Simon Fraser Univer-Univer­ west west Coast, Coast, wheatwheat inin thethe Near Near East).East). sity), sity), andand thethe refereesreferees forfor their their critical critical comments comments andand carefulcareful readingreading Resource diversification is reflected in many aspects of ofof early early drafts. drafts. Thanks Thanks gogo toto LindaLinda Hale forfor upgradingupgrading thethe clarityclarity Resource diversification is reflected in many aspects of andand grammaticality.grammaticality. materials materials related related to to subsistence: subsistence: (1) (1) More varied andand oftenoften smallersmaller animals animals were were exploited. exploited. (2) (2) A Aground-stone ground-stone tool tool assem­ assem- blage,blage, probably probably used used for for processing processing seeds seeds and and other other materials, materials, emerged. Peterson (1968) has shown that mortars and pestles BRIANBRIAN HAYDEN HAYDEN is is Associate Associate Professor ofof AnthropologyAnthropology atat SimonSimon emerged. Peterson (1968) has shown that mortars and pestles FraserFraser University University (Burnaby, (Burnaby, B.C., B.C., Canada Canada V5A 1S6). BornBorn inin werewere important important in in extending extending the the effective effective food food supply supply by reduc­ by reduc- 1946, 1946, he he was was educated educated atat thethe UniversityUniversity of of Colorado Colorado (B.A.,(B.A., 1969) inging otherwiseotherwise inedible inedible cartilage cartilage or or massesmasses ofof smallsmall bone toto andand atat thethe University University of of Toronto Toronto (M.A., (M.A., 1970; 1970; Ph.D., Ph.D., 1976).1976). HeHe edible edible pulp, pulp, by by mascerating mascerating foods foods for forthe agedthe aged and andvery very young, young, has has beenbeen a Fulbright-HayesFulbright-Hayes Postdoctoral ,FellowFellow inin Australia and by pulverizing toxic starches such as acorns for leaching. (1971-72)(1971-72) and has taughttaught atat VirginiaVirginia Commonwealth UniversityUniversity and by pulverizing toxic starches such as acorns for leaching. (1973-74). (1973-74). His researchresearch interestsinterests areare lithiclithic technology,technology, hunter-hunter­ (3)(3) FishingFishing techniques techniques improved, improved, and and fish fishcame came into intoregular regular gatherer gatherer adaptations,adaptations, culturalcultural ecology, and ethnoarchaeologyethnoarchaeology usc;use; thethe recordrecord includes includes bone bone fishing fishing tools tools such such as leisters,as leisters, amongamong hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers and and Mesoamerican Mesoamerican communities.communities. HeHe has gorges, gorges, harpoons, harpoons, and and fishhooks. fishhooks. (4) Although(4) Although shellfish shellfish provide provide publishedpublished "Population "Population Control amongamong Hunter/Gatherers" (World relatively relatively little little protein protein (Osborn (Osborn [1977: [1977:1721 172) notes notes that itthat takes it takes ArchaeologyArchaeology 4:205-21); 4:205-21); "The"The Carrying-Capacity Dilemma,"Dilemma," inin PopulationPopulation Studies inin ArchaeologyArchaeology andand BiologicalBiological Anthropology, Anthropology, 83,422 83,422 mussels mussels to tomake make the the protein protein equivalent equivalent of one of deer) one deer)and and editededited byby AlanAlan Swedlund (Society(Society forfor AmericanAmerican ArchaeologyArchaeology althoughalthough shellfish shellfish in sedimentin sediment habitats habitats (e.g., (e.g.,clams clamsas opposed as opposed MemoirMemoir 30); 30); Lithic Use-WearUse-Wear AnalysisAnalysis (New(New York:York: Academic to to mussels mussels and and limpets) limpets) are are inefficient inefficient to collect to collect with withsimple simple Press, 1979); Paleolithic Reflections: Lithic Technology of the Press, 1979); Paleolithic Reflections: Lithic Technology of the technology, they were regularly exploited in some areas. (5) The AustralianAustralian WesternWestern Desert Desert (Canberra: (Canberra: Australian Institute ofof technology, they were regularly exploited in some areas. (5) The Aboriginal Aboriginal Studies; Studies; 1979); 1979); andand "Subsistence and EcologicalEcological bowbow and and arrow arrow and and the the dog dog contributed contributed to greaterto greater hunting hunting AdaptationsAdaptations of Modern Hunter/Gatherers," in in Omnivore:Omnivore: Gather-Gather­ effectiveness.effectiveness. (6) (6) There There was was widespread widespread burning burning of forests, of forests, eth­ eth- inging and and HuntingHunting in in HumanHuman Evolution,Evolution, edited edited byby G.G. TelekiTeleki and nographically recorded among hunter-gatherers as a way of in­ R.R. HardingHarding (New(New York: Columbia Columbia UniversityUniversity Press, 1981). nographically recorded among hunter-gatherers as a way of in- TheThe presentpresent paperpaper was submittedsubmitted inin finalfinal form 6 xx 80. creasing creasing prime prime grazing grazing area area and and animal animal density density (Suttles (Suttles 1968, 1968,

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 519519

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms JonesJones 1969,1969, Hallam 1975). 1975). (7) (7) Judging Judging from from the the occurrence occurrence of of stressstress byby usingusing establishedestablished strategiesstrategies andand techniques, on occa-occa­ significantsignificant amounts amounts of fire-crackedfire-cracked rock,rock, boilingboiling of foodsfoods may sionsion newnew efficient ways ways ofof obtaining obtaining oror usingusing foodfood were devel-devel­ havehave becomebecome widespread;widespread; thisthis could have renderedrendered edible many oped.oped. plantsplants containingcontaining toxinstoxins and and couldcould havehave been used toto extractextract 5.5. New efficientefficient waysways of obtaining or usingusing foodfood primarilyprimarily otherwiseotherwise unavailable unavailable fats, fats, marrow, marrow, bits bitsof meat, of meat, and other and tis­other tis- involvedinvolved increasingincreasing the effectivenesseffectiveness ofof obtaining obtaining species species alreadyalready suesue fromfrom animals, animals, asas wellwell asas to reduce calorie lossloss fromfrom charring. usedused and/orand/or increasing thethe number of speciesspecies exploited. Ini-Ini­ ManyMany of thesethese innovationsinnovations appeared priorprior toto thethe emergenceemergence ofof tially,tially, speciesspecies diversificationdiversification meant exploitingexploiting large-bodiedlarge-bodied thethe Mesolithic/Archaic,Mesolithic/Archaic, butbut they werewere latelate andand remained rela-rela­ rtsourcesresources thatthat werewere dangerousdangerous andand difficultdifficult to obtain. tivelytively infrequent infrequent until until after after the the end end of ofthe the Pleistocene Pleistocene (Mouer (Mouer 6.6. Because useuse ofof increasinglyincreasingly diverse resourcesresources was closelyclosely 1975).1975). linkedlinked with with the the use useof technologically of technologically specialized specialized equipment, equipment, AsAs evidenceevidence for specializationspecialization in habituallyhabitually exploitedexploited re-re­ overalloverall technological complexity increased withwith staple-foodstaple-food sourcessources wewe find lessless diversitydiversity in faunalfaunal remains,remains, massivemassive diversity.diversity. amountsamounts of of shellfish shellfish remains remains in some in some areas, areas, a reduction a reduction to only to only 7.7. The strategystrategy ofof diversifying resourcesresources eventually encom-encom­ aa fewfew typestypes ofof toolstools (generally(generally thosethose usedused in obtaining and passedpassed all thethe large-bodiedlarge-bodied species.species. AtAt thisthis point,point, furtherfurther in-in­ processingprocessing thethe majormajor staples),staples), and thethe introductionintroduction ofof ground-ground­ creasecrease inin resourceresource reliabilityreliability depended on on the the harvesting harvesting of of very very stonestone processingprocessing tools tools such such asas ground-slateground-slate knives.knives. ItIt can be smallsmall species.species. These, however,however, werewere exceedinglyexceedingly difficultdifficult toto inferredinferred from from the the presence presence of of such such knives knives in in some some areasareas thatthat procureprocure economicallyeconomically withwith simplesimple technology and requiredrequired techniquestechniques hadhad been perfected forfor capturingcapturing resourcesresources enen massemasse complicatedcomplicated processing or storagestorage to make exploitation worth-worth­ (in(in manymany cases,cases, probably fish).2fish).2 while.while. OtherOther changes changes tendedtended toto occuroccur with thethe Mesolithic/Archaic 8.8. Small resources have specialspecial propertiesproperties ofof great importanceimportance innovations,innovations, especiallyespecially inin areasareas of resource specialization:specialization: in-in­ toto cultural cultural evolution. evolution. BecauseBecause smallsmall speciesspecies were were relativelyrelatively in-in­ creasedcreased seasonalseasonal sedentism and regularregular reoccupationreoccupation ofof sitessites inin exhaustibleexhaustible andand had much higher biological productivityproductivity thanthan somesome areas,areas, the appearance ofof edge-groundedge-ground wood-cuttingwood-cutting im-im­ largerlarger species,species, thethe resource base becamebecame significantlysignificantly moremore plementsplements (axes,(axes, adzes,adzes, chisels), a more pronounced regionaliza-regionaliza­ stablestable andand abundantabundant in somesome areas, leading toto major changes inin tiontion of of styles, styles, and and regionalization regionalization ofof subsistence subsistence specialization.specialization. otherother aspectsaspects of the culturalcultural system:system: increasedincreased sedentism,sedentism, Later,Later, inin somesome MesolithicMesolithic and ArchaicArchaic societies,societies, purelypurely orna-orna­ regionalism,regionalism, population population density, competition, and ranking;ranking; mentalmental artifacts,artifacts, which which can can bestbest bebe described asas primitiveprimitive reductionreduction inin most most areas areas ofof the the vast vast subsistence-related subsistence-related alliancesalliances valuablesvaluables (Dalton(Dalton 1975),1975), oftenoften accompanied burials.burials. These in-in­ ofof the the preceding preceding period; period; and and occupationoccupation of habitatshabitats that could cludedcluded copper,copper, shell,shell, and and bonebone pendants,pendants, asphaltasphalt and carved-carved­ notnot previously previously support support humanhuman populations.populations. stone stone pieces,pieces, andand pipes. With large-scalelarge-scale circulationcirculation ofof thesethese 9.9. EarlyEarly domestication andand horticulturehorticulture cancan mostmost profitablyprofitably valuablesvaluables in LateLate MesolithicMesolithic and and Archaic Archaic times, times, regional regional differ- differ­ bebe viewedviewed asas logicallogical extensionsextensions ofof thethe strategystrategy ofof increasingincreasing encesences onceonce againagain becamebecame lessless pronounced and thethe areal extentextent resourceresource reliability, reliability, as as can can manymany ofof thethe subsequentsubsequent and con-con­ ofof individual individual traditionstraditions greater.greater. InIn North America, the use ofof temporarytemporary changes changes inin subsistencesubsistence technology. locallocal rawraw materials,materials, oftenoften poorpoor inin quality,quality, asas opposed toto veryvery high-grade high-grade exotics exotics characterizedcharacterized thethe changechange in technologicaltechnological traditions.traditions. This This changechange inin materialmaterial waswas accompaniedaccompanied by what PREVIOUS PREVIOUS EXPLANATIONSEXPLANATIONS OFOF THETHE MESOLITHIC/MESOLITHIC/ has has beenbeen calledcalled a "degeneration" of of thethe qualityquality of of lithiclithic work-work­ ARCHAIC ARCHAIC TRANSITIONTRANSITION manshipmanship characteristiccharacteristic of of the the Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian stagestage (Willey(Willey and PhillipsPhillips 1958:1958:107-10).3 107-10).3 Previous Previous explanationsexplanations of the transitiontransition from Pleistocene toto I I shallshall argueargue thatthat culturalcultural ecology provides the most produc­produc- Mesolithic/ArchaicMesolithic/Archaic traditions have invoked thethe notionnotion of popu­popu- tive tive framework framework for for explaining explaining these these terminal-Pleistocene terminal-Pleistocene transi­ transi- lation lation pressure-inpressure-in itsits broadestbroadest sense,sense, stressstress resultingresulting fromfrom an tions. tions. Specifically, Specifically, II shallshall suggest the following: imbalance imbalance betweenbetween populationpopulation andand resources. ImbalancesImbalances ofof 1. 1. PopulationsPopulations attempted to maintain a certain equilibrium this this kind kind in in Pleistocene Pleistocene populations populations areare usuallyusually seen as stem-stem­ concerning concerning thethe frequencyfrequency withwith whichwhich theythey experienced stressstress ming ming from from one one of of two two sources: sources: climatic climatic changechange oror populationpopulation and and alteredaltered their behaviorbehavior in response to deviations fromfrom thisthis growth. growth. Advocates Advocates of ofeach each of theseof these causes causes of the of Mesolithic/ the Mesolithic/ equilibrium. equilibrium. Archaic Archaic transitiontransition tendtend to discount thethe other. 2. 2. TheThe development of Mesolithic/Archaic technologytechnology can-can­ The The climatic-changeclimatic-change explanation explanation suffers suffers from from the the fact fact that, that, in in not not be be explained explained byby singlesingle episodesepisodes ofof climaticclimatic changechange or popu­popu- the the Old Old World, World, climatic climatic and and environmental environmental instability instability through­ through- lation lation growth.growth. ResourceResource bases werewere constantlyconstantly fluctuatingfluctuating out out thethe Pleistocene Pleistocene isis wellwell documented.documented. Not only were all types throughout throughout the the Pleistocene, Pleistocene, and and man:landman: land relationshipsrelationships atat aa of of climate climate represented, represented, but but dramatic dramatic fluctuations fluctuations in in climate climate and and general general levellevel diddid notnot significantlysignificantly changechange fromfrom thethe Oldowan Oldowan to environment environment occurred occurred at at least least tenten timestimes (Shackleton(Shackleton 1975; the the Neolithic.Neolithic. Isaac Isaac 1975:876; ButzerButzer 1977:578)1977:578) during during thethe 1,500,0001,500,000 yearsyears 3. 3. ThisThis periodic resource stress was thethe mostmost importantimportant that that man man inhabited inhabited Europe Europe (de (de LatilLatil 1978) and thethe Middle motive motive for for patterned, patterned, directional directional change-i.e., change-i.e., towardtoward mini-mini­ East. East. Striking changeschanges alsoalso occurredoccurred inin woodedwooded andand savannasavanna mizing mizing thethe immediateimmediate effects ofof resourceresource shortageshortage andand insta-insta­ lands lands ofof North North and and CentralCentral Africa.Africa. IfIf climaticclimatic changechange waswas essen­essen- bility. bility. tial tial toto thethe culturalcultural transitiontransition ofof thethe terminalterminal and and post-Pleisto­post-Pleisto- 4. 4. AlthoughAlthough groupsgroups generallygenerally copedcoped adequatelyadequately with resource cene, cene, why why diddid thatthat transitiontransition notnot occuroccur earlier? Why should only only the the last last of of a aseries series of of climatic climatic changes changes have have resulted resulted in in the the transition transition out out ofof thethe PaleolithicPaleolithic stage? By itself,itself, thethe environ-environ­ 2 2Briefly, Briefly, this this interpretation interpretation rests onrests an argumenton an argument I have developedI have developed to to account account forfor the the appearance appearance ofof ground-stoneground-stone implementsimplements (Hayden(Hayden mental mental modelmodel isis incapableincapable of dealing with this question.question. Short-Short­ 1977). 1977). II argue that the major variables determiningdetermining thethe use ofof chip­chip- and and long-termlong-term climatic climatic changeschanges do,do, however,however, constitute aa ping ping vs.vs. grindinggrinding resharpening resharpening techniques techniques were were (a) (a) the amount ofof source source of of stress, stress, which which is an is importantan important element element of a moreof a morecom­ com- material material beingbeing processed,processed, (b)(b) thethe number of resharpenings involvedinvolved prehensive prehensive explanation.explanation. over over given given periods, periods, and and (c)(c) thethe availabilityavailability of good-qualitygood-quality chipped stone. stone. WhenWhen thethe amountamount of materialmaterial processed required so many Perhaps Perhaps because because of of the the more more limited limited duration duration of occupation of occupation resharpenings resharpenings that that large large amountsamounts ofof chippedchipped stone were needed, it in in North North America, America, the the transition transition to tothe the Archaic Archaic is frequently is frequently became became moremore economical economical toto adoptadopt a mode ofof resharpening suchsuch asas portrayed portrayed as as aa simple adjustment toto changingchanging environment.environment. grinding, grinding, which which prolonged prolonged thethe life-spanlife-span ofof tools.tools. ThisThis is true nono mattermatter The The post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene periodperiod is is viewedviewed as as permitting permitting for for thethe firstfirst what what thethe material material beingbeing processed.processed. time time the the exploitationexploitation ofof nuts,nuts, grasses,grasses, anadromousanadromous fish, andand 3 3For For further further documentation documentation of of the the general general characteristicscharacteristics of thesethese periods, periods, see see Willey Willey and and Phillips Phillips (1958), (1958), Caldwell Caldwell (1958),(1958), Ford (1974, shellfish, shellfish, of of which which people people naturally naturally took took advantage. advantage. StatementsStatements 1977), 1977), Funk Funk (1978), (1978), and and Isaac Isaac (1971).(1971). such such as as "Environmental"Environmental changeschanges affectingaffecting speciesspecies diversity ledled

520 520 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms toto a abroadened broadened food food base" base" (Ford(Ford 1974:400) are are extremely extremely com-com­ Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS mon.mon. However,However, itit mustmust bebe pointedpointed outout that the same species wouldwould havehave existed in refugia or inin lowerlower latitudeslatitudes during thethe only only 20,000-50,000 20,000-50,000 yearsyears (such(such as thethe WesternWestern Hemisphere)Hemisphere) glacialglacial periodsperiods andand that thethe technologicaltechnological innovationsinnovations whichwhich should should exhibit exhibit a crisisa crisis of populationof population pressure pressure at nearly at nearly the same the same characterized characterized the Archaic were not to be found anywhere inin the timetime as as areas areas whichwhich hadhad been colonized forfor well over 1,000,000 worldworld until until the the terminal terminal Pleistocene. Pleistocene. Thus,Thus, in North America yearsyears (such(such asas thethe NearNear East), withwith thethe semicontemporaneous as as inin thethe Old Old World,World, simple,simple, single-eventsingle-event environmentalenvironmental changechange domestication domestication ofof wild wild species species in in bothboth areas.areas. Even takingtaking intointo atat thethe endend ofof the the Pleistocene Pleistocene is insufficientinsufficient to to explain explain thethe changechange account account Cohen'sCohen's (1977:(1977:62-65) 62-65) "flux""flux" effects, effects, thisthis scenarioscenario isis in in technologicaltechnological traditionstraditions with whichwhich wewe areare concerned.concerned. highlyhighly unlikely unlikely when when one one considersconsiders thethe very limitedlimited access The The ideaidea thatthat population growthgrowth led toto major stressesstresses result-result­ betweenbetween the the two two hemispheres hemispheres and and the the constant constant growth growth dynam­ dynam- inging inin technologicaltechnological andand subsistencesubsistence developments has beenbeen ics ics postulated.postulated. made made popularpopular inin recentrecent years years by by Boserup Boserup (1965),(1965), but it hashas a 4.4. AsAs Weiss (1978)(1978) hashas pointed pointed out, out, it it is is much much more more difficult difficult number number ofof major major drawbacks.drawbacks. and and complexcomplex toto maintainmaintain aa constantconstant but imperceptibly low rate The The population-growthpopulation-growth modelmodel hashas twotwo commoncommon variants.variants. TheThe ofof growth growth than than it it is isto to maintain maintain either either zero zero or orrapid rapid population population first first is issimply simply that that there there was was no no population population pressure pressure duringduring thethe growth. growth. The The modelmodel thusthus seemsseems improbableimprobable because ofof its com-com­ PleistocenePleistocene becausebecause population increasedincreased extremelyextremely slowly,slowly, plexity.plexity. Even Even aa rate of growth onon thethe orderorder ofof 0.1 0.1% % per year finally finally filling filling the the earth earth to capacity to capacity by the by end the of end the ofPleistocene. the Pleistocene. wouldwould havehave saturatedsaturated thethe worldworld inin a a mere mere 15,000 15,000 years years (Hassan (Hassan InIn thethe vastvast majority of publications adopting thisthis view, thethe 1978:82). 1978:82). question question ofof why why populations populations growgrow isis notnot even even addressed.addressed. Where 5.5. InIn the lightlight ofof theoretical theoretical arguments arguments (Hayden (Hayden 1975)1975) and therethere is is an an awarenessawareness of the importanceimportance of the underlying as­as- ethnographicethnographic observations observations (Colson (Colson 1979, 1979, HaydenHayden 1981), itit sumption sumption thatthat populationpopulation generally increases beyond carryingcarrying seems seems clear clear thatthat no no group group could could avoid avoid periodicperiodic imbalancesimbalances with capacity,capacity, eithereither the the assumption assumption is is simply simply stated stated as as an an assertion assertion itsits resources. resources. Dramatic Dramatic short-term climaticclimatic changes,changes, asas well as or or thethe reasons reasons forfor population population growthgrowth areare _consideredconsidered aa problem long-termlong-term ones, ones, may may createcreate faminefamine conditionsconditions almost irrespec-irrespec­ for for others others to to solve solve (e.g., (e.g., Boserup Boserup 1965). 1965). StatementsStatements such as that tivetive of of population population density.density. ThusThus itit wouldwould seemseem that there was thethe authors authors "strongly "strongly favor favor the the position position that that population population growth growth recurring recurring stress stress throughout throughout the the Pleistocene Pleistocene andand thatthat stress at isis aa general phenomenon and humanhuman reproductivereproductive behaviorbehavior thethe end end of of the the Pleistocene Pleistocene was was new new neither neither in kindin kind nor nor in degree. in degree. generally generally isis unlikeunlike thatthat ofof mostmost otherother speciesspecies only in itsits tenden­tenden- 6.6. EvenEven takingtaking into considerationconsideration biological variables which ciescies towards towards sustained sustained growth" growth" (Sanders, (Sanders, Parsons,Parsons, andand Santley tendtend toto limit limit populations, populations, suchsuch as fat levels, lactation sterility,sterility, 1979: 1979:364) 364) typifytypify thethe theoretical justifications. As FlanneryFlannery andand thethe inabilityinability toto nourishnourish adequately adequately more thanthan oneone child at (1976:225)(1976:225) hashas noted,noted, "The"The pressurepressure isis simplysimply there,"there," and itit a a time,time, therethere isis stillstill a a clearclear net potential for substantialsubstantial long-long­ hashas becomebecome oneone of thethe most overworked explanationsexplanations inin con-con­ termterm populationpopulation growth amongamong nomadicnomadic hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers temporary temporary archaeology. archaeology. Population Population growthgrowth seemsseems toto accountaccount (Peterson(Peterson 1979: 1979:122; 122; BirdsellBirdsell 1953,1953, 1957;1957; HassanHassan 1978; see also for for everything everything (see, (see, for for example, example, Carneiro Carneiro 1958, 1958, 1970;1970; Cohen BongaartsBongaarts 1980).1980). IfIf PleistocenePleistocene hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers diddid notnot 1977; 1977; GlassowGlassow 1972, 1980; JollyJolly and Plog 1979;1979; PfeifferPfeiffer 1977; achieveachieve their maximummaximum growth potential, other factors must Sanders Sanders and and PricePrice 1968;1968; SmithSmith 1972;1972; YoungYoung 1972). Following havehave maintainedmaintained somesome sort ofof equilibrium.equilibrium. WhyWhy shouldshould these the the suggestion suggestion thatthat throughoutthroughout thethe PleistocenePleistocene the world was equilibrium-maintainingequilibrium-maintaining factors factors suddenly suddenly have have disappeareddisappeared at fillingfilling up up and and population population eventuallyeventually overflowed capacitycapacity just the the end end ofof the the Pleistocene? Pleistocene? priorprior to to domestication domestication some some 12,000 12,000 years years ago, ago, this this model model can canbe be A A moremore useful,useful, realisticrealistic scenarioscenario ofof populationpopulation growth and calledcalled thethe "bottle""bottle" model of population growth.growth. stress stress in in the the Pleistocene Pleistocene wouldwould probablyprobably be one in which stress The The secondsecond variant assumes thatthat withwith thethe establishmentestablishment ofof isis unavoidable, unavoidable, althoughalthough itsits frequencyfrequency can can be be controlled controlled to to some some sedentary sedentarv lifeways,lifeways, populations populations beganbegan toto expandexpand exponentially, degree degree by by culturally culturally limiting limiting population population growth. growth. The The popula­ popula- creatingcreating such such stressstress thatthat thethe increasedincreased work associated withwith tiontion growth growth cited cited by by advccates advocates of ofthe the bottle bottle model model can canbest best be be domestication domestication and and socialsocial stratification became became adaptive.adaptive. By viewedviewed as as thethe resultresult of of an an improved improved technology technology that that increased increased directdirect statement statement oror byby implication, implication, andand givengiven argumentsarguments on the resource resource bases bases over over time time while while keeping keeping population population and and resources resources inherentinherent limiting limiting factors factors of of nomadism, nomadism, readersreaders areare leftleft toto assume assume moremore or or less less inin equilibrium.equilibrium. thatthat populationpopulation stress was of relatively little importance priorprior AA numbernumber ofof archaeologistsarchaeologists andand ethnologists have arguedargued toto sedentismsedentism (e.g., (e.g., Smith Smith 1972:11). 1972:11). This mightmight be called thethe that that the the nomadic nomadic life-style life-style of ofhunter-gatherers, hunter-gatherers, particularly particularly the the "homebody" "homebody" model of populationpopulation growth. The theoreticaltheoretical as-as­ pecessity necessity ofof carryingcarrying infants,infants, resultedresulted inin long child-spacingchild-spacing sumptions sumptions of ofthis this model model have have been been more more explicitly explicitly argued argued than than intervals,intervals, thereby thereby severely severely restricting restricting the the growth growth potential potential of of those those ofof the the bottle bottle model, model, butbut thethe implications implications generallygenerally do not populations.populations. OnceOnce groups groups became became sedentary, sedentary, the the spacing spacing of ofchil­ chil- fit fit observations observations ofof hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer demography.demography. dren dren could could be be reduced, reduced, resulting resulting in in higher higher birth birth rates, rates, exponen­ exponen- Despite Despite criticismscriticisms byby Bronson Bronson (1975),(1975), Brumfiel (1976),(1976), Cow­Cow- tialtial population population growth,growth, and and significant significant increases increases in inpopulation population gillgill (1975), (1975), HassanHassan (1973, 1978),1978), WeissWeiss (1978),(1978), andand others,others, pressurepressure (Binford (Binford and and Chasko Chasko 1976; 1976; Dumond Dumond 1975; 1975; Ford Ford 1974: 1974: population-growthpopulation-growth argumentsarguments persist.persist. SomeSome prehistorians even 392; 392; GlassowGlassow 1972;1972; JollyJollv and and PlogPlog 1979:298-99;1979:298-99; Lee 1972;1972; viewview interpretationsinterpretations based based onon factors otherother thanthan population Sussman Sussman 1972). 1972). There There are are a number a number of basic of problemsbasic problems with this with this growthgrowth as as reversionsreversions toto nonexplanation.nonexplanation. Further discussion ofof "homebody" "homebody" model: these these argumentsarguments is thereforetherefore in order. 1. 1. TheThe empiricalempirical datadata do notnot fit:fit: wewe knowknow ofof sedentarysedentary TheThe bottlebottle modelmodel fails toto accountaccount for culturalcultural developments hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers with with no historyno history of recent of recent rapidly rapidly (or even (or even at at thethe endend ofof thethe PleistocenePleistocene for aa number of reasons:reasons: slightly) slightly) increasing increasing population. population. Neither Neither historical, historical, oral-tradi­ oral-tradi- 1. 1. ItsIts proponents have notnot shownshown whywhy oror specificallyspecifically how tional,tional, nor nor linguistic linguistic distributional distributional data indicatedata indicate uncontrolled uncontrolled human human populationpopulation growthgrowth isis differentdifferent from that ofof otherother populationpopulation growth, growth, e.g., e.g., in studies in studies of several of several groups groupsin different in different animals.animals. partsparts of ofAustralia Australia (Mulvaney (Mulvaney 1975, 1975,Lourandos Lourandos 1980a) and1980a) coast­ and coast- 2.2. ItIt would appearappear thatthat many many contemporary contemporary hunter-gath-hunter-gath­ al al FloridaFlorida (Goggin(Goggin andand Sturtevant 1964). ererserers have have maintained maintained stablestable populationspopulations over long periods andand 2. 2. IfIf thethe model were correct, thethe populatingpopulating ofof thethe entireentire have have usedused both culturalcultural andand biologicalbiological populationpopulation controlcontrol WesternWestern Hemisphere Hemisphere within within a afew few tens tens of of thousands thousands of of years years mechanisms mechanisms toto thisthis end end (Hayden(Hayden 1972).1972). If If this this isis true,true, one must wouldwould havehave beenbeen impossibleimpossible becausebecause ofof thethe extremeextreme growth growth useuse elaborateelaborate auxiliaryauxiliary hypotheses toto explain why Pleistocene limitationslimitations imposed imposed by by pronounced pronounced nomadism.nomadism. and and HoloceneHolocene hunter-gatherers wouldwould not similarlysimilarly havehave kept 3. 3. Similarly,Similarly, mankind mankind would would have have been been uncomfortably uncomfortably close close their their populations populations inin balancebalance with their resourceresource base.base. to to potential potential extinction, extinction, with with a amaximum maximum annual annual rate rate of of possible possible 3. 3. TheThe model implies that areas which had been colonized forfor growth growth of of only only 0--0.0001 0-0.0001%o % (Pfeiffer (Pfeiffer 1977 1977 :67; :67; Hassan Hassan 1978: 1978: 72). 72) .

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 521521

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms WhatWhat if itit hadhad been necessary toto increaseincrease nomadism nomadism and and child- child­ homogeneity,homogeneity, butbut itit isis difficult toto avoidavoid the implication thatthat ifif spacingspacing intervals becausebecause of of deterioration deterioration of of resource resource densities? densities? thethe raterate ofof populationpopulation growth increased withwith sedentism,sedentism, thethe SuchSuch rigid population-controlpopulation-control systemssystems areare extremelyextremely riskyrisky well-wateredwell-watered areasareas shouldshould be linguistically homogeneous at thethe genetically.genetically. familyfamily level level becausebecause ofof populationpopulation expansion. 4.4. According toto thethe model, model, there there should should be be a adirect direct correla­ correla- 5.5. IfIf nomadism were thethe only factorfactor restraining population, tiontion between between the the degree degree of sedentismof sedentism and andthe ratethe rateof population of population thenthen inin the the absence absence ofof nomadismnomadism oneone would expect aa perfectlyperfectly expansion.expansion. ExpandingExpanding populations should produce large areas MalthusianMalthusian situation, with populations atat oror beyondbeyond thethe limitlimit ofof linguistic linguistic homogeneity homogeneity such such as thoseas those resulting resulting from fromthe Bantu the Bantu ofof carrying carrying capacity. capacity. RealityReality does not bear thisthis out, since rela-rela­ expansionexpansion in in AfricaAfrica andand the Indo-EuropeanIndo-European expansionexpansion inin tivelytively sedentary sedentary groupsgroups inin ArnhemArnhem Land Land andand on thethe American Eurasia.Eurasia. This This relationship relationship can can be testedbe tested using using Australian Australian ethno­ ethno- NorthwestNorthwest CoastCoast had littlelittle difficulty obtaining obtaining food food (McCarthy (McCarthy graphicgraphic data. data. BirdsellBirdsell (1953, 1975)1975) hashas demonstrateddemonstrated thatthat andand McArthurMcArthur 1960,1960, SahlinsSahlins 1968a).1968a). AustralianAustralian tribal tribal territories territories vary vary inversely inversely in size inwith size precipi­ with precipi- 6.6. WhileWhile there isis apparently a correlationcorrelation betweenbetween recentrecent tationtation and and that that tribes tribes have have a more a more or less or constantless constant number number of ofveryvery rapid rapid adoption adoption of ofsedentism sedentism by hunter-gatherersby hunter-gatherers in contact in contact membersmembers (400-500).(400-500). Therefore, the smallest tribaltribal rangesranges are situationssituations and and populationpopulation increaseincrease (Lee(Lee 1972,1972, BinfordBinford and correlatedcorrelated withwith thethe highesthighest degreesdegrees ofof sedentism. Since thethe ChaskoChasko 1976), it isis impossibleimpossible inin thesethese circumstancescircumstances toto separateseparate smallestsmallest rangesranges occuroccur inin areas withwith highesthighest precipitation,precipitation, we thethe effects effects of ofsedentism sedentism from from the the effects effects of the of insured,the insured, reliable reliable shouldshould findfind thethe greatestgreatest degreedegree ofof populationpopulation expansionexpansion and foodfood supplies supplies andand improvedimproved medicalmedical facilities generallygenerally associat­associat- linguisticlinguistic homogeneity homogeneity in inthese these areas. areas. Harry Harry Lourandos Lourandos (per­ (per- eded withwith thethe reserves,reserves, stations, stations, andand missionsmissions ofof welfare-orientedwelfare-oriented sonalsonal communication,communication, 1976) alsoalso affirmsaffirms that sedentism was societies.societies. mostmost highlyhighlv developed developed inin thethe well-wateredwell-watered areas,areas, such as Arn-Arn­ 7.7. ThereThere are documented cases inin whichwhich very nomadic hunt-hunt­ hemhem Land Land andand southeastern coastalcoastal Australia. Yet therethere is no ing-gatheringing-gathering groups groups have have increasedincreased theirtheir populationspopulations rapidlyrapidly linguisticlinguistic indication indication ofof population population expansionexpansion inin thesethese areas.areas. As onceonce they they perceived perceiyed the the desirability desirability of doingof doing so (Birdsell so (Birdsell 1957). 1957). isis apparentapparent in figurefigure 1, thethe greatestgreatest linguisticlinguistic diversitydiversity inin InIn termsterms ofof assumptions assumptions andand expectations, both variants ofof AustraliaAustralia occursoccurs in thethe rich,rich, well-watered,well-watered, northern coastalcoastal thethe population-growthpopulation-growth modelmodel accordaccord poorly with thethe ethno-ethno­ regions,regions, where where groups groups are are most most sedentary, sedentary, and andthe leastthe least linguis­ linguis- graphicgraphic and and archaeologicalarchaeological datadata atat hand. PerhapsPerhaps eveneven moremore tictic diversitydiversity occursoccurs amongamong thethe highly nomadic desertdesert Aborig-Aborig­ important,important, their their proponents proponents have have been been unable unable to come to come up with up with ines.ines. Certainly,Certainly, variousvarious conditions may give riserise toto linguisticlinguistic anan unambiguousunambiguous andand operational measure of "population"population pres-pres­ sl,lre."spre." My My own own model model of of cultural cultural development development employs employs the the conceptconcept of of population population pressure pressure in inthe the sense sense of environmentallyof environmentally MEDIAN MEDIAN RAINFALLRAINFALL inducedinduced resourceresource imbalances imbalances leading leading to to morbidity morbidity or or mortality, mortality, (10(in mllhmetres) millimetres) _ > 2400 butbut sincesince thisthis facetfacet ofof the the concept concept hashas beenbeen obscured inin recentrecent - > 2400 yearsyears byby thethe association of thethe termterm withwith thethe population-population­ _ 1600-2400 1600-2400 growthgrowth model model II prefer toto useuse thethe termterm "resource"resource stress." .1200-1600 1200 - 1600

