43

Chapter III The History of PeopHng

3.1 Geographical locaticn and distribution In this chapter the histoi-y of Nagas will be traced to throw light on their origin. The Nagas are found in four states of and in . They live between Brahmaputra and Chindwin Rivers, between 93'’E to longitudes and 24^’N to 27^^ latitudes.' in an area of about 100.000 sq.km. of the Patkai range.

Fig 3.1 The Naga Ancestral Domain

According to J.P. Mills, the Nagas live in the area “bounded by the Hudkawng valley in the north-east, the plains of to the north-west, of Cachar to the south­ west and of the Chindwin to the east. In the south, the valley roughly marks the point of contact between the Naga tribes and the closely interrelated group of Kuki tribes 44

Thadou, Lushei, Chin, etc,”^ In India, they are found, besides , in the four Districts of Manipur, one District in and two Districts in . In addition to this, many Nagas inhabit the Western part of Myanmar (Burma). In Myanmar, Nagas are concentrated in the Somrah tract bordering India, which comes under and Sagaing Sub-division.

There are 48 major tribes of Nagas with a population of about 3 million in 2001. There are 13 tribes in Nagaland, 17 tribes in Manipur, 2 tribes in Assam, 3 tribes in Arunachal Pradesh and 13 tribes in Myanmar. According to Naga National Rights and Movements NNC, there are 77 tribes, which include the sub-tribes and major tribes, while the Naga Hoho list 60 tribes. According to the 2001 Census, Nagas from Nagaland and Manipur comprise of about 2.7 millions and the rest of the Nagas comprises of about 0.3 million.

Table 3.1 Naga, major tribes in India and Myanmar (Burma) SL. No. State Name of the major tribes 1. Nagaland Ao, Angami, Sema, Konyak, Lotha, Chakhesang, Rengma, Pochuri, Sangtam, Yimchunger, Chang, Khiamnungan, Mao, Phom, Tikhir, Zeme. 2. Manipur Tangkhul, Poumai, *, Mao, Maram, Thangal, Koirao, Moyon, Monsang, Annal, Aimol, Chakhesang, Chiru, Chothe, Inpui, Kharam, Koireng, Kom, Lamkang, Liangmai, Mao, Maring, Purum, Rongmei, Tarao. 3. Arunachal Pradesh Tangsha, Wancho, Singpho, Stutsa, Wanchao and Nocte. 4. Assam Zeme, Rongmei (Zeliangrong) and Rengma. Konyak, Pangaw, Pyangoo, Phom, Yimchunger, 5. Myanmar Pangsha, Hemi, Lainung, Shangpuri, Para, Khiam, Tangkhul, Cheril, Chirr, Khiamnungan, Kengu, Machary/Makury/Makhori, Nocte, Pangmi, Para, Tangsa. *Zeliangrong (include Zemei, .iangmei and Rongmei)

It is said that the Nagas immigrated from three directions - North East, North West and South East. Nagas living in the western part traced the origins of Nagas from the west through folktales and legends. But it is also confirmed that the majority of the Nagas immigrated from South East through the corridor of Indo-Myanmar border to the . 45

Fig, 3.2 Naga Tribes in India and Myanmar

The Nagas are believed to have dispersed from Makhel (dispersal site of the Nagas), District, Manipur, emigrated from Indo-Myanmar corridor after they retreated from the Southern Seas - Moulmein (Myanmar). 46

One Naga scholars, the Late R.R. Shimray believed the Nagas came to the Naga Hills during the Bronze Age or early Iron Age. The evidence of smooth stones found in Nagalim made some of the authorities on Naga like Hutton, Pearl, Captain Steel etc show the evidence of Neolithic culture in Nagalim (native name of Nagaland representing the entire Naga inhabited areas). A recent discovery by the archaeologist O.K Singh in 1993 has shown evidence of Paleolithic culture in Nagalim.

The Nagas occupied the Naga Hills much earlier before the Ahom Kings came to Assam during 13'*’ Century A.D. In the entire Naga history, there were two strong invaders who came to the Naga Hills and had fierce battles with the Nagas. The Ahom King who came from Thailand under the King of Sukhapa settled down in the plains of Assam in the 13*'’ century A.D. It is recorded in history that Ahom Kings had fought the Naga warriors and when they defeated the Nagas, the Nagas were harshly treated and were forced to have the roasted flesh of their kins killed by Ahoms. According to Elwin Verrier, Ahom Kings regarded the Nagas as their subjects and levied taxes on them in the form of slaves, elephant msks, spears, hand-woven textiles and cottons. The Ahoms settled in the Assam valley and later imposed taxes on some of the Naga tribes living in the vicinity of Assam valley.