mOlL 800-600-1200 1200 ~ 600-800600-800 _ THETHE RESOURCE-STRESSRESOURCE-STRESS MODELMODEL ~ 400-600400 - 600 200-400 MyMy model ofof culturalcultural changechange differsdiffers fromfrom the population-population­ GJ E200 -400 growthgrowth model model in in thatthat thethe latterlatter viewsviews population growth as o 0-200 EZl- 200 constantlyconstantly taking taking place place even even after after carrying carrying capacity capacity is reached is reached and and underunder adverseadverse conditions.conditions. PopulationPopulation growth isis aa primeprime mover. mover. InIn contrast,contrast, thethe resource-stressresource-stress model model viewsviews populationspopulations as as seekingseeking equilibrium. equilibrium. Populations Populations dodo notnot inexorablyinexorably increase, increase, but but maymay remainremain stablestable oror even decrease overover longlong periods;periods; population population growthgrowth is is notnot aa primeprime mover,mover, butbut atat most only a contributory contributory and and not not necessarily necessarily essential essential factor factor in inbasic basic tech­ tech- nological nological change.change. TheThe population-growthpopulation-growth view, ifif sufficiently modified, modified, may may not not ultimately ultimately be be incompatible incompatible with with the the resource­ resource- stress stress view, view, but but this this is is not not now now the the case. case. If If thethe scenarioscenario ofof lifelife and and cultureculture duringduring thethe PleistocenePleistocene asas depicted depicted byby thethe population-growthpopulation-growth advocates advocates isis too heavilyheavily weighted weighted on on thethe effectseffects of of population population growth, growth, the the scenario scenario I I LANGUAGE LANGUAGE DIVERSITYDIVERSITY would would replace replace it it with with would would include include the the following; following: --Family Family Within Within very very broad broad ranges ranges of of population population density, density, periods periods of of -- Group -Group resource resource stress stress inevitably inevitably occurred occurred because because of of long- long-and and medi­ medi- ...•• _- Subgroup - Subgroup um-term um-term cyclical cyclical fluctuations fluctuations in innatural natural resources. resources. The The frequen­ frequen- Language Language cy cy of of resource resource stress stress experienced experienced by aby group a group was alwayswas always a trade­ a trade- off off between between the the cost cost of ofphysical physical suffering suffering every every so many so many years years and and thethe cost cost of of maintaining maintaining population population controls. controls. The The latter latter in­ in- volved volved thethe effort effort of ofenforcement enforcement of suchof such practices practices as infanticide as infanticide and and maintenancemaintenance ofof strict strict sex sex and and age age division division of of labor, labor, social social roles, roles, and and dominancedominance hierarchieshierarchies asas wellwell as thethe defensedefense dis-dis­ advantages advantages inherent inherent in in smaller smaller numbers. numbers. The The benefits benefits of main­ of main- taining taining such such a abalance balance probablyprobably includedincluded maintaining maintaining the the ex­ ex- pansion pansion potentialpotential (biological(biological fitness) of human populations without without much much reproductive reproductive waste. waste. The The "optimal" "optimal" balancebalance be­be- tween tween the the twotwo costcost factorsfactors maymay havehave variedvaried slightlyslightly underunder different different environmental environmental conditions, conditions, but but the thelong-term long-term attitude attitude of of hands bands toward toward what what constituted constituted an optimalan optimal or even or evenacceptable acceptable FIG. FIG. 1. 1. Precipitation Precipitation and and linguistic linguistic diversity diversity in Australia. in Australia. balance balance of of costs costs probably probably did did not not change change much much over over time. time. I have I have 522 522 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms outlinedoutlined waysways inin whichwhich teststests ofof thisthis assumption assumption might bebe mademade Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGESTONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS (Hayden (Hayden 1975). Skinner (1980) hashas usedused manymany of of thesethese tech-tech­ niquesniques andand addedadded othersothers in a pioneeringpioneering casecase studystudy on on thethe fre-fre­ UnderUnder conditionsconditions of fluctuating resources (the conditionsconditions quencyquency andand magnitudemagnitude ofof malnutritionmalnutrition in in a a small small NearNear EasternEastern generally generally characteristiccharacteristic ofof thethe Pleistocene),Pleistocene), resource reliabilityreliability population.population. According to thethe resource-stressresource-stress model, researchresearch cancan bestbest bebe increasedincreased by increasing thethe diversitydiversity ofof the exploit­exploit- measuringmeasuring ratesrates ofof resource resource overexploitation overexploitation usingusing humanhuman skele­skele- ableable base base (Colson (Colson 1979:1979:22-23; 22-23; Hardesty 19771977:43-44). :43-44). This was tal tal remainsremains shouldshould show little trendtrend towardtoward increasingincreasing stressstress thethe most most common common strategystrategy forfor increasingincreasing resourceresource reliabilityreliability up overover time.time. to-andto-and inin somesome areasareas after-theafter-the end end of of thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, with,with, GivenGiven thethe above,above, itit is possible to envisageenvisage twotwo importantimportant ofof course, course, local local changeschanges in environment providing countervail­countervail- principlesprinciples as as guidingguiding hominidhominid behaviorbehavior throughout the Pleisto­Pleisto- ing ing circumstances circumstances andand maskingmasking the trendtrend inin specificspecific cases. cases. MostMost cene: cene: first,first, keeping keeping within within acceptable acceptable limitslimits thethe balancebalance be-be­ locallocal resourceresource stressstress throughoutthroughout thethe PleistocenePleistocene waswas probably tween tween morbidity/mortalitymorbidity/mortality related related toto resourceresource stressstress andand thethe absorbed absorbed by other means,means, such as prolonged Visitingvisiting inin the con­con- cost cost ofof maintenance maintenance ofof population population controls;controls; and, second, mini-mini­ texttext of of social-economic social-economic alliances alliances withwith otherother groupsgroups (Yengoyan(Yengoyan mizingmizing the the effects effects of ofresource resource stress stress whenever whenever they they occurred. occurred. The The 1976) 1976) andand thethe numerousnumerous otherother strategiesstrategies documenteddocumented byby ColsonColson firstfirst principle principle was was probably probably common common toto allall primatesprimates andand resultedresulted (1979)(1979) andand Dirks (1980).4(1980).4 However,However, manymany ofof thesethese strategiesstrategies inin various various meansmeans ofof regulating regulating population. population. Only man, however, depend depend onon the goodwill of neighboring groups and were there-there­ hadhad thethe technological potential forfor makingmaking choices inin accor-accor­ forefore subject subject toto somesome uncertaintyuncertainty andand occasionaloccasional failure. Thus, dance dance withwith thethe second.second. The factfact thatthat thethe densesrtdensest Pleistocene it it would would still still have have been been adaptive adaptive onon occasionoccasion to developdevelop alterna­alterna- populationspopulations seemseem toto bebe associated withwith richrich resource areas isis tive,tive, self-supportingself-supporting mechanismsmechanisms for increasingincreasing resource reli-reli­ consistent consistent with with the the notion notion that that populations populations grewgrew toto taketake advan­advan- ability.ability. OneOne such mechanismmechanism was technologicaltechnological innovationinnovation tage tage ofof highhigh resourceresource potentialspotentials wheneverwhenever and whereverwherever theythey oriented oriented towardtoward thethe exploitationexploitation ofof moremore diversediverse animalanimal and occurred.occurred. ThisThis does not necessarily mean that they experienced plantplant species.species. resourceresource stress stress any any moremore oror anyany lessless frequentlyfrequently thanthan popula­popula- UntilUntil recentlyrecently itit has has beenbeen takentaken forfor granted granted thatthat stabilitystability waswas tionstions in in poorer poorer areas. areas. ItIt doesdoes indicate,indicate, however, that whenever largely largely aa resultresult ofof complexitycomplexity (diversity).(diversity). However,However, Hollings technological technological improvementsimprovements increasedincreased thethe resourceresource base, thethe (1973)(1973) hashas pointedpointed outout thethe obvious-that obvious-that constant constant environmen-environmen­ populationpopulation couldcould bebe expected to increase until the balance taltal conditions conditions alsoalso promotepromote stability.stability. TheyThey make it feasiblefeasible andand betweenbetween costscosts of morbidity/mortality andand population-control efficient efficient to to reduce reduce the the numbernumber ofof speciesspecies regularly exploited, maintenance maintenance was restored. concentrating concentrating on on thosethose mostmost easily easily obtainedobtained andand most produc-produc­ Since Since subsistencesubsistence concernsconcerns areare of major importance toto thisthis tive.tive. IfIf ourour interpretationsinterpretations areare toto conformconform toto ecologicalecological theory,theory, account,account, aa brief discussiondiscussion of somesome pertinent ecological princi-princi- wewe mustmust assumeassume thatthat aa constant resource base allowedallowed somesome plesples isis warranted.warranted. , MesolithicMesolithic andand ArchaicArchaic (and(and eveneven Upper Paleolithic) groupsgroups toto The The principle of maximization ofof resourceresource reliability derives reducereduce resourceresource diversitydiversity (e.g.,(e.g., inin California, thethe NorthwestNorthwest largelylargely fromfrom consideration consideration ofof complex complex systemssystems inin anan ecologicalecological Coast,Coast, Palestine).Palestine). Since resource specializationspecialization is a majormajor re-re­ context. context. ToTo the traditional conceptconcept ofof efficiencyefficiency inin competitivecompetitive orientationorientation fromfrom the the dominant dominant PleistocenePleistocene strategystrategy ofof increas-increas­ situations situations mustmust bebe added reliability.reliability. For cultures,cultures, reliabilityreliability inging diversity, diversity, it it remains remains to to be be shown shown how how andand whywhy thatthat strategystrategy cancan bebe equatedequated withwith minimizingminimizing resourceresource stress.stress. eventuallyeventually ledled toto constantconstant resourceresource levelslevels andand to a reversalreversal ofof AlthoughAlthough a a numbernumber ofof archaeologistsarchaeologists havehave made passingpassing thethe diversificationdiversification trend trend in in some some areas. areas. ThisThis problem is thethe referencereference to to thethe importanceimportance ofof resourceresource reliabilityreliability (Cleland(Cleland primaryprimary focusfocus ofof thethe discussiondiscussion that follows. 1976 1976:60; :60; FordFord 1974:1974:392; 392; Hassan 1978:80), 1978: 80), the the concept concept hashas notnot come come toto occupyoccupy a centralcentral positionposition inin thethe theorizingtheorizing ofof prehis-prehis­ 4 4Although Although reasons reasons forfor the the slowness slowness ofof technologicaltechnological evolution inin torians.torians. InIn thethe ethnographicethnographic literature, resource reliability has thethe PleistocenePleistocene areare of interest, theythey areare not critical to my mainmain generally generally been been mentionedmentioned onlyonly briefly.briefly. For For instance,instance, DamasDamas theme. theme. SeveralSeveral explanations,explanations, not mutually exclusive, can, however,however, (1972: (1972:19) 19) statesstates thatthat contemporarycontemporary InuitInuit employemploy newnew tech-tech­ bebe offered:offered: nologynology toto diversifydiversify andand therebythereby makemake more reliablereliable theirtheir re-re­ First,First, thethe informationalinformational basebase may havehave been been insufficient insufficient forfor com-com­ plexplex innovationsinnovations because ofof biologicalbiological restrictionsrestrictions onon information-information­ source source base. base. MyersMyers (1976:(1976: 71) says thatthat Western Desert Aborig-Aborig­ storagestorage capacitycapacity and thethe highhigh memorymemory requirementsrequirements concerningconcerning inesines soughtsought contactcontact with European settlementssettlements primarilyprimarily toto preciseprecise locationslocations andand conditions ofof many specificspecific resources required increaseincrease resourceresource reliability, reliability, and and Bishop Bishop (1978)(1978) makes a similar forfor survival survival (Butzer (Butzer 1977:1977:579). 579). Moreover,Moreover, althoughalthough thethe toolstools re-re­ mainedmained thethe same,same, it probablyprobably required many thousandsthousands ofof yearsyears forfor observationobservation for for the the Ojibwa. Ojibwa. Colson Colson (1979:23)(1979:23) hashas arguedargued thatthat menmen toto acquireacquire thethe capacity forfor employingemploying thethe huntinghunting skills thatthat thethe major major reasonreason newnew cropscrops areare often notnot acceptedaccepted by subsis-subsis­ wouldwould enableenable themthem toto obtainobtain moremore thanthan just just young, young, infirm, infirm, oror im-im­ tence-economytence-economy communitiescommunities is that their reliability under vary­vary- pededpeded individuals.individuals. ing ing conditions conditions is iseither either not not as asgood good as asthat that of oftraditional, traditional, lower­ lower- AssumingAssuming anan occasionaloccasional heavy exploitationexploitation of of limited resources, any increase increase inin thethe levellevel ofof thatthat exploitationexploitation in times of stressstress wouldwould havehave yielding yielding crops crops or or cannot cannot be be assessed. assessed. I I havehave arguedargued thatthat MbutiMbuti beenbeen moremore likelylikely toto destroydestroy thethe resourceresource basebase thanthan toto benefitbenefit thethe pygmiespygmies (and (and otherother "commercial "commercial hunters")hunters") maintain close rela-rela­ groupgroup inin the the long long run. run. This This fact, fact, coupled coupled withwith thethe relativelyrelatively infrequentinfrequent tionshipstionships with with agriculturalistsagriculturalists inin orderorder to increaseincrease resourceresource occurrence occurrence and and generally generally brief brief duration duration of ofepisodes episodes of ofdeprivation, deprivation, reliabilityreliability through through the the exchange exchange of offood food and and other other forest forest prod­ prod- wouldwould havehave made itit preferable for thethe peoplepeople involvedinvolved simply to move out of an area rather than to attempt to devise new technological ucts,ucts, even even thoughthough inin doingdoing soso theythey mustmust workwork harder harder (Hayden (Hayden out of an area rather than to attempt to devise new technological solutions solutions thatthat wouldwould havehave carried themthem through the stress period.period. In 1981). 1981). ItIt is clear that resource reliabilityreliability is a majormajor consider-consider­ moving moving out,out, theythey maymay havehave joinedjoined otherother groupsgroups temporarilytemporarily or,or, ation ation inin people'speople's decisions concerning changechange andand is capable ofof duringduring timestimes of of major major climaticclimatic deterioration,deterioration, graduallygradually become per-per­ yielding yielding directionaldirectional trendstrends over time.time. manent manent parts parts of of other other bands bands and and adjusted adjusted overalloverall band populations downward. Such strategies are documented for hunter-gatherers Thus Thus itit isis possible to suggest, as aa generalgeneral principle,principle, thatthat downward. Such strategies are documented for hunter-gatherers (Strehlow (Strehlow 1965, 1965, Yengoyan Yengovan 1976,1976, TeitTeit n.d.),n.d.), andand theythey could have biologicalbiological and and cultural cultural systems systems attempt attempt to maximize to maximize the reliabil­ the reliabil-dramatically dramatically reduced thethe frequency of real hardship, therebythereby slowing ityity of of their their resource resource base base where where such such options options are are available. available. In thethe rate rate of of evolution. evolution. The The stress-buffering stress-buffering strategies strategies reported reported by Col­ by Col- thethe EarlyEarly Pleistocene,Pleistocene, the advent ofof technologytechnology provided a son son (1979)(1979) andand Dirks (1979)(1979) wouldwould also also have have contributed contributed to to this this effect. effect. It It mightmight also also bebe arguedargued that population was soso regulatedregulated duringduring means means ofof adapting adapting toto andand modifying thethe environmentenvironment notnot avail­avail- thethe Pleistocene Pleistocene thatthat resourceresource shortagesshortages inin most areasareas occurred only ableable toto otherother animals,animals, making itit possible to manipulate thethe everyevery several several hundred hundred or or thousand thousand years.years. RegionsRegions suchsuch as harshharsh resourceresource basebase andand thus toto increaseincrease resource reliability.reliability. Periodic deserts deserts and and arctic/subarcticarctic/subarctic habitats,habitats, where major resource shortages resourceresource unreliabilityunreliability andand stressstress throughoutthroughout thethe PleistocenePleistocene cancan areare moremore frequent frequent and and more more severe severe (Odum (Odum 1963: 1963:70; 70; HaydenHayden 1981), bebe assumed assumed toto havehave providedprovided thethe occasionaloccasional motivation needed werewere not not inhabited inhabited untiluntil thethe endend ofof thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, and thereforetherefore we can can probablyprobably taketake the apparent lowlow frequencyfrequency and magnitudemagnitude ofof for technological innovation and environmental manipulation. for technological innovation and environmental manipulation. resource resource stress stress recorded recorded among among groups groups like like the the Hadza Hadza and and lKungIKung as IncreasedIncreased resourceresource reliabilityreliability can can be be attained attained in in two two ways: ways: more more typical typical of of Pleistocene Pleistocene conditions conditions (Hayden (Hayden 1972, 1975).

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This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms AA further further principle principle important important forfor understanding understanding changechange in the volved volved moremore workwork thanthan huntinghunting andand gatheringgathering doesdoes not match PaleolithicPaleolithic isis Zipf'sZipf's (1949)(1949) principle of leastleast effort,effort, which which leads leads datadata fromfrom horticulturalists,horticulturalists, since since groups groups such such as as thethe KuikuruKuikuru usus toto expectexpect thatthat peoplepeople will opt for sedentismsedentism andand that, where spend spend aboutabout the samesame amount ofof time in obtaining food, two to food food resources resources areare stable,stable, habituallyhabitually used foods will be limited to fivefive hours hours daily daily (Carneiro (Carneiro 1968).1968). ItIt isis muchmuch moremore likelylikely thatthat thosethose withwith thethe highest foodfood return per unit ofof procurementprocurement technological technological innovationsinnovations mademade the harvestingharvesting ofof previouslypreviously effort. effort. (For (For a adiscussion discussion ofof thethe undesirableundesirable workwork loadload resulting poor-returnpoor-return foods foods as as productive productive as,as, oror even more productive from from nomadism nomadism as as perceived by hunter-gatherers,hunter-gatherers, seesee Lee than,than, previousprevious food-procurementfood-procurement techniquestechniques butbut that such in-in­ [1969:60].) [1969:60].) creasescreases inin productivityproductivity were eventually offsetoffset byby increasesincreases in I I have argued thatthat infrequentinfrequent butbut recurrentrecurrent man:man:resource resource population,population, which thus kept the total number of hours spent on imbalances imbalances havehave been thethe primaryprimary motivemotive forfor directionaldirectional subsistencesubsistence pursuitspursuits moremore oror lessless constant forfor given typestypes ofof changeschanges inin resourceresource utilizationutilization andand that during most ofof thethe environments. environments. BecauseBecause thethe foodfood returnreturn perper unitunit ofof workwork fromfrom PleistocenePleistocene improvementimprovement inin resourceresource reliabilityreliability waswas accom-accom­ specific specific resources resources is is entirely entirely dependent dependent onon thethe technologytechnology used, plishedplished byby increasinglyincreasingly effectiveeffective use use ofof resourcesresources andand resource it it is is impossible impossible toto rankrank resourcesresources inin termsterms ofof it.it. It It simplysimply cannotcannot diversification.diversification. These These changeschanges werewere mademade possiblepossible by techno-techno­ bebe saidsaid thatthat cereals give a poorerpoorer returnreturn per unit of work than logicallogical innova innovations tions andand werewere accompaniedaccompanied by increases in overalloverall nuts;nuts; itit allall dependsdepends onon the technologytechnology used.used. If cereals could be technologicaltechnological complexitycomplexity and and specialization.specialization. WhileWhile such con-con­ so so productive,productive, wewe are left with the question ofof why thethe tech-tech­ siderations siderations areare essentialessential parts of aa theoretical foundation, theythey nologynology necessary necessary to to exploitexploit themthem waswas not developed muchmuch are are notnot sufficientsufficient to to account account forfor specificspecific sequences sequences of innova­innova- earlier.earlier. tions.tions. TheyThey dodo not tell us why some typestypes of resources (e.g., II suggestsuggest thatthat there was a definite,definite, farfar from randomrandom order in grassgrass seedsseeds oror fish)fish) werewere notnot usedused until the very end ofof thethe which which majormajor typestypes ofof resources resources camecame toto bebe usedused over the course Pleistocene.Pleistocene. To deal withwith thethe general sequence inin which types of of of the the Pleistocene. Pleistocene. TheThe broadest determinants of which species resourcesresources came came toto bebe used,used, somesome sort ofof developmentaldevelopmental trajec-trajec­ were were toto be be used used nextnext andand howhow theythey werewere toto bebe exploitedexploited were the torytory must must be be postulated, postulated, andand thethe explanationexplanation ofof specific culturalcultural perceptionsperceptions of of people people as as toto thethe speciesspecies that would be mostmost changeschanges mustmust taketake intointo accountaccount the state of the culture along worthwhileworthwhile toto exploit exploit nextnext (given(given resourceresource stress)stress) and thethe tech-tech­ such such aa trajectory.trajectory. AA similarsimilar ideaidea waswas expressed by BraidwoodBraidwood nological nological base.base. Although not very tangible, thethe perceptions ofof andand WilleyWilley (1962:342) inin ratherrather simplisticsimplistic terms:terms: culturalcultural hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers are are criticalcritical forfor understanding understanding thethe sequencesequence in developmentsdevelopments occuroccur whenwhen cultureculture isis ready.ready. This oversimplifica-oversimplifica­ whichwhich resourcesresources were were added added to the human larderlarder throughoutthroughout tion tion has has beenbeen ridiculedridiculed by Binford (1968) butbut merits merits furtherfurther thethe Pleistocene.Pleistocene. While the period of immediate interestinterest is thethe analysis. analysis. terminalterminal Pleistocene, Pleistocene, itit willwill bebe useful to begin illustrating thisthis OneOne typetype ofof sequentialsequential trajectorytrajectory whichwhich hashas beenbeen used byby propositionproposition inin termsterms ofof aa veryvery provisionalprovisional four-stage scenario population-growthpopulation-growth theorists isis based onon foodfood returnreturn perper unitunit ofof (table(table 1)1) forfor thethe PleistocenePleistocene asas aa whole. Since data areare mostmost workwork necessary necessary toto obtainobtain the food: techniquestechniques yieldingyielding thethe complete complete forfor faunal faunal remains; remains; II will concentrateconcentrate on changes inin lowest lowest returnreturn perper unitunit ofof work work should should bebe thethe lastlast toto bebe exploited.exploited. animal-exploitationanimal-exploitation behavior,behavior, butbut it should notnot bebe forgottenforgotten WhileWhile thisthis maymay eventuallyeventually prove a useful model for agriculturalagricultural thatthat some some parallelparallel changes in the use ofof plant resourcesresources were and and stratifiedstratified societies,societies, itit isis much lessless soso forfor hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers probablyprobably takingtaking placeplace asas well, particularly in the later stages. andand mostmost simplesimple horticulturalists.horticulturalists. ModernModern generalized hunter-hunter­ Stage Stage 1.1. Initially,Initially, given no oror extremelyextremely rudimentaryrudimentary tech-tech­ gatherersgatherers typicallytypically spendspend onlyonly aboutabout two to five hours perper day nologynology and and situationssituations inin whichwhich it it would would have have beenbeen adaptiveadaptive toto in in obtainingobtaining food,food, eveneven when employing many of thethe tech-tech­ improve improve thethe reliabilityreliability ofof the the resource resource base,base, increasedincreased reliability nologiesnologies thethe population-growth theoriststheorists considerconsider work-inten-work-inten­ couldcould havehave been achieved byby diversifyingdiversifying thethe species usedused forfor sivesive (Hayden(Hayden 1981).1981). ThereThere is is nono empiricalempirical support support for for thethe argu-argu­ food. food. The The mostmost obvious,obvious, easilyeasily perceived,perceived, andand practical addi-addi­ ment ment thatthat thethe exploitationexploitation of fishfish along along the the Northwest Northwest CoastCoast or tionstions toto thethe dietdiet wouldwould have beenbeen small,small, young,young, oror infirminfirm ani­ani- the the use use ofof cereals cereals in in the the Near Near EastEast increasedincreased the average sub-sub­ malsmals thatthat couldcould bebe runrun downdown oror clubbedclubbed with sticks,sticks, scavengedscavenged sistence sistence work work load; load; inin fact,fact, experimentsexperiments (e.g., (e.g., HarlanHarlan 1967) meat,meat, and and rootsroots that that could could easilyeasily bebe dugdug up.up. BecauseBecause groups had indicate indicate thethe opposite.opposite. NorNor areare there anyany datadata toto suggestsuggest thatthat negligiblenegligible tools tools andand onlyonly modest capacities forfor hunting,hunting, such hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers earlier earlier in in the the Pleistocene Pleistocene would would havehave had toto food-procurement food-procurement techniques techniques maymay havehave providedprovided no more than performperform less less work work to to obtain obtain food;food; inin fact,fact, suchsuch aa situation is moderatemoderate dailydaily supplements,supplements, althoughalthough they were probably ofof difficult difficult to to imagine. imagine. Similarly, Similarly, thethe ideaidea that horticulturehorticulture in-in- critical critical importanceimportance duringduring timestimes ofof resourceresource stress.stress. ThisThis stagestage

TABLE TABLE 11

STAGES STAGES IN IN THE THE EXPANSION EXPANSION OF OF HUMAN HUMAN RESOURCES, RESOURCES, USINGUSING FAUNALFAUNAL EXAMPLESEXAMPLES

DIVERSIFICATIONDIVERSIFICATION STAGESTAGE STRATEGYSTRATEGY PERIODPERIOD SUGGESTED SUGGESTEDCHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS

1. 1 ...... Begin Begin sporadic sporadic and and Pre- Pre-and andearly early Capture ofCapture any ofanimals any animals possible possible without without low-return low-return use of use of OldowanOldowan tools or withtools unmodifiedor with unmodified or minimallyor minimally smallsmall animals animals modified sticksmodified and stones,sticks and stones,including including exploitationexploitation of trapped, infirm,infirm, new-new­ born,born, and and alreadyalready killedkilled animalsanimals 2 2 ...... Begin Begin effective effective hunting hunting Later Later Oldowan Oldowan and and Exploitation Exploitation of medium-sizedof medium-sized and and large large ofof grazing grazing animals animals AcheulianAcheulian grazing animalsgrazing animals with withspears, spears, stalking, stalking, tracking, tracking, and and predictionprediction of locationlocation 3 3 ...... Begin Begin effective effective use use of of Mousterian, Mousterian, Upper Upper Effective Effective hunting hunting of omnivores,of omnivores, carni- carni­ allall large-bodied large-bodied Paleolithic,Paleolithic, Paleo- Paleo­ vores, vores,and hard-to-obtainand hard-to-obtain animals; animals; allall animalsanimals Indian large-bodiedIndian specieslarge-bodied fully species exploited fully exploited by by endend ofof stagestage 44 ...... Begin Begin effective effective use use of ofTerminal Terminal Paleolithic, Paleolithic, Use ofUse nets, of nets, sophisticated sophisticated traps, traps, baskets, baskets, small-bodiedsmall-bodied species species Mesolithic,Mesolithic, Archaic Archaic and weirsand weirs to obtain to obtain high high food food returns returns inin thethe exploitation exploitation ofof small-bodied small-bodied species;species; manymany small-bodiedsmall-bodied species efficientlyefficiently exploi exploited ted for the first time

524 524 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms may may bebe representedrepresented by thethe sitessites withwith numerousnumerous frog, reptile,reptile, andand Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS rodentrodent remains remains in in Bed Bed I Iat at Olduvai Olduvai Gorge andand perhaps by some Bed Bed IIII sites with possiblepossible scavengedscavenged or juvenile faunal remains bebe usedused ifif groupsgroups werewere toto minimize the effects ofof unavoidableunavoidable (see (see Isaac Isaac 1971:1971:289). 289). short-term short-term stress. stress. The The perceptualperceptual focus of whatwhat waswas worthwhile StageStage 2.2. BecauseBecause humanshumans requirerequire largelarge amountsamounts ofof foodfood per exploiting exploiting in in times times of ofstress stress had had to tochange change from from large-bodied, large-bodied, dayday a~dand becausebecause theythey are large animals thatthat findfind it easiest toto easily easily handledhandled andand captured foods to somethingsomething else. Thus, locatelocate andand dealdeal with largelarge objects,objects, concentrations ofof food (in the groups groups werewere repeatedlyrepeatedly forcedforced toto reexaminereexamine theirtheir estimates ofof formform of of large-bodied large-bodied fruits, fruits, tubers, tubers, or or animals) animals) were generally the the food food value value ofof such such diminutivediminutive and and unobviousunobvious resources as perceivedperceived asas thethe mostmost tangibletangible andand abundantabundant sources ofof foodfood rodents, rodents, grassgrass seeds,seeds, snails,snails, fish,fish, insects, insects, toxictoxic plants,plants, andand shell­shell- withwith thethe best best returns.returns. While While thethe procurementprocurement of suchsuch resourcesresources fish fish in in sand sand matrices. matrices. They They were were subsequently subsequently motivated toto findfind maymay havehave beenbeen seenseen asas desirable in the firstfirst stage, stage, the the available available ways wavs ofof effectivelyeffectively using using such such resources. resources. Perhaps Perhaps justjust as im-im­ skills skills and and tools tools would would havehave beenbeen largelylargely inadequate inadequate toto the task. portant,portant, the the technological technological basebase builtbuilt upup overover thethe previousprevious stagesstages In In StageStage 1,1, therethere was was little little or or no no technology; technology; moreover, moreover, humans humans rendered rendered the the attainment attainment of of such such goals goals conceivable conceivable andand feasible. would would probablyprobably notnot havehave possessed the mental, emotional, or It It hadhad probably always beenbeen recognizedrecognized thatthat small-bodiedsmall-bodied motor motor skillsskills requiredrequired forfor stalking,stalking, ambush,ambush, tracking, throwingthrowing foodsfoods werewere edible;edible; however, since theythey were soso smallsmall andand diffi- diffi­ spears, spears, andand predictingpredicting wherewhere andand whenwhen gamegame wouldwould most likely cult cult toto obtain,obtain, theythey werewere perceivedperceived asas having little foodfood value, bebe found. found. However, However, once once small small and and scavengedscavenged animalsanimals began toto and and preferencepreference waswas givengiven toto tryingtrying toto exploitexploit larger-bodiedlarger-bodied food bebe used, used, continued continued diversification diversification of theof resourcethe resource base bybase includ­ by includ-sources. sources. ThusThus theythey maymay havehave been used occasionallyoccasionally duringduring ing ing thethe effectiveeffective and and regularregular exploitationexploitation of larger animals times times of of extreme extreme shortage shortage but but abandoned abandoned asas soonsoon as betterbetter would would havehave beenbeen perceivedperceived asas thethe desirabledesirable nextnext step.step. BecauseBecause times times returned.returned. Effective Effective use use ofof thethe diminutivediminutive (e.g., grassgrass of of this this perception, perception, together together with with a a goodgood culturalcultural potential forfor seeds), seeds), unobvious,unobvious, or hard-to-get (e.g.,(e.g., fish andand mice)mice) resources achievingachieving thethe desireddesired end,end, andand infrequentinfrequent butbut repeatedrepeated situa-situa­ was was dependentdependent onon thethe efficient efficient harvesting harvesting and and processing processing of ofsuch such tionstions ofof stress, stress, techniques techniques werewere eventuallyeventually foundfound forfor exploiting foods foods in in adequate adequate amounts,amounts, andand for thisthis special special equipmentequipment was some some ofof the the medium-sized medium-sized and and eveneven largelarge grazinggrazing animals.animals. SuchSuch required. required. The The development ofof specializedspecialized tools isis generallygenerally strategies strategies werewere probablyprobably not efficient atat firstfirst and and wouldwould havehave adaptiveadaptive onlyonly asas aa particularparticular use-situation becomes increasingly takentaken aa lengthylengthy periodperiod toto perfect, especiallyespecially given some need frequent. frequent. Thus, Thus, asas peoplepeople were forced toto considerconsider small-bodiedsmall-bodied for for genetic genetic refinements. refinements. Moreover, Moreover, the the species species initially initially exploited exploited species species asas possible foodfood sourcessources moremore andand moremore frequently,frequently, wouldwould probablyprobably havehave been the less aggressive and more abun­abun- techniquestechniques werewere eventuallyeventually devised forfor obtainingobtaining some of these dant dant animalsanimals at lowerlower trophictrophic levels,levels, e.g.,e.g., grazinggrazing animals.animals. resourcesresources moremore efficiently.efficiently. These These technological technological innovationsinnovations are MostMost ofof thethe evidence evidence fromfrom Middle Middle PleistocenePleistocene sites is consistent largelylargely thethe ones ones that that prehistorians prehistorians sometimes sometimes associateassociate with the withwith this this stage stage characterization characterization (Isaac (Isaac 1971:290-91;1971:290-91; see also very very end end of of the the Paleolithic Paleolithic andand Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian traditionstraditions and ButzerButzer 1977:578).1977:578). moremore commonly commonly view view as as characterizingcharacterizing thethe Mesolithic and StageStage 3.3. FollowingFollowing thethe developmentdevelopment ofof effectiveeffective huntinghunting ofof Archaic-mortarsArchaic-mortars and pestles,pestles, seedseed grinders,grinders, nets,nets, basketry,basketry, many many grazing grazing animals, animals, populations populations wouldwould probablyprobably have con-con­ ground-stone ground-stone cutting cutting implements, implements, boiling, boiling, canoes canoesand sleds, and the sleds, the tinued tinued toto viewview large-bodiedlarge-bodied speciesspecies as thethe best sourcesource ofof food.food. useuse of of dogs dogs for for hunting, hunting, the usethe of use fire of to fireincrease to increase grazing areas,grazing areas, Since Since therethere werewere stillstill manymany speciesspecies of large-bodied animals etc. etc. They They represent represent a major a major change change in the in direction the direction of evolution of evolution which which werewere notnot regularlyregularly usedused because ofof thethe difficulty difficulty oror ofof prehistoric prehistoric technology, technology, closely closely reflectingreflecting the the radical radical changechange danger danger involvedinvolved inin theirtheir exploitation,exploitation, continuedcontinued motivation to inin resource resource utilization.utilization. diversifydiversify the the resource resource base base during times of resourceresource stressstress TheThe effectseffects of ofthis this change change in exploitationin exploitation strategy strategy were were much much might might be be expected expected toto havehave resultedresulted inin attemptsattempts to exploit these moremore far-reaching far-reaching and and fundamental fundamental than than the the number number of speciesof species otherother animals.animals. Repeated attempts,attempts, eveneven thoughthough infrequent,infrequent, involved involved inin thisthis "broadening" "broadening" of thethe resourceresource basebase would indi-indi­ would would eventuallyeventually havehave ledled toto thethe developmentdevelopment ofof techniquestechniques cate. cate. ToTo understand why thethe useuse ofof thesethese resourcesresources hadhad such makingmaking thethe regularregular procurementprocurement ofof thesethese species practical.practical. aa dramaticdramatic impactimpact on other aspects ofof culture, it is useful to Upper Upper PleistocenePleistocene trends toward thethe hunting of moremore dangerousdangerous view view itit in in termsterms of of the the ecological ecological conceptsconcepts ofof r-r-and and K-selectedK-selected andand harder-to-getharder-to-get animals animals have have beenbeen notednoted atat leastleast inin EuropeEurope species. species. andand South South Africa Africa (Butzer (Butzer 1977: 1977:581; 581; FreemanFreeman 1973;1973; KleinKlein 1977; EcologistsEcologists useuse the conceptsconcepts of r-r- andand K-selectionK-selection as descrip-descrip­ BouchudBouchud 1976:688;1976:688; Straus et al.al. 1980). These animals included tors tors of of certain certain reproductive reproductive strategiesstrategies andand growth patterns ofof suids,suids, bears,bears, largelarge carnivores,carnivores, birds,birds, fish,fish, and and animals animals inhabitinginhabiting populations.populations. These These strategiesstrategies and and patterns patterns tend tend to tobe beassociated associated mountainousmountainous terrain.terrain. PaleolithicPaleolithic stone technology would notnot with with suchsuch otherother speciesspecies characteristicscharacteristics asas body size, relativerelative havehave requiredrequired drastic modification for exploitingexploiting aa wider range abundance, abundance, biological productivity, and ratesrates ofof reproductionreproduction ofof large-bodied large-bodied animals. animals. Reliance Reliance wouldwould stillstill havehave been onon (Pianka(Pianka 1970). spears spears andand devicesdevices similarsimilar toto thosethose usedused inin thethe past.past. ItIt maymay havehave K-selectedK-selected species-for species-for example,example, mostmost largelarge mammals­mammals- becomebecome advantageousadvantageous to begin usingusing stone-tippedstone-tipped spears inin reproduce reproduce repeatedly repeatedly but buttend tendto invest to invest heavily heavily in one or in a onefew or a few orderorder toto inflict inflict greater greater wounds wounds whenwhen dealingdealing with the more ag­ag- offspringoffspring at aat time, a time, which which typically typically take atake long atime long to time mature to mature gressivegressive species, species, thusthus dispatchingdispatching themthem moremore rapidly.rapidly. However,However, and and are are long-lived. long-lived. These These species species tend tendto be largerto be thanlarger r-select­ than r-select- mostmost technologicaltechnological changeschanges relatedrelated toto subsistence would prob-prob­ eded species species of ofthe the same same orders. orders. This Thisreproductive reproductive pattern pattern is as­ is as- ably ably notnot havehave beenbeen any more drastic than this. The mostmost im-im­ sumed sumed toto bebe mostmost adaptiveadaptive inin relativelyrelatively stablestable environments.environments. portantportant changeschanges maymay havehave been largely behavioral, oror they may RelativeRelative stability stability depends, depends, however, however, upon upon the thetolerance tolerance of the of the havehave takentaken the form ofof nonlithic nonlithic innovations innovations suchsuch as thethe use ofof species species for for environmental environmental fluctuations fluctuations and uponand upon what what parts partsof of firefire to to render render more more species species edible edible andand increaseincrease protein/calorie thethe environment environment fluctuate. fluctuate. Thus, Thus, although although periglacial periglacial Pleisto­ Pleisto- absorption;absorption; the use ofof spear-throwers,spear-throwers, clubs,clubs, throwing-sticks,throwing-sticks, cenecene environmentsenvironments seem seem unstable,unstable, manymany K-selected speciesspecies boomerangs,boomerangs, andand wooden barbsbarbs toto increaseincrease hunting hunting effective- effective­ existedexisted in in suchsuch areas,areas, includingincluding tundratundra megafaunamegafauna andand man ness;ness; thethe useuse ofof prongedpronged spearsspears toto capture large fish; and thethe himself.himself. These These large large mammals mammals have have very very extensive extensive ranges. ranges. It is It is use use ofof bowlsbowls forfor short-termshort-term storage storage andand transport of collectedcollected probableprobable that that the the ability ability to to move move over over vast vast distances distances and and to to foods. foods. ByBy thethe endend ofof thisthis stage,stage, huntinghunting ofof manymany largelarge animalsanimals exploitexploit widely widely separated separated and and diverse diverse locations locations counteracts counteracts the the hadhad probablyprobably become so effectiveeffective thatthat theythey couldcould not be ex-ex­ effects effects of of local local fluctuations, fluctuations, creating creating in ineffect effect a mucha much more more ploitedploited moremore intensivelyintensively without significantlysignificantly diminishing thethe comprehensivecomprehensive and and therefore therefore stable stable environment. environment. Because Because of of animalanimal populations.populations. limitedlimited offspring offspring and and long long maturation, maturation, K-selected K-selected species species are are StageStage 4. 4. WithWith virtuallyvirtually allall the large-bodied animalsanimals (and much much moremore vulnerable vulnerable toto overexploitationoverexploitation or eveneven locallocal extinc-extinc­ plants)plants) effectively exploited,exploited, different typestypes ofof resourcesresources hadhad to tion tion and and requirerequire muchmuch longerlonger toto reestablishreestablish optimumoptimum popula-popula-

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 . October 1981 525525

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms tiontion levels. levels. BecauseBecause of these same factors,factors, K-selected species tions. tions. (The(The differences between between r- r-and and K-selectedK-selected species are have have aa limitedlimited potentialpotential raterate of increase.increase. This means thatthat theythey summarized summarized in in table table 2.)2.) Because ofof thethe veryvery highhigh potentialpotential havehave lowlow potential biological productivity,productivity, defined as thethe in-in­ productivityproductivity ofof thesethese resourcesresources and thethe relativerelative difficultydifficulty inin creasecrease inin biomassbiomass overover time.time. TheseThese are probably thethe mainmain fac-fac­ overexploiting overexploiting them, the effectseffects of efficiently usingusing r-selected torstors which which render render large-bodied large-bodied animals animals soso notoriouslynotoriously unreliableunreliable species species wentwent muchmuch beyondbeyond whatwhat wouldwould be expectedexpected fromfrom a and and unstableunstable asas resourcesresources (e.g.,(e.g., MeiklejohnMeiklejohn 1974). simple simple "broadening""broadening" of the resource base. TheThe differences differences be-be­ In In contrast, contrast, r-selected r-selected species-for species-for example, example, mice, mice,many fish,manv fish, tweentween r- r-and and K-selectedK-selected speciesspecies were so great inin thisthis respectrespect mostmost marinemarine shellfish,shellfish, many many insects, insects, grasses-typicallygrasses-typically areare thatthat inin areasareas where r-selected resourcesresources were abundantabundant foodfood small, small, live live lessless thanthan aa year and reproduce only once, produce becamebecame seeminglyseemingly inexhaustibleinexhaustible inin mostmost years in comparison prodigiousprodigious numbersnumbers of offspringoffspring (often (often hundredshundreds oror eveneven thou-thou­ withwith previous previous stages.stages. (Some ofof thethe moremore importantimportant differences differences sands), sands), areare extremely difficultdifficult to to eradicate eradicate byby exploitation,exploitation, andand inin the the effects effects of ofthe the two two patterns patterns of resourceof resource use useare aresummarized summarized can can bebe phenomenally productive biologically. They quicklyquickly in in tabletable 3.) reestablishreestablish themselvesthemselves eveneven after majormajor environmental fluctua-fluctua- AnAn illustrationillustration ofof thethe contrast contrast inin food food potential potential betweenbetween thesethese

TABLETABLE 22

CORRELATES CORRELATES OFOF r- r-AND AND K-SELECTION K-SELECTION (AFTER(AFTER PIANKAPIANKA 1970)1970)

r-SELEcTION r-SELECTION K-SELECTIONK-SELECTION

Characteristics Characteristics favored favored by selection by selection...... Rapid Rapid development development SlowerSlower development development HighHigh maximal maximal rate rate of of GreaterGreater competitive competitive ability ability increaseincrease EarlyEarly reproduction reproduction DelayedDelayed reproduction reproduction Small Small body body size size LargerLarger body body size size Single Single reproduction reproduction RepeatedRepeated reproductions reproductions ResultResult ...... Productivity Productivity EfficiencyEfficiency LengthLength of lifeof ...... life ...... Short, usually Short, less usually than less one than Longer, one Longer, usually usually more more than than one one yearyear yearyear MortalityMortality ...... Often catastrophic, Often catastrophic, non- More non- directed,More directed, density- density­ directed,directed, density­ density- dependentdependent independent independent Survivorship Survivorship ...... " ...... High early High ratesearly ratesof mortality of mortality Usually Usually constant constant mortality mortality oror high high survivorship survivorship toto adultadult stages stages PopulationPopulation size ...... size ...... Variable Variable in time, in time, non- non- Fairly Fairlyconstant constant in intime, time, equilibriumequilibrium equilibriumequilibrium UsuallyUsually wellwell belowbelow carrying carrying AtAt or or nearnear carryingcarrying capacitycapacity of capacitycapacity of of environment environment environmentenvironment UnsaturatedUnsaturated communitiescommunities or or SaturatedSaturated communitiescommunities portionsportions thereof,thereof, ecologicecologic vacuums vacuums Recolonization Recolonization each each year year NoNo recolonization recolonization necessary necessary Intra-Intra-and and interspecific interspecific competition competition...... Variable, . Variable, often lax often lax UsuallyUsually keen keen Environment.Environment ...... Variable Variable and/or and/or unpre- unpre- FairlyFairly constant constant and/or and/or pre- pre­ dictable;dictable; uncertain uncertain dictable;dictable; more more certain certain

TABLETABLE 33

RESOURCE RESOURCE USEUSE BY PLEISTOCENE AND POST-PLEISTOCENEPOST-PLEISTOCENE HUNTER-GATHERERS

POST-PLEISTOCENE POST-PLEISTOCENE

PLEISTOCENE PLEISTOCENE AreasAreas Rich Rich in in r-Selected r-Selected Resources Resources OtherOther Areas Areas

ResourceResource type type ...... Predominantly Predominantly K-selected K-selected species species Predominantly Predominantly r-selected r-selected species species SomeSome r- withr- with largely largely KK-selected -selected speciesspecies TechnologyTechnology ...... SimpleSimple Complex and specialized,Complex and including specialized, including Complex Complex and diversified and diversified groundground stonestone PotentialPotential for overexploitation for ...... overexploitation High ...... Low High Low HighHigh EffectsEffects ofof severesevere short-termshort-term environ- mentalmental fluctuationsfluctuations on resource density density ...... Severe Severe and and long-lasting long-lasting LimitedLimited in duration in duration and and scope scope SevereSevere and andlong-lasting long-lasting Strategy Strategy forfor increasing increasing resourceresource reliabilityreliability ...... Diversification Specialization,Specialization, often accompaniedoften accompanied Diversification Diversification byby storage storage andand exchangeexchange ResourceResource supply ...... supply ...... Limited Limited ExtremelyExtremely abundant abundant LimitedLimited Settlement Settlement mode ...... mode ...... Nomadic Nomadic SemisedentarySemisedentary to to sedentarysedentary NomadicNomadic Energy Energy return return ...... " ...... High from HighK-selected from K-selected species, species, low Vastly low Vastlyhigher higher than than before before from from SlightlySlightly higher higher than than before before from from r-selected r-selected species species r-selectedr-selected species, species, slightly slightly higher fromfrom all all species species than than beforebefore fromfrom K-selected K-selected speciesspecies Sociocultural Sociocultural andand technological evolutionevolution ...... Extremely slow ExtremelyRapid slow Rapid SlowSlow Competition Competition over overresources resources ...... Extremely Extremely maladaptive maladaptive No majormajor adverse adverse effects effects ExtremelyExtremely maladaptive maladaptive

526 526 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms typestypes of of resources resources is is Deevey's Deevey's (1968) assertionassertion thatthat if if hunter-hunter­ Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS gatherersgatherers in in temperatetemperate deciduous forestsforests who traditionallytraditionally reliedrelied onon deerdeer hadhad switched toto thethe efficientefficient harvesting of mice community-controlledcommunity-controlled resource resource base andbase increasing and increasing the relative the relative andand otherother small small rodents, rodents, the the same same area area couldcould havehave supportedsupported a economiceconomic independenceindependence of the community. humanhuman populationpopulation aa hundredfoldhundredfold larger. This remarkableremarkable 2.2. BecauseBecause thethe increasinglyincreasingly complexcomplex food-extractivefood-extractive tech-tech­ situation situation dependsdepends onon the much greater biological productivity nologynology necessitated necessitated the the manufacture manufacture of ofmore more wooden wooden tools, tools, as as ofof the the rodent rodent population population andand the possibility of harvesting it at wellwell as as more more permanent permanent structures structures and and facilities facilities such such as weirs,as weirs, veryvery frequentfrequent intervalsintervals withoutwithout diminishing itsits reproductive thethe wood-cutting wood-cutting requirements requirements of ofgroups groups would would have have increased increased raterate or or potential. potential. ThisThis secondsecond factorfactor wouldwould insure that r-selectedr-selected enormously, enormously, and and rejuvenation rejuvenation of ofstone-tool stone-tool cutting cutting edges edges by re­by re- species species couldcould realizerealize thethe maximum potentialspotentials of of theirtheir highhigh pro-pro­ chipping chipping would would have have become become wasteful wasteful and and costly. costlv. The The introduc­ introduc- ductivity.ductivity. EvenEven more extreme examplesexamples of the high biological tion tion of of edge-grinding edge-grinding would would have have conserved conserved material material and meantand meant productivityproductivity of of r-selected r-selected species species have have beenbeen citedcited by Ortiz de fewerfewer trips trips to toquarries quarries (see (see n. n.2). 2).Where Where very very large large amounts amounts of of MontellanoMontellano (1978:612),(1978:612), who who notes notes thethe heavyheavy reliancereliance onon insects meatmeat or or fish fish were were processed, processed, similar similar factors factors might might have have led ledto to among among preconquestpreconquest Mesoamerican Mesoamerican groups:groups: "Insects"Insects are ex-ex­ thethe useuse ofof knives knives mademade of groundground stone. tremely tremely efficient efficient food food converters converters and and produceproduce proteins com-com­ 3.3. TheThe narrowingnarrowing of regularly used subsistencesubsistence resources,resources, parableparable toto those of herbivores.herbivores. TheThe food potential representedrepresented wherewhere notnot imposedimposed by changingchanging environmentalenvironmental constraints,constraints, byby insectsinsects isis enormous. For example,example, ifif allall ofof thethe offspring offspring must must be be viewed viewed as as the the result result of ofan an increasingly increasingly stable stable resource resource producedproduced byby oneone cabbagecabbage aphid during one season lived,lived, thethe base.base. ThisThis accordsaccords wellwell with with the the characteristics characteristics that that have have been been maximummaximum collectivecollective weightweight wouldwould be greater than thatthat ofof thethe positedposited as as stemming stemming from from the the use use of abundantof abundant r-selected r-selected species. species. earth'searth's entireentire human human population." population." BodenheimerBodenheimer (1951)(1951) givesgives WithWith thethe efficientefficient harvesting, harvesting, processing, processing, and and storing storing of of these these numerousnumerous otherother examplesexamples involvinginvolving insects. resources,resources, specialized specialized economic economic adaptations adaptations would would have have become become The The initialinitial astonishmentastonishment evokedevoked by the propositionproposition that mice possible,possible, and and the the principle principle of ofleast least effort effort would would have have made made such such cancan supportsupport moremore peoplepeople than deer is mitigated byby thethe recogni-recogni­ aa developmentdevelopment inevitable inevitable where where r-selected r-selected resources resources occurred occurred in in tion tion ofof thethe crucialcrucial rolerole playedplayed by efficientefficient harvesting.harvesting. InIn thethe abundance. abundance. SpecializationSpecialization hadhad generally notnot been adaptive time time spent spent obtaining obtaining aa singlesingle deerdeer oneone mightmight bebe ableable toto catchcatch a previouslypreviouslv because because of of the the instability instability and andlow biomasslow biomass of K-select­ of K-select- dozen,dozen, oror eveneven severalseveral dozen, smallsmall rodents,rodents, but thethe rodentrodent ed ed species.species. Moreover,Moreover, because differentdifferent typestypes ofof specialized catch catch wouldwould be farfar inferior toto thethe deer catch inin energyenergy return.return. technologicaltechnological equipment equipment were were required required to toharvest harvest and and process process Nevertheless,Nevertheless, ifif itit were were possible possible toto harvestharvest asas many rodents as differentdifferent types types of ofsmall-bodied small-bodied resources resources en masse, en masse, tool toolas­ as- one one mightmight like like in in a a veryvery short short period period of of time, time, what what Deevey Deevey has semblages semblages would would have have begun begun to to reflect reflect more more directly directly the thespecific specific said said wouldwould certainlycertainly bebe true.true. The viability ofof his proposition is typestypes of of r-selected r-selected resources resources being being used used and and therefore therefore specific specific determineddetermined byby thethe developmentdevelopment ofof meansmeans for for efficientefficient harvest­harvest- regionalregional adaptations.adaptations. ing,ing, processing, processing, and and storing.storing. ButBut howhow does oneone gogo aboutabout effi- effi­ 4.4. InIn a veryvery fewfew areasareas where survival was largelylargely insured by ciently ciently harvesting harvesting resources resources like like mice? mice? TheThe answeranswer isis not atat all exploitation exploitation of of reliable reliable and and "inexhaustible" "inexhaustible" resource resource bases, bases, the the obvious, obvious, eveneven forfor thethe technologicallytechnologically advancedadvanced culturescultures ofof to-to­ need need forfor sharingsharing andand cooperationcooperation within communities would day. day. SmallSmall andand medium-sized fish, fish, grasses, and other such highly have have beenbeen reduced,reduced, and and a a certaincertain amount amount of of status status competition competition productive,productive, diminutivediminutive resourcesresources capablecapable ofof frequent mass har-har­ revolving revolving around around wealthwealth controlcontrol wouldwould havehave been tolerated.tolerated. vesting vesting all all posedposed thethe samesame fundamental problemproblem toto prehistoricprehistoric StatusStatus ranking ranking based based on on wealth wealth would would have have emerged. emerged. Ranking Ranking populations:populations: how to develop thethe technologytechnology toto makemake theirtheir ex-ex­ basedbased onon subsistencesubsistence and and wealth wealth had had not not occurred occurred before before this this ploitationploitation worthwhile.worthwhile. PeoplePeople did notnot perceive thethe feasibilityfeasibility or stage stage because,because, underunder conditionsconditions in in which which there there was was a aserious serious thethe need need of of solving solving such such problems problems as as longlong asas moremore obviousobvious andand dangerdanger of of overexploiting overexploiting resources resources (as with(as with reliance reliance on K-select­ on K-select- moremore easily easily obtainable obtainable resourcesresources remainedremained toto bebe tapped.tapped. eded species), species), competition competition over over resources resources would would have have resulted resulted in in VariationsVariations inin socialsocial structurestructure oror ideologyideology cannotcannot explain thethe severe severe undercutting undercutting of ofthe the resource resource base base (as (aswith with modern modern com­ com- developmentdevelopment ofof allall oror even most of the characteristicscharacteristics ofof thethe mercialmercial whalingwhaling andand 19th-century19th-century bison huntinghunting [Wynne-[Wynne­ MesolithicMesolithic and and Archaic,Archaic, butbut manymany ofof thesethese changes-amongchanges-among Edwards Edwards 1962]).1962]). Thus,Thus, inin generalizedgeneralized hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer contexts contexts themthem increased increased sedentism,sedentism, increasedincreased populationpopulation density, reduc-reduc­ competition competition over over resources resources was was maladaptive maladaptive and and must must have have tiontion in in band band ranges,ranges, increasedincreased storage,storage, andand increasedincreased ability to beenbeen systematically systematically suppressed suppressed and/or and/or redirected redirected in one in fashionone fashion keep keep materialmaterial goods goods such such as as wealthwealth items-canitems-can bebe logicallylogically oror another-for another-for instance,instance, in in the the form form of competitionof competition over over wom­ wom- linked linked toto significantsignificant increases increases inin resource resource densitydensitv andand reliability.reliability. en,en, ritual ritual hierarchies,hierarchies, or or age-ranking. age-ranking. BecauseBecause resource com-com­ I I wouldwould likelike toto drawdraw attentionattention to fivefive other, other, less less obvious obvious changeschanges petitionpetition waswas maladaptive, hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers emphasized re-re­ whichwhich may may be be expected expected to to have have resulted resulted from from effective effective r-selected r-selected source source sharing sharing both both within within and and between between groups. groups. Partially Partially as aas a species species exploitationexploitation wherewhere thesethese resources occurred in abun-abun­ resultresult of of this, this, periods periods of ofresource resource stress stress were were relatively relatively infre­ infre- dance. dance. InIn many respects, culturalcultural changeschanges hadhad always beenbeen quent.quent. In In fact, fact, strong strong emphasis emphasis on onsharing sharing continues continues to be to one be one moving, moving, although although very very slowly, slowly, toward toward these outcomes.these outcomes. With the With of ofthe the the most most distinctive distinctive characteristics characteristics of generalizedof generalized hunter­ hunter- use use ofof r-selectedr-selected species,species, a numbernumber ofof criticalcritical thresholdsthresholds forfor gatherers gatherers up up to to the the present present (Hayden (Hayden 1981). 1981). On On the the other other hand, hand, many many cultural cultural systemssystems would would havehave beenbeen quicklyquickly attained. wherewhere the the resource resource base base consisted consisted largely largely of ofsmall, small, rapidly rapidly re­ re- 1. 1. SubstantialSubstantial increase in sedentism due toto useuse ofof r-selectedr-selected producingproducing species species occurring occurring in inabundance, abundance, the the risk risk of ofover­ over- resourcesresources would would havehave hadhad some positive feedbackfeedback effects.effects. Be­Be- exploitationexploitation was was negligible, negligible, and and there there would would no nolonger longer have have causecause sedentarysedentary groupsgroups tendtend toto deplete large-bodied sourcessources ofof beenbeen any any needneed for for repression repression or orredirection redirection of economicallyof economically food,food, especially especially game,game, withinwithin aa few hours' walking distance,distance, competitivecompetitive behavior. behavior. As Asprimatologists primatologists (Bernstein (Bernstein 1970; 1970; Car­ Car- there would have been even greater pressure to use smaller, there would have been even greater pressure to use smaller, penterpenter 1942; 1942; Sahlins Sahlins 1959: 1959:63-64) 63-64) point point out, out, dominance dominance beha­ beha- possiblypossibly lessless desirabledesirable butbut moremore numerousnumerous andand more productiveproductive viorvior is is very very widespread widespread among among Old Old World World apes, apes, including including man. man. foodfood sources, sources, especiallyespecially forfor protein,protein, e.g., e.g., terrestrialterrestrial and and aquaticaquatic It therefore seems highly likely that at least some genetic ten­ molluscs, rodents, fish, and lizards (Meiklejohn 1974, Ross 1978, It therefore seems highly likely that at least some genetic ten- molluscs, rodents, fish, and lizards (Meiklejohn 1974, Ross 1978, dencies toward egotism and dominance were maintained in the Hayden 1981). Another response to local game depletion due to dencies toward egotism and dominance were maintained in the Hayden 1981). Another response to local game depletion due to variability of all human populations. Such a genetic factor, sedentismsedentism mightmight have have beenbeen maintenance ofof very large hunting variability of all human populations. Such a genetic factor, together with the potential for accumulating goods due to in­ rangesranges and and group group territories. territories. Since Since such such ranges ranges would would have havebeen been together with the potential for accumulating goods due to in- farfar larger larger than than the the gathering gathering ranges ranges required required byby sedentarysedentary com­com- creased creased sedentism sedentism and and resource resource reliability/abundance, reliability/abundance, would would munities,munities, they they would would havehave tendedtended to insure that more thanthan havehave rendered rendered the the emergence emergence of rankingof ranking and andwealth wealth competition competition enough enough gathering gathering resources resources would would always always bebe availableavailable toto thethe in in favored favored areas areas all all butbut inevitable.inevitable. TheThe beginningsbeginnings of of such such a a community, community, thusthus enhancingenhancing even furtherfurther the reliability of the trendtrend occurred occurred sporadically sporadically at at the the end end of ofthe the Pleistocene Pleistocene in thein the

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 527527

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms most most resource-rich resource-rich areas. areas. In In thethe MesolithicMesolithic andand Archaic thethe trend trend was was much much more more widespread widespread andand pronounced.pronounced. Communities Communities withwith enough enough resourcesresources toto supportsupport wealthwealth com­com- petition petition would would often often have have been been characterized characterized by by a a closedclosed (vs.(vs. band range fluid fluid or or open) open) membership,membership, with with clans clans andand clan cemeteriescemeteries (1962) >­ emerging. emerging. Chang Chang (1962) in particularparticular has drawn out these rela­rela- t:: tionships in his distinction between Siberian- and Eskimo-type (/) tionships in his distinction between Siberian- and Eskimo-type Z z LU LU hunting-gathering hunting-gathering bands,bands, the formerformer characteristiccharacteristic of resource­resource- f­ z rich rich and and stablestable areas.areas. The matrixmatrix ofof feastingfeasting and primitiveprimitive ~ Cl valuables valuables accompanyingaccompanying the emergence of complexcomplex socialsocial fea-fea­ Z z Vi tures tures has has been been well well documented documented (Sahlins (Sahlins 1968b,1968b, Dalton Dalton 1975) i1i LU and need not be detailed here. It is worth mentioning, however, a: and need not be detailed here. It is worth mentioning, however, () that that such such developmentsdevelopments werewere presentpresent onlyonly amongamong the mostmost ~ Wv economically economically productiveproductive ofof contemporarycontemporary hunter-gatherers,hunter-gatherers, such such as as thethe NorthwestNorthwest Coast Coast Indians. Indians. InIn atat least some areas food abundane \es 0a where where relatively relatively intense intense economic economic competitioncompetition tooktook place,place, we - selecte d speci can can envisageenvisage positive-feedback relationsrelations developing between social social statusstatus systemssystems and and variousvarious materialmaterial resourceresource bases.bases. Cow­Cow- reeatote resrce -srs moe.Ppltondniysol MIDDLE MIDDLE UPPERUPPER MESOLITHIC/ARCHAICMESOLITHIC/ ARCHAIC gill (1975) has pointed to the importance of economic-based gill (1975) has pointed to the importance of economic-based PALEOLITHIC PALEOLITHIC PALEOLITHICPALEOLITHIC competition, competition, as as opposed opposed toto populationpopulation pressure, asas a primeprime mover mover in in cultural cultural evolution. evolution. TheThe factfact thatthat economicallyeconomically basedbased FIG. FIG. 2. 2.Proposed Proposed general general relationships relationships between some between of the variables some of the variables relevant to the resource-stress model. Population density should status status competitioncompetition whichwhich had had nono majormajor adverse repercussionsrepercussions relevant to the resource-stress model. Population density should follow follow the thesame same general general curve as curve"% r-selected as "% speciesr-selected in total species diet." in total diet." on on resources resources began began onlyonly towardtoward thethe endend ofof thethe Pleistocene Pleistocene may well well bebe thethe singlesingle mostmost importantimportant factorfactor inin explainingexplaining the be-be­ wildering wildering series series of of cultural cultural developmentsdevelopments thatthat havehave occurred tors tors must must have have involvedinvolved considerableconsiderable geneticgenetic change.change. Subse­Subse- since, since, including including organized organized warfare.warfare. AndAnd thisthis developmentdevelopment was quently, quently, in in the the later later Acheulian Acheulian toto UpperUpper Paleolithic periods, largely largely anan outcome ofof effectiveeffective exploitation of r-selectedr-selected re-re­ resource resource reliabilityreliability waswas increased byby furtherfurther diversifyingdiversifying the sources. sources. Thus,Thus, therethere havehave beenbeen at leastleast two major forces behind resource resource base base andand includingincluding more dangerous and harder-to-getharder-to-get directional directional cultural cultural change-resource change-resource stressstress and economic com-com­ large large species.species. TheThe susceptibilitysusceptibility to overexploitationoverexploitation ofof thesethese petition-with petition-with the formerformer almostalmost completelycompletely dominatingdominating species species insuredinsured thatthat therethere waswas aa minimumminimum ofof competition competition involv­involv- developments developments inin thethe Pleistocene Pleistocene andand the latterlatter dominatingdominating post­post- ing ing resourcesresources andand ofof statusstatus differentiation basedbased on control ofof PleistocenePleistocene ones. resources.resources. By By thethe endend ofof thethe Pleistocene, Pleistocene, allall these species were 5. 5. WhereWhere r-selectedr-selected resourceresource abundanceabundance and reliabilityreliability were beingbeing usedused asas effectively asas possible.possible. Continued recurrencerecurrence ofof notnot as as extreme,extreme, cultural cultural evolution evolution wouldwould havehave continuedcontinued to be resource resource stress stress meant meant thatthat increasedincreased resourceresource reliabilityreliability couldcould governed governed byby thethe infrequentinfrequent occurrence occurrence of of unavoidable unavoidable resource onlyonly bebe achievedachieved byby furtherfurther diversifying thethe speciesspecies being ex-ex­ stress stress and and as as aa resultresult wouldwould havehave proceeded at the same slow ploited,ploited, andand thisthis meantmeant usingusing small, small, unobviousunobvious speciesspecies such as raterate thatthat had characterizedcharacterized previousprevious millennia.millennia. Sedentism,Sedentism, grass grass seeds,seeds, fish,fish, and and mice. mice. BecauseBecause thesethese resourcesresources were com-com­ wealthwealth control,control, andand statusstatus differences would would notnot havehave been parativelyparatively inexhaustibleinexhaustible andand highly productive, wealth/status nearly nearly as as developeddeveloped inin thesethese areas,areas, either.either. InIn many cases, thethe rankingranking based based onon competitioncompetition developeddeveloped in areas wherewhere theythey groupgroup concerned concerned would would havehave becomebecome much less dependent on werewere abundantabundant and near-sedentarynear-sedentary communities were estab-estab­ neighboringneighboring bands bands for for assistance assistance in intimes times of scarcity;of scarcity; the thewide­ wide- lished.lished. SinceSince differing major major technologicaltechnological innovations werewere rangingranging economic-subsistence economic-subsistence alliances alliances andand networks (Harris requiredrequired toto exploit each suchsuch resourceresource effectively,effectively, regionalregional 1971:295-305; 1971:295-305; Yengoyan 1976) commoncommon toto previousprevious stagesstages technologicaltechnological specializationspecialization developed. wouldwould havehave becomebecome lessless important andand would generally have PredictionsPredictions from from this this model model are are to ato large a large extent extent very very similar similar beenbeen reducedreduced inin size.size. IncreasedIncreased ethnicethnic differentiationdifferentiation wouldwould be toto thethe predictionspredictions derivedderived from otherother models,models, but therethere are im-im­ expected expected underunder these these conditions. conditions. For For example, example, Cleland Cleland (1966:(1966: portantportant differences.differences. Nutritional Nutritional stress stress isis expectedexpected to remainremain 93)93) hashas arguedargued that the maintenance of widespread interaction moremore oror less less constant constant throughoutthroughout the Pleistocene or, or, ifif anything, inin thethe UpperUpper GreatGreat LakesLakes regionregion was closely tiedtied toto relativerelative toto decrease;decrease; in contrast,contrast, the population-growth model predicts economiceconomic instabilityinstability andand thatthat subsistencesubsistence stability was directlydirectly anan increaseincrease inin nutritionalnutritional stressstress overover timetime andand an especiallyespecially responsibleresponsible forfor lowered lowered ratesrates ofof interactioninteraction andand increasedincreased cul-cul­ dramaticdramatic increaseincrease inin stressstress levelslevels atat thethe end of thethe Pleistocene.Pleistocene. turaltural fractionation.fractionation. AlternativeAlternative explanationsexplanations ofof stylisticstylistic re-re­ ToTo the extent thatthat the average life-spanlife-span is a functionfunction of the gionalizationgionalization include include Isaac's Isaac's (1972)(1972) and Wobst's (1976)(1976) sugges-sugges­ frequencyfrequency andand magnitudemagnitude of nutritional stress, a limitedlimited testtest ofof tiontion thatthat regionalizationregionalization maymay havehave developed inin responseresponse toto thesethese differentdifferent predictions predictions is ispossible. possible. Average Average ageage atat death for increasedincreased populationpopulation density. However, therethere are several strongstrong thethe Paleolithic Paleolithic andand Mesolithic can be calculated from from data pre-pre­ reasonsreasons forfor believing believing thatthat populationpopulation density has only a minorminor sentedsented byby AcsadiAcsadi andand Nemeskeri (1970:(1970:138, 138, 148).148). AlthoughAlthough effecteffect on on cultural cultural homogeneity homogeneity over over large large areas areas (Hassan (Hassan 1978: suchsuch datadata may not be ideal inin terms of samplesample size and represen-represen': 79;79; HaydenHayden 1980a). tativeness,tativeness, theythey tendtend to supportsupport the expectationsexpectations ofof thethe present TheThe generalgeneral relationships relationships of ofsome some of theseof these variables variables are shown are shown model.model. AverageAverage ageage atat deathdeath inin thethe LowerLower PaleolithicPaleolithic waswas 14.8, inin figurefigure 2. 2. inin thethe MiddleMiddle Paleolithic 22.1,22.1, inin thethe EurasianEurasian Upper Paleo-Paleo­ lithiclithic 20.6, 20.6, and and inin thethe Mesolithic Mesolithic 20.8.20.8. ItIt isis alsoalso expectableexpectable that placesplaces andand times of rapidrapid major climatic oscillations will have SUMMARYSUMMARY ANDAND CONCLUSIONS moremore frequentfrequent episodesepisodes of unavoidable resourceresource stressstress thanthan placesplaces andand times of environmentenvironment stability.stability. BecauseBecause innovation II havehave argued thatthat episodesepisodes ofof resourceresource stressstress occurredoccurred withinwithin isis viewedviewed asas aa probabilistic event dependent onon episodesepisodes ofof dis-dis­ thethe samesame rangerange of frequencyfrequency throughoutthroughout thethe PleistocenePleistocene and equilibrium,equilibrium, itit shouldshould be mostmost frequentfrequent wherewhere resourceresource stressstress thatthat suchsuch events were thethe drivingdriving force behind attempts toto isis mostmost frequent. frequent. Thus, Thius, peripheral peripheral populations populations andand populationspopulations increaseincrease resourceresource reliability.reliability. ResourceResource reliability was increased ofof the the terminalterminal PleistocenePleistocene shouldshould have been highlyhighly innovative duringduring thethe OldowanOldowan andand Early AcheulianAcheulian byby diversifying diversifying thethe inin exploringexploring waysways toto increase resourceresource reliability.reliability. The well-well­ resourceresource basebase andand exploitingexploiting herdherd animals.animals. ThisThis waswas probably a knownknown inventiveness inventiveness of the of Inuit the Jnuitwould bewould consistent be consistent with this with this longlong process,process, sincesince changing fromfrom herbivores toto effective preda- proposal.proposal. ItIt should bebe emphasized,emphasized, however,however, thatthat this this hypothe-hypothe-

528528 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms sis sis appliesapplies to the relative rates,rates, notnot thethe presencepresence or absence, ofof Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS innovation. innovation. The The modelmodel II have presentedpresented accountsaccounts forfor aspects ofof thethe pre-pre­ in in thethe sandsand and moremore difficultdifficult to obtainobtain withwith digging-sticks,digging-sticks, historic historic record record previously previously not not accounted accounted for-why for-why the Pleisto­Pleisto- mightmight not not be be exploited exploited until until quite quite late.) late.) This, however, is not a cene cene trendtrend towardtoward diversificationdiversification of of staples staples shouldshould havehave been problemproblem peculiarpeculiar to this model; itit applies toto anyany ofof thethe currentcurrent reversed reversed in in some some areas areas duringduring the the Mesolithic Mesolithic andand Archaic; why theoriestheories pertaining pertaining to to Paleolithic Paleolithic subsistence.subsistence. A similar problem technologicaltechnological specialization specialization occurred occurred in in somesome areasareas but notnot exists exists concerningconcerning land land snails,snails, where they were relativelyrelatively large others;others; whywhy regionalizationregionalization becamebecame more pronounced towardtoward andand abundant.abundant. The ultimateultimate explanationexplanation may bebe relativelyrelatively the the end end of of the the Pleistocene; Pleistocene; whywhy thethe exploitationexploitation of newnew resourcesresources complex, complex, involvinginvolving factorsfactors suchsuch asas boiling technology,technology, energyenergy followedfollowed a a particularparticular sequence;sequence; why wealth competition and returnsreturns for for effort effort expended, expended, and and degree degree ofof sedentismsedentism andand theirtheir primitiveprimitive valuables valuables beganbegan toto appearappear at thethe end ofof the Pleisto-Pleisto­ relationshiprelationship toto degreedegree ofof depletiondepletion of largelarge gamegame or other pro-pro­ cene;cene; andand why there werewere differentialdifferential rates rates ofof cultural cultural evolutionevolution tein tein resourcesresources withinwithin regularregular foragingforaging distance. distance. BeyondBeyond this,this, among among generalizedgeneralized hunter-gatherers andand communities with more there there is is thethe problemproblem presentedpresented byby the apparently sedentary,sedentary, stable stable andand abundantabundant resources. Because many many of of thethe trends andand dense, dense, wealthy,wealthy, and and rankedranked societiessocieties of Upper PaleolithicPaleolithic relationships relationships postulated postulated herehere areare basedbased on limitedlimited data, theirtheir southwestern southwestern and and eastern eastern Europe, Europe, apparentlyapparently basedbased to aa sub-sub­ confirmation confirmation by by future future research research will will provideprovide aa furtherfurther partial stantial stantial degreedegree onon thethe exploitationexploitation ofof K-selectedK-selected animalsanimals such testtest ofof thethe model.model. asas mammothmammoth andand reindeer.reindeer. Although thethe characterizationcharacterization ofof The The modelmodel alsoalso sheds some light on the broad simultaneity ofof these these societies societies is is notnot acceptedaccepted by all prehistoriansprehistorians (see, e.g.,e.g., majormajor culturalcultural developments worldwide by suggestingsuggesting thatthat Meiklejohn Meiklejohn 1974), ifif itit shouldshould proveprove accurateaccurate the model does not basicbasic adaptiveadaptive innovations suchsuch asas fire,fire, thethe atlatl,atlatl, boiling, and allowallow forfor theirtheir occurrence. occurrence. I I cancan only suggestsuggest that,that, ifif thesethese seed seed grindinggrinding probably probably spread spread rapidlyrapidly becausebecause theythey increased groups groups werewere inin factfact relativelyrelatively sedentary and wealth-ranked,wealth-ranked, resource resource reliability reliability and and reducedreduced energyenergy expendedexpended inin nomadic theythey depended depended toto aa much larger extent than is generally recog-recog­ travel-witnesstravel-witness the rapidity with which thethe bow and arrowarrow nized nized onon r-selectedr-selected resources,resources, suchsuch as salmonsalmon oror otherother fish,fish, the spread spread overover large large areas areas ofof the the world world (Chard (Chard 1975:1975:155; 155; Klein faunal faunal remainsremains ofof which which may may well well have have beenbeen discardeddiscarded without 1977: 1977:122) 122) and MesolithicMesolithic technologytechnology spreadspread throughoutthroughout thethe aa tracetrace in in streams streams (see (see Desse Desse and and Desse Desse 1976:1976:700). 700). II thinkthink thattha t Middle Middle EastEast (Flannery 1973:1973:236). 236). SedentismSedentism andand domestica-domestica­ good good argumentsarguments can can be be mademade thatthat MagdalenianMagdalenian "harpoons" tiontion probablyprobably emerged independentlyindependently fromfrom similar,similar, roughlyroughly were were usedused forfor fishing, fishing, and and it it may may well well be be that that otherother components components contemporaneous contemporaneous technologicaltechnological basesbases created byby rapidlyrapidly dif-dif­ ofof fishing fishing technology technology will will be be recognized recognized in in Magdalenian Magdalenian assem­assem- fusing fusing fundamental fundamental adaptations adaptations includingincluding boiling,boiling, grinding,grinding, the blages.blages. RecentRecent excavationsexcavations atat GareGare dede CouzeCouze andand ReignacReignac have manufacturemanufacture ofof substantial substantial basketsbaskets and/or weirs,weirs, andand fishingfishing revealed revealed thatthat fishfish are are present present in in abundance abundance at at somesome Magda­Magda- equipment.equipment. StylisticStylistic attributes,attributes, whichwhich hadhad no clear technologi-technologi­ lenianlenian sites sites (Desse (Desse and and Desse Desse 1976:698;1976:698; Delpech 1975;1975; WhiteWhite calcal adaptiveadaptive value, wouldwould notnot necessarilynecessarily havehave diffuseddiffused along n.d.)n.d.) andand rabbitsrabbits inin othersothers (CHerier(Celerier 1976,1976, TixierTixier 1976).1976). withwith thesethese basicbasic innovations.innovations. Having Having takentaken the model of PleistocenePleistocene cultural change thisthis The The basicbasic scenario I havehave presented presented is is aa refinement refinement of a tra-tra­ far,far, it it is isworth worth asking asking whether whether it has it hasany any implications implications for sub­for sub- ditionalditional theme,theme, aa variantvariant ofof which which has has alsoalso beenbeen usedused to explainexplain sequent sequent cultural cultural evolution. evolution. In In particular, particular, I Iwish wish to to explore explore the the thethe biological biological evolution evolution of of man man (Butzer (Butzer 1977: 1977:580, 580, 585).585). YetYet an possibility possibility that that horticulture horticulture merely merely represents represents the naturalthe natural and and entireentire school school of of prehistorians prehistorians would would have have usus believebelieve that neither logicallogical extension extension of of the the trends trends which which led ledto the to theMesolithic Mesolithic and and "population "population pressure"pressure" nornor stressstress existed-or existed-or at leastleast thatthat theythey Archaic.Archaic. InIn this respect,respect, itit wouldwould be aa fifthfifth stagestage of develop­develop- werewere not not significant significant for for cultural cultural evolution-for evolution-for over 2,000,000 ment, ment, following following the the sequence sequence presented presented earlier. earlier. I Iwill will first first sug­ sug- years. years. TheyThey argueargue that,that, forfor one one reason reason or or another, another, real real "popula­ "popula- gestgest thatthat domesticationdomestication resultedresulted from attemptsattempts to increaseincrease tiontion pressure" pressure" onlyonly camecame toto existexist atat thethe endend of thethe Pleistocene.Pleistocene. resourceresource reliabilityreliability by by increasingincreasing resourceresource diversitydiversity inin areas II maintainmaintain thatthat thisthis isis logicallylogically untenableuntenable andand does not accord that that werewere notnot wellwell endowedendowed with r-selected resourcesresources but in wellwell withwith the the data data atat hand.hand. Most important,important, it it follows follows fromfrom my whichwhich some some use use and an(d manipulation manipulation of such of such resources resources was possible.was possible. argumentsarguments that that the the conceptsconcepts ofof "population"population pressure" and In In thisthis sensesense domesticationdomestication waswas simply another technological "carrying"carrying capacity" capacity" are aresterile, sterile, black-and-white black-and-white ways of lookingways of lookinginnovation innovation like like stone stone boiling, boiling, seed seed grinding, grinding, and and the the use useof nets. of nets. at at problemsproblems ofof culturalcultural evolution.evolution. According to theirtheir propo-propo­ n It isis clearclear fromfrom ethnographic ethnographic datadata that the number of resourceresource nents, nents, thethe only only important important factorfactor relevant relevant toto culturalcultural evolutionevolution strategies strategies available available continued continued to toincrease increase through through horticultural horticultural is is whetherwhether a a populationpopulation isis above carryingcarrying capacity oror not,not, phases,phases, even even where where economies economies were were based based on ona few a few staples. staples. This This whether whether there there is is population population pressurepressure oror not.not. ThisThis is a farfar too is is particularlyparticularly true true of of early early forms forms of ofhorticulture, horticulture, which which used used simplisticsimplistic wayway ofof viewingviewing culturalcultural andand demographic dynamics, largelarge amountsamounts of of wild wild staplesstaples (Hole,(Hole, Flannery, andand Neeley and and thethe resultantresultant modelsmodels workwork poorly.poorly. Moreover,Moreover, suchsuch conceptsconcepts 1969:343; 1969:343; HelbaekHelbaek 1969: 389-90; FordFord 1977:174).1977: 174). Similarly,Similarly, are are hopelesslyhopelessly nonoperational.nonoperational. InIn place ofof thesethese dichotomousdichotomous economicallyeconomically specialized specialized ArchaicArchaic bandsbands probablyprobably maintained a concepts, concepts, I I suggestsuggest thatthat nono populationpopulation ever was, oror is,is, com-com­ wide wide array array of of resource resource strategies strategies which which were were used used infrequently, infrequently, pletelypletely freefree of of resource resource stress stress and and that that the the variables variables itit wouldwould be usuallyusually inin responseresponse toto thethe briefbrief fluctuations fluctuations characteristic characteristic of of mostmost usefuluseful toto studystudy areare the frequency and thethe intensityintensity ofof r-selected r-selected species. species. In In fact,fact, itit waswas probablyprobably thethe knowledge of stress. stress. OurOur primaryprimary concerns concerns should should bebe thethe causescauses of variationsvariations hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer resource resource strategies strategies as asalternatives alternatives that that made made inin thesethese valuesvalues and theirtheir effects. StressStress frequenciesfrequencies and intensi-intensi­ horticulture horticulture a a viableviable proposition.proposition. DuringDuring famines inin Meso-Meso­ ties ties can can bebe measuredmeasured (e.g.,(e.g., Skinner 1980)1980) and areare muchmuch moremore america, america, such such groups groups as asthe the Yucatec Yucatec Maya Maya are are documented documented as as directly directly related related to to situations situations in in which which change change wouldwould bebe adap­adap- havinghaving lived lived by by foraging foraging and andgathering gathering wild foods wild (Tozzerfoods (Tozzer 1941: 1941: tivetive thanthan thethe veryvery obliqueoblique andand nonquantifiable concepts char-char­ 190-203; 190-203; RyderRyder 1977:207;1977:207; Spores 1965:967, 976,976, 984),984), whilewhile acteristicacteristic ofof the population-pressurepopulation-pressure and carrying-capacitycarrying-capacity hunting hunting and and fishing fishing continued continued to beto importantbe important throughout throughout the the approach. approach. NewNew World.World. InIn supportsupport of this general argument, itit cancan be For For everyevery model,model, therethere remain remain exceptionsexceptions andand relevantrelevant obser-obser­ noted noted that that the the number number of ofspecies species recognized recognized as edibleas edible is typi­is typi- vationsvations notnot adequately adequately accommodated.accommodated. ThoughThough I believebelieve thethe callycally much much greater greater for for horticulturalists horticulturalists than than for anyfor contem­any contem- modelmodel II havehave presented toto bebe a theoretical advance, therethere are poraryporary hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers in in comparablecomparable environments. The unresolvedunresolved questions.questions. Why,Why, forfor example, werewere shellfishshellfish not ex-ex­ maximummaximum for for tropical tropical hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers appears appears to be to about be about 250 250 ploitedploited earlierearlier andand more extensively?extensively? (Here II referrefer specifically to edible edible species species of of plants plants and and animals, animals, as asopposed opposed to to1,000 1,000 useful useful thethe relativelyrelatively large large species species attachedattached toto rocksrocks exposedexposed at lowlow plantplant species species and and 450 450 animal animal types types for for tropical tropical horticulturalists horticulturalists tides,tides, such such as as largelarge musselsmussels andand oysters; it isis easiereasier to explain (Conklin (Conklin 1969:229--30;1969:229-30; Hayden 1981).1981). Similarly,Similarly, inin thethe tem-tem­ whywhy invertebrates invertebrates suchsuch asas thethe largerlarger clams,clams, livingliving atat somesome depthdepth perateperate MayanMayan highlands, wherewhere therethere is much lessless speciesspecies diver-