According to the report on the province of Assam in 1854 by Mills A.J. Moffatt, the British first came in contact with the Nagas in 1832 when Captain Jenkins and Pamberton along with 700 soldiers and 800 coolies (porters) to carry their baggage and provision marched across the Naga Hills in their attempt to find a route from Manipur to Assam. When the British came to the Naga Hills, the Nagas raided the British troops in different villages. The fight between the Nagas and British continued till 1880 when the fort of finally fell into the hands of the British troops. After 1880, the British troops dominated many parts of Naga Hills but the Konyak tribe continued to fight the British till 1939.^ The British administered most of the Naga villages but they were not able to control all the Nagas villages. When the British left the Naga Hills after India got Independence, the Nagas declared Nagaland (Nagalim) as an Independent Nation on 14**’ August 1947. But the Indian Government did not recognize the unilateral declaration of 47

Naga National Independence and the indigenous continued to struggle for sovereignty from the Indian Government.

3.2 What some of the authorities comment about Nagas? The Nagas belong to the Mongoloid stock. The Philologists grouped as belonging to the Tibeto-Burma family. Each tribe has a common language but there are some Naga villages, which have different dialects and cannot be understood by other villagers among the same tribe. For instance, the dialect spoken in three villages cannot be understood by other villagers among the Tangkhul Nagas - every village has a different dialect, which is also not understood by other villagers.

Different authors on Nagas comment being very courageous, industrious, cordial, colorfial, amicable and truthful. To quote , ‘They are a fine people, of whom their country is proud, strong and self reliant, with the free and independent outlook, characteristics of highlanders everywhere, good to look at, with an unerring instinct for color and design, friendly and cheerful with a keen sense of humor, gifted with splendid dances and a love of song.”"*

J.H. Hutton, an authority on Nagas commented, “One of the first characteristics that strikes a visitor to the Angami’s country is his hospitality, a hospitality which is always ready to entertain a visitor and which forms a curious contrast to the very canning frugality of his domestic economy...Another very striking trait of the Angami is his geniality. Both men and women are exceedingly good humored and always ready for a joke.

J.P. Mills commenting on the Lotha Nagas wrote, “Their sense of humor is well developed and they are always ready with a laugh.”*^ Maj. Gen. Sardeshpande, one of the Indian authors on Nagas comments about the Khiamungan and Konyak Nagas as,

“Nagas are magnificent. You have to see and live amidst them to believe this simple statement. A very large majority of us know very little about them. The little that we know is about their nakedness, and anti-national, hostile, underground, insurgent activity for the last thirty years of independent India’s consciousness of it north-eastern periphery.. .By nature they are suspicious, sensitive, wary, distrustful, inward-looking, volatile and very proud. There cannot be a better friend than the Naga once he identifies his friend; there cannot be a worse foe than the 48

Naga once he feels deceived or let down. Deep inside his inscrutable exterior and penetrating eyes there is tremendous warmth, great geniality, and sharp intellect and immense good-will.”’

Shimray R.R., one of the authorities on the Nagas wrote, “Indeed, they are fierce looking and hostile to those with bad intentions, but certainly not all the attributes are right. They are, on the contrary, very good to those who are good to them, and friendly to those who are friendly and exceptionally hospitable to those who come with good intentions.”*

In addition to the traits stated above, the Nagas love democracy, equality, justice and freedom of life in every respect. The Naga seniors do not expect high respect and reverence from their subordinates as they believe in equality and freedom. There is no tradition of slaves and master in Naga society- this is alien to them. The Nagas are a big family where there is no division based on caste, creed and religion. But they were also endowed with their own weak points and negativism, like they are orthodox, conservative, and sensitive to their traditions.

3.3 The myths of Naga Origin Though many ethnologists haves studied the Nagas tribe since ancient times, the British were the pioneers who encountered the Naga people and studied them seriously. The Nagas do not have their own written history about their origin as they followed the oral tradition. The folksongs, folk-tales and legends of different tribes of Nagas are the main sources of Naga history with which we can trace the origin of the Nagas.

The different authorities on Nagas hypothesized or contributed to three main opinions about their origin. Some authorities traced the origin of Nagas to the Head-Hunters of Malay and the races of Southern Seas while the other authorities traced the origin of Nagas to and . The British who were acquainted with the Nagas since in the early 19‘*’ century (1832) studied the different tribes of Nagas. The Nagas are different in many respects from the other tribes in . The uniqueness of this tribe aroused curiosity among British ethnologists to study and write about them. Some of the pioneering ethnologists who studied and wrote about the Nagas were Dalton, Sir James Johnstone, J.P.Hutton, J.P.Mills, Woodthrope, H.H.Godwin Austin, Mackenzie, Damant etc. Most of the pioneer ethnographers on Nagas were soldiers. The authorities on Nagas were non-professional anthropologists. 49

Some of the important notes and documents on Nagas were lost and damaged in the 1879 insurrections. Damant had a Manipur Dictionary and a paper on Angami Nagas, but the Nagas destroyed it in the stockade. The early ethnologists had tried their best to accumulate information on Nagas but they have inadequate knowledge and information about the Nagas, due to communication gap (interpreter) and due to the absence of records of written history. There may be slight differences in perceptions on Nagas by the outsiders and insiders, but the work of these pioneers on Nagas should be acknowledged and appreciated, regardless of their incomplete knowledge (notion) on Nagas. One of the pioneering authorities on Nagas, Sir James Johnstone, who came in contact with the Nagas in 1874, wrote about the origin of Nagas as,

“Where the Angami came from must be uncertain till the language of our Eastem Frontier is scientifically analysed. The late Mr. Damant, a man of great talent and a pioneer in research, had a valuable paper regarding them in hand, but it perished in the insurrection of 1879. The probability is that they came originally from the South-Eastem comer of Thibet.”’