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 529529

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms sity, sity, 240 240 indigenousindigenous typestypes ofof plantsplants alonealone were used, many ofof tivelytively infrequently. infrequently. Because Because sedentism,sedentism, wealthwealth competition,competition, andand whichwhich combined combined severalseveral speciesspecies underunder aa single lexemelexeme (Berlin, rankingranking inin rich rich environments environments did did notnot result result in in domestication domestication inin Breedlove,Breedlove, and and Raven Raven 1974:98-103). 1974:98-103). ColsonColson (1979:22)(1979:22) also these these areas, areas, itit is is reasonable reasonable toto concludeconclude thatthat suchsuch developmentsdevelopments hashas arguedargued thatthat horticulturalistshorticulturalists subjectsubject toto stressstress havehave a much werewere notnot sufficient,sufficient, or or perhaps perhaps eveneven necessary, conditions forfor betterbetter knowledge knowledge ofof wildwild foodsfoods thanthan hunter-gatherers.hunter-gatherers. Thus,Thus, in domestication.domestication. Instead, Instead, domesticationdomestication cancan be moremore usefullyusefully areas areas inin whichwhich r-selectedr-selected species species werewere not not abundant abundant andand sub-sub­ linked linked toto the the same same PaleolithicPaleolithic processes which gave riserise to thethe sistencesistence specializationspecialization diddid not occur, thethe diversitydiversity ofof bothboth MesolithicMesolithic and Archaic: the the efforteffort toto increaseincrease resourceresource reliabilityreliability staples staples andand allall usableusable species increased fromfrom PaleolithicPaleolithic throughthrough inin areasareas of frequentfrequent stress.stress. AA number of recentrecent views on thethe horticulturalhorticultural timestimes (fig. 3).3). effectseffects of of domestication domestication have have emphasized emphasized thisthis aspect. aspect. ClelandCleland WithWith thethe adventadvent of large-scalelarge-scale economic competition, inten-inten­ (1976:60)(1976:60) considersconsiders thethe constant evolution of adaptiveadaptive systemssystems sivesive agricultureagriculture waswas establishedestablished and forestsforests were destroyed in toto bebe motivated by the searchsearch forfor economic security. Ford orderorder to to support support as as largelarge workwork forcesforces and and armiesarmies asas possible. (1977),(1977), citedcited withwith approval approval byby JudgeJudge (1978:292), (1978:292), argues thatthat These These developments,developments, together with massivemassive trade, resulted in a domesticates domesticates diddid notnot revolutionize Archaic subsistence, but genuinegenuine widespreadwidespread reversalreversal ofof thethe PaleolithicPaleolithic and earlyearly horti-horti­ instead instead actedacted asas regulatory devicesdevices which helpedhelped stabilize thethe cultural cultural strategies,strategies, leading leading to to aa reductionreduction in locallocal resourceresource system.system. Singleton Singleton (1979: (1979:14) 14) assertsasserts thatthat domestication inin thethe variabilityvariability inin termsterms of of both both staples staples and and all all speciesspecies used.used. In time, NearNear EastEast "is"is anan integralintegral partpart ofof thethe process of intensive,intensive, locallocal competition competition ledled toto thethe monocroppingmonocropping characteristic ofof contem-contem­ exploitation exploitation and and isis notnot aa consequence of it." AssumingAssuming thatthat poraryagriculture.porary agriculture. What What isis importantimportant herehere isis that that EarlyEarly Holo­Holo- motivation motivation toto stabilizestabilize resourcesresources was pervasive prehistorically,prehistorically, cenecene hunter-gatherers everywhereeverywhere followedfollowed thethe long-termlong-term oneone isis hardlyhardly surprisedsurprised toto find stabilitystability aa dominant concernconcern strategy strategy ofof increasing increasing resourceresource reliability,reliability, whetherwhether byby tappingtapping amongamong contemporarycontemporary primitive primitive groups groups (e.g., (e.g., Colson Colson 1979:22- 1979:22- small, small, highlyhighly productiveproductive r-selectedr-selected resources,resources, by beginning toto 24; 24; ReinaReina andand HillHill 1978:250-51).1978:250-51). plantplant crops, crops, or, or, where where these these strategies strategies were were not possible, not possible, by con­ by con- If If all all thisthis isis so,'it so, it may may bebe askedasked why domesticationdomestication did not tinuing tinuing toto diversifydiversify theirtheir use use ofof wildwild resourcesresources whenever thethe occuroccur in in Australia, Australia, whichwhich hashas widewide environmentalenvironmental diversitydiversity andand opportunityopportunity presentedpresented itself.itself. manymany marginal marginal habitats. habitats. My My answer answer is issimilar similar to tothe the response response to to It It cannotcannot be coincidental thatthat thethe firstfirst domesticatesdomesticates began thethe questionquestion ofof whywhy the the New New WorldWorld diddid not discover the Old appearing appearing almostalmost contemporaneouslycontemporaneously with the first appearance appearance World:World: givengiven moremore time,time, it it would would have.have. The AustraliansAustralians fol-fol­ ofof the the Mesolithic Mesolithic and and Archaic.Archaic. Moreover, thisthis is precisely what lowed lowed thethe same same basicbasic sequencesequence of technologicaltechnological developmentdevelopment as the the present present model model leads leads usus to expect. occurredoccurred inin other other areas areas ofof the the world world (see, (see, e.g., e.g., Lourandos Lourandos 1980a)1980a),, It It isis especiallyespecially notablenotable that domestication diddid notnot first first occur includingincluding thethe latelate incorporation into theirtheir diets ofof r-selectedr-selected wherewhere thethe environments environments werewere richrich enough enough toto supportsupport sedentary,sedentary, resourcesresources such such as as seeds, seeds, fish, fish, shellfish, shellfish, and lizards,and lizards, the develop­ the develop- hunting-gathering-basedhunting-gathering-based rankedranked societies,societies, with wealthwealth competi­competi- ment ment ofof sedentism,sedentism, increasingincreasing diversification of the resourceresource tiontion and and primitiveprimitive valuables, valuables, suchsuch as those found in California, base,base, thethe useuse ofof edge-groundedge-ground tools,tools, andand the advent ofof primitive thethe Northwest Northwest Coast, Coast, Florida,Florida, andand Palestine. AccordingAccording toto my valuables.valuables. There is absolutely no reason thatthat thisthis evolutionary model,model, eveneven thoughthough thesethese areasareas had thethe highesthighest population sequence sequence wouldwould not havehave continued in the same fashion as else-else­ densities, densities, their their resource resource bases bases would would havehave been muchmuch moremore wherewhere in in the theworld. world. Indeed, Indeed, Lourandos Lourandos (1976, (1976, 1980a) 1980a) has hasrecen recently tly stable stable andand they would have experiencedexperienced resourceresource stressstress rela-rela- drawn drawn attentionattention toto thethe factfact thatthat manymany AustralianAustralian groupsgroups werewere

Urbanism Urbanism ____ _ Competitive Competitive agricultural agricultural societies societies.__<______L __ Simple Simple food food producers producers .-----J . Complex Complex hunter/gatherershunter/gatherers ______: Simple Simple hunter/gatherers I .. ------::0- : 2000 2000f

"C -o 1000 / 0 .8 0 Q 900t 900 / - "C -o1 Ql 800 rn a) 800/ :::J rn Ql 700700 'u c.QlD' 600600 rn '00 500500 ffi a' small, short t .0 E 400400 - maturation :::J C species I Ql 300300 - Cii E 'x 200.E 200 -t 0 ec. c.Q- 100 « 0L

large, long-maturation species

70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 YEARS BEFORE PRESENT PRESENTPRESENT

______-JII~ ______~I~ II 1 1 Middle Middle Paleolithic Paleolithic UpperUpper MesolithicMesolithic Paleolithic Paleolithic /Archaic/ Archaic

FIG. FIG. 3.3. IdealizedIdealized representationrepresentation ofof changeschanges inin maximummaximum numbernumber of of species species locally locally exploited exploited in in the the past. past. TheThe absoluteabsolute numbers used onon thethe ordinateordinate areare onlyonly roughrough estimations.estimations.

530530 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms engagedengaged inin various forms ofof foodfood production,production, asas thisthis modelmodel Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS leadsleads us to expect. TheThe process of increasing resource reliability is still going on basicbasic sequencesequence of technologicaltechnological development as occurredoccurred inin (Gall(Gall andand Saxe 1977, Isbell andand SchreiberSchreiber 1978). OtherOther means,means, otherother areas areas ofof the the world world ...... including the late incorporation intointo suchsuch asas participationparticipation of communitiescommunities inin regional,regional, national,national, and theirtheir diets diets of of r-selected r-selected resources resources such such as seeds,as seeds, fish, fish,shellfish, shellfish, worldwideworldwide tradetrade networks,networks, havehave been found, but thethe strategystrategy andand lizards,lizards, the development ofof sedentism,sedentism, increasingincreasing diversifi-diversifi­ adoptedadopted atat thethe outset-technological outset-technological innovation-continuesinnovation-continues toto cationcation ofof thethe resourceresource base,base, the use of edge-ground tools, and bebe heavilyheavily relied upon. TheThe only only difference difference isis that thethe techno-techno­ thethe adventadvent ofof primitive primitive valuables." valuables." ThisThis isis not so. Australia logicallogical innovationinnovation of contemporary timestimes occursoccurs onon a muchmuch waswas colonisedcolonised byby humanhuman beingsbeings atat leastleast 40,00040,000 yearsyears agoago (e.g.,(e.g., largerlarger and and moremore complex complex scalescale thanthan thatthat ofof thethe Paleolithic.Paleolithic. We MulvaneyMulvaney 1975). TheThe oldestoldest knownknown sitessites with dietary evidence areare now dealing withwith weatherweather control,control, highlyhighly sophisticatedsophisticated areare atat LakeLake Mungo, and herehere we find occupationoccupation of inlandinland lakeslakes irrigationirrigation and and damdam systems, sophisticatedsophisticated genetic manipula-manipula­ datingdating toto aroundaround 30,000-25,00030,000-25,000 yearsyears ago,ago, where peoplepeople ate tiontion resultingresulting in in miraclemiracle crops,crops, massivemassive controlcontrol of pestspests via fish,fish, shellfish, shellfish, and and small small mammals mammals inin exactlyexactly thethe samesame relative chemicals,chemicals, massive massive chemical chemical fertilization, fertilization, artificial artificial insemination, insemination, amountsamounts asas theythey diddid inin coastalcoastal sites a couple ofof hundred years environmentallyenvironmentally controlled controlled breedingbreeding andand livingliving conditions,conditions, agoago (Bowdler(Bowdler 1977). Ground-edgeGround-edge toolstools havehave been dated toto artificiallyartificially controlled controlled hormonehormone levels,levels, andand artificially controlled overover 20,00020,000 B.P.B.P. inin northernnorthern Australia. Australia. GrindstonesGrindstones havehave been lightinglighting conditions. conditions. To To bebe sure,sure, manymany ofof these these practices practices alsoalso actact dateddated toto aboutabout 18,000 B.P. inin northernnorthern Australia Australia andand toto 15,000 toto increaseincrease grossgross food food production-a production-a concernconcern renderedrendered impor-impor­ B.P.B.P. inin semiarid southeasternsoutheastern Australia, where theythey werewere tanttant byby postdomestication economiceconomic competition-butcompetition-but theythey undoubtedlyundoubtedly usedused inin grass-seed exploitation (Bowdler 1977,1977, alsoalso fulfillfulfill the the goal goal ofof increasingincreasing resourceresource reliability.reliability. ItIt is ap-ap­ MulvaneyMulvaney 1975). Other major observable technological changes parentparent thatthat therethere isis nono reasonreason toto assumeassume that these trends (in-(in­ inin mainland mainland AustralianAustralian prehistory diddid not taketake place untiluntil after cludingcluding post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene economiceconomic competition)competition) that have been 5,0005,000 B.P.,B.P., andand inin thisthis latelate periodperiod thethe dogdog was introduced. drivingdriving forces forces in in cultural cultural evolution evolution for for so so longlong areare aboutabout toto AA slightlyslightly differentdifferent model model can can bebe envisaged,envisaged, using some ofof abate.abate. They provideprovide somesome ofof thethe firmestfirmest foundationsfoundations wewe have Hayden'sHayden's useful ideas.ideas. This isis promptedprompted inin partpart byby hishis high-high­ forfor making making predictions predictions aboutabout the future evolution ofof culture. lightinglighting of of the the important important role role played played byby "resource"resource reliability" inin people's people's economiceconomic strategies.strategies. MeehanMeehan (1977)(1977) providesprovides first- first­ handhand ethnographicethnographic datadata onon thethe rolerole ofof shellfishshellfish in the diet ofof oneone groupgroup ofof northernnorthern Australian Australian Aborigines.Aborigines. SheShe showsshows that Comments Comments whilewhile shellfishshellfish are are notnot ofof greatgreat caloriccaloric significance in thethe diet, theythey are are importantimportant because because theythey areare reliable.reliable. SheShe sees thethe byby SANDRA SANDRA BOWDLERBOWDLER overalloverall foragingforaging strategy strategy as as having having two two components:components: (1)(1) op-op­ DepartmentDepartment ofof Anthropology,Anthropology, UniversityUniversity ofof Sydney,Sydney, Sydney, portunisticportunistic activities activities involvinginvolving luck,luck, skill,skill, and strength,strength, such N.S.W.N.S.W. 2000, Australia. 6 IIIiii 81 asas huntinghunting and and somesome fishing,fishing, and and (2) (2) "low-key""low-key" pursuits such Hayden'sHayden's modelmodel isis attractive inin the way itit combinescombines thethe asas shellfish and and vegetablevegetable collecting andand somesome fishing.fishing. The observed observed directionaldirectional developmentdevelopment of technology during thethe latter latter categorycategory is is seenseen asas providingproviding dependable food,food, thethe QuaternaryQuaternary withwith environmental-stressenvironmental-stress notionsnotions whilewhile avoidingavoiding formerformer as as being being "more "more flamboyant flamboyant and and less less reliable" reliable" (Meehan(Meehan manymany ofof the the logical logical problemsproblems associatedassociated with both these sorts 1977:527). 1977:527). I havehave extendedextended thisthis argumentargument to suggest that all of of notions. notions. I I amam not sure, however, that it is inin agreementagreement hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer diets diets may may have have (had?)(had?) thisthis dual-componentdual-component withwith thethe evidence.evidence. strategy strategy (Bowdler (Bowdler 1981).1981). It cancan bebe notednoted thatthat there-isthere is agreementagreement It It comescomes asas somethingsomething ofof aa surprisesurprise toto find find Hayden Hayden espousingespousing herehere with with the the usual usual divisiondivision ofof labour;labour; women's foraging tends the the oldold chestnutchestnut thatthat shellfishshellfish and and fishfish only only beganbegan toto be ex-ex­ to to be be low-key low-key and and dependable, dependable, men's to be more opportunistic ploitedploited inin TerminalTerminal Pleistocene times.times. TheThe proliferationproliferation ofof and and flamboyant.flamboyant. ItIt cancan be furtherfurther suggestedsuggested thatthat women tend shell-midden shell-midden sitessites inin thethe period period whenwhen thethe sea sea reachedreached its presentpresent toto collectcollect r-selectedr-selected species, species, menmen toto hunthunt K-selectedK-selected species. level level is is more more than than coincidence; coincidence; thethe most most economical economical explanationexplanation Clearly, Clearly, I I cannot develop thisthis argument here,here, butbut it does is is thatthat older older such such sitessites eithereither lie lie beneath beneath thethe sea sea oror havehave been pointpoint toto anan interestinginteresting restatement restatement of of Hayden's Hayden's model. obliterated obliterated by by wave wave andand stormstorm action action (Bowdler(Bowdler 1977,1977, HughesHughes 1977). 1977). ThereThere areare inin fact fact Middle Middle PalaeolithicPalaeolithic cavecave sites, suchsuch asas Haua Haua FteahFteah (McBurney 1967)1967) andand Devil's Tower (Garrod et by by KARL KARL W.W. BUTZERBUTZER al. al. 1928), which contain substantialsubstantial middenmidden accumulations.accumulations. Swiss Swiss Federal Federal Institute Institute of ofTechnology, Technology, Sonneggstrasse Sonneggstrasse 5, 8092- 5, 8092- Another Another cause cause forfor concern concern is is Hayden'sHayden's failure toto take intointo Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.Switzerland. 1818 IVIv 81 account account archaeologicallyarchaeologically invisible plant foods,foods, with the excep­excep- This This isis aa stimulatingstimulating andand importantimportant paper,paper, althoughalthough II do not tion tion of of grass grass seeds, seeds, as as thethe exploitationexploitation ofof thesethese isis signalledsignalled by agree agree with with some some of ofthe the assumptions assumptions or arguments. or arguments. In particular, In particular, grindstones. grindstones. Hayden Hayden tendstends toto polarizepolarize Paleolithic and MesolithicMesolithic lifewayslifeways In In NorthNorth America,America, thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian culture type was until to to aa degree thatthat is applicable onlyonly inin partsparts of of northwesternnorthwestern recently recently known known mainlymainly fromfrom big-gamebig-game kill-sites, inin sharp Europe. Europe. II amam alsoalso uncomfortable uncomfortable withwith thethe resource-stress resource-stress contrast contrast to to later later Archaic Archaic sites.sites. ItIt hashas beenbeen suggested, however, explanation: explanation: inin generalgeneral terms,terms, suchsuch stressstress has has beenbeen partpart and that that suchsuch kill-siteskill-sites may may representrepresent only only one one aspectaspect ofof Paleo­Paleo- parcel parcel ofof year-to-yearyear-to-year survival survival for for most most individuals individuals of of many many Indian Indian economy.economy. TheThe recentrecent excavationsexcavations atat MeadowcroftMeadowcroft tell aa populations populations at at almost almost all all times; times; in in specific specific terms, terms, accentuated accentuated rather rather different different story. story. Whether Whether the the basal basal occupationoccupation here is of resource resource stress stress cannot cannot be be demonstrated demonstrated or or plausibly plausibly argued argued for for the the extreme extreme antiquity antiquity claimed claimed (Adovasio (Adovasio et et al. al. 1978,1978, MeadMead the the Paleolithic/Mesolithic Paleolithic/Mesolithic oror Paleo-Indian/ArchaicPaleo-Indian/Archaic transitiontransition 1980, 1980, Haynes Haynes 1980,1980, AdovasioAdovasio et al.al. 1980) or somewhat younger, on on objectiveobjective criteria.criteria. On On thethe otherother hand, hand, I I do believe thatthat it it appears appears toto containcontain pre·Archaicpre-Archaic materials.materials. AsAs farfar asas oneone cancan resource resource stress stress can can bebe aa criticalcritical factorfactor inin thethe modificationmodification ofof tell tell fromfrom the the preliminary preliminary reports,reports, therethere isis no great differencedifference regional regional adaptive adaptive systemssystems byby behavioralbehavioral or technological ac­ac- between between the the plant plant and and animalanimal speciesspecies exploited in the lowest commodations, commodations, but but over over much much briefer briefer time time intervals intervals than than those those levels levels and and thosethose inin thethe Archaic.Archaic levels.levels. TheseThese include deer, aa invoked invoked here here (Butzer (Butzer 1980). 1980). There There is alsois also considerable considerable merit merit in in variety variety of of smallersmaller game,game, birds,birds, fish,fish, aquaticaquatic and terrestrialterrestrial Harris's Harris's (1977)(1977) model emphasizingemphasizing the role of increased sed-sed­ molluscs, molluscs, hackberries, hackberries, chenopods, chenopods, nuts,nuts, andand otherother berriesberries (Ado­(Ado- entism entism in in a a complex feedback system,system, whilewhile II would like to vasio vasio et et al. al. 1978:647-49). 1978:647-49). give give greater greater importance importance to ongoingto ongoing biotic biotic changes changes that providedthat provided Hayden's Hayden's comments on AustraliaAustralia provide thethe biggest surprisesurprise new new or or quantitatively quantitatively differentdifferent animal animal andand plantplant communities of of all. all. We We findfind that that prehistoric prehistoric Aborigines Aborigines "followed"followed thethe samesame at at thethe close close ofof the the Pleistocene. Pleistocene. Hayden'sHayden's paper isis particularly

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 531531

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms valuablevaluable because itit explicitlyexplicitly highlightshighlights thethe nature ofof the end-end­ populationpopulation enteringentering anan open environment with a technologytechnology Pleistocene Pleistocene adaptiveadaptive transformationtransformation inin termsterms ofof increasingincreasing already already wellwell "advanced""advanced" willwill growgrow veryvery rapidlyrapidly toto thethe pointpoint emphasis emphasis onon r-selectedr-selected species,species, butbut II feel that it provides only wherewhere it it "pushes" "pushes" atat thethe samesame levellevel asas populations and tech-tech­ aa partialpartial explanationexplanation as toto whywhy this transformation tooktook place.place. nologiesnologies ofof thethe area area andand culture left behind. I I would suggestsuggest also thatthat Mesolithic/ArchaicMesolithic/Archaic economieseconomies reflectreflect primarily primarily "pressure," "pressure," not not "progress." "progress." r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies byby MARK MARK N. N. COHEN areare abundant,abundant, but theythey areare costlycostly toto exploit;exploit; are generally not DepartmentDepartment ofof Anthropology,Anthropology, State State UniversityUniversity ofof New New York at preferredpreferred foods; foods; and and are,are, byby definition,definition, relatively relatively vulnerablevulnerable to Plattsburgh,Plattsburgh, Plattsburgh, Plattsburgh, N.Y. N.Y. 12901, 12901, U.S.A. U.S.A. 2121 IIIiii 81 environmental environmental fluctuations. fluctuations. If, If, as as I Ibelieve, believe, MesolithicMesolithic popula­popula- II enjoyedenjoyed Hayden'sHayden's essayessay but but found found itit aa refinementrefinement and exten-exten­ tionstions were were increasingly increasingly forcedforced to to rely rely on on these these resources resources because because sionsion ofof the the "population-pressure" "population-pressure" model ratherrather than a refuta-refuta­ ofof growing growing population population and and increasingincreasing spatialspatial limitations,limitations, theythey tion.tion. Two Two pointspoints mustmust bebe mademade aboutabout population growthgrowth and should should showshow signssigns ofof increasing increasing biological biological stress.stress. The The datadata are regulation.regulation. First, First, there there is is reasonreason toto assumeassume that population scattered scattered andand not entirely consistent,consistent, butbut therethere isis aa fair amountamount pressurepressure is is "simply"simply there."there." AnimalAnimal andand human populationspopulations ofof evidence evidence forfor a adecline decline inin the the quality quality ofof life life among among Mesolithic Mesolithic regularlyregularly demonstrate demonstrate the the capacity capacity toto reproduce in excess ofof and and more recent hunter-gatherers; andand therethere isis considerable replacement.replacement. Moreover, Moreover, amongamong mammalmammal populationspopulations in thethe evidence evidence thatthat agricultureagriculture itselfitself initiallyinitially involved involved aa seriousserious and wildwild (Cohen, (Cohen, Malpass,Malpass, andand Klein 1980,1980, esp. TamarinTamarin 1980,1980, progressiveprogressive increase increase in in stress stress (Cohen (Cohen 1980, 1980, Lewin Lewin 1981).1981). The PackardPackard andand MechMech 1980) much population "regulation" takestakes changes changes inin wealthwealth andand socialsocial organization whichwhich beginbegin inin thethe thethe formform of of dispersal dispersal ofof membersmembers oror subgroupssubgroups intointo marginal Mesolithic Mesolithic areare probablyprobably moremore anan adjustmentadjustment to the vulnerabil­vulnerabil- oror temporarytemporary nichesniches where,where, ultimately,ultimately, theythey diedie for lacklack ofof ity ity of of the the new new economies economies thanthan to their productivity.productivity. dietary dietary and and behavioralbehavioral plasticity.plasticity. PopulationPopulation "stability""stability" is boughtbought atat thethe expenseexpense of constant probing of niche margins.margins. The The samesame phenomenon, moderatedmoderated onon thethe oneone hand by some byby MARK MARK DRUSSDRUSS culturalcultural regulationregulation of of births births and and onon thethe otherother handhand by thethe DepartmentDepartment ofof Anthropology, Anthropology, Idaho Idaho StateState University,University, BoxBox 8215,8215, plasticityplasticity necessarynecessary toto exploitexploit nicheniche margins,margins, wouldwould explainexplain the Pocatello,Pocatello, Idaho Idaho 83209, 83209, U.S.A. U.S.A. 27 IViv 81 humanhuman pattern pattern ot of expansion expansion and and "pressure." "pressure." Second,Second, "popula­"popula- HaydenHayden has written a stimulatingstimulating article whichwhich willwill engenderengender tiontion pressure" pressure" inin thethe PleistocenePleistocene needneed not imply the absenceabsence usefuluseful debate. debate. HisHis innovativeinnovative model attempts to explain thethe of of cultural cultural oror biologicalbiological regulatorsregulators ofof fertility;fertility; it only implies crucialcrucial Paleolithic/Paleo-IndianPaleolithic/Paleo-Indian toto Mesolithic/ArchaicMesolithic/Archaic transi-transi­ thatthat thethe regulators regulators are are imperfect. imperfect. Any Any long-term long-term approximation approximation tion.tion. ModelsModels are ofof necessity simplifications of complexcomplex situa-situa­ ofof zero zero growth growth over over a abroad broad area area mustmust adjustadjust not only for locallocal tionstions (Clarke (Clarke 1968:1968:32), 32), and Hayden's isis no exception. However, demographicdemographic variables variables and and accidentsaccidents but also forfor periodicperiodic inin some some casescases the issuesissues are oversimplified. failurefailure of ofother other groups. groups. Given Given this thisfact, fact,the assertion the assertion by Weiss by WeissFor For example,example, problemsproblems arisearise withwith Hayden'sHayden's severalseveral pointspoints (1978) (1978) cited by Hayden thatthat zerozero growthgrowth is moremore plausibleplausible ofof criticismcriticism of of thethe "bottle"bottle model" ofof populationpopulation growth.growth. thanthan unspecifiedunspecified near-zeronear-zero growthgrowth (representing(representing thethe average HaydenHayden mentions thatthat contemporarycontemporary hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers have of of a a numbernumber ofof different,different, local, local, zero zero and and nonzerononzero values)values) is maintainedmaintained stablestable populationspopulations over long periods ofof timetime byby untenable.untenable. ImperfectImperfect population population regulationregulation seemsseems especially practicingpracticing population population control. However, thethe ethnographic pres-pres­ likelylikely if, if, as as Hayden Hayden asserts asserts (and (and I I believebelieve him),him), (1)(1) population entent isis notnot aa longlong periodperiod whenwhen comparedcompared with the Pleistocene regulationregulation isis costlycostly andand needsneeds to be constantly reinforcedreinforced andand and and Holocene.Holocene. Furthermore, contemporary hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers are (2)(2) regulationregulation isis relatedrelated to periodic stressstress rather than toto a fixedfixed living living inin marginalmarginal environments, and thereforetherefore demographic "carrying "carrying capacity." capacity." extrapolationsextrapolations fromfrom such such populationspopulations to PleistocenePleistocene hunter-hunter­ HaydenHayden proposesproposes aa usefuluseful modelmodel forfor thethe interaction interaction ofof gatherersgatherers should should be be used used withwith caution.caution. ItIt is possiblepossible thatthat populationpopulation growthgrowth andand technological advance:advance: populationspopulations hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers living living in in prime prime environmentsenvironments could, could, overover a culturallyculturally regulateregulate themselvesthemselves inin the faceface ofof fluctuatingfluctuating re-re­ long long period period of of time, time, have have experienced experienced steady steady population population increaseincrease sourcessources toto maintainmaintain aa balance betweenbetween thethe costscosts ofof regulationregulation as as CohenCohen (1977:(1977:16) 16) suggests.suggests. ConcerningConcerning Hayden'sHayden's fifth fifth pointpoint andand thethe costscosts ofof periodic periodic shortages, shortages, but but technological technological advancesadvances ofof criticism criticism of of the the bottle bottle model, model, it it is is clear clear that that periodic periodic resourceresource resultresult in in progressive progressive expansion expansion ofof thethe food food basebase whosewhose purposepurpose stress stress occurred occurred asas he suggests, but, whilewhile faminefamine conditionsconditions andand resultresult isis toto reducereduce thethe dangerdanger ofof suchsuch fluctuations.fluctuations. ItIt seemsseems maymay havehave been createdcreated byby adverseadverse environmentalenvironmental change,change, toto meme that that inin technological technological expansion,expansion, asas inin populationpopulation regula-regula­ HarrisHarris (1977:(1977:192) 192) hashas pointedpointed outout that that hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers can tion,tion, costs costs and and benefitsbenefits must must be be balanced. balanced. A group will expandexpand respondrespond toto suchsuch reversesreverses byby out-migration.out-migration. ForFor example,example, such its its resourceresource basebase toto bufferbuffer itselfitself againstagainst severesevere and frequentfrequent out-migration out-migration maymay wellwell havehave occurred in northern Chile during shortages; shortages; butbut whenwhen suchsuch shortages become lessless frequentfrequent oror thethe Final Final PreceramicPreceramic period period (Druss (Druss 1980).1980). It is also possiblepossible less less severe severe as as aa consequence,consequence, and when expansion is perceived thatthat TerminalTerminal PleistocenePleistocene environmental changes were even asas involvinginvolving additionaladditional efforteffort oror reductionreduction ofof cultural cultural standards,standards, moremore severe severe thanthan thosethose ofof previous previous periodsperiods ofof deglaciationdeglaciation andand efforts efforts at at expansion expansion will will diminish. diminish. AA groupgroup will not simply go thusthus posedposed unprecedented problemsproblems forfor plantplant andand animalanimal on on perfectingperfecting its its homeostasishomeostasis asas the possibilitypossibility ofof seriousserious populationspopulations (Guilday (Guilday 1967: 1967:121) 121) and and presumably presumably for the for hunter­ the hunter- shortfalls shortfalls getsgets moremore remote.remote. gatherersgatherers exploiting exploiting them.them. FurtherFurther problemsproblems arisearise with thethe WhatWhat willwill happen,happen, II believe,believe, isis this:this: PopulationsPopulations will expandexpand central central premisepremise ofof Hayden's Hayden's argument. theirtheir resource resource basebase toto buffer against against seriousserious crises,crises, butbut asas such Hayden'sHayden's argumentargument isis basedbased on thethe "generally"generally acceptedaccepted shortages shortages are are dealt dealt withwith successfully successfully there there will will be becompensatory compensatory characterization characterization of of Pleistocene Pleistocene (Paleolithic (Paleolithic andand Paleo-Indian)Paleo-Indian) tendenciestendencies (1)(1) toto reducereduce effortsefforts at at economic economic expansion expansion and and (2) (2) to to adaptation." adaptation." However, aa revisionrevision ofof thisthis characterizationcharacterization ofof relax relax enforcementenforcement of of cultural cultural mechanisms mechanisms ofof population population regula­regula- PleistocenePleistocene adaptationsadaptations asas relativelyrelatively lackinglacking inin diversificationdiversification tion. tion. Population Population will againagain grow to thethe pointpoint atat which periodicperiodic andand specializationspecialization has been underunder wayway forfor quite somesome time.time. fluctuations fluctuations (or(or chronicallychronically diminishing returns)returns) of the new For For example,example, seed-grinding implements, generally considered resourceresource base base againagain impinge, andand the cycle will begin again. thethe cornerstonecornerstone of of Mesolithic/Archaic Mesolithic/Archaic adaptation, adaptation, areare judged TheThe resultresult isis an alternationalternation of "pressure" and "progress""progress" characteristic characteristic of of Middle Middle PaleolithicPaleolithic cultureculture byby Carter (1978:(1978: motivatedmotivated byby thethe factfact thatthat populationpopulation will tendtend toto creepcreep up to 11). 11). AtAt Levi Levi Rockshelter,Rockshelter, AlexanderAlexander (1978:21)(1978:21) reportsreports grindinggrinding the the levellevel where stress isis felt.felt. stonesstones inin association association withwith PlainviewPlainview points dating from 9,311-9,311- TheThe modelmodel helps explainexplain thethe differencedifference in growth rates be-be­ 7,300 7,300 B.P., B.P., and and small-animal small-animal bones atbones Levi atsuggest Levi thatsuggest Paleo­ that Pa]eo- tweentween OldOld andand NewNew World populations. TheThe rate rate of of growthgrowth isis IndianIndian subsistence was significantlysignificantly diversified andand not so limited limited by by the the success success ofof technological technological advance; advance; butbut aa small different different from from Archaic Archaic subsistence subsistence (Flannery (Flannery1966: 800). Also, 1966:800). Also.

532 532 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms thethe apparent apparent increaseincrease in Mesolithic/Archaic shellfishshellfish gathering Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS cancan bebe questioned. Clearly, manymany coastalcoastal Paleo-Indian sitessites areare probablyprobably nownow underwaterunderwater on on thethe AtlanticAtlantic coastalcoastal plain, ecology, ecology, rather rather than than evolution,evolution, isis thethe properproper frameworkframework forfor having having been been inundatedinundated byby eustaticeustatic sea-levelsea-level riserise (Emery(Emery and studying studying temporal temporal patterns. patterns. Thus Thus he he isis compelled to focusfocus Edwards Edwards 1966).1966). Thus we do notnot know whether coastalcoastal Paleo­Paleo- attentionattention onon adaptation adaptation in aa context inin which causecause is less than IndiansIndians were, in fact, gathering shellfishshellfish (d.(cf. SalSalwen wen 19671967 forfor clear, clear, eveneven inin the the parent parent discipline. discipline. What What bringsbrings about about adapta­adapta- thethe Archaic). Archaic). Finally,Finally, much of thethe PleistocenePleistocene occupation inin tions?tions? Hayden's Hayden's answeranswer isis apparently "people" ratherrather thanthan suchsuch areasareas asas the Yuha BasinBasin isis stillstill lyinglying deeplydeeply buried,buried, selection, selection, and and thusthus hehe isis atat fundamental variance withwith bothboth awaitingawaiting chancechance exposureexposure andand discovery (d.(cf. Childers and ecologicalecological andand evolutionaryevolutionary theorytheory (e.g., (e.g., Coombs Coombs 1980,1980, DunnellDunnell MinshallMinshall 1980).1980). Thus it appears thatthat we do notnot have aa repre-repre­ 1980, 1980, Rindos Rindos 1980).1980). Yet hishis admirable insightsinsights into the general sentative sentative samplesample of PleistocenePleistocene sites and thatthat somesome ofof the sites patternspatterns are are conformableconformable with with a a selectionistselectionist explanation.explanation. The knownknown suggest suggest that that the the "generally "generally accepted accepted characterization"characterization" operationoperation ofof selectionselection alonealone is sufficient toto produceproduce the docu­docu- ofof the the Pleistocene/post-Pleistocene Pleistocene/post-Pleistocene transitiontransition isis overdrawn. overdrawn. ToTo mentedmented patterns,patterns, irrespectiveirrespective ofof humanhuman motivationmotivation or percep­percep- thethe extent extent that that this this is is true, true, Hayden's Hayden's argumentargument isis weakened:weakened: ifif tion.tion. PopulationsPopulations do reachreach equilibriumequilibrium levels,levels, whetherwhether theythey significant significant specialization specialization existedexisted duringduring thethe Pleistocene, thenthen want want to to or or not. not. Resources Resources willwill bebe addedadded to systems in the order we we cannotcannot relyrely onon itit so heavily toto explainexplain post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene ofof increasing increasing initialinitial costs,costs, whetherwhether oror notnot thethe populationspopulations are culture culture change.change. Clearly, further specialization specialization and diversifica-diversifica­ aware aware ofof thosethose costscosts oror cancan measuremeasure them.them. HisHis commitment to tiontion did did taketake placeplace afterafter thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, andand there must bebe a thisthis approach approach leadsleads him to use aa seriesseries ofof tertiarytertiary empiricalempirical reasonreason for it. generalizationsgeneralizations (e.g.,(e.g., "least"least cost")cost") whichwhich are clearly subject to InIn thisthis regard,regard, HaydenHayden is correctcorrect that resource stress and challengechallenge inin aa behavioralbehavioral context but readilyreadily understoodunderstood as thethe resource resource reliability reliability are are critical. critical. However, However, thesethese cancan bebe easily frequentfrequent outcome outcome ofof thethe operation operation ofof evolutionary evolutionary mechanisms.mechanisms. subsumed subsumed underunder thethe population-growthpopulation-growth model:model: resource stressstress HisHis discussiondiscussion ofof r-r- andand K- reproductivereproductive strategies isis also isis difficultdifficult or or impossible impossible to to managemanage when resource reliabilityreliability highlyhighlv useful useful but but similarly similarly marredmarred byby imprecision.imprecision. TheseThese termsterms fails fails and/or and/or whenwhen populationpopulation growthgrowth hashas exceeded optimaloptimal are are relativerelative (e.g.,(e.g., no mammalian strategystrategy isis r-selectedr-selected whenwhen densities densities forfor given given cultural-ecological cultural-ecological conditions.conditions. Under such comparedcompared withwith smallpox).smallpox). Classically r-selectedr-selected populations,populatiom, circumstances, circumstances, cultural cultural innovation, innovation, out-migration, out-migration, and and intensi­ intensi- whilewhile abundant abundant whenwhen theythey occur,occur, areare likely to have highlyhighly ficationfication of of subsistencesubsistence strategiesstrategies areare all well-knownwell-known results.results. irregularirregular temporal/spatial temporal/spatial distributions.distributions. YetYet there is aa substan­substan- Hayden Hayden has remindedreminded us ofof this in his cogent presentation ofof tial tial graingrain ofof truthtruth inin hishis argument.argument. Resources thatthat employemploy hishis model.model. However,However, without population pressurepressure ofof somesome sort,sort, r-r-reproductive reproductive strategies strategies relative relative to to Homo Homo sapiens sapiens areare probablyprobably the the inherentinherent flexibility flexibility of of hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer groups groups documented documented thethe only only resources resources that that cancan bebe thethe focusfocus ofof specializedspecialized subsis-subsis­ byby HaydenHayden would seemseem toto bebe sufficientsufficient toto counteract resourceresource tencetence systemssystems (Cleland (Cleland 1966,1966, DunnellDunnell 1972, Segraves 1974). stress. stress. ThusThus the population-growth modelmodel isis complementedcomplemented TheThe reverse, however,however, isis not true.true. GeneralizedGeneralized subsistencesubsistence ratherrather than than replaced replaced byby Hayden's Hayden's argument. systems systems can can makemake useuse of anyany resourceresource withinwithin theirtheir technologicaltechnological competence, competence, irrespectiveirrespective ofof thethe reproductive strategy of thethe resourceresource itselfitself or or its its patterns patterns of of abundance. abundance. Indeed,Indeed, that would by ROBERT C. DUNNELL by ROBERT C. DUNNELL appear appear toto be the major long-termlong-term advantageadvantage ofof suchsuch systems.systems. DepartmentDepartment of of Anthropology, Anthropology, University University of Was/zington, of Washington, Seattle, Seattle, Hayden's Hayden's paperpaper is extremely valuable.valuable. His conclusionsconclusions are Wash. 98195, U.S.A. 9 IV 81 Wash. 98195, U.S.A. 9 iv 81 unnecessary unnecessary weakened,weakened, however, by his retention of aa ratherrather Hayden'sHayden's paperpaper isis aa valuable and,and, inin manymany ways,ways, anan excitingexciting traditionaltraditional perspectiveperspective onon causecause that is neither essentialessential to his contributioncontribution to to ourour understandingunderstanding ofof thethe grossgross temporaltemporal pat­pat- argument argument nor nor compatiblecompatible withwith ecologicalecological and evolutionaryevolutionary ternsterns evident evident in in thethe archaeologicalarchaeological record. His systematicsystematic theory. theory. collection collection of of argumentsarguments against against populationpopulation growth asas thethe "motor" "motor" ofof culturalcultural changechange isis valuablevaluable in itself.itself. The generalgeneral descriptiondescription of of the the order order in in which which resources resources are are addedadded to sub-sub­ by by ALBERT ALBERT C.C. GOODYEAR sistence sistence systemssystems conformsconforms closely closely to to thethe so-calledso-called economic InstituteInstitute of of Archaeology Archaeology and and Anthropology, Anthiropology, University University of South of South approaches approaches takentaken by,by, forfor example,example, ChristensonChristenson (1980)(1980) and Carolina, Carolina, Columbia, Columbia, S.C. S.C. 29208,29208, U.S.A.U.S.A. 6 ivIV 8181 EarleEarle (1980)(1980) and isis aa goodgood accountaccount ofof thethe evidence.evidence. Similarly,Similarly, TheThe worldwide transitiontransition fromfrom Paleolithic Paleolithic toto Mesolithic oror his his mostmost importantimportant point,point, that increasing resourceresource diversity,diversity, ArchaicArchaic adaptations adaptations atat thethe endend ofof thethe PleistocenePleistocene inin OldOld and evidentevident throughoutthroughout thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, isis reversible under stable NewNew WorldsWorlds remains remains one one of ofthe the most most intriguing intriguing series series of events of events environmentalenvironmental conditions,conditions, isis inin goodgood accordaccord with the record andand recorded recorded in in prehistory.prehistory. Hayden Hayden joinsjoins a listlist ofof distinguisheddistinguished certainlycertainly the the most most parsimonious parsimonious account account yetyet advanced.advanced. scholars scholars (e.g.,(e.g., CaldwellCaldwell 1958) whowho havehave attemptedattempted toto identifyidentify Hayden'sHayden's model, however,however, isis aa relativelyrelatively crudecrude firstfirst approxi­approxi- causal causal factors underlying thisthis important trend in culturalcultural mationmation thatthat cancan bebe articulatedarticulated with the archaeologicalarchaeological recordrecord evolution.evolution. InIn spite,spite, however,however, ofof whatwhat hehe perceivesperceives toto be thethe and and biologicalbiological theory onlyonly inin aa general fashion. Two features,features, novelty novelty of of his his thesis thesis and and the the attempt attempt to provide to provide comprehensive, comprehensive, subtle subtle butbut pervasive,pervasive, seemseem toto bebe the major stumblingstumbling blocks. wide-rangingwide-ranging examplesexamples to supportsupport his model, I find itit implausible implausible Throughout Throughout thethe paper paper andand inin commoncommon withwith mostmost archaeological archaeological andand toto somesome extent contradictory. and and anthropologicalanthropological writingwriting on on suchsuch topics,topics, hehe assumesassumes thatthat TheThe primaryprimary thesisthesis ofof the the model, model, "populations "populations attemptedattempted to cultural cultural change change is is fundamentally fundamentally Lamarckian Lamarckian (e.g.,(e.g., GouldGould 1979) maintainmaintain aa certain equilibrium concerningconcerning thethe frequencyfrequency with byby seekingseeking causecause inin some ill-defined consciousconscious human action. which which theythey experiencedexperienced stressstress andand alteredaltered their behavior inin PhrasesPhrases likelike "populations"populations attempted," "the"the mostmost importantimportant response response to to deviations deviations from from this thisequilibrium," equilibrium," is so generalis so general and and motive," motive," and and "resource"resource stressstress experiencedexperienced byby aa group was characteristic characteristic ofof all all livingliving systemssystems thatthat itit hashas little deductive always always a atradeoff tradeoff between between the cost the of costphysical of sufferingphysical . ..suffering and value.value. ... and HaydenHayden positsposits furtherfurther thatthat "this"this periodic stress was thethe the the cost cost of maintainingof maintaining population population controls" controls" belie an assumptionbelie an assumption mostmost important important motive motive for for patterned, patterned, directional directional change-Le., change-i.e., thatthat thethe "motor""motor" ofof culturalcultural changechange isis in some way humanhuman towardtoward minimizingminimizing the the immediate immediate effects effects of of resource resource shortage shortage perceptionsperceptions and and reactionsreactions toto them.them. CulturalCultural changechange isis thus a and and instability."instability." Again, what livingliving systemsystem isis exemptexempt fromfrom consequence consequence ofof humanhuman motivation, desire, and perceptions;perceptions; stressful stressful perturbations perturbations in in a a variablevariable world? GrantingGranting thatthat cause cause isis mystical, much as itit isis inin the the population-growth population-growth stresses stresses of of various various typestypes areare sources of motivation forfor change models. models. YetYet clearlyclearly nonenone of Hayden'sHayden's argumentsarguments requirerequire such in in the the past past (and (and the the present), present), the the challenge challenge for for theory theory building building a a "motor.""motor." The principalprincipal reasonreason forfor employingemploying thisthis kindkind ofof isis toto identifvidentify the the character character ofof the the stress stress as as relatedrelated toto various argument argument seems seems toto stemstem from hishis assertion that culturalcultural modes modes ofof organizational organizational change.change. In anan efforteffort toto playplay down the

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 533533

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms rolerole of of an an obviouslyobviously increasedincreased populationpopulation level,level, incredibly,incredibly, he butbut whenwhen population population densitiesdensities gogo upup mobility optionsoptions go down assertsasserts thatthat man: landland relationshipsrelationships werewere notnot significantlysignificantly (d.(cf. Ford Ford 1979:1979:236). 236). HeHe hashas also also misinterpreted misinterpreted thethe workwork ofof differentdifferent in in Oldowan Oldowan and and Neolithic Neolithic times.times. FromFrom thisthis II mustmust LeeLee (1969:(1969:60) 60) whenwhen hehe refersrefers to the "undesirable work load concludeconclude thatthat differences inin demographydemography andand biocultural sys-sys­ resultingresulting from from nomadism." nomadism." What What the the !Kung!Kung dislike are thethe temstems over over aa million oror more yearsyears playedplayed little or no rolerole inin increasingly increasingly longer longer and and moremore inconvenientinconvenient tripstrips thatthat must be humanhuman evolution.evolution. IfIf thisthis isis true, therethere isis no need forfor paleo­paleo- mademade fromfrom aa residential campcamp thethe longer longer theythey staystay atat thatthat sitesite anthropology. anthropology. (Lee(Lee 1969:60-61).1969:60-61). YellenYellen (1977:64)(1977:64) is is even even more more explicit explicit inin hishis TheThe definitiondefinition hehe provides provides forfor "resource "resource stress"stress" is too narrow descriptiondescription of of the the !Kung's!Kung's desire toto minimizeminimize 'thethe round-tripround-trip toto havehave predictive value. Fortunately,Fortunately, primitiveprimitive groups are distancedistance ofof operatingoperating fromfrom one one camp camp tootoo long,long. TheThe costs ofof intelligent intelligent enough enough toto foresee foresee immediate immediate andand probablyprobably to some movingmoving the the residence residence group group to to a anew new locality locality are are comparativelycomparatively extentextent long-term long-term resource resource shortages. shortages. This This allowsallows themthem toto make smallsmall inin relationrelation toto thethe benefitsbenefits gained gained by by access access toto new and alternative alternative foodfood choiceschoices andand locational changeschanges longlong beforebefore freshfresh resources.resources. diseasedisease andand death arrive. I suspectsuspect thatthat muchmuch ofof thethe cultureculture changechange observableobservable in thethe archeologicalarcheological recordrecord relates to groups by DONALD L. HARDESTY alteringaltering theirtheir demographic, demographic, social, social, andand economic situation inin by DONALD L. HARDESTY Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno, waysways lessless costlycostly thanthan allowingallowing directdirect threatsthreats toto health.health. II agree Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno, 89557, 17 IV 81 thatthat allall systems,systems, includingincluding thosethose ofof Paleolithic Paleolithic hunter-gatherers, Nev.Nev. 89557, U.S.A.U.S.A. 17 iv 81 undergoundergo stress, stress, but but I I questionquestion justjust how dramatic the impact I I findfind Hayden's Hayden's modelmodel appealing.appealing. There is an additional testtest ("famine")("famine") waswas on LateLate PleistocenePleistocene populations.populations. ModernModern implication: implication: stylisticstylistic diversification.diversification. The The logiclogic isis asas follows: As hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers living living in in whatwhat areare traditionallytraditionally consideredconsidered environmentalenvironmental stabilitystability isis improved improved byby behavioralbehavioral mechanisms, marginalmarginal environments,environments, such such asas the desert dwellers in Africa each each groupgroup demands less resourceresource diversity to copecope withwith andand Australia, seem wellwell bufferedbuffered byby back-upback-up food-gettingfood-getting unexpectedunexpected fluctuations-a fluctuations-a point point made made by by Hayden.Hayden. AsAs a strategiesstrategies (Lee (Lee andand DeVoreDeVore 1968, LeeLee 1980). These alternatives, consequence, consequence, thethe resourceresource "pie""pie" can be partitioned into smaller including including part-timepart-time horticulture,horticulture, usually usually requirerequire more workwork shares; shares; inin thethe parlance parlance of ecologicalecological theory, nichesniches can be more and and areare thusthus avoidedavoided asas much as possible. tightlytightly packed. packed. ButBut thethe principleprinciple ofof competitivecompetitive exclusionexclusion HaydenHayden is unimpressedunimpressed withwith population-growthpopUlation-growth argumentsarguments impliesimplies thatthat culturalcultural "styles""styles" shouldshould emerge inin eacheach niche toto becausebecause it isis notnot clearclear to him whywhy populationpopulation grew slowly over minimizeminimize competition.competition. Thus,Thus, one would expect stylisticstylistic diversi-diversi­ a a periodperiod ofof aa million or more years, culminating with a surgesurge ficationfication to to accompany accompany increasedincreased environmentalenvironmental stability.stability. ThatThat atat thethe endend of the Pleistocene. WhyWhy populations growgrow underunder archaeologicalarchaeological data fitfit this testtest implicationimplication isis obvious.obvious. suchsuch widelywidely varyingvarying conditionsconditions asas foragingforaging andand agricultureagriculture can bebe separated separated analyticallyanalytically from thethe obviousobvious factfact thatthat populationpopulation diddid growgrow tremendously tremendously throughoutthroughout thethe worldworld duringduring thethe last byby FEKRI FEKRI A.A. HASSAN 50,000 50,000 years.years. ItIt isis notnot reasonablereasonable toto comparecompare the niche-expand­niche-expand- DepartmentDepartment ofof A nthropology,ttliropology, WashingtonWashington State University,University, inging capabilitiescapabilities (culture)(culture) ofof EarlyEarly and MiddleMiddle PleistocenePleistocene Pullman,Pullman, Wash.Wash. 99164,99164, U.S.A.U.S.A. 11 iiiIII 8181 hominidshominids with with those those of of H. H. sapiens sapiens ofof 'the the Late Late Pleistocene,Pleistocene, thethe HaydenHayden hashas providedprovided aa conciseconcise andand clearclear ecologicalecological explanation latterlatter equippedequipped asas theythey werewere withwith modernmodern intelligenceintelligence and ofof thethe worldwide economiceconomic changes duringduring thethe TerminalTerminal technologies technologies thatthat reflectreflect analytical analytical capacity. capacity. Given these abili­abili- Pleistocene Pleistocene priorprior toto thethe emergenceemergence of agriculture.agriculture. HisHis central ties, ties, Late Late Pleistocene Pleistocene peoplespeoples rapidlyrapidly colonizedcolonized practically every thesisthesis emphasizesemphasizes the shift towardtoward aa diversified resourceresource base major major regionregion of of the the earth. earth. Hayden Hayden hashas underestimated man's as as aa means of stabilizingstabilizing thethe relationrelation betweenbetween populationpopulation and ability ability toto migratemigrate andand expandexpand by budding off atat whatwhat hadhad toto foodfood resources.resources. I I am inin generalgeneral agreementagreement withwith thisthis thesis,thesis, havehave beenbeen aa rapid rate (cf.(d. Martin 1973). WhyWhy thisthis diddid notnot whichwhich I I expressedexpressed inin 19771977 in my formulationformulation ofof aa theoretical happenhappen earlier earlier in thein thePleistocene, Pleistocene, with muchwith simplermuch simpler biocultural biocultural modelmodel ofof agricultural agricultural origins origins in in Palestine Palestine andand againagain in 1978 inin groups, groups, should should bebe apparent.apparent. mymy review review of of demographic demographic archaeology:archaeology: WhileWhile explanationsexplanations basedbased onon simple statements suchsuch as AA broadbroad subsistencesubsistence base wouldwould minimize minimize the the effect effect of fluctuations in "population"population grew"grew" andand "the"the climate changed" areare notnot reallyreally the the productivity productivity of of any any particular particular animal animal or or plant plant andand wouldwould thus explanations,explanations, thethe interactionsinteractions ofof climaticallyclimatically inducedinduced resourceresource cushioncushion thethe population population againstagainst unpredictableunpredictable short-termshort-term fluctuations fluctuations changes changes relativerelative toto population densitiesdensities are notnot irrelevant.irrelevant. from from one one year year to toanother another or fromor from season season to season. to season. [Hassan [Hassan 1977: 1977: 593] 593] TheThe endend of thethe PleistocenePleistocene saw moremore people occupyingoccupying moremore The The unpredictabilityunpredictability of of resources resources may may also also have have led led to to the the expansion expansion landscapeslandscapes thanthan inin any previous period, specializing toto a of of thethe subsistencesubsistence base base toto includeinclude minor resourcesresources suchsuch asas smallsmall significant significant extent extent in in large-mammal large-mammal hunting.hunting. TheThe onset ofof thethe animal animal game game or or wild wild cereals, cereals, which which were previouslywere previously underemphasized underemphasized Holocene Holocene meant the rapid lossloss ofof many ofof thesethese key species, inin the the diet diet because because of oftheir their relatively relatively high costhigh of cost extraction of extraction and the and the high cost of processing cereals. The emphasis on more predictable forcing forcing groups groups toto selectselect smaller, lessless cost-effectivecost-effective resources.resources. high cost of processing cereals. The emphasis on more predictable riverineriverine and and coastalcoastal resources is another featurefeature of the Mesolithic­Mesolithic- ToTo this must bebe added thethe stressstress created byby thethe relativelyrelatively Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic that that fits fits this this model. model. [Hassan [Hassan 1978:80] 1978:80] rapidrapid lossloss throughoutthroughout thethe world of aa fewfew millionmillion squaresquare miles ofof terrestrialterrestrial environment environment because because ofof sea-levelsea-level rise, which would MyMy commentscomments therefore willwill dealdeal with the clarification of somesome havehave displaceddisplaced groups and permanentlypermanently removed many habi-habi­ issues. issues. tatstats from from exploitation exploitation (see (see Perlman Perlman 1980:295-96). 1980:295-96). 1. 1. TheThe economic changes occurringoccurring during the Terminal In In general,general, HaydenHayden has vastly underestimated the total cost PleistocenePleistocene were undoubtedly a necessarynecessary preconditionprecondition forfor thethe of of employing employing the the technologies technologies that that "allowed" "allowed" man to become emergenceemergence of of agriculture agriculture (Hassan (Hassan 1977: 1977:593), 593), and and the the tendency tendency sedentary. sedentary. TheThe energyenergy requiredrequired toto makemake andand use technologiestechnologies toto explainexplain agriculturalagricultural origins by reference toto climatic condi-condi­ such such asas grinding implements,implements, whilewhile perhapsperhaps substantial,substantial, was tionstions oror eventsevents atat 10,000 B.P. overlooksoverlooks thethe importanceimportance ofof ratherrather small small comparedcompared to the time and energy cost of procuring factors factors of of "historical"historical necessity,"necessity," i.e., thethe amplificationamplification ofof thethe seedseed resourcesresources processedprocessed with thesethese tools. Conversely, he preexistingpreexisting trends trends that that is necessary is necessary for thefor maintenance the maintenance of the of the hashas overestimated thethe benefits ofof decreased mobilitymobility and preexistingpreexisting standard standard of living.of living. Hayden's Hayden's choice choice of the of problem the problem sedentism. sedentism. ToTo argue that,that, byby Zipf'sZipf's principleprinciple ofof leastleast effort, effort, ofof Terminal Terminal Pleistocene Pleistocene adaptationadaptation (some(some will object toto thethe peoplepeople shouldshould naturally choose sedentismsedentism overover mobilitymobility strate-strate­ useuse ofof thethe term "Mesolithic""Mesolithic" outsideoutside Europe)Europe) isis therefore therefore gies gies isis to bebe unfamiliarunfamiliar withwith thethe hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer literature.literature. laudable.laudable. His explanatory model of Terminal Pleistocene econ-econ­ Where Where populationpopulation densitiesdensities areare relatively low andand propertyproperty omyomy showsshows aa sound understanding ofof thethe noncausal rolerole ofof portable portable andand light, mobility is a highlyhighly cost-effective means ofof populationpopulation growthgrowth and and thethe calculuscalculus of economic change (re-(re­ gaining gaining subsistencesubsistence securitysecurity (see(see SahlinsSablins 1972, Binford 1980), sources sources thatthat areare leastleast in benefit/costbenefit/cost ratioratio will be thethe latestlatest

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This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms additions additions toto thethe subsistencesubsistence base).base). However, his emphasis on Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGESTONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS resourceresource stressstress reflects reflects a atheoretical theoretical biasbias thatthat is not tempered byby hishis cursorycursory referencereference to to Braidwood's Braidwood's concept ofof culturalcultural thisthis reorientationreorientation of of Hayden's Hayden's statementstatement thatthat wewe can moremore preadaptation preadaptation andand thethe "perceptions"perceptions of people."people." readily readily understand understand the the "pull" "pull" ofof wildwild cerealscereals (which(which waswas also 2.2. WeWe should begin to focusfocus onon majormajor changeschanges in subsistencesubsistence reinforcedreinforced by by their their storability). storability). This This also also explainsexplains thethe emergenceemergence as as cybernetic transitionstransitions involvinginvolving aa multiplicitymultiplicity of mecha-mecha­ ofof specializedspecialized huntinghunting ofof big-gamebig-game herdsherds whichwhich areare notnot r-r­ nismsnisms and and adjustments.adjustments. If resourceresource stress is inherentinherent in thethe selected selected species,species, suchsuch asas reindeer inin westernwestern Europe,Europe, mammoth hunting-gatheringhunting-gathering mode mode of life, of aslife, Hayden as Hayden argues, argues, why then why then inin eastern eastern CentralCentral Europe,Europe, and bison in the southern Ukraine shouldshould itit triggertrigger the the Terminal Terminal Pleistocene Pleistocene economiceconomic transition? (Butzer (Butzer 19711971 :477). :477). InIn these instances the search timetime isis ResourceResource stress,stress, like like population population increaseincrease (which some argue isis reducedreduced byby makingmaking useuse ofof aggregation aggregation and and predictablepredictable migration inherently inherently independent), independent), isis incapableincapable of explaining thethe timingtiming routes.routes. In In thesethese instances,instances, also,also, the largelarge size ofof thethe herdherd or ofof thethe TerminalTerminal PleistocenePleistocene or thethe followingfollowing agricultural oror animalanimal (e.g.,(e.g., mammoth) compensates for for their lowlow reproductivereproductive urbanurban transformations.transformations. Hayden Hayden recognizes the role of develop­develop- potential.potential. mentalmental trajectorytrajectory and and economy,economy, and and II should thinkthink that he would would recognizerecognize thethe needneed forfor anan explanatoryexplanatory factor thatthat does notnot residereside solelysolely inin thethe externalexternal environmentenvironment andand the response to to itsits fluctuations,fluctuations, withoutwithout referencereference toto thethe previousprevious state ofof byby JORAN JOHAN KAMMINGA KAMMINGA thethe cultural cultural system system (providing (providing necessary necessary or materialor material conditions, conditions, DivisionDivision of Prehistory,Prehistory, La La TrobeTrobe University, Bundoora,Bundoora, Vic. i.e., i.e., aa circumstancecircumstance inin whosewhose absenceabsence anan event cannot occur) 3083,3083, Australia.Australia. 7 IViv 81 and and anan efficient or or precipitating precipitating cause(s). cause(s). ItIt is thus useful toto InIn hishis criticismcriticism ofof thethe so-calledso-called homebody population-growth looklook atat thethe TerminalTerminal PleistocenePleistocene adaptation in in thethe lightlight ofof the model,model, Hayden Hayden makesmakes aa number ofof questionablequestionable assertionsassertions and biological,biological, cultural,cultural, andand demographicdemographic conditions of thethe Upper assumptions.assumptions. He He proposesproposes thatthat thethe model implies a directdirect Palaeolithic.Palaeolithic. These include thethe emergence of H.H. sapienssapiens sapiens, correlation correlation betweenbetween increasingincreasing degreesdegrees ofof sedentism sedentism and and spatialspatial whosewhose cognitivecognitive abilitiesabilities in comparison withwith previousprevious forms,forms, expansionexpansion ofof a a humanhuman population.population. My ownown understandingunderstanding isis including including H. H. sapiens neanderthalensis,neanderthalensis, shouldshould notnot be under-under­ that that tliethe implication implication isis notnot expansionexpansion inin thisthis sense,sense, butbut popula­popula- estimated.estimated. II think itit isis importantimportant thatthat we reexamine thethe rolerole tion tion increase. increase. If If so, so, Hayden's Hayden's ethnographicethnographic testtest of thethe hypothesishypothesis ofof increasing increasing cognitive cognitive abilities abilities duringduring the the Upper Upper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic isis inapplicable. inapplicable. Even ifif thethe testtest werewere relevant,relevant, thethe underlyingunderlying inin thethe lightlight of of technological technological diversification,diversification, acceleratedaccelerated raterate ofof assumptions assumptions areare suspectsuspect toto saysay the least. ProposingProposing thethe corol-corol­ innovation,innovation, art,art, and and probablyprobably elementaryelementary mathematicsmathematics at that larylary thatthat expandingexpanding populationspopulations "produce"produce large areas ofof lin-lin­ timetime that that cannot cannot bebe totallytotally explainedexplained by noncognitive factors.factors. guisticguistic homogeneity," homogeneity," Hayden Hayden usesuses Birdsell'sBirdsell's datadata toto demon-demon­ Greater Greater cognitivecognitive ability ability would would havehave increasedincreased the ability to strate strate increased increased populationpopulation density in areas ofof higher precipita­precipita- learnlearn fromfrom experience experience and and aa creativecreative approachapproach toto thethe environ-environ­ tion;tion; hehe thenthen questionsquestions whywhy ArnhemArnhem Land, Land, beingbeing anan area ofof ment.ment. Also, Also, thethe Upper Upper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic waswas aa timetime ofof risingrising world highhigh precipitation precipitation and and presumed presumed highhigh sedentismsedentism (compared(compared to populationpopulation (but (but not not population population pressure). pressure). Thus, Thus, though though climatic climatic thethe desert),desert), displays considerable linguisticlinguistic diversity. My fluctuations fluctuations had had occurred occurred previous previous toto thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, it was responsesresponses areare these:these: notnot untiluntil the the end end ofof the the Pleistocene Pleistocene thatthat thesethese climatic condi-condi­ 1. 1. ItIt is notoriously difficult toto definedefine an an AustralianAustralian Aborigi­Aborigi- tionstions would would have have hadhad anan impact on subsistence economy thatthat nal nal tribetribe (Peterson(Peterson 1976:1976:1-2), 1-2), estimatesestimates rangingranging fromfrom 500 to could could bebe metmet byby creativecreative solutionssolutions based onon thethe recognitionrecognition ofof 900900 (see(see MulvaneyMulvaney 1975:65). TribesTribes do do not not necessarily necessarily repre-repre­ newnew opportunitiesopportunities forfor environmentalenvironmental exploitation,exploitation, reorganiza­reorganiza- sent sent discrete discrete linguistic linguistic units units and and need need not not be be wholly wholly endogamous. endogamous. tiontion ofof subsistencesubsistence strategy,strategy, storage,storage, interregional integrationintegration 2. 2. HaydenHayden has misread Birdsell;Birdsell; thethe figure figure of 400-500 forfor a of of resources, resources, and and technologicaltechnological innovation,innovation, in lieu of dispersal tribe tribe is is not not a a constant,constant, as as hehe believes,believes, butbut aa mean, thethe range or or stringentstringent popUlation population control control measures measures (Hassan (Hassan 1978:77).1978:77). beingbeing from from about about 250 250 to to over over 750 750 (Tindale (Tindale 1974:31). 1974:31). That That climatic fluctuations duringduring thethe Terminal Pleistocene 3.3. TheThe presumption that decreasing tribal range can be cor-cor­ werewere violent violent is iswell well documented documented (Butzer (Butzer 1971; 1971; Hassan Hassan 1977:1977:593 593 relatedrelated withwith increasingincreasing sedentism is simplistic.simplistic. AboriginalAboriginal and and references). references). These These fluctuations, fluctuations, especially especially where where the climatethe climate groups groups couldcould be highlyhighly mobilemobile withinwithin relativelyrelatively compactcompact waswas metastablemetastable (as(as inin thethe Near Near East),East), would have increased thethe territoriesterritories and and could could exploit exploit areas areas outsideoutside their boundaries.boundaries. spatiotemporal spatiotemporal unpredictabilityunpredictability of of resources. resources. It It isis here thatthat 4.4. ItIt is well-known thatthat languagelanguage diversity andand change are thethe attemptattempt toto increaseincrease economiceconomic reliabilityreliability (not resourceresource controlledcontrolled byby thethe complex complex interplayinterplay ofof historical, historical, topographical, topographical, reliability)reliability) maymay bebe regardedregarded asas aa viable responseresponse to economic cultural, cultural, and and biologicalbiological factors, notnot simplysimply thethe raterate ofof popula­popula- troubles.troubles. ClimateClimate waswas thus the precipitating cause, resourceresource tiontion expansion. expansion. The The ArnhemArnhem LandLand situation isis explained byby unpredictabilityunpredictability the the proximateproximate causecause (or(or processprocess element).element). Wurm Wurm (1978:205)(1978:205) inin termsterms ofof historicalhistorical factors,factors, while on thethe DemographicDemographic conditions,conditions, aa high cognitivecognitive level,level, andand thethe cu-cu­ basisbasis ofof detailed detailed biologicalbiological studiesstudies WhiteWhite and and ParsonsParsons (1973;(1973; mulativemulative summationsummation ofof technological innovations were thethe White White 1978, 1978, 1979; 1979; ParsonsParsons andand WhiteWhite 1976)1976) have demonstrated necessarynecessary conditions.conditions. the the relevance relevance ofof geneticgenetic andand socioculturalsociocultural factors.factors. 3.3. Hayden'sHayden's distinctiondistinction between r- andand K-selected resourcesresources The The developmentdevelopment ofof Hayden's Hayden's resource-stress modelmodel cancan be isis usefuluseful inin thatthat itit underscoresunderscores thethe importance ofof thethe biotic traced traced throughthrough some some of of his his earlier earlier papers papers (Hayden (Hayden 1972, 1975, potentialpotential ofof exploitableexploitable resources. The distinctiondistinction betweenbetween 1977), 1977), although,although, asas hehe pointspoints out,out, itit alsoalso reliesrelies substantiallysubstantially on resourcef; resources ofof thethe samesame strategystrategy but different bioticbiotic potentialpotential is the the theoreticaltheoretical workwork ofof others.others. II findfind hishis modelmodel unconvincing. alsoalso important.important. For For example, example, this this influences influences the thenumber number of of ManyMany of mymy reservationsreservations hingehinge onon thethe qualityquality of hishis archaeo­archaeo- individuals individuals thatthat cancan be removedremoved fromfrom aa herd of deerdeer comparedcompared logicallogical data.data. ItIt seems toto me that there isis aa lacklack of substantivesubstantive toto thatthat fromfrom a aherd herd of of bison bison or or mammoth mammoth (Hassan (Hassan 1981).1981). datadata toto backback upup many ofof Hayden'sHayden's assumptions. 4.4. II also concurconcur with Hayden's emphasisemphasis onon thethe likelihoodlikelihood AA fundamentalfundamental premisepremise isis thatthat r-selected resources were not ofof thethe emergenceemergence ofof certaincertain specializedspecialized economieseconomies fromfrom an heavilyheavily exploitedexploited inin pre-Mesolithic/Archaicpre-Mesolithic/Archaic times.times. II maintain initialinitial exploitation exploitation ofof certaincertain resources.resources. HeHe attributes special­special- that that simplesimple technologytechnology may may well well havehave been adequate forfor izationization toto dependence dependence onon "abundant"abundant r-selected species."species." How­How- effectiveeffective harvesting harvesting of theseof these resources. resources. In any In case,any case,if techno­ if techno- ever, ever, this this statement statement must must be rephrasedbe rephrased in terms in terms of the of probabil­ the probabil-logical logical innovationsinnovations suchsuch asas nets, barkbark canoes,canoes, and sledges were ityity of of locating locating prey prey items,items, whichwhich impliesimplies aa shortshort meanmean search essential essential forfor optimumoptimum exploitation,exploitation, thethe archaeologicalarchaeological recordrecord timetime per per item item (Pianka (Pianka 1974). 1974). ThusThus "abundance""abundance" has to be probablyprobably doesdoes not reflectreflect theirtheir earliest earliest appearance, appearance, since these expressedexpressed inin termsterms ofof local local oror concentrationconcentration "density,""density," which sorts sorts of of artifacts artifacts are are made made fromfrom organic organic materials. materials. MostMost ofof the indicatesindicates thethe expectation expectation of of yield yield from from a knowna known place. place. It isIt withis with innovationsinnovations HaydenHayden lists have broad-spectrumbroad-spectrum functions,functions, and