The folk tales and legends of the Nagas do not trace their origin from Tibet. But all the stories of origin pointed to the southeast. The folk tales and folk songs did not support the above theory of Nagas’ migration from Tibet. When James Johnstone came in contact with the Nagas in 1874 at Samagudting, an old Naga centenarian told him that they had come from the North East and were the seventh generations living there.

Another authority on Nagas, J.H. Hutton wrote,“While the country near Manipur is a much more difficult problem, and quite beyond the scope of this book, all sorts of origins have been connected with the Head-hunters of Malay and the races of the Southem Seas which finally points their origin to China.”'® He also states that the terrace rice cultivation system of Angami resembled with those tribes of Bontoc or Igorots in Philippines. He did not precisely state where the original home of Nagass lies.

Another sociologist who is also a missionary, W.C. Smith traced the origin of Nagas to the southward movement through the Brahmaputra valley. “It is this southward movement which brought these people down the Brahmaputra valley when they were forced into the mountain vastness or otherwise isolated tracts. It is these people who became the ancestors of the Nagas and other more or less wild tribes. This southward movement pressed on down through 50

Burma and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo and to the Philippines where we have the Dyaks, Igorots and related groups.”" The hypothesis given by him may be untenable since the Naga tribes traced their origin to the southeast, which is also largely supported by the folk-tales and folk songs.

One of the Indian authorities on Nagas, Murot Ramunny wrote, “The original home of the Nagas, before they reached the areas they now occupy, is rather difficult to ascertain. Different authorities have connected them with headhunters of Malay, the races of the southern seas, while others trace them back finally to China.”'^

About the origin of the Nagas, a Naga scholar Dr. Horam also traced the Nagas origin to the Southern Seas. He wrote, “There can be little doubt that at one time the Nagas must have wandered about before they found their permanent abode; from their myths and legends one gathers that there is dim relationship with the natives of Borneo in that the two have a common traditional way of head hunting; with the Indonesians, as both use the loin loom for weaving cloth. The embroidery on the Naga clothes resembled the kind done on Indonesian clothes.”'^

The recent study of the origin of Nagas by R.R. Shimray supported Marshall’s view of Indo-China southward movement. Thus, he wrote,

“The Nagas and other tribals of North East India followed the southward movements towards Indo-China. It has been seen that the ancestors of the Nagas had lived on the Sea Coast in the remote past. This has been inferred from the various evidences that the Nagas at one distant past were living near the Sea. This theory is further supported and upheld by the very fact that the last take-off in their migration was from Thangdut in Burma (previously called Hsawngsup and pronounced as Samsok in Tangkhul). The last migradon from Samsok (Thangdut) in Burma to Makhel in Mao, Longpi and Hunphun in is very clear and most recent and is supported by historical facts and monuments.”''*

According to Keans, the movement of population had undoubtedly been first southward from the Asiatic mainland, then from the Archipelago eastward to the Pacific. In accordance with this view, it is sure that Nagas were one of the groups from Asiatic mainland who migrated in the southward direction but they retreated to the North West direction to the Naga Hills after reaching the Southern seas of Moulmein. Some tribes from , Philippines and Malaysia seem to be from the same group of Nagas who retreated from the Southern Seas. It is believed that some other groups of Nagas went down fiirther from Moulmein to Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. 51

Quoting Shimray’s view, he wrote that, “It is very probable that the Nagas had first followed the southward movement and after reaching the coast or some Islands, they turned North-west leaving their brothers somewhere near the coast or perhaps in some Islands.”'^

The history of Malaysian origin also traces back their origin to Yuma (Yunan) province in China. The Nagas once lived near the seacoast, most likely in Moulmein seas coast but probable they did not live in the Islands because if they had lived in the Islands there is less possibility of their retreat to Naga Hills. It is supported by historical facts (folktales, folklores, legends etc), and it seems certain that the Nagas once lived near the Seas coast or must have come from the Sea coast as they use cowries-shells and conch-shells for decorating their dresses (kilts), not found in the hills.

Shakespeare, who wrote the , also wrote that Nagas resembled those tribes of Dyads and they loved the marine-shells, which is not found in Naga villages. Thus, he wrote, “they recognize a slight resemblance in matters of counting, name domestic implements in the village, their architecture and their Head-hunting propensities to those of the Dyads, while their love for marine-shells (which they part with but rarely) may seem to point to a bygone home near the Sea, though they are far inland-residing community.”’^

Dr. Horam also states that, “some people believe the present group of Nagas came from the Philippines where there is a place called Naga”'’ However, the above belief is just an assumption because the Naga village (present Naga city) in Philippines was named by Spanish troops only in 1573, when they discovered a flourishing Bikol village with abundance