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 535535

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms therethere is is no no need need to to invoke invoke a a late late changechange inin subsistencesubsistence strategy thethe Holocene Holocene inin mostmost environments.environments. EvidenceEvidence forfor thethe exploita­exploita- to to account account forfor their their appearance appearance andand large-scalelarge-scale use. tiontion of of grass grass seeds seeds begins begins ca. ca. 15,00015,000 yearsyears ago,ago, that is, approxi­approxi- WhileWhile proposingproposing thatthat shellfish, fish,fish, land land snails,snails, andand similar mately mately synchronouslysynchronously withwith itsits appearance appearance inin other continents. small-bodied small-bodied resourcesresources werewere onlyonly substantiallysubstantially exploitedexploited at thethe By By contactcontact timestimes suchsuch cereal-basedcereal-based economieseconomies dominated arid end end ofof thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, HaydenHayden acknowledges that evidence andand semiaridsemiarid AustraliaAustralia (the greater part of thethe continent)continent) andand fromfrom a afew few early early sites sites indicates indicates otherwise. otherwise. To To hishis listlist wewe cancan took took onon highly sophisticated forms, includingincluding storagestorage and add add Devil'sDevil's Tower (Garrod etet al. 1928),1928), GrimaldiGrimaldi Caves staggered staggered harvest harvest practices. practices. EthnohistoricalEthnohistorical data data point toto (Clark (Clark 1948:84),1948:84), HauaHaua Fteah (McBurney(McBurney 1967:99), Klasies markedmarked regionalismregionalism inin economieseconomies during thisthis lastlast phasephase through­through- RiverRiver Mouth Mouth Cave Cave (Klein(Klein 1974:267), Lake MungoMungo (Bowler(Bowler outout Australia,Australia, and thisthis regionalism isis reflected inin thethe stone-toolstone-tool etet al.al. 19701970:52-55), :52-55), Salzgilter-LebenstedtSalzgilter-Lebenstedt (Cohen(Cohen 1977:112),1977: 112), record.record. Australian Australian economieseconomies atat contactcontact were complex, so-so­ andand TerraTerra Amata Amata (Bryant(Bryant and and Williams-DeanWilliams-Dean 1975:100-109).1975:100-109). phisticated,phisticated, andand basedbased upon a wide seriesseries of landland management DespiteDespite recentrecent criticismcriticism (Cohen(Cohen 1977:94-95), thethe long-heldlong-held strategiesstrategies involving involving fire, fire, a host a host of plant of plant and animaland animal species, species, beliefbelief that that PleistocenePleistocene middensmiddens were destroyed oror mademade inac-inac­ andand intensiveintensive exploitationexploitation of of wetlands. wetlands. Sedentism Sedentism was was alsoalso a cessiblecessible byby risingrising sea sea levelslevels hashas aa good deal ofof merit. InIn addi­addi- featurefeature of of the the well-watered well-watered areasareas of northernnorthern andand southeasternsoutheastern tion,tion, avian, avian, small small mammal, mammal, shellfish, shellfish, and and especially especially fish fish remains remains Australia.Australia. ThusThus latelate 18th-century18th-century Australia fittedfitted muchmuch (see(see WilliamsWilliams 1979: 109-10) areare thethe firstfirst toto disappeardisappear in adverseadverse more more Hayden'sHayden's Mesolithic/Archaic modelmodel than that ofof thethe depositionaldepositional environments. Pleistocene.Pleistocene. I I know ofof nono quantitative datadata whichwhich support Hayden's MyMy own interpretationinterpretation of the causes ofof intensificationintensification inin claim claim thatthat ground-stone tools are moremore efficientefficient than flaked-flaked­ AustraliaAustralia concurs withwith thatthat expressedexpressed byby Hayden,Hayden, which, inin aa stonestone toolstools forfor woodworking woodworking tasks. tasks. Ground-stoneGround-stone hatchetshatchets are parsimoniousparsimonious vein,vein, layslays emphasisemphasis onon conservativeconservative practices such wellwell representedrepresented inin thethe Australian Australian AboriginalAboriginal toolkit, but they asas thethe regulationregulation of resourceresource yieldsyields rather than theirtheir increase. werewere multipurpose multipurpose implements implements (Dickson (Dickson 1978: 1978:34-39). 34-39). DespiteDespite AsAs toto populationpopulation expansion and itsits relationshiprelationship toto linguisticlinguistic knowledgeknowledge ofof grinding,grinding, AboriginesAborigines continuedcontinued to manufacture homogeneity,homogeneity, I I hadhad inin mind a muchmuch lessless intensiveintensive long-termlong-term wooden wooden artifactsartifacts withwith flaked-stone flaked-stone tools. tools. Hayden's Hayden's assumptionassumption processprocess whosewhose effecteffect would would havehave beenbeen minimal ifif not negligible. thatthat thethe bowbow contributedcontributed to greatergreater hunting effectiveness isis alsoalso MyMy mainmain disagreementdisagreement withwith Hayden'sHayden's explanation, however,however, speculative.speculative. CundyCundy (1980)(1980) has demonstrateddemonstrated thatthat itit has no relatesrelates to to causality. causality. HeHe drawsdraws aa distinctiondistinction betweenbetween PleistocenePleistocene mechanicalmechanical advantageadvantage over thethe spearthrower, andand the reasons changes, changes, whichwhich he he seessees asas mainly due toto resourceresource stress,stress, and forfor its its increased increased popularity popularity maymay wellwell relaterelate toto such factors as post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene changes,changes, which involvedinvolved social factors such as its its suitabilitysuitability forfor warfare,warfare, itit beingbeing lightweightlightweight andand requiringrequiring status, status, etc. etc. While While II amam preparedprepared toto acceptaccept that therethere may have less less skillskill toto operate.operate. beenbeen anan increaseincrease over time in the latter,latter, wewe areare presented here Seemingly Seemingly asas anan afterthought, HaydenHayden reflectsreflects on thethe pre-pre­ withwith a a dichotomydichotomy veryvery reminiscentreminiscent ofof thosethose criticisedcriticised byby Hay­Hay- historyhistory of of the the Australian Australian Aborigines. Aborigines. ArchaeologistsArchaeologists in this partpart den den and and contrarycontrary toto his his broad broad clinal clinal model.model. WhyWhy isis competitioncompetition ofof the the world world will will be be surprised surprised toto learnlearn thatthat dietary additions seen seen asas "maladaptive""maladaptive" for for "general""general" hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers whenwhen itit such such asas fish, shellfish,shellfish, and and lizards,lizards, reflecting increasedincreased diversi-diversi­ hashas longlong been been acceptedaccepted asas a primary evolutionary force? InIn all ficationfication of of the the resource resource base, base, as as wellwell asas sedentism,sedentism, ground-stone species species competitioncompetition resultsresults inin selection of more favourablefavourable tools,tools, and and (unspecified)(unspecified) primitiveprimitive valuables valuables appearedappeared late inin traits traits (in (in humans humans presumably presumably both both biological biological andand cultural)cultural) and Australia.Australia. SuchSuch a conclusionconclusion isis anan astonishingastonishing overinterpreta-overinterpreta­ isis thusthus aa highlyhighly adaptive mechanism.mechanism. AreAre post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene tiontion of of negative negative evidence evidence andand biasbias in interpretinginterpreting thethe available available adaptations adaptations [beingPbeing resurrectedresurrected againagain here for special consider-consider­ data data (see(see MulvaneyMulvaney 1975:1975:147-52, 147-52, 155,iSS, 158-59, 192-93, 199). ation, ation, or or should should they they be be seen seen merely merely as theas the tip tipof the of technologicalthe technological iceberg, iceberg, highlighted highlighted by by the the early early appearance appearance ofof complex complex coastalcoastal economies economies revealedrevealed toto us throughthrough the process of postglacial changeschanges inin seasea level?level? HaydenHayden also addsadds thatthat rankedranked societiessocieties by by HARRY HARRY LOURANDOSLOURANDOS can can bebe observedobserved inin thethe Upper Upper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic ofof Europe.Europe. WhatWhat II DepartmentDepartment of of Prehistory Prehistory and and Archaeology, Archaeology, University University of New of New amam suggestingsuggesting isis thatthat while environmental andand demographic England,England, Armidale, Armidale, N.S.W. N.S.W. 2351,2351, Australia.Australia. 10 IVIv 81 pressurespressures are are everever present,present, soso tootoo areare socialsocial forces. Hayden ByBy adoptingadopting aa straightforwardstraightforward evolutionary evolutionary approach, approach, HaydenHayden acknowledgesacknowledges basic basic higher-primate higher-primate dominance dominance patterns, patterns, so why so why succeeds succeeds in freeingfreeing the debatedebate concerningconcerning hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers are are Pleistocene Pleistocene hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers exempted exempted from from such suchpressures? pressures? from from the the milieu milieu of of environmental environmental and and demographic demographic determinismdeterminism GodelierGodelier (1977:(1977: 110-11)110-11) argues that social competition provides in in whichwhich it it has has becomebecome embedded.embedded. TheThe main question is no keykey incentives incentives to to increases increases in in production. production. Cannot Cannot this this argument argument longer longer "Why "Why oror whywhy notnot agriculture?"agriculture?" butbut "Why"Why change?" alsoalso applyapply to hunter-gatherers? FoodFood production is known toto Hunter-gatherers,Hunter-gatherers, ofof whatever whatever economiceconomic level,level, areare viewed here hunter-gatherers, hunter-gatherers, as as Hayden Hayden argues,argues, andand so are food surpluses. as as part of one historicalhistorical economiceconomic clinecline stretchingstretching fromfrom thethe Reciprocity Reciprocity isis aa mechanism of exchangeexchange involvinginvolving "storage" Pleistocene Pleistocene toto thethe present.present. ExplanationsExplanations which tendtend to see and and regulationregulation ofof resources;resources; whatwhat isis givengiven todaytoday will bebe regainedregained hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers as as special special economiceconomic casescases constrainedconstrained by such tomorrow,tomorrow, when when times times may may be be lean. lean. SocialSocial competition at thisthis variablesvariables asas "carrying"carrying capacity"capacity" and self-imposedself-imposed demographic level, level, especiallyespecially duringduring stressstress periods,periods, would would bebe a potentpotent checkschecks or,or, alternatively, alternatively, stimulatedstimulated byby environmentalenvironmental pressures disruptive disruptive factor factor even even in the in smallestthe smallest of societies. of societies. It is therefore It is therefore mustmust nownow confrontconfront the the widerwider issuesissues of change within all notnot surprisingsurprising thatthat thethe holding of ceremoniesceremonies forfor extendedextended economies. economies. periodsperiods inin Australia Australia waswas closely connected to food production Supporting Supporting evidence evidence forfor Hayden's Hayden's model comes fromfrom Aus-Aus­ andand storage.storage. SuchSuch ceremonies werewere alsoalso associated withwith thethe tralia,tralia, as as hehe has suggested (see(see also LourandosLourandos 1980b).1980b). AnAn full full expression expression of reciprocity,of reciprocity, social socialnetworks, networks, and their and related their related evolutionaryevolutionary sequencesequence isis beginning to emerge, although thethe intergroupintergroup power power plays. plays. We We shouldshould notnot bebe bemused by thethe evidenceevidence isis stillstill preliminarypreliminary andand much of itit stillstill toto bebe published.published. moremore obviousobvious expressionexpression of socialsocial competition evidentevident inin horti-horti­ The The archaeological data fromfrom PleistocenePleistocene contexts,contexts, whichwhich culturalcultural andand agriculturalagricultural economies.economies. ItIt should also bebe borneborne in stretch stretch back back some some 40,000 40,000 years years B.P., areB.P., of aresmall, of low-intensity small, low-intensity mindmind thatthat while reciprocity historicallyhistorically may may givegive way toto sites, sites, few few in number.in number. Even Even allowing allowing for the for effect the of effect preserva­ of preserva- privateprivate ownershipownership as as economieseconomies increaseincrease in complexity,complexity, as tiontion factors,factors, this this pattern pattern suggests suggests mobilemobile andand transient econo­econo- Hayden Hayden states, it isis stillstill veryvery muchmuch aa conservativeconservative constrainingconstraining miesmies andand smallsmall popUlations.populations. It is only in the TerminalTerminal Pleisto-Pleisto­ forceforce in in developed developed horticulturalhorticultural economieseconomies such as thosethose ofof NeNew w cenecene thatthat sitessites increase inin size andand numbernumber andand marginalmarginal Guinea Guinea andand widerwider Melanesia.Melanesia. habitatshabitats (e.g.,(e.g., deserts, highlands)highlands) are more intensivelyintensively occupied.occupied. MyMy finalfinal statementstatement isis aa call forfor a widerwider recognitionrecognition ofof thethe ThisThis process,process, inin general,general, cancan be seenseen toto continuecontinue throughoutthroughout above above socialsocial forces inin bothboth PleistocenePleistocene andand Holocene periodsperiods

536 536 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms and, and, with with Hayden, Hayden, forfor a aclearer clearer evaluation evaluation ofof landland andand resourceresource Hayden: Hayden: STONE-AGESTONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONS management management practicespractices inin allall hunter-gatherer and hunter-horti-hunter-horti­ cultural cultural economies, economies, both both ethnographic ethnographic and and prehistoric.prehistoric. most most recent recent times times but but proceed proceed fromfrom being being the the dominant dominant sourcesource of of food food to to just just one one resource resource among among many. many. There There isis nono indicationindication that that any any fewerfewer large large mammal~mammals werewere obtainedobtained in more recent by by R. R. G.G. MATSONMATSON times times (Matson (Matson 1981b). Department Departmentt of of Anthropology Anthropology and and Sociology,Sociology, University of British British Columbia, Columbia, Vancouver, Vancouver, B.C., B.C., Canada Canada V6TV6T 2B2.2B2. 23 IViv 81 Hayden Hayden hashas providedprovided usus with aa stimulating andand provocative by by PHILIP PHILIP MILLERMILLER view view ofof one one ofof thethe mostmost importantimportant transitionstransitions inin humanhuman pre-pre­ Department Department of ofUrban Urban and and Regional Regional Planning, Planning, University Untiversity oj of history. history. I Ifind find his his discussion discussion of of human human population population pressurepressure andand Toronto, Toronto, 230 230 College College St., St., Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Outt., Canada Canada M5S M5S 1A1. IA1. the the recurrent recurrent nature nature of of stress stress (actually (actually a a versionversion ofof Liebig'sLiebig's 8 8 VI VI 81 81 law law ofof the the minimum) minimum) to to be be thethe best best I I havehave read, particularly This This paperpaper summarizessummarizes thethe population-growthpopulation-growth modelsmodels andand puts concerning concerning the the relationshiprelationship withwith cultureculture change.change. Watching forward forward an an alternative, alternative, thethe resource-stressresource-stress model. model. BecauseBecause ofof Hayden's Hayden's argumentargument evolveevolve over the years, II find lessless andand less the, the lack lack ofof formalformal development,development, thethe alternativealternative isis openopen to to to disagree disagree with;with; eithereither hehe hashas shiftedshifted towardstowards my positionspositions or many many of of the the same same criticisms criticisms as as the the original. original. The The logisticlogistic equa­equa- over over time time he he has has becomebecome convincing.convincing. ThereThere are a numbernumber ofof tion tion dy dy/dt j dt = =ry(J ry(1-y/k), -y j k), where where y y= =population population andand rr == intrinsic points, points, however,however, thatthat II do notnot thinkthink logicallylogically followfollow fromfrom his rate rate ofof increase,increase, seemsseems implicitimplicit in in both.both. OnOn the one hand,hand, premises. premises. logistic logistic growth growth embeds embeds a alimiting limiting value value K, K, whichwhich isis takentaken as One One ofof thethe crucialcrucial partsparts ofof Hayden'sHayden's argumentargument isis thethe shiftshift synonymous synonymous with with the the idea idea ofof carryingcarrying capacity. capacity. On the other from from K-selected K-selected resourcesresources toto r-selectedr-selected resources.resources. HeHe suggests hand, hand, according according toto thisthis equation, equation, popUlationpopulation cancan never exceed that that the the latter latter are are more more reliable, reliable, but but in in fact fact the the opposite opposite is isthe the this this limiting limiting value. value. Therefore,Therefore, inin population population models, thethe termsterms case. case. TheThe r-selectedr-selected resources areare the ones thatthat gogo throughthrough "population "population pressure"pressure" andand "overpopulation" are logicallylogically boom-and-bust boom-and-bust cycles. cycles. The The K-selected forms,forms, which do notnot inconsistent. inconsistent. track track or or map map environmental environmental changeschanges asas closely,closely, dodo not becomebecome In In thethe resource-stressresource-stress model,model, thethe ecological ecological oversimplificationoversimplification either either as as abundantabundant or scarce. Therefore another explanation, that that diversity diversity causes causes stabilitystability is is avoided. avoided. ManyMany of its desirabledesirable or or ratherrather anotheranother mechanism,mechanism, for thisthis shift inin resourcesresources must features features can can bebe incorporatedincorporated inin thethe Lotka-Lotka-VolterraVolterra equation be be developed.developed. dyjdt dy/dt = =ry ry + + a,xy,a,xy, dx,jdt dx,/dt = = SXi sx, - - b,xy,bixy, wherewhere a,b a,b == exploita­exploita- The The K-selected resources inin human historyhistory areare basically tion tion rates, rates, r,s r,s = = intrinsicintrinsic rates rates of of increase, increase, and and Xixi = = quantity large large mammalianmammalian herbivores.herbivores. II suggest that huntinghunting one ofof of of resources. resources. Weiss Weiss (1972) (1972) hashas applied itit toto thethe competitive-competitive­ these these (particularly(particularly amongamong thethe herdingherding ungulates)ungulates) is much like exclusion exclusion hypothesishypothesis inin hominids.hominids. By changing thethe signssigns beforebefore hunting hunting another, another, and and therefore therefore I seeI see Hayden's Hayden's StageStage 33 as the the b b coefficients, coefficients, we we can can also also model model resourceresource useuse withwith it.it. TheseThese essentially essentially a a singlesingle adaptation-theadaptation-the huntinghunting of thethe locallylocally coefficients coefficients can can be be takentaken toto embedembed thethe technicaltechnical efficienciesefficiencies ofof available available largelarge mammals. (An(An exampleexample ofof thethe generalgeneral inter-inter­ production.production. InIn anan ethnographic case ofof aa contemporarycontemporary fishingfishing changeability changeability of largelarge mammalsmammals isis thethe rapid diffusiondiffusion 01of Clovis­Clovis- village, village, randomrandom variationvariation in resourcesresources has produced interestinginteresting like like cultures cultures from from Canada Canada toto thethe tiptip ofof South South America.)America.) Given results results in in a asimulation simulation modelmodel ofof thisthis general general formform (Miller (Miller 1981).1981). the the relative relative stabilitystability ofof the the large large mammalian mammalian resources, why the ResourceResource variabilityvariability maymay requirerequire greatergreater economiceconomic capacitycapacity switch switch in in adaptation? adaptation? I I seesee the process hehe describes-avoid­describes-avoid- oror migration.migration. TheThe resourceresource cyclecycle affectsaffects thethe distributiondistribution ofof ance ance ofof stress stress (or (or going going to to the the "carrying "carrying capacity" capacity" of of an an adap­adap- strategicstrategic investment investment in in equipment equipment and and suchsuch populationpopulation vari-vari­ tation)-operating,tation)-operating, but but in in aa slightlyslightly differentdifferent way.way. RatherRather than ablesables asas residential stabilitystability andand dependency ratio.ratio. OnOn an initiallyinitially replacingreplacing thethe K-selected resources,resources, thethe r-selectedr-selected archaeologicalarchaeological time scale,scale, the paleoecology ofof speciesspecies distribu-distribu­ resourcesresources supplementedsupplemented them. It was onlyonly later, when procuring tiontion and and changechange isis significant;significant; thethe viabilityviability of thethe resourceresource basebase r-selectedr-selected resourcesresources conflictedconflicted withwith thethe exploitationexploitation of otherother maymay dependdepend onon thethe extent extent to to which which species species are are spatially spatially localized localized resources,resources, that that it it was was necessarynecessary toto make choiceschoices betweenbetween oror widely widely dispersed. dispersed. ExtendingExtending thethe Lotka-Lotka-VolterraVolterra model intoin to themthem ("scheduling," ("scheduling," inin Flannery'sFlannery's [1968] terms). A pointpoint notnot aa spatialspatial context,context, includingincluding refugingrefuging and specificspecific distributiondistribution discusseddiscussed byby HaydenHayden isis thatthat manymany ofof these r-selected resources patterns,patterns, hashas producedproduced interesting mathematicalmathematical results. In areare collectedcollected by women: thethe initial useuse ofof r-selectedr-selected resourcesresources lightlight of ofsuch such studies studies as Wobst as Wobst (1974), (1974), it may it well may be well of interest be of interest probablyprobably consistedconsisted ofof women'swomen's gatherings insuringinsuring againstagainst an toto archaeology.archaeology. unsuccessfulunsuccessful hunthunt oror supplementing supplementing aa successfulsuccessful one.one. FollowingFollowing SuchSuch differential-equationdifferential-equation models models imply imply continuity continuity in change.in change. Hayden'sHayden's logic, a supplementarysupplementary sourcesource ofof foodfood will allow thethe However,However, representationrepresentation inin thethe formform of of a a graphgraph inin EuclideanEuclidean populationpopulation toto increase until periodically stresses again occur.occur. spacespace isis notnot necessarilynecessarily continuous.continuous. MandelbrotMandelbrot (1977)(1977) givesgives DuringDuring the shift toto r-selectedr-selected resources,resources, somesome schedulingscheduling deci-deci­ manymany examplesexamples of simple,simple, rule-generatedrule-generated curvescurves that are no-no­ sionssions mustmust bebe made. OnlyOnly whenwhen r-selectedr-selected resourceresource procure-procure­ wherewhere differentiable.differentiable. It It is is suchsuch curvescurves thatthat are representativerepresentative mentsments areare moremore productiveproductive and efficientefficient thanthan their competitors ofof many many naturalnatural forms.forms. willwill they they replace replace thethe K-selected K-selected resources.resources. UsuallyUsually replacement ItIt maymay be a socialsocial commentcomment thatthat thethe significantsignificant correlationcorrelation isis not necessary, particularly sincesince land mammals,mammals, unlessunless hebetween tween mortalitymortality rates rates and and air air pollutionpollution (Lave(Lave and SeskinSeskin migratory,migratory, can can be be obtainedobtained atat various times and thusthus thethe 1977)1977) isis ofof interestinterest toto archaeology.archaeology. DebateDebate overover thethe carrying-carrying­ huntinghunting ofof themthem wouldwould not conflict with the exploitation ofof capacitycapacity orthodoxy may influence thought inin suchsuch policy-policy­ moremore seasonal seasonal resources. Once thisthis addition ofof resources occurs, relevantrelevant fields fields as aseconomics economics and and demography. demography. therethere is is no no going going back, back, asas thethe populationpopulation is now more numerous thanthan cancan be maintained by thethe previousprevious adaptation alone.alone. SinceSince thethe r-selectedr-selected resourcesresources tendtend toto bebe more localizedlocalized thanthan byby G. G. C.C. MOHAPATRA largelarge mammals,mammals, theirtheir useuse cannot be asas easilyeasily transferred transferred toto DepartmentDepartment of of Ancient Ancient Indian Indian History, History, Culture, Culture, and Archaeol­and Archaeol- areasareas inin which theythey dodo not naturally occur.occur. The meansmeans toto ogy,ogy, Pan Panjabjab University, University, Chandigarh, Chandigarh, India. India. 13 13III III81 81 obtainobtain themthem vary moremore thanthan doesdoes large-mammallarge-mammal hunting,hunting, ItIt isis wellwell knownknown thatthat therethere isis aa close relationship between thethe causingcausing thethe regionalregional specializationspecialization seenseen inin the Archaic. The typo-morphologytypo-morphology of of hand hand tools tools and and the the physical physical characteristics characteristics irreversibilityirreversibility ofof this this process process isis duedue toto thethe additionaddition of resources ofof their their users. users. This This is isvery very pronouncedly pronouncedly so soif theif the user user happens happens toto thethe t'xi~tingexisting onesones ratherrather thanthan theirtheir replacement.replacement. My ownown toto bebe thethe makermaker asas well.well. This being the case duringduring thethe whole workwork on on thethe NorthwestNorthwest Coast Coast (1976,(1976, 1981a) showsshows thatthat thethe ofof the the Stone Stone Age,Age, thethe author'sauthor's theory of resourceresource diversification largelarge mammals mammals are, are exploited exp)loited there there from from the earliest the earliest to the to the cannotcannot affordafford to to overlookoverlook thethe morphologicalmorphological andand anatomical

Vol.Vol. 22 . No.5· October22 1981 No. 5 * October 1981 537537

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms characteristics characteristics ofof thethe different races races ofof fossilfossil hominid thatthat permittedpermitted only only slow slow development.development. AsAs skill, knowledge, and appearedappeared andand disappeared inin thethe coursecourse ofof prehistory,prehistory, leavingleaving toolstools grewgrew betterbetter and and better,better, itit becamebecame possible for man toto behindbehind thethe onlyonly reliablereliable evidenceevidence of their subsistencesubsistence patterns makemake useuse ofof aa largerlarger partpart ofof hishis environment environment and and toto expandexpand to in in theirtheir artifactualartifactual outfits. cover cover nearlynearly thethe wholewhole ofof Africa, Africa, Europe, Europe, andand Asia.Asia. While While thethe actualactual mechanism of the technological transitiontransition FromFrom thethe beginning,beginning, manman used a greatgreat varietyvariety ofof 'speciesspecies forfor among among hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers at at the the end end of of the the Pleistocene Pleistocene waswas a hishis subsistence,subsistence, among among themthem manymany ofof Hayden's so-calledso-called complex complex phenomenonphenomenon involvinginvolving severalseveral factors among which r-selected r-selected species, species, which which were were in in factfact toto aa great extentextent thethe nono single single one one can can be be considered considered primary, primary, for for the the sake sake of reject­of reject- easiest easiest toto use.use. Not muchmuch technologytechnology and knowledgeknowledge areare re-re­ inging thethe climaticclimatic theorytheory the the author author need need notnot havehave posedposed thethe quired, quired, forfor instance, instance, to to collect collect wild wild grasses grasses such such asas wheatwheat andand irrelevant irrelevant question question "Why "Why did did that that transition transition not occurnot occur earlier?" earlier?" barley.barley. ItIt isis definitelydefinitely not not a a day'sday's work toto collect with one's Had Had hehe given given the the matter matter of theof thebiological biological capabilities capabilities of various of various barebare handshands thethe amountamount ofof seedsseeds neededneeded toto feedfeed oneone that day. extinctextinct hominids hominids a a bitbit of critical consideration, hehe would I I dodo accept accept that that some some of theof the"r-selected "r-selected species," species," for instance, for instance, probablyprobably have have beenbeen ableable to give a betterbetter answer to his own fish, fish, are are more more complicated complicated toto collect,collect, butbut itit isis apparent apparent that the question.question. TheThe anatomical andand artifactual artifactual difference difference betweenbetween problemproblem ofof using using these these species species toto theirtheir fullfull potentialpotential isis not a the the Australopithecinae Australopithecinae andand H.H. erectus inin thethe Early Early PleistocenePleistocene technologicaltechnological one. andand betweenbetween H. H. sapienssapiens neanderthalensisneanderthalensis and and H. H. sapienssapiens sapienssapiens In In thethe process process of of production, production, human human beings beings use tools,use tools, skills, skills, towards towards thethe closeclose of this epoch sufficientlysufficiently indicateindicate the limitslimits and and knowledge.knowledge. Labour isis performedperformed inin thethe frameworkframework of an of of the the technological technological inventivenessinventiveness of thethe respectiverespective species forfor economiceconomic organization.organization. FromFrom the beginning the organization thethe purpose purpose of of resource resource diversification, diversification, with with or orwithout without resource resource ofof society society has has probablyprobably beenbeen mostly aa question ofof securing the stress. stress. For For instance,instance, thatthat averageaverage life-span was longest during lives lives ofof thethe membersmembers and and theirtheir accessaccess toto the resources of a thethe Middle Middle PalaeolithicPalaeolithic should mean according to the author's territory.territory. Knowledge Knowledge about about socialsocial organization, like technical model model thatthat resourceresource stressstress waswas minimalminimal inin this period, and knowledge, knowledge, accumulates accumulates overover thethe generations. Knowledge ofof therefore therefore there there should should have have been lessless diversificationdiversification of thethe social social behaviourbehaviour that increases members' security is transmittedtransmitted resource resource base base atat thisthis timetime than than in in the the Lower Lower Palaeolithic. Palaeolithic. This toto succeedingsucceeding generationsgenerations and and turnedturned intointo socialsocial rulesrules ofof not not being being the the case, case, itit is is obvious obvious thatthat thethe author'sauthor's resource-stressresource-stress behaviour.behaviour. TheseThese behavioural rules rules inin thethe firstfirst place affectaffect the modelmodel overlooksoverlooks thethe fundamentalsfundamentals ofof thethe bioculturalbiocultural evolution modemode ofof subsistence.subsistence. Cooperation, sharing,sharing, andand differentiationdifferentiation ofof man. man. of of tasks tasks are are suchsuch rulesrules ofof behaviourbehaviour inin thethe economiceconomic relations InIn lightlight ofof this,this, thethe role role ofof certain certain veryvery developeddeveloped physical betweenbetween humanhuman beings.beings. OnceOnce such rules are established,established, thethe attributesattributes of of Holocene Holocene manman (modern(modern H.H. sapienssapiens sapiens),sapiens), economy economy ofof humanhuman societysociety consistsconsists of bothboth relationsrelations between amongamong themthem thethe precisionprecision grip,grip, wide-anglewide-angle vision, and highlyhighly the the society society and and its its environment environment and and economiceconomic relationsrelations betweenbetween sensitivesensitive reflexes,reflexes, which which were were probably probably absent absent inin thethe non-H. its its members.members. PerhapsPerhaps the first economiceconomic relation,relation, besides thethe sapienssapiens sapienssapiens extinctextinct species,species, appearappear to have nono relevancerelevance forfor members' members' commoncommon accessaccess toto a territory,territory, was thethe provisionprovision forfor the the authorauthor inin his resource-stress/resource-diversification para­para- childrenchildren by by adults, adults, promoting promoting an an extendedextended childhoodchildhood and im-im­ digm.digm. ApparentlyApparently hehe assumesassumes thatthat biologically there was no provementprovement of of learning learning ability. ability. It It isis possiblepossible that thethe ratherrather changechange inin hominidshominids fromfrom the the Lower Lower PleistocenePleistocene toto thethe Early complex complex economiceconomic structurestructure ofof divisiondivision ofof labourlabour between thethe Holocene.Holocene. WeareWe are given to believe that a singlesingle traittrait explains sexes sexes appeared appeared asas earlyearly asas thethe MiddleMiddle Paleolithic. thethe developmentdevelopment ofof subsistence pattern and technologicaltechnological r I believebelieve that the concentration on big-game huntinghunting during innovations innovations duringduring thethe wholewhole ofof prehistory. prehistory. To To meme thisthis appears appears thethe MiddleMiddle andand Upper Paleolithic was mademade possiblepossible inin thethe asas lopsidedlopsided asas the population-growth or climatic-change theo-theo­ first first place place byby improvementimprovement inin economiceconomic organizationorganization andand not riesries hehe criticises.criticises. byby technicaltechnical invention.invention. Big-gameBig-game huntinghunting callscalls forfor anan eco-eco· The The article,article, whichwhich isis wholly wholly an an exerciseexercise inin dialectics dialectics basedbased on nomic nomic structure structure that that allows allows leadership, leadership, planning planning of production, of production, empiricism empiricism and and lavishly lavishly laced laced withwith jargon,jargon, chaseschases many a divisiondivision of of tasks, tasks, storing, storing, sharing, sharing, and andso on. so Byon. the By endthe ofend the of the mirage. mirage. WeWe areare told, for example, thatthat "resource"resource reliabilityreliability Pleistocene,Pleistocene, aa newnew kindkind ofof humanhuman societysociety hadhad developed,developed, and waswas increasedincreased duringduring the the Oldowan Oldowan andand EarlyEarly Acheulian by thisthis societysociety waswas thethe one thatthat waswas confrontedconfronted withwith thethe stressstress diversifying diversifying the the resource resource base base and and exploitingexploiting herdherd animals"animals" that that thethe decreasedecrease ofof bigbig gamegame implied.implied. ToTo useuse "r-selected"r-selected without without beingbeing toldtold how thisthis situationsituation differeddiffered fromfrom the pre-pre­ species" species" to their fullfull potential, potential, aa developeddeveloped economic structurestructure OldowanOldowan condition, if therethere waswas one. is is necessary.necessary. Simple rulesrules forfor sharing are notnot sufficient.sufficient. The harvestharvest maymay taketake placeplace in a shortshort period ofof time in which a large large amountamount ofof workwork hashas toto bebe done,done, andand therethere must be rulesrules by by PER PER PERSSONPERSSON for for how how the the products products ofof this this work work are are toto bebe sharedshared amongamong the DepartmentDepartment of of Archaeology, Archaeology, University University of Goteborg, of Goteborg, Box 2133, Box 2133, membersmembers ofof thethe societysociety throughoutthroughout thethe year. S S 403403 13 Goteborg, Sweden. Sweden. 1515 IViv 81 Hayden'sHayden's starting point isis aa well-motivated disagreement with thethe population-growth population-growth modelsmodels soso predominant during the last byby RICHARD RICHARD PITTIONIPITTIONI decade.decade. I cancan onlyonly agreeagree completelycompletely with with hishis criticismcriticism ofof these InstitutInstitut fur fur Ur- Ur- undund Fruhgeschichte,Friihgeschichte, Universitat Universitat Wien, Wien, Uni­Uni- models.models. versitiitstrasse versitdtstrasse 7 II, 7/1I, A-1010 A-1010 Wien, Wien, Austria. Austria. 13 III13 81iii 81 Hayden Hayden considers technological improvements toto be thethe TheThe authorauthor puts forward aa wholewhole rangerange of theoreticaltheoretical specula­specula- resultresult ofof periodicperiodic resourceresource stress.stress. ThisThis is partlypartly right,right, but tionstions on on the the question question of of technological technological transitions transitions in Epipalaeo­in Epipalaeo- improvementimprovement inin skill skill and and knowledgeknowledge isis aa continuouscontinuous process not lithiclithic cultural cultural groups. groups. He He also also raises raises questions questions for for which, which, owing owing necessarilynecessarily connectedconnected with stress.stress. It originates inin thethe fact that toto lacklack of sufficient evidence, evidence, we we cancan provide only partial the the humanhuman beingbeing is capablecapable ofof transmittingtransmitting experienceexperience toto answersanswers or or no no answers answers at at all. all. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, his his article article furnishes furnishes succeeding succeeding generations.generations. ThisThis ability makesmakes itit possiblepossible forfor be-be­ importantimportant food food for for thought thought and and isis thus likelylikely toto promotepromote haviorhavior toto changechange entirely inin accordanceaccordance with thethe environmentenvironment pertinentpertinent research.research. withinwithin a a veryvery shortshort periodperiod ofof time,time, thisthis beingbeing thethe mainmain advan­advan- tage tage ofof thethe humanhuman race.race. The abilityability toto learnlearn fromfrom others and fromfrom daily daily experience experience is is a a qualityquality thatthat makesmakes the human race byby KAREL KAREL VVALOCH ALDCH superior. superior. The The biologicalbiological evolution of thethe humanhuman racerace has mainly AnthroposAnthropos Institute, Institute, nam. nam. 25, 25, unora utnora 7, 7,65937 659 37 Brno, Brno, Czecho­ Czecho- to to dodo withwith thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe resourcesresources ofof thethe brain.brain. TheThe slovakia.slovJakia. 4 IV 81 4 IV 81 slow slow evolutionevolution ofof thethe modemode of subsistence during the Lower Basic Basic changeschanges inin thethe fauna-thefauna-the disappearancedisappearance ofof thethe cold-cold­ Paleolithic Paleolit.hic isis dependentdependent onon thethe levellevel of brainbrain capacity,capacity, which lovingloving and and thethe appearanceappearance ofof thethe forest-steppeforest-steppe (postglacial)

538 538 CURRENT ANTIHIROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms community-tookcommunity-took placeplace in the loess areas ofof centralcentral Europe Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS asas early asas thethe late glacialglacial (Aller6d).(Allerod). TheThe regression regression ofof thethe UpperUpper DryasDryas (Dryas III)III) did did not not influence influence the the compositioncomposition ofof veryvery quicklyquickly throughoutthroughout centralcentral Europe,Europe, apparentlyapparently because thethe fauna.fauna. ThisThis meansmeans that the beginning of thethe HoloceneHolocene was locallocal populationspopulations adaptedadapted toto the new economiceconomic and socialsocial notnot accompanied accompanied by anyany substantialsubstantial changes inin thethe ecology.ecology. forms.forms. The The populationpopulation ofof the Final PalaeolithicPalaeolithic seeminglyseemingly TheThe AllerodAller6d sawsaw the beginning ofof aa newnew phasephase of thethe Palaeo­Palaeo- playedplayed no activeactive part inin the discoveries affectingaffecting the productiveproductive lithic-thelithic-the Late PalaeolithicPalaeolithic representedrepresented by thethe AzilianAzilian inin economy,economy, but but it it was was ableable toto adaptadapt quicklyquickly and thusthus toto con-con­ westernwestern Europe, Europe, thethe Epigravettian Epigravettian andand Romanellian inin southern tributetribute to to the the success success of of the the "Neolithic "Neolithic Revolution,"Revolution," a process Europe,Europe, thethe EpimagdalenianEpimagdalenian and Tarnovian inin central Europe, thatthat tooktook severalseveral thousandthousand years years in in thethe NearNear EastEast (Clark(Clark thethe "Federmesser" "Federmesser" and tanged-pointtanged-point groupsgroups inin northern Europe,Europe, 1980).1980). andand thethe continuing developmentdevelopment of regional groups in eastern TheThe assessmentassessment ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean Palaeolithic accordingaccording toto Europe.Europe. In principle, all of these areare characterized byby a trendtrend ethnographicethnographic models models basedbased on thethe studystudy ofof contemporarycontemporary towardstowards thethe microlithisation ofof toolstools andand thethe occurrenceoccurrence ofof huntinghunting societiessocieties mostlymostly livingliving underunder extremeextreme ecologicalecological condi-condi­ shortshort and and circularcircular endend scrapers and slightlyslightly arched backed tionstions thatthat nevernever existedexisted inin the temperate zone isis ratherrather dis-dis­ knives.knives. MostMost of these technocomplexestechno complexes (in(in western,western, southern,southern, putable.putable. ItIt is almost certain thatthat throughoutthroughout thethe Palaeolithic andand centralcentral Europe)Europe) areare thethe resultresult ofof the adaptation ofof thethe peoplepeople werewere forcedforced toto livelive inin a a certaincertain balancebalance with the natural huntershunters and and gatherersgatherers of of the the Late Late PalaeolithicPalaeolithic to thethe newnew sourcessources ofof nutritionnutrition on on whichwhich theirtheir existenceexistence depended.depended. A ecologicalecological conditions.conditions. TheThe technologytechnology ofof the the "Mesolithic" "Mesolithic" is a dramaticdramatic growthgrowth ofof popUlation population cancan be documented onlyonly afterafter necessarynecessary continuationcontinuation ofof the the development development ofof the the Late Late Palaeo­Palaeo- thethe onsetonset ofof thethe Neolithic,Neolithic, when,when, forfor example, example, inin thethe loessloess areaarea lithiclithic (microlithisation)(microlithisation) inin thethe samesame ecology;ecology; in fact,fact, it is thethe ofof MoraviaMoravia therethere waswas on the average oneone LinearLinear PotteryPottery FinalFinal PalaeolithicPalaeolithic (d.(cf. RozoyRozoy 1978). settlementsettlement for for every every present-daypresent-day village.village. TheThe networknetwork ofof TheThe MagdalenianMagdalenian people, predecessors ofof thethe LateLate Palaeo­Palaeo- PalaeolithicPalaeolithic settlements, although relatively dense, isis nothingnothing lithiclithic in in centralcentral Europe,Europe, specializedspecialized inin huntinghunting large animals likelike this.this. - (horse,(horse, reindeer-K-selectedreindeer-K-selected resources), although they also huntedhunted smallsmall onesones (hares, birds). NoNo skeletalskeletal remains remains ofof fishfish havehave beenbeen discovered herehere (in(in Czechoslovakia and inin thethe byby J. J. J. J. WYMER WYMER GermanGerman Democratic Democratic Republic),Republic), andand harpoons are also veryvery 1717 DukeDuke St.,St., Bildeston, Ipswich,Ipswich, Sujjolk,Suftolk, England.England. 31 IIIiII 8181 rare.rare. The The peoplepeople ofof the the Late Late Palaeolithic Palaeolithic (the(the EpimagdalenianEpimagdalenian ThisThis isis aa thoughtful,thoughtful, stimulating stimulating essay, essay, andand II wouldwould agree that ofof Kulna Kiulna Cave Cave inin Moravia)Moravia) huntedhunted largelarge mammalsmammals (bovids,(bovids, oneone ofof thethe mainmain differencesdifferences between between Upper Upper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic and elk,elk, horse,horse, deer).deer). Unfortunately, inin Czechoslovakia findsfinds ofof MesolithicMesolithic economieseconomies may may have have been,been, inin somesome cases,cases, a con-con­ animalanimal remainsremains from from the the Final Final Palaeolithic Palaeolithic ("Mesolithic") ("Mesolithic") are siderablesiderable increaseincrease inin thethe proportion ofof r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies as still still very very rare; rare; at at Smolin,Smolin, inin southernsouthern Moravia,Moravia, however, horse foodstuffs.foodstuffs. However, However, I Ido do notnot thinkthink thatthat thisthis shouldshould bebe used predominatespredominates and and bovids,bovids, elk,elk, andand beaverbeaver abound; therethere are asas aa meansmeans of distinguishingdistinguishing betweenbetween them. It isis not a definition alsoalso sporadicsporadic finds ofof remainsremains ofof pig,pig, fox, fox, and and red red deerdeer (Musil(Musil ofof the the Mesolithic. Mesolithic. The The distinctiondistinction betweenbetween UpperUpper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic inin ValochValoch 1978).1978). TheThe Final PalaeolithicPalaeolithic inin BohemiaBohemia isis notnot andand MesolithicMesolithic isis mainly an archaeologicalarchaeological convenience,convenience, a limited limited toto thethe vicinityvicinity ofof rivers; rivers; i.e., i.e., itit doesdoes notnot documentdocument the temporaltemporal distinctiondistinction as as farfar as as EuropeEurope is concerned, with any importanceimportance ofof fishing fishing (Vencl (Vencl 1971). 1971). InIn the caves ofof southernsouthern non-food-producingnon-food-producing economy economy withwith aa leptolithicleptolithic stone industryindustry Germany,Germany, whichwhich dodo contain remainsremains ofof fish,fish, thethe huntinghunting ofof occurring occurring after after the the final final retreat retreat of of glacial glacial ice ice defineddefined as as Meso­Meso- largelarge mammalsmammals waswas alsoalso thethe mainmain sourcesource ofof subsistence subsistence (Taute(Taute lithic.lithic. In In Palaeo-IndianPalaeo-Indian societiessocieties thethe distinctiondistinction is blurred and 1980). 1980). ThusThus inin thethe FinalFinal Palaeolithic inin centralcentral Europe therethere thethe termterm Mesolithic Mesolithic hashas otherother connotations.connotations. Ignoring this,this, the was was outstanding outstanding specialization specialization inin K-selectedK-selected resources.resources. AA specialspecial main main themetheme of of the the gradual gradual dependence dependence onon r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies is aa adaptation adaptation to fishing couldcould havehave occurred only on thethe seashoreseashore sound sound one.one. ItIt isis aa natural development fromfrom thethe economyeconomy andand and and inin thethe vicinityvicinity ofof thethe large large seasseas of northernnorthern Europe.Europe. society society of of the the advancedadvanced hunting communities ofof the Upper At At SmolinSmolin wewe alsoalso found grindstonesgrindstones (Valoch (Valoch 1977),1977), but Palaeolithic, Palaeolithic, which findsfinds itsits archaeologicalarchaeological expression inin highly such such artifactsartifacts are are veryvery rarerare inin centralcentral EuropeEurope (including(including thethe specialised specialised stonestone industriesindustries based based onon bladeblade production, use and extraordinarily extraordinarily rich rich "Mesolithic" "Mesolithic" ofof Poland). Poland). The grindinggrinding of modification modification of of naturalnatural shelters,shelters, thethe buildingbuilding ofof artificialartificial seeds seeds waswas perhapsperhaps uncommon andand notnot partpart of of thethe routineroutine food-food­ shelters, shelters, strong strong indications indications of of the the conservationconservation ofof K-selectedK-selected acquisition acquisition activities.activities. species, species, permanentpermanent oror semipermanentsemipermanent placesplaces of settlement asas The The entireentire culture culture and and economyeconomy ofof the the Final Final Palaeolithic,Palaeolithic, as well well as as nomadism,nomadism, andand aa graphic art which betokens complex we we know know themthem so so far far in in Europe Europe (perhaps(perhaps with the exception ofof social social orders.orders. The The gradualgradual changechange to a greater dependence on the the preceramic preceramic on on thethe GreekGreek peninsula),peninsula), represent aa natural r-selected r-selected species species probablyprobably happenedhappened onon manymany differentdifferent occa­occa- final final phase phase ofof thethe approximatelyapproximately 1,000,000-year-old traditiontradition sions sions at at differentdifferent places, places, during during and and after after the the Late Late PleistocenePleistocene of of the the hunters hunters and and gatherers gatherers of of the the Old Old Stone Stone Age.Age. WeWe do not period. period. The The firstfirst manifestations manifestations of ofit areit are in somein some of theof theflake­ flake- yet yet know know of of any any attempts attempts to to domesticate domesticate herbivorousherbivorous animalsanimals blade blade oror MousterianMousterian industriesindustries ofof thethe LastLast Interglacial or itsits (indications (indications of of the the domesticationdomestication of of the the dogdog appearappear in thethe equivalent. equivalent. HaydenHayden rightlyrightly emphasises the greatergreater emphasis Magdalenian Magdalenian inin the territory of of the the GDR GDR [Musil[Musil 1980]),1980]), nornor are on on thisthis typetype ofof economyeconomy inin MesolithicMesolithic andand Palaeo-Indian there there any any signs signs of of farming. farming. No No basic basic changeschanges occurredoccurred betweenbetween societies, societies, but but it it was was nothingnothing new. new. However,However, itit waswas a criticalcritical the the Late Late andand FinalFinal Palaeolithic, andand the people continuedcontinued toto factor factor in in thethe developmentdevelopment of food-producing societiessocieties when live live as as huntershunters and and gatherersgatherers (d. (cf. Rozoy Rozoy 1978).1978). other other circumstances circumstances were were favourable. favourable. TheThe other circumstancescircumstances Only Only in in thethe NearNear East werewere therethere populationspopulations graduallygradually were were both both environmental environmental and and social.social. Food-producingFood-producing societies adopting adopting newnew formsforms of of productive productive economy economy (Natufian, (Natufian, Zarzian,Zarzian, could could notnot have have evolvedevolved fromfrom a aLower Lower Palaeolithic Palaeolithic (say,(say, Acheu­Acheu- Geometric Geometric Kebaran, Kebaran, etc.),etc.), andand only they deserve the name lian) lian) huntinghunting economy,economy, butbut notnot justjust because ofof theirtheir almost Mesolithic. Mesolithic. While theythey werewere foundingfounding thethe firstfirst settlements of total total (or (or was was it?) it?) dependence dependence on onlarge large animals animals (i.e., (i.e., K-selected K-selected herders herders and and farmers,farmers, some some 10,00010,000 yearsyears ago,ago, the plains ofof species). species). northern northern Europe Europe werewere stillstill roamedroamed by herds of reindeer, andand Hayden Hayden weakensweakens hishis argument argument by by stressing stressing that that this this change change central central and and westernwestern EuropeEurope were witnessingwitnessing the onset ofof the in in economy economy is isa distinctiona distinction between between the the Upper Upper Palaeolithic Palaeolithic and and forest-steppe forest-steppe fauna fauna and and the the technology technology of of the the Late Late Palaeolithic. Palaeolithic. the the Mesolithic. Mesolithic. I I dodo notnot believebelieve it.it. NorNor dodo II believebelieve manvmany ofof The The historichistoric breakthroughbreakthrough occurred occurred in in Europe Europe as as latelate asas thethe the the other other statements statements he he puts puts forward forward to supportto support it. There it. There was wasa a 6th 6th millennium millennium B.C., B.C., in in the the Atlantic Atlantic period,period, withwith thethe onsetonset of change change (pestles,(pestles, groundground stonestone oror flakedflaked axes), axes), butbut notnot aa major Neolithic Neolithic farmingfarming and and herding. herding. The The earliest earliest Neolithic Neolithic expandedexpanded change, change, in in technology. technology. The The toolkittoolkit isis stillstill essentiallyessentially thethe UpperUpper

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 539539

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PalaeolithicPalaeolithic leptolithicleptolithic one.one. There were permanentpermanent or semi-semi­ cultural cultural evolution.evolution. NeitherNeither environmentalenvironmental changechange nor popUla­popula- permanentpermanent Late Late PleistocenePleistocene settlementssettlements (e.g.,(e.g., Combe Grenal,Grenal, tiontion growthgrowth is is givengiven anan importantimportant placeplace within it. Kostienki, Kostienki, Haua Haua Fteah, andand hundredshundreds ofof sitessites inin thethe Perigord Furthermore, Furthermore, the the model model does does notnot dealdeal with somesome specificspecific of of France). France). MarineMarine resourcesresources werewere exploited exploited (e.g., (e.g., atat KlasiesKlasies facts.facts. InIn particular,particular, itit rejects the well-established pattern ofof RiverRiver Mouth).Mouth). Such thingsthings apart, it isis aa veryvery reasonablereasonable model, long-termlong-term growth growth of of the the human human population population duringduring thethe Pleisto­Pleisto- andand ifif we we cease cease toto equateequate thethe dependencedependence on r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies cene,cene, reflectedreflected in in (1) (1) thethe geographicalgeographical spread ofof humanity fromfrom withwith just just the the Mesolithic Mesolithic periodperiod itit is is improved. improved. TheThe varietyvariety andand tropicaltropical originsorigins to to worldwide worldwide distribution, distribution, (2) (2) 'thethe demonstrateddemonstrated adaptabilityadaptability ofof MesolithicMesolithic economieseconomies areare clearly described inin increaseincrease overover timetime inin thethe numbernumber andand sizesize of archaeological thethe short short but but profound profound essay essay by by Clark Clark (1981).(1981). sites, sites, culminating culminating inin aa tenfoldtenfold increase increase inin populationpopulation during the UpperUpper PalaeolithicPalaeolithic alonealone (Butzer(Butzer 1971), andand (3) anan increaseincrease inin averageaverage lifelife expectancyexpectancy fromfrom ca. ca. 1515 toto ca.ca. 30 years, probably byby DAVID DAVID R. R. YESNERYESNER primarilyprimarily throughthrough a a reductionreduction inin infantinfant mortality. mortality. This This "bottle"bottle DepartmentDepartment of of Geography-Anthropology, Geography-Anthropology, University University of Southern of Southern model,"model," asas Hayden termsterms it,it, ofof long-termlong-term population growthgrowth Maine,Maine, Gorham,Gorham, Maine Maine 04038,04038, U.S.A.U.S.A. 1717 ivIV 8181 doesdoes notnot implyimply thethe nonexistencenonexistence of populationpopulation pressure, only HaydenHayden is to be commendedcommended highlyhighly forfor reviewing some of the thatthat emigrationemigration was was available available asas aa mechanism to relieve such majormajor trendstrends of of Pleistocene Pleistocene and and HoloceneHolocene prehistory, emphasiz­emphasiz- pressure.pressure. ing ing the the role role of of technological technological change. change. InIn doingdoing so,so, he presents a HaydenHayden feelsfeels thatthat nono attemptattempt hashas beenbeen made to address the new new theoreticaltheoretical approach approach comparablecomparable in scope toto earlierearlier state-state­ ultimateultimate questionquestion of "why"why oror specifically specifically how how human human popUlation population ments ments by by Binford Binford (1968) (1968) and and CohenCohen (1977).(1977). HisHis chiefchief contribu-contribu­ growthgrowth is is differentdifferent from from that that of of other other animals." animals." AA major tiontion isis toto emphasize thethe theoreticaltheoretical importanceimportance ofof resourceresource advanceadvance inin thisthis regardregard hashas recentlyrecently beenbeen mademade by Lovejoy reliability-specifically, reliability-specifically, an increased reliancereliance overover timetime on more (1981),(1981), whowho notesnotes thatthat one unique featurefeature of humans in com-com­ "reliable""reliable" resources. Although there are several problems with parisonparison withwith other hominoids is theirtheir greatergreater capacity forfor thisthis concept,concept, approachesapproaches whichwhich taketake into accountaccount resourceresource populationpopulation growthgrowth as as aa result of closercloser birthbirth spacingspacing (among reliability reliability as aswell well as theas theenergy energy and nutrient and nutrient value of value prehistoric of prehistoric humanhuman hunter-gatherers).hunter-gatherers). PotentialPotential humanhuman fertility isis seenseen by dietsdiets havehave beenbeen longlong overdue.overdue. LovejoyLovejoy toto be be quite quite high, high, making making humans humans more more r-selected r-selected than, than, The The centralcentral mechanism ofof Hayden'sHayden's culturalcultural evolutionaryevolutionary forfor example, example, other other apes. apes. This This has has thethe clearclear selectiveselective advantageadvantage scheme scheme is is aa "resource-stress"resource-stress model"model" involving aa notionnotion ofof ofof allowing allowing rapid,rapid, opportunistic radiationradiation into a widewide varietyvariety of continuouscontinuous feedbackfeedback betweenbetween nutritional stress,stress, inducedinduced by ecological ecological niches niches and and habitats habitats as the as theneed need arises. arises. This Thishas clearlyhas clearly "cyclical"cyclical fluctuationsfluctuations in in naturalnatural resources,"resources," andand "the costcost ofof beenbeen thethe greatgreat evolutionaryevolutionary advantageadvantage of the hominid line.line. InIn maintainingmaintaining populationpopulation controls"controls" such as infanticideinfanticide and other orderorder to to dealdeal with suchsuch high potential fertility,fertility, humanshumans have mechanismsmechanisms whichwhich resultresult in in "reproductive "reproductive waste."waste." Elsewhere, hadhad toto developdevelop aa wide variety of bioculturalbiocultural population-controlpopulation-control I I (Yesner(Yesner 1977, 1980) and others (e.g.,(e.g., DenhamDenham 1974) havehave mechanisms.mechanisms. And,And, asas HaydenHayden argues, some population growthgrowth pointedpointed toto thethe lacklack of empiricalempirical evidence forfor the adoption ofof mustmust havehave resulted from opportunistic responses to greatergreater such such artificialartificial population-regulation population-regulation techniquestechniques amongamong anyany but foodfood availabilityavailability yielded by increasinglyincreasingly sophisticatedsophisticated tech-tech­ thethe mostmost marginalmarginal hunting-and-gathering groups. groups. EvenEven thethe nology.nology. ad ad hochoc useuse ofof suchsuch techniquestechniques in situationssituations of resourceresource shortageshortage Another Another of of Hayden's Hayden's objectionsobjections to the long-term population­population- thatthat HaydenHayden seems to imply would, in all but thethe most unpro-unpro­ growth growth model model isis toto bebe foundfound inin his his statements statements thatthat "it is much ductive,ductive, unpredictableunpredictable environments,environments, resultresult inin wastagewastage thatthat moremore difficult difficult and and complex complex to to maintain maintain aa constant but imper-imper­ wouldwould farfar outweighoutweigh any any benefits.benefits. In In aa sense,sense, this isis akin toto ceptiblyceptibly lowlow raterate ofof growthgrowth thanthan itit isis toto maintain either zero argumentsarguments about about food food taboos taboos such such as as the the "sacred "sacred cow"-i.e., cow"-i.e., oror rapid rapid population population growth"growth" andand thatthat "mankind"mankind would have itit isis notnot soso muchmuch reverencereverence forfor cows cows that that isis adaptiveadaptive as thethe beenbeen uncomfortablyuncomfortably closeclose toto potentialpotential extinction, with aa maxi-maxi­ preventionprevention of of the the disastrous disastrous results results that that would would occuroccur if peoplepeople mummum annual annual raterate ofof possible possible growth growth of of only only 0-0.0001%." 0-0.0001%." No werewere permitted permitted to to eat eat theirtheir cows cows everyevery timetime they they had had aa bad one,one, however,however, isis seriouslyseriously suggestingsuggesting thatthat suchsuch aa lowlow growthgrowth harvest.harvest. raterate waswas always maintained,maintained, even onon aa short-termshort-term basis.basis. The The outcomeoutcome of thisthis dialectic,dialectic, accordingaccording toto Hayden,Hayden, is thethe Clearly,Clearly, aa rapidrapid human populationpopUlation growthgrowth potential, counter-counter­ "maximization"maximization ofof resourceresource reliability,"reliability," aa phenomenonphenomenon whichwhich actedacted byby emigration asas well as nutritionalnutritional (and(and probablyprobably isis mademade possiblepossible throughthrough "technological"technological innovations," includ-includ­ disease)disease) stress, wouldwould havehave resulted in continuous episodes ofof ing ing "technological "technological complexitycomplexity and and specialization." specialization." There is no highhigh locallocal populationpopulation growth andand declinedecline throughoutthroughout thethe disagreement disagreement as as toto thethe increaseincrease inin technologicaltechnological sophisticationsophistication Pleistocene.Pleistocene. HaydenHayden himself refersrefers to to "documented"documented casescases inin thatthat hashas occurredoccurred throughout thethe course of human evolution, whichwhich veryvery nomadicnomadic hunting-gatheringhunting-gathering groupsgroups havehave increased butbut whatwhat isis thethe ultimateultimate drivingdriving force behindbehind it?it? Hayden theirtheir populations populations rapidly"rapidly" andand discusses thethe "net potentialpotential forfor addressesaddresses thisthis issueissue obliquelyobliquely inin hishis discussiondiscussion ofof major major "stages" "stages" substantialsubstantial populationpopulation growthgrowth among hunter-gatherers,"hunter-gatherers," par-par­ ofof cultural cultural evolution. evolution. For For example, example, in in Stage Stage 22 (equivalent(equivalent toto ticularlyticularly in in connectionconnection withwith thethe earlyearly peoplingpeopling ofof thethe New thethe Middle Middle Pleistocene),Pleistocene), he he tellstells usus thatthat "once"once small and World.World. InIn sum, reduced child spacing amongamong humanhuman hunter-hunter­ scavengedscavenged animalsanimals began to be used,used, continuedcontinued diversificationdiversification gatherers gatherers should should bebe seen primarily as aa population-growth-population-growth­ ofof thethe resourceresource basebase by includingincluding thethe effectiveeffective and regularregular promotingpromoting device; device; thethe fact that nono furtherfurther erosion ofof childchild exploitationexploitation ofof largerlarger animalsanimals would havehave beenbeen perceived perceived asas thethe spacingspacing isis observedobserved among hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers may be attribut-attribut­ desirabledesirable next next step" step" (emphasis (emphasis mine).mine). Similarly,Similarly, inin StageStage 33 ableable toto the the necessity necessity for for maintaining maintaining some some sort sort of mechanism of mechanism to to (equivalent (equivalent toto thethe UpperUpper Palaeolithic), we learn that "since preventprevent what what otherwise otherwise might might be be rapid rapid resource resource depletion. depletion. therethere werewere still still many many species species ofof large-bodied large-bodied animalsanimals which were HaydenHayden notes that,that, accordingaccording toto hishis model, model, "research "research measur­measur- notnot regularlyregularly usedused because ofof thethe difficultydifficulty oror dangerdanger involvedinvolved ing ing ratesrates ofof resourceresource overexploitation usingusing human skeletal inin their their exploitation, exploitation, continued continued motivation motivation to diversify to diversify the resource the resource remainsremains shouldshould showshow little trend towardtoward increasing stress over basebase duringduring timestimes ofof resource resource stress stress might might be be expected expected toto havehave time,"time," which,which, inin fact,fact, appears appears toto be the case throughoutthroughout most resultedresulted inin attempts attempts toto exploit exploit thesethese other other animals" animals" (emphasis(emphasis ofof thethe Pleistocene.Pleistocene. However,However, this result would be expectedexpected mine).mine). ToTo me, thesethese are mentalisticmentalistic explanationsexplanations of culture from from either either his his model model or theor thelong-term long-term population-growth population-growth one. one. change, change, and and II would have toto placeplace myselfmyself amongamong thosethose who,who, BecauseBecause emigration waswas an an important important mechanism mechanism of of Pleistocene Pleistocene asas HaydenHayden says,says, viewview suchsuch interpretationsinterpretations as "reversions"reversions toto populationpopulation control,control, oneone wouldwould not expect physiological stressstress nonexplanation."nonexplanation." ThisThis is a piecemeal modelmodel whichwhich degenerates toto show show up up inin humanhuman populationspopulations untiluntil nicheniche saturationsaturation beganbegan intointo descriptiondescription andand interpretationinterpretation ofof discretediscrete "stages""stages" ratherrather toto occur, occur, i.e., i.e., in in the the Late Late Pleistocene.Pleistocene. FollowingFollowing aa population­population- thanthan searchingsearching forfor underlyingunderlying generalgeneral paradigmsparadigms of human growth growth model, model, oneone wouldwould expect firstfirst more intensiveintensive use ofof

540540 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms marginalmarginal habitats habitats andand lessless "valuable""valuable" (in(in terms terms ofof energyenergy and Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGESTONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS nutrientnutrient cost/benefit cost/benefit ratios) ratios) resources resources as as longlong asas these werewere available; available; true physiological stress-ofstress-of thethe typetype likely to be mammals,mammals, and and vegetablevegetable foods.foods. II believe thatthat thisthis createdcreated visiblevisible inin human human skeletalskeletal remains-shouldremains-should appear onlyonly whenwhen more more stressstress onon resources through further humanhuman population andand wherewhere "settlement""settlement" solutionssolutions were nono longerlonger possible.possible. Such growth,growth, induced induced byby even furtherfurther reductionreduction of birth spacing areasareas maymay well havehave been thethe veryvery areas inin whichwhich initialinitial foodfood thanthan was characteristiccharacteristic ofof earlierearlier hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer groups.groups. productionproduction occurred, occurred, as as hashas been recentlyrecently demonstrateddemonstrated byby Hayden Hayden doubts this. He arguesargues that,that, ifif sedentismsedentism correlatescorrelates Cohen Cohen (1980)(1980) forfor areasareas asas farfar apartapart asas EgyptEgypt and the midwestern withwith population population growth, linguisticlinguistic diversitydiversity shouldshould be inversely UnitedUnited States.States. TheThe situationsituation isis analogousanalogous toto Harris's (1974) related related toto sedentism;sedentism; sincesince thethe empirical evidence is thatthat argumentsarguments concerningconcerning whywhy the the Yanomamo Yanomam6 show no physiologi-physiologi­ linguistic linguistic diversitydiversity isis directlydirectly related related to to sedentism sedentism inin Australia,Australia, calcal indicationsindications of stress even thoughthough theythey apparentlyapparently suffer suffer hehe considersconsiders aa relationshiprelationship of sedentismsedentism toto population growthgrowth fromfrom population population pressurepressure onon resources;resources; althoughalthough village fissionfission invalid.invalid. TheThe trouble with thisthis isis thatthat linguisticlinguistic diversitydiversity isis maymay taketake placeplace among thethe YanomamoYanomamo beforebefore any onsetonset ofof probablyprobably relatedrelated moremore toto antiquityantiquity ofof occupationoccupation ofof anan area physiologicalphysiological stress,stress, thisthis by by no no means means disproves disproves thatthat populationpopulation thanthan toto any demographicdemographic variable;variable; forfor example,example, linguisticlinguistic pressurepressure underliesunderlies it.it. ThisThis is the key to understanding thethe fact,fact, diversitydiversity is is greater greater in in southwestern southwestern Alaska Alaska thanthan anywhere else referredreferred to to by by Hayden, Hayden, that that sedentary sedentary (e.g., (e.g., NorthwestNorthwest Coast)Coast) in in thethe EskimoEskimo realm. hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers have have "little"little difficultydifficulty obtaining obtaining food": food": suchsuch a Hayden Hayden additionallyadditionally points to the fact thatthat "domestication situationsituation byby nono meansmeans impliesimplies that these groups are notnot affected diddid not not first first occur occur where where the theenvironments environments were wererich enough rich enough to to byby population population pressure,pressure, only thatthat they havehave developed efficient efficient support support sedentary,sedentary, hunting-gathering-basedhunting-gathering-based rankedranked societies,"societies," redistributiveredistributive mechanisms mechanisms forfor dealing dealing withwith it. it. Clearly, Clearly, asas Hay­Hay- butbut severalseveral examples,examples, particularlyparticularly Peru Peru andand Mexico,Mexico, could be den den says,says, populationpopulation pressure is difficult toto opeoperationalize, rationalize, but citedcited toto thethe contrary.contrary. AsAs II have indicated,indicated, thethe originsorigins ofof foodfood thisthis does does notnot makemake itit anyany lessless real.real. TheThe two best indicatorsindicators ofof productionproduction andand complexcomplex society probably have moremore toto do with such such pressurepressure are are thethe increasedincreased useuse of marginal resources and thethe naturenature of the terrestrialterrestrial environments juxtaposedjuxtaposed withwith habitatshabitats and,and, if unchecked, clinical manifestationsmanifestations ofof physio-physio­ rich, rich, densely densely populated populated (e.g.,(e.g., coastal)coastal) environmentsenvironments thanthan withwith logicallogical strain;strain; these operate onon different different levels ofof intensity. the the densely densely populated populated environmentsenvironments themselvesthemselves (Yesner (Yesner 1980).1980). It It seemsseems difficult to to denydeny thatthat human population growthgrowth WhatWhat aboutabout the role of socialsocial organization? Hayden sidessides playedplayed somesome rolerole inin cultural cultural evolutionevolution (d.(cf. Hayden'sHayden's comments withwith CowgillCowgill inin supportingsupporting "economic-based"economic-based competition, as aboutabout rankedranked societiessocieties amongamong western EuropeanEuropean hunter-gather-hunter-gather­ opposedopposed toto populationpopulation pressure, asas a primeprime mover in cultural ersers during during the the Upper Upper Palaeolithic). Palaeolithic). Population growthgrowth alone, evolution." evolution." II do notnot perceiveperceive thesethese asas mutuallymutually exclusive;exclusive; however,however, does does not not explain explain allall ofof thethe changeschanges thatthat tooktook place pressurepressure on on resources resources can can often often be an be excuse an excuse or justification or justification for for in in humanhuman societiessocieties duringduring the the Late Late Pleistocene; thethe impactimpact thethe developmentdevelopment ofof rankingranking systemssystems andand centralizedcentralized political of of environmental environmental change change must must also also bebe considered.considered. ForFor example,example, control. control. environmental environmental change change almostalmost certainlycertainly contributedcontributed toto thethe Finally,Finally, then,then, wewe areare leftleft withwith Hayden'sHayden's notionnotion ofof resourceresource extinction extinction of of the the large large Ice Ice AgeAge beasts,beasts, aa fact ofof whichwhich HaydenHayden reliability.reliability. This This is,is, however, a somewhatsomewhat confusingconfusing concept,concept, makesmakes littlelittle mentionmention inin spitespite of itsits potential contribution to becausebecause inin somesome placesplaces hehe seemsseems toto say that it is thethe totaltotal resolving resolving his his dilemma dilemma aboutabout the worldwideworldwide contemporaneity ofof assemblageassemblage of resourcesof resources (i.e., resource(i.e., resource diversity) diversity) that promotes that promotes EarlyEarly HoloceneHolocene trends inin culturalcultural evolutionevolution (the(the "Mesolithic/"Mesolithic/ reliability,reliability, while while in in other other places places he appears toto referrefer toto specificspecific Archaic").Archaic"). HeHe does acknowledgeacknowledge a rolerole forfor Late PleistocenePleistocene resourcesresources as as moremore "reliable.""reliable." NowhereNowhere isis thisthis confusionconfusion moremore climaticclimatic oscillationoscillation in increasing the frequency of technologicaltechnological apparentapparent thanthan inin hishis discussiondiscussion ofof "Upper"Upper Pleistocene trendstrends innovations. innovations. towardtoward thethe huntinghunting ofof moremore dangerousdangerous andand harder to getget EnvironmentalEnvironmental factors factors should should also also properlyproperly bebe raised inin animals":animals": howhow cancan thesethese bebe viewedviewed individuallyindividually as moremore attemptingattempting toto understandunderstand thethe increasingincreasing useuse ofof foodsfoods suchsuch as reliablereliable resources?resources? ReliabilityReliability here must consist of expanding nuts, nuts, grasses,grasses, anadromousanadromous fish,fish, andand shellfish atat the end ofof thethe thethe totaltotal rangerange ofof resourcesresources exploited.exploited. OnOn the other hand, he Palaeolithic. Palaeolithic. Changes inin thethe forestforest environmentenvironment followingfollowing thethe refers refers to to more more intensive intensive exploitation exploitation ofof r-selectedr-selected resourcesresources asas extinctionextinction ofof the the large large game, game, forcingforcing people people toto turnturn moremore towardtoward increasingincreasing resourceresource reliability,reliability, principally principally becausebecause of thethe "rela­"rela- newlynewly available available vegetablevegetable foods,foods, representrepresent (to (to mymy mind)mind) a tivetive difficultydifficulty in inoverexploiting overexploiting them." them." While While this this may may be be true true moremore parsimonious parsimonious explanation explanation ofof Early Early HoloceneHolocene events lead­lead- of of some some r-selectedr-selected species,species, forfor shellfishshellfish it it is is notnot truetrue becausebecause ing ing toto thethe adventadvent of foodfood production than either population theirtheir greater greater reproductive reproductive rate rate is iscompensated compensated for for by by the the fact fact pressurepressure alonealone oror aa teleological strugglestruggle forfor more reliable food thatthat they they are are sessile sessile and and hence hence easily easily SUbjected subjected to overexploita­ to overexploita- resourcesresources (the (the "cultural"cultural developments occur when culture isis tion. tion. Again,Again, environmentalenvironmental argumentsarguments mustmust bebe marshalled to ready"ready" argument).argument). PopulationPopulation pressure will not work alone, explainexplain thethe relativelyrelatively latelate exploitationexploitation of shellfishshellfish (see(see YesnerYesner becausebecause nonenone ofof these resources isis marginal andand many areare 1980). 1980). "reliable""reliable" inin Hayden'sHayden's terms.terms. On the otherother hand,hand, aa "reliability""reliability" While While thethe concept concept ofof resource resource reliability reliability represents represents a asignifi­ signifi- argument argument will will notnot workwork either.either. Hayden's Hayden's model restsrests on thethe cantcant contributioncontribution toto cultural-ecologicalcultural-ecological thinking, itit does not notion notion thatthat r-selectedr-selected resourcesresources are more difficult toto exploitexploit andand seem seem toto serveserve asas aa generalgeneral organizingorganizing paradigmparadigm forfor humanhuman thereforetherefore were were not not utilized utilized until until the the Upper Upper Palaeolithic Palaeolithic simply cultural cultural evolution. evolution. Long-term Long-term population population growth, growth, coupled coupled with with becausebecause the technologytechnology hadhad not been developed forfor exploitingexploiting environmental environmental change, change, remain remain the themost most important important explanatory explanatory them,them, but but this this notion notion cannot cannot be be applied applied equallyequally to vegetable factors, factors, although although thethe notionnotion ofof resourceresource reliability must be foods,foods, which which were were always always aa focusfocus ofof human human collectingcollecting strategies.strategies. integratedintegrated i¥tointo thethe equation.equation. PartPart ofof the the problem problem here here involves involves Hayden's Hayden's insistence thatthat the so-called so-called principleprinciple ofof leastleast efforteffort "leads "leads usus toto expectexpect thatthat peoplepeople willwill optopt forfor sedentism." sedentism." InIn fact,fact, thisthis cannotcannot be demonstrated toto bebe the case. IfIf so,so, whywhy weren'tweren't nuts,nuts, fruits,fruits, and grassesgrasses exploited exploited moremore intensivelyintensively duringduring earlierearlier phases phases ofof thethe Palaeo­Palaeo- ReplyReply lithic,lithic, allowing allowing more more sedentary sedentary populations? populations? LackLack of appro-appro­ priatepriate technologytechnology cannotcannot bebe the answer;answer; environmental factorsfactors by by BRIAN BRIAN HAYDEN HAYDEN must must havehave beenbeen important here. Burnaby,Burnaby, B.C., B.C., Canada.Canada. 12 v 81 Increased Increased sedentismsedentism doesdoes appear appear toto havehave occurred inin LateLate There There are are three three basic basic themes themes expressed expressed in the incomments: the comments: (1) al­ (1) al- Pleistocene Pleistocene andand EarlyEarly Holocene times,times, probably as aa require-require­ ternative ternative explanations explanations of of PleistocenePleistocene andand Holocene techno-techno­ mentment forfor moremore intensiveintensive exploitation ofof fish,fish, shellfish,shellfish, sea logical logical changes,changes, (2) questionsquestions concerningconcerning interpretationinterpretation ofof

Vol. Vol. 22 • No.5· October22 1981 * No. 5 * October 1981 541541

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms changes changes in in subsistence,subsistence, and and (3) questionsquestions concerningconcerning thethe gatherers gatherers (Hayden (Hayden 1972);1972); however, cooperationcooperation between groups portrayal portrayal of of hunter-gatherers. hunter-gatherers. Each Each ofof thesethese areasareas is of sub­sub- and and especiallyespecially withinwithin themthem waswas essentialessential and,and, toto mymy mind,mind, stantial stantial interestinterest inin itselfitself and and mightmight wellwell formform thethe basisbasis for aa dominated dominated allall aspectsaspects of hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer societiessocieties in thethe Pleisto­Pleisto- more more detailed detailed article.article. cene. cene. The The degreedegree ofof cooperation cooperation thatthat PerssonPersson viewsviews asas centralcentral to Alternative Alternative models. models. A A number number of of the the standard standard interpretationsinterpretations explaining explaining Upper Upper PaleolithicPaleolithic developmentsdevelopments seems rather toto havehave that that I I had consideredconsidered otiose are arguedargued inin thethe comments,comments, been been partpart ofof thethe humanhuman behavioralbehavioral repertoire atat leastleast since sometimes sometimes in in nearlynearly theirtheir classicclassic forms. TheseThese alternativealternative Acheulian Acheulian times,times, judging judging from from the the elephant elephant kills kills at at Torralba­ Torralba- explanations explanations includeinclude the following: Ambrona. Ambrona. 1. 1. Climatic Climatic explanations explanations (Butzer, (Butzer, Hassan, Hassan, Yesner).Yesner). II have 4. 4. BiologicalBiological explanationsexplanations (Goodyear,(Goodyear, Hassan,Hassan, Mohapa-Mohapa­ already already mademade my argumentsarguments onon thisthis topictopic but might add,add, in tra). tra). ThereThere cancan be nono doubtdoubt thatthat biologicalbiological changeschanges and reply reply to to Hassan, Hassan, that that while while the theoscillations oscillations of the of Wtirm the Wiirm may maylimitations limitations provide provide the the ultimateultimate basebase line forfor behavioralbehavioral have have beenbeen dramatic,dramatic, wewe simplysimply don'tdon't knowknow howhow severesevere oscilla­oscilla- changes; changes; II havehave said so myself inin relationrelation toto StageStage 11 andand StageStage 2 tions tions were were in in previous previous glacial glacial periodsperiods becausebecause the geological changes changes inin subsistencesubsistence andand the reasonsreasons forfor the slownessslowness ofof record record is is more more fragmentary fragmentary for for those those periods. periods. I I seesee nono reasonreason change change during during the the Pleistocene Pleistocene (n. (n. 4).4). However, I thinkthink thatthat that that the the Wtirm Wurm oscillations oscillations should should havehave beenbeen unusual inin thisthis most most archaeologists archaeologists tendtend toto overemphasize thethe differencesdifferences be­be- respect. respect. It It isis also also worthworth iterating iterating that that the the Terminal Terminal PleistocenePleistocene tween tween contemporarycontemporary humans humans andand their middle-to-late Lower changes changes ButzerButzer andand Yesner see as creatingcreating newnew opportunitiesopportunities Pleistocene Pleistocene ancestors.ancestors. Archaeologists are continually surprisedsurprised or or forcing forcing people people to to turn turn to to r-selected r-selected resources resources werewere notnot uniqueunique by by findsfinds showing showing how how clever clever thesethese earlierearlier humanshumans were: thevthey to to thatthat periodperiod andand that thesethese resourcesresources and similarsimilar situa-situa­ had had firefire 1,000,000 1,000,000 yearsyears ago,ago, built structures 1,750,000 years tions tions existed existed in in many many parts parts of of the the world. world. Hassan Hassan addsadds an ago, ago, andand were engraving stonestone andand shaping bone (Bordes(Bordes innovative innovative element:element: thethe possibilitypossibility thatthat humanshumans becamebecame inven-inven­ 1972:61; 1972:61; Freeman, Howell,Howell, andand Klein 1981),1981), usingusing redred ochreochre tive tive enough enough to to exploit exploit thesethese resources resources only only around around 30,00030,000 years (Marshack (Marshack 1981, Wreschner 1980), andand performingperforming complex B.P.;B.P.; thisthis willwill bebe discusseddiscussed below. religious religious rituals rituals (de (de Lumley Lumley 1969:216) 1969:216) inin thethe Acheulian. We 2. 2. Population-pressurePopulation-pressure explanations, explanations, classic classic (Yesner)(Yesner) and should should ceasecease beingbeing surprisedsurprised atat suchsuch "modern""modern" behavior on the modified modified (Cohen, (Cohen, Goodyear).Goodyear). WhileWhile II agreeagree thatthat fissionfission and part part ofof HomoHomo erectus. FromFrom my experience with Australian migration migration permitpermit growinggrowing populations populations in unfilled environmentsenvironments Aborigines, Aborigines, I Ihave have longlong since since concluded concluded thatthat thethe behavioralbehavioral andand to to avoid avoid severesevere populationpopulation pressure forfor aa time,time, itit is, is, as as Hassan Hassan mental mental differencesdifferences betweenbetween contemporarycontemporary hunter-gatherers in (1978) (1978) has shown, unrealistic to expect thatthat suchsuch situationssituations semiarid semiarid zoneszones andand Acheulian hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers in similar en-en­ can can bebe maintainedmaintained forfor moremore thanthan aa fewfew thousandthousand years.years. EvenEven vironments vironments are are so so subtlesubtle asas toto be insignificant. ThisThis is an ex-ex­ with with a a modestmodest growthgrowth rate, rate, all all thethe available available spacespace is soonsoon tremely tremely important important point, point, and and it it is is probably probably the the major major reasonreason II occupied, occupied, andand any furtherfurther growth will result in severe stress.stress. have have soughtsought aa materialist/ecologicalmaterialist/ecological explanation rather thanthan a YesnerYesner continuescontinues toto espouseespouse thethe viewsviews II have previouslypreviously criti-criti­ biologicalbiological explanationexplanation of thethe technologicaltechnological changes ofof the latter cized cized (1980b)(1980b) concerning unrestricted populationpopulation growthgrowth which half half of of the the Pleistocene. Pleistocene. If If others, others, such such as as Mohapatra, Mohapatra, wish to is is yet yet somehow somehow restricted. restricted. I Ifind find his his reformulation reformulation of of the the model's model's argue argue thatthat intelligenceintelligence only became sufficientsufficient toto allow techno-techno­ testtest based based onon evidence of stress implausible, since fissionfission and logical logical advancesadvances with thethe adventadvent of thethe UpperUpper Paleolithic,Paleolithic, I will migrationmigration into into the the New New World World cancan hardlyhardly bebe expectedexpected to have letlet them them attempt attempt toto demonstratedemonstrate it; I dodo notnot findfind much merit in alleviated alleviated populationpopulation pressurepressure in in EuropeEurope oror Africa atat any thethe argument. argument. AsAs Fran!;oisFrangois BordesBordes was fondfond of saying, Upper period.period. YesnerYesner appearsappears toto have skippedskipped thethe partsparts ofof mymy article PaleolithicPaleolithic manman waswas probablyprobably capable ofof doing nuclear physics. whichwhich deal deal withwith increasesincreases inin populationpopulation over the Pleistocene. WhyWhy shouldshould we consider H. erectuserectus incapableincapable ofof inventinginventing II fundamentallyfundamentally agreeagree with Cohen'sCohen's restatementrestatement ofof the condi-condi­ ground-stone ground-stone tools, tools, fishhooks, fishhooks, nets, nets, or baskets? or baskets? The only The thingonly thing tionstions under under which which populations populations willwill increase;increase; II reject as unrealis­unrealis- hehe lacked lacked waswas a perception ofof thethe utilityutility of trying toto subsistsubsist on tic,tic, however,however, hishis thesisthesis thatthat when the world had filledfilled up with veryvery small-bodiedsmall-bodied plants plants oror animalsanimals (most ofof whichwhich werewere peoplepeople humanshumans turned toto r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies for foodfood andand hadhad a difficultdifficult to to procure procure or or process process withwith simplesimple technology)technology) when hardhard timetime ofof itit inin termsterms ofof bothboth workwork andand nutrition. otherother alternatives alternatives werewere available.available. 3.3. SocialSocial explanations (Lourandos, Persson). WhileWhile compe-compe­ 5.5. Natural-selectionNatural-selection explanationsexplanations (Dunnell).(Dunnell). IfIf explainingexplaining titiontition and and cooperationcooperation clearly can affect resourceresource utilizationutilization and technologicaltechnological change change in in thethe PleistocenePleistocene inin termsterms of socialsocial innovation,innovation, thesethese aspectsaspects ofof socialsocial structure havehave to be con-con­ factorsfactors approached approached thethe problemproblem onon too proximate a levellevel forfor sideredsidered adaptations adaptations to environmentalenvironmental (including(including technological) mymy purposes,purposes, explainingexplaining itit inin termsterms ofof naturalnatural selectionselection and conditions;conditions; exceptexcept for somesome possible short-termshort-term inconsistencies,inconsistencies, evolutionevolution was was tootoo ultimate anan approach. II waswas primarilyprimarily socialsocial structure-especiallystructure-especially in thethe Paleolithic,Paleolithic, withwith itsits slowslow interestedinterested inin middle-rangemiddle-range (formal)(formal) theory:theory: givengiven thethe charac­charac- raterate ofof change-should change-should closelyclosely followfollow thethe dictates ofof the avail­avail- teristicsteristics of of hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers of theof thelast last500,000 500,000 years years or so, or why so, why ableable resourcesresources andand technology.technology. ClearlyClearly cooperationcooperation and compe-compe­ diddid specificspecific technologicaltechnological andand resource exploitation changeschanges titiontition areare partpart of thethe mechanism ofof change,change, butbut they do notnot taketake place?place? ToTo relaterelate thesethese behavioral and technologicaltechnological de-de­ provideprovide aa very powerful reasonreason forfor change.change. InIn order to bebe velopmentsvelopments toto natural-selection processesprocesses waswas beyond thethe satisfying,satisfying, explanations explanations based based toto any significantsignificant degree onon scopescope ofof mymy article,article, althoughalthough II am inin totaltotal sympathysympathy withwith socialsocial structurestructure shouldshould alsoalso incorporateincorporate aa cause forfor change inin suchsuch aa perspective. As with the emphasis onon socialsocial structure,structure, socialsocial structure.structure. I I believe that change inin thethe naturenature ofof thethe thethe differencedifference is is one one of of level level ofof interpretation, interpretation, and and thusthus II do resourceresource base base isis the dominant reason for change in socialsocial notnot viewview mymy approachapproach as conflicting withwith Dunnell's.Dunnell's. InIn fact,fact, structurestructure during during the the Pleistocene. Pleistocene. In In thisthis sensesense socialsocial andand whatwhat YesnerYesner misconstrues asas aa mentalist explanation onon mymy materialist/ecologicalmaterialist/ecological explanationsexplanations are not necessarily so much partpart isis anan exampleexample of my sociobiologicalsociobiological leanings. As long as inin conflictconflict as as complementary; complementary; they are explanations at at different different mentalmental perceptualperceptual or structural characteristics of humans can levels.levels. MentalMental sets (e.g., Deetz 1977)1977) areare even even more more proximateproximate bebe relatedrelated toto moremore basic basic causes, causes, explanationsexplanations basedbased on them are explanationsexplanations than social structure,structure, and mostmost archaeologists find find acceptable.acceptable. II wouldwould suggestsuggest thatthat thethe perceptionperception ofof largerlarger themthem thethe least least satisfyingsatisfying ofof all all even even thoughthough itit isis clearclear thatthat ideasideas "packages""packages" ofof food as more desirabledesirable than numerous small ones mustmust change change beforebefore patterned patterned behavior.behavior. InIn deference to Louran­Louran- isis rootedrooted inin thethe structurestructure ofof thethe humanhuman nervous system and dos,dos, II mustmust admitadmit to overstatingoverstating the lack of competitioncompetition during probablyprobably oneone ofof the the most most consistent consistent of ofcross-cultural cross-cultural phenom­ phenom- thethe Pleistocene. Pleistocene. ThereThere can be no doubt thatthat aa certaincertain degreedegree ofof ena.ena. GivenGiven aa choice between aa large mammal and a multitudemultit ude competitioncompetition diddid existexist and and waswas adaptive,adaptive, as isis demonstrated byby ofof r-selected r-selected specimens specimens ofof equivalent equivalent or eveneven greatergreater foodfood value,value, thethe substantialsubstantial evidence forfor intergroup killing amongamong Pleisto-Pleisto­ espeCiallyespecially wherewhere notnot allall thethe smallsmall specimensspecimens are visible at once, cenecene populationspopulations (Roper 1969)1969) asas well well asas among among modern modern hunter-hunter- therethere isis littlelittle doubtdoubt thatthat thethe large mammal will capturecapture thethe

542542 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms individual'sindividual's attentionattention andand that,that, inin the absence ofof empiricalempirical Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS testing,testing, people people will will be be unable unable toto assessassess accuratelyaccurately the relative foodfood values values ofof thethe small-bodied small-bodied resources.resources. Certainly,Certainly, PiagetianPiagetian appearappear to to have have been been important important gathered gathered foods foods in spite in spiteof the of the experimentsexperiments suggest suggest that that thisthis isis truetrue ofof individualsindividuals lackingla~king proximityproximity of ofthe thesea." sea." This This is especially is especially noteworthy noteworthy in connec­ in connec- formal formal schooling schooling and and trainingtraining in in quantitativequantitative techniques.techniques. II tiontion with with Acheulian Acheulian sites sites close close toto oldold shorelinesshorelines around around Casa­Casa- viewview thisthis characteristic characteristic asas stemmingstemming directly fromfrom thethe openltionoperation blanca.blanca. KleinKlein (1977:(1977:121) 121) makesmakes aa similarsimilar observation.observation. More-More­ ofof Darwinian Darwinian selectionselection onon hominids of mediummedium build lacking over,over, there there is isno no evidence evidence for for the the systematic systematic use use of freshwaterof freshwater most most technology.technology. fishfish or or shellfish shellfish (aside (aside possibly possibly from from Lake Lake Mungo) Mungo) anywhere anywhere WhileWhile II would reject some of the alternative explanationsexplanations inin the the world, world, and and this this lack lack of evidenceof evidence cannot cannot be attributed be attributed to to suggested suggested byby commentatorscommentators outright,outright, othersothers (e.g.,(e.g., biological marine marine transgressions. transgressions. Although Although Kamminga Kamminga argues argues that thatsimple simple changes) changes) cancan be usefullyusefully combinedcombined withwith thethe resource-stressresource-stress technologytechnology can can be be used used to to collect collect such such resources, resources, there there simply simply modelmodel (as(as II have donedone forfor the earlyearly stagesstages ofof humanhuman evolution)evolution) are are no no sickles, sickles, seed seed grinders, grinders, net net weights, weights, mortars mortars and pestles,and pestles, and and stillstill others others (e.g., (e.g., social social andand selectionistselectionist explanations)explanations) may edge-groundedge-ground implements, implements, or otheror other tools tools to indicate to indicate intensive intensive use use bebe applicableapplicable at a moremore specificspecific or a more general level. ofof small-bodied small-bodied species. species. In In this this regard, regard, if Persson if Persson believes believes that that SubsistenceSubsistence changes. changes. Some Some commentators commentators (Bowdler, (Bowdler, Kammin­Kammin- grassgrass seed seed cancan bebe easilyeasily collectedcollected andand eaten, I inviteinvite himhim toto ga,ga, Persson,Persson, Yesner,Yesner, andand toto some extent Wymer)Wymer) would seem makemake aa fullfull meal meal of of any any stand stand of of grass grass without without technological technological toto argueargue thatthat therethere werewere essentiallyessentially nono majormajor changes inin thethe assistance. assistance. Even Even if if he he were were to todemonstrate demonstrate that that it is it possible is possible to to useuse ofof resourcesresources throughoutthroughout thethe Pleistocene.Pleistocene. Various ofof thesethese consumeconsume somesome ofof the green seed/glumes/rachi,seed/glumes/rachi, suchsuch meals citecite findsfinds of of shellfish shellfish or or fish fish in in Middle Middle PaleolithicPaleolithic sitessites and would would havehave been ofof veryvery limitedlimited value prehistoricallyprehistorically and evidence evidence of of seed seed grinding grinding as as early early as as 15,00015,000 B.P. B.P. I I amam quite availableavailable only only for for very very limited limited times. times. It is It exploiting is exploiting ripe, ripe,dry dry comfortable comfortable with with the the latter,latter, whetherwhether in in AustraliaAustralia or North grain grain that that has has the the nutritional nutritional advantages, advantages, and and for for this this tech­ tech- America. America. AsAs LourandosLourandos points out, thisthis is when similar devel-devel­ nology nology is isdefinitely definitely required. required. Lake Lake Mungo Mungo is at is thisat thispoint point the the opmentsopments occuroccur elsewhereelsewhere inin thethe world, and inin termsterms ofof world onlyonly site site in in the the world world which which might might be considered be considered an exception, an exception, prehistoryprehistory it it is is a a"late" "late" development. As toto claimsclaims forfor earlyearly andand eveneven here popUlationspopulations may have simplysimply beenbeen takingtaking shellfish shellfish use use and and the the possible possible eveneven earlierearlier useuse ofof grassgrass seed,seed, II opportunistic opportunistic advantage advantage of the temporary ponding of water have have saidsaid thatthat "it"it had probablyprobably always beenbeen recognizedrecognized thatthat fromfrom seasonal seasonal floodsfloods to to capture capture fish,fish, as as waswas donedone in Upper small-bodied small-bodied foodsfoods werewere edible;edible; however, since they were so PaleolithicPaleolithic EgyptEgypt (Wendorf(Wendorf andand SchildSchild 1980:268),1980:268), ratherrather thanthan small small andand difficult to to obtain,obtain, theythey werewere perceivedperceived asas having usingusing technology. technology. In In fact, fact, there there is isno no evidence evidence for for any any fishing fishing littlelittle food food value value...... theythey may have been used occasionally as technology,technology, except except for for the the spear, spear, anywhere anywhere in Australiain Australia at thisat this low-return low-return foods foods throughout throughout thethe PleistocenePleistocene during timestimes ofof time.time. extremeextreme shortage." shortage." MyMy scenarioscenario callscalls not for completecomplete absenceabsence Given Given both both the the lack lack of of technological technological indicators indicators for for the the inten­ inten- of of these these resourcesresources inin earlyearly periods,periods, but for their developmentdevelopment sive sive exploitation exploitation of of r-selected r-selected resources resources and and the the rare rare and and rela­ rela- fromfrom an an infrequently,infrequently, opportunisticallyopportunistically used, low-returnlow-return food tivelytively insignificant insignificant occurrences occurrences of ofthese these types types of offood food them­ them- toto aa majormajor high-return staple staple (see (see fig.fig. 3). 3). TheThe archaeological selves, selves, it it is isappropriate appropriate to toconclude conclude that, that, for forthe thePaleolithic Paleolithic as a as a recordrecord is is remarkably remarkably consistent consistent withwith this this view. view. To To useuse some of whole,whole, r-selected r-selected resources resources were were infrequently infrequently used used emergency emergency thethe examples examples citedcited byby thethe commentators: commentators: TheThe shellshell deposits at resources, resources, chance chance beach beach finds, finds, or or unusually unusually rich rich concentrations concentrations HauaHaua Fteah or Devil's TowerTower havehave notnot beenbeen measured, and it ofof fish fish or or shellfish shellfish that that could could be beobtained obtained with with ease. ease. Therefore Therefore isis entirelyentirely conjectural conjectural what what "abundant""abundant" shellshell oror "thick layerslayers wewe can can expect expect toto continue continue finding finding fish, fish, shellfish, shellfish, and and other other small small inin the the hearths" hearths" meantmeant toto thethe archaeologistsarchaeologists of thethe time.time. More­More- animals animals fromfrom timetime toto timetime throughout thethe Paleolithic, butbut over,over, there there may may be be problemsproblems at at bothboth thesethese sitessites (see(see Volman rarely rarely if if ever ever as as staples. staples. Some Some smallsmall animalsanimals maymay alsoalso have 1978). 1978). AtAt LazaretLazaret onlyonly aa fewfew fishfish bones werewere recovered,recovered, cer-cer­ been been huntedhunted inin thethe MiddleMiddle Paleolithic forfor their peltspelts (Klein(Klein tainlytainly notnot enoughenough toto demonstrate regular or reliable procure-procure­ 1975:265). 1975:265). With regard toto fish, inin spitespite of occasional useuse mentment ofof fish. fish. While While thethe opportunisticopportunistic use ofof fish andand shellfishshellfish is throughout throughout the the Paleolithic, Paleolithic, it is itnot is notuntil until the Natufianthe Natufian and and representedrepresented in in the the South South AfricanAfrican sites sites during during the the Middle Middle StoneStone Mesolithic Mesolithic of of Palestine Palestine (Perrot (Perrot 1968:382; 1968:382; Moore 1979), thethe Age, Age, KammingaKamminga andand others should have readread fartherfarther inin thethe Magdalenian Magdalenian of of Europe, Europe, and and about about 12,500 12,500 B.P. B.P.in northeastern in northeastern reports: reports: AsiaAsia (Chard(Chard 1974:33)1974:33) and South Africa (Klein(Klein 1977:121)1977:121) that there is evidence of their being used intensively as a staple. I the the Klasies Klasies MSA levelslevels contain contain far far fewer fewer remainsremains ofof fish fish andand flyingflying there is evidence of their being used intensively as a staple. I birdsbirds than than are are found found in in comparable comparable LSA LSA [Late[Late Stone Age] horizons.horizons. have have admitted admitted that that I canI can see see no no good good reason reason some some species species of of ...... MSAMSA peoples peoples exploited exploited coastal coastal resources resources less less effectively effectively thanthan LSALSA shellfish shellfish should should not not have have been been exploited exploited from from the theearliest earliest of of peoplepeople inin thethe same same habitat.habitat...... the the remains remains of of fish fish and and of of flying flying birds times; times; I Iwould would not not consider consider my my argument argument weakened weakened if itif were it were areare confinedconfined almost almost entirely entirely to to the the LSA LSA levels. levels. [Klein [Klein 1975:266]1975:266] to to be be demonstrateddemonstrated thatthat thisthis waswas thethe case.case. TheThe implicationimplication is thatthat fishingfishing andand fowling (for airborneairborne birds) were Both Both Bowdler Bowdler and and Kamminga Kamminga express express surprise surprise at atmy my charac­ charac- probablyprobably beyond beyond thethe technological technological capabilities capabilities ofof thethe [MSA] [MSA] KlasiesKlasies terization terization of of the the Australian Australian sequence. sequence. WhileWhile therethere maymay havehave people.people. [Klein[Klein 1977:1977:121] 121] beenbeen some some early early opportunistic opportunistic use use of of fish fish and and shellfish, shellfish, there there is is [the [the data] data] suggestsuggest thatthat suchsuch [marine resource] utilization was lessless no no doubt doubt that that the the Lake Lake Mungo Mungo population population relied relied to to a amuch much intensive intensive during during the the Last Last Interglacial Interglacial and and earliestearliest Last Last GlacialGlacial thanthan greatergreater extent extent than than Bowdler Bowdler has has indicated indicated on onmoderate-sized moderate-sized in in the the Terminal Terminal Pleistocene Pleistocene and and Present Present Interglacial. Interglacial...... implements implements land land mammalsmammals ("There ("There werewere inin addition addition many many broken broken bone bone such such asas gorgesgorges andand lineline (or net) sinkers,sinkers, which are reasonably inter-inter­ fragmentsfragments which which belonged belonged to toanimals animals much much bigger bigger than than the the pretedpreted asas fishingfishing and and fowlingfowling gear, gear, are are soso farfar knownknown onlyonly inin LSALSA onesones listed" listed" [Bowler [Bowler et et al. al. 1970:53]). 1970:53]). I I don'tdon't doubtdoubt thatthat thethe contexts .... The most economical explanation for this contrast is contexts.... The most economical explanation for this contrast is earliest earliest inhabitants inhabitants of ofAustralia Australia used used littoral littoral resources, resources, but butit it that that MSAMSA peoples werewere technologicallytechnologically incapableincapable ofof activeactive fishing fishing isis difficult difficult for for me meto viewto view this this as a astechnologically a technologically sophisticated sophisticated andand fowling.fowling. [Volman [Volman 1978:913]1978:913] oror intensiveintensive adaptation. adaptation. InIn allall probability itit was basicallybasically It It isis thesethese andand parallel changeschanges elsewhereelsewhere inin thethe world,world, not thethe opportunistic.opportunistic. For For example, example, the the really really systematic systematic use use of ofshell­ shell- presencepresence oror absenceabsence of evidence forfor use ofof specificspecific food types,types, fish fish documented documented at atthe the Weipa Weipa shell shell middens middens simply simply does does not not thatthat I I havehave attemptedattempted to explain. It shouldshould bebe clearclear fromfrom thethe appearappear atat earlierearlier sites sites in in Australia; Australia; nor nor does does seed seed grinding, grinding, the the aboveabove thatthat MiddleMiddle Stone Age people diddid notnot activelyactively seekseek outout r-r­ useuse of of airborne airborne birds, birds, or orsedentism. sedentism. My My reference reference to theto theuse useof of selected selected resources;resources; they usedused them when opportunities forfor easyeasy lizardslizards was was admittedly admittedly more more conjectural. conjectural. On Onthe theother other hand, hand, procurementprocurement arose arose and and whenwhen foodfood waswas inin short supply.supply. For ground-edgeground-edge axes axes do do occur occur in ina contexta context consistent consistent with with techno­ techno- earlier earlier times, times, Isaac Isaac (1971(1971 :293):293) notesnotes thatthat fishfish bones and shell-shell­ logical logical elaborations elaborations related related to to increasing increasing resource resource diversity diversity fish fish have have been been found found only only in in very very small small quantities quantities andand "do"do not and/or and/or reliability reliability (see (see Hayden Hayden 1977)·-Kamminga1977)--Kamminga hashas mis-mis-

Vol. Vol. 22 22 •* No.5·No. 5 * OctoberOctober 1981 543

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms interpreted interpreted my my arguments arguments in in this this matter; matter; I I havehave never claimedclaimed Yesner's Yesner's claimclaim ofof aa lacklack of empiricalempirical evidenceevidence forfor thethe adop­adop- that that ground-stoneground-stone toolstools areare more more efficient efficient than than flaked-stone flaked-stone tion tion of of artificial artificial population-regulation population-regulation techniques techniques is isevidently evidently tools-and tools-and I Ithink think that that their their occurrenceoccurrence at at around around 20,000 20,000 B.P. B.P. based based onon aa very selective reading of the ethnographies. InIn is is acceptable acceptable withinwithin the the broad broad outlinesoutlines of of the the model model I I havehave addition addition to to thethe documentationdocumentation I I havehave published (Hayden presented. presented. The The AustralianAustralian developmentsdevelopments maymay notnot bebe exactly 1972), 1972), revised revised data data onon thethe !Kung!Kung placeplace infanticideinfanticide atat six per synchronous synchronous with with developments developments elsewhereelsewhere inin thethe world, but hundred hundred births births (Ripley (Ripley 1980: 1980:353n), 353n), andand social means ofof con-con­ the the relative relative sequence sequence is isvery very similar similar and and ends ends with with the the construc­ construc- trolling trolling overpopulation, overpopulation, includingincluding infanticide,infanticide, areare reportedreported tion tion of of canals canals for for food food production, production, for for which which there there is nois noknown known among among many many mammals mammals (Ripley (Ripley 1980,1980, Cohen,Cohen, Malpass,Malpass, andand analogy analogy in in early early Australia Australia (Lourandos (Lourandos 1980b).1980b). ItIt isis gratifyinggratifying Klein Klein 1980). 1980). Additional Additional cases cases for hunter-gatherersfor hunter-gatherers are provided are provided that that Lourandos Lourandos also also perceivesperceives substantial substantial changes changes in in the the use use of of by by Dickeman Dickeman (1975) (1975) andand VanVan ArsdaleArsdale (1978).(1978). resources resources in in Australia Australia along along the the general general lines lines I haveI have suggested. suggested. In In sum,sum, II maintainmaintain thatthat mymy characterizationscharacterizations ofof hunter-hunter­ Thus Thus thethe archaeological archaeological datadata consistently supportsupport thethe overalloverall gatherers gatherers are are wellwell founded.founded. subsistence subsistence changes changes I I havehave outlined, and mostmost regionalregional syn-syn­ Miscellaneous Miscellaneous comments. comments. Goodyear Goodyear considers considers resource resource stress stress theses theses of of PaleolithicPaleolithic subsistencesubsistence independently show similar not not broadly broadly enough enough defined defined and and lacking lacking in inpredictive predictive value. value. I I sequences. sequences. TheThe exploitationexploitation ofof individual individual small-bodied small-bodied resources resources would would counter counter by by saying saying that that it is it the is onlythe onlyoperational operational concept concept is is simplysimply notnot veryvery profitable.profitable. People People cannotcannot seesee them all available available toto archaeologistsarchaeologists and, and, as as far far as as I I can see, is wellwell amassed amassed asas aa single foodfood unit,unit, and and theythey cannot cannot easily easily evaluateevaluate tailored tailored to to the the questions questions and and problems problems posed posed here andhere should and should the the total total foodfood potentialpotential ofof thesethese speciesspecies without considerableconsiderable be be usefuluseful as as aa heuristicheuristic andand predictivepredictive device.device. WhileWhile Bowdler experimentation. experimentation. Such Such resourcesresources cannotcannot be consistentlyconsistently ex-ex­ finds finds "reliability" "reliability" usefuluseful forfor partitioningpartitioning thethe typestypes of food ploited ploited profitably profitably except except en enmasse, masse, and and for thisfor athis very a veryconsider­ consider-consumed consumed by by hunter-gatherers, hunter-gatherers, her heruse ofuse the of concept the concept is essen­ is essen- able able amount amount of of motivation, motivation, experimentation, experimentation, and andtechnology technology is istially tially static static and and cannot cannot address address the the question question of change.of change. Criti­ Criti- generally generally necessary.necessary. cisms cisms of of my my linguistic linguistic test test of population of population growth growth stemming stemming from from Portrayal Portrayal of of hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer life-styles life-styles and technologies.and technologies. Butzer Butzer sedentism sedentism (Kamminga, (Kamminga, Yesner) Yesner) dodo not address thethe centralcentral suggests suggests that that resource resource stress stress is is a a yearlyyearly occurrence;occurrence; II would concept: concept: that that unchecked unchecked population population growth growth as represented as represented by by argue argue thatthat suchsuch yearlyyearly stressstress is is aa veryvery mildmild form-theform-the typetype Lee Lee (1972) andand othersothers mustmust resultresult inin large,large, linguisticallylinguistically everyone everyone expects expects to to pass pass through through briefly briefly and andeasily. easily. Taking Taking the thehomogeneous homogeneous areas areas over over one one or moreor more millennia. millennia. I said I saidnothing nothing opposite opposite view, view, Goodyear Goodyear maintains maintains that that hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers never never about about thethe causescauses of linguisticallylinguistically diversediverse areas. areas. MyMy use ofof experience experience severe severe stress stress or orstarvation. starvation. The The ethnographic ethnographic record record linguistic-migration linguistic-migration theory theory is is consonantconsonant with other recentrecent is is clear clear that that episodes episodes of of severe severe deprivation deprivation and and even even starvation starvation applications applications in in AustraliaAustralia (Gruhn(Gruhn 1980:805).1980:805). ArnhemArnhem Land did did occur,occur, thoughthough infrequently, infrequently, under traditionaltraditional foragingforaging hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers are areclearly clearly more more sedentary sedentary than thanmost mostother other conditions. conditions. In In additionaddition toto thethe evidenceevidence cited in HaydenHayden groups groups in in Australia, Australia, no no matter matter what what definition definition of tribe of tribeis used, is used, (1981:table (1981 :table 22), 22), LongLong (1971:268)(1971:268) observedobserved oneone groupgroup ofof butbut presentpresent no no evidence evidence ofof population population expansion.expansion. Central Central Desert Desert Aborigines Aborigines in a invery a verybad state bad ofstate malnutrition, of malnutrition, Valoch's Valoch's discussiondiscussion ofof Late Late Pleistocene Pleistocene and and Holocene Holocene reliance reliance whilewhile Duguid Duguid (1963:(1963:58, 58, 138-39)138-39) recordsrecords severalseveral instancesinstances ofof on on bigbig gamegame seemsseems intendedintended asas an example ofof failure to use near near starvationstarvation inin thethe PetermannPetermann RangesRanges and inin WesternWestern r-selectedr-selected resources. resources. I would I would add add that that Plains Plains Indians, Indians, Subarctic Subarctic Australia.Australia. InIn addition,addition, whilewhile LeeLee hashas portrayed thethe !Kung!Kung as Indians,Indians, ~ndand perhaps thethe post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene groups cited byby never never experiencingexperiencing severe severe shortages,shortages, thisthis maymay bebe because ofof WymerWymer never never got got over over their their fixation fixation on large on large game game either. either. My My theirtheir recentrecent moremore intensiveintensive contactscontacts with herders. Earlier pointpoint waswas thatthat if an environmentenvironment is notnot richrich inin r-selectedr-selected observersobservers reported reported of of Bushmen Bushmen that that "during "during bad bad seasons seasons...... resources,resources, post-Pleistocene post-Pleistocene adaptations adaptations inin thatthat area will notnot theythey are are ...... reduced reduced to to great great straits, straits, emaciated emaciated to to a adreadful dreadful emphasizeemphasize them them and and in manyin many respects respects will morewill moreclosely closely resemble resemble degree,degree, so so that that it it is is a a wonderwonder they they survive. survive. Their Their bodies bodies are are PleistocenePleistocene adaptations.adaptations. fearfullyfearfully shrunken, shrunken, so sothat that they they look look and andare areliterally literally bags bags of of DunnellDunnell and and Cohen Cohen are are the the only only commentators commentators to pick to uppick on up on bones"bones" (S.(S. Dornan, cited inin BodenheimerBodenheimer 1951:1951:138). 138). thethe fact fact that that r-selected r-selected resources resources can can fluctuate fluctuate dramatically dramatically GoodyearGoodyear finds finds the the assertion assertion that that man: man:land land ratios ratios remained remained fromfrom year year to toyear year and and in this in thissense sense are not are quite not asquite "reliable" as "reliable" as as unchangedunchanged fromfrom the the Oldowan Oldowan toto thethe Neolithic incredible. It II suggest. While suchsuch fluctuationsfluctuations do characterizecharacterize manymany r-r­ shouldshould havehave been clear thatthat II waswas referring referring toto thethe ratioratio ofof selectedselected resources,resources, inin comparisoncomparison with the fluctuations of K­K- resourcesresources toto peoplepeople andand the frequency of resourceresource stressstress asas a selectedselected speciesspecies they areare very briefbrief (one(one oror twotwo years)years) andand can functionfunction of of this this ratio, ratio, not not to toarea area of ofland land used used per per person. person. usuallyusually bebe compensatedcompensated forfor byby other other resources resources (providing (providing the the GoodyearGoodyear and and Cohen Cohen view view the the technology technology involved involved in exploit­in exploit- optionsoptions areare diversediverse enough).enough). InIn fact, alternative resources can inging r-selected r-selected resources resources as as energy-costly. energy-costly. I find I find it inconceivable it inconceivable eveneven bebe overexploited during suchsuch periods, since the bounce-bounce­ that,that, whenwhen a a groupgroup couldcould collectcollect enoughenough graingrain inin a weekweek toto backback timetime forfor the the r-selected r-selected resources resources will will be beshort short and and conser­ conser- feedfeed itself itself for for a year,a year, processing processing would would have have required required so muchso much vationvation of of alternative alternative ones ones will will not not be critical. be critical. In contrast, In contrast, larger larger additionaladditional time time as as to to increase increase the the average average subsistence subsistence work work load load speciesspecies taketake much longerlonger toto reestablishreestablish theirtheir populationspopulations significantlysignificantly above above two two hours hours per per day day for for the the year year as aas whole. a whole. (Steward(Steward 1938: 1938:35). 35). Antelope Antelope took took 12 years12 years or longer or longer to reestab­ to reestab- TheThe samesame might bebe arguedargued forfor thethe massivemassive procurementprocurement and and lishlish their their populations populations under under traditional traditional circumstances, circumstances, while forwhile for processingprocessing ofof fish, fish, as as on on the the NorthwestNorthwest Coast.Coast. Perhaps thesethese thethe Subarctic Subarctic it ithas has been been argued argued that thatfollowing following overexploitation overexploitation commentatorscommentators are are aware aware of of some some ~uantified quantified data data unknown unknown to to largelarge mammalmammal populations werewere depresseddepressed forfor hundredshundreds ofof me;me; perhapsperhaps theythey havehave neglectedneglected thethe processingprocessing costs costs of of other other years,years, leadingleading to starvationstarvation amongamong hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers inin thethe typestypes ofof food food (e.g., (e.g., butcheringbutchering time, time, shelling shelling time time for fornuts, nuts, areaarea (Bishop(Bishop 1978).1978). ItIt is is alsoalso possible possible that that in in areasareas of of richrich cookingcooking time,time, etc.). etc.). InIn any event, a recentrecent review (Hayden r-selectedr-selected resources resources sufficient sufficient food foodwould would be available be available to get byto get by 1981)1981) hashas disclosed disclosed no no good good data data on on the the topic topic and and indicated indicated no no eveneven inin the worst years because ofof thethe incredibleincredible potentialpotential majormajor increase increase in in work work levels levels associated associated with with subsistence subsistence among among abundanceabundance ofof thesethese resources.resources. It isis inconceivableinconceivable thatthat no no fish fish hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers using using r-selected r-selected resources resources as asopposed opposed to toK­ K- wouldwould be be caught caught on on the the Northwest Northwest Coast Coast or thator that no grass no grass would would selectedselected resources. resources. I would1 would also also insist insist that that Lee's Lee's remarks remarks on the on the produceproduce seedseed inin thethe NearNear East. !Kung!Kung aversionaversion to to travelling travelling refer refer not not only only to foraging to foraging distance distance TheThe most important issueissue in this article is thatthat therethere areare fromfrom sites sites during during aggregation aggregation phases, phases, but but to to total total travel. travel. It It majormajor differences between between K- K- andand r-selectedr-selected speciesspecies when used seemsseems self-evidentself-evident to to me me that that all all else else being being equal, equal, hunter-gather­ hunter-gather- asas humanhuman resourcesresources andand thatthat thesethese differencesdifferences have have considerable considerable ersers willwill adopt adopt strategiesstrategies involving involving the the least least amount amount of ofmove­ move- potentialpotential forfor explaining explaining many many of of the the characteristics characteristics of ofsocieties societies ment.ment. II readilyreadily concedeconcede thatthat therethere maymay bebe otherother factors factors usingusing primarilyprimarily one one or or the the other. other. I Imay may not not have have identified identified all all militatingmilitating for sedentism.sedentism. thethe criticalcritical relationshipsrelationships correctly,correctly, but but II am convincedconvinced thatthat

544 CURRENTCURRENT ANTHROPOLOGYANTHROPOLOGY

This content downloaded from 128.83.56.173 on Fri, 21 Jul 2017 22:00:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms aa fundamental relationship isis presentpresent whichwhich archaeologistsarchaeologists Hayden:Hayden: STONE-AGE STONE-AGE TECirNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONSTRANSITIONS cannot cannot affordafford to to overlook overlook in in theirtheir questquest toto explain culturalcultural similarities similarities and and differences.differences. To To this this end, end, I I wouldwould likelike toto thankthank BRUMFIEL,BRUMFIEL, ELIZABETH. ELIZABETH. 1976. 1976. "Regional"Regional growth in thethe easterneastern Valley HardestyHardesty forfor his his elaboration elaboration ofof oneone ofof these these related related concepts;concepts; II of of Mexico:Mexico: A testtest of thethe 'population'population pressure'pressure' hypothesis,"hypothesis," inin TheThe early early Mesoamerican Mesoamerican village. village. Edited Edited by by K. K. Flannery,Flannery, pp.pp. 234-47.234-47. wouldwould alsoalso like to thankthank allall thethe reviewersreviewers forfor contributingcontributing to NewNew York:York: Academic Press. thethe general general fermentferment on on thethe topic, topic, forfor surely surely why why cultures cultures changechange BRYANT,BRYANT, VAUGHN VAUGHN M., M., JR., JR., and and GLENNA GLENNA WILLIAMS-DEAN. WILLIAMS-DEAN. 1975. 1975. The The isis oneone ofof the the most most important important questions questions thatthat archaeologistsarchaeologists can coprolites coprolites of of man. man. Scientific Scientific American American 232: 232:100-109. 100-109. [JK]UK] address. address. BUTZER,BUTZER, K. K. W.W. 1971. Environment andand archaeology.archaeology. Chicago: Chicago: Aldine. [FAH,[FAH, DRY]DRY] ---. 1-. 1977.977. Environment,Environment, culture,culture, and human evolution. 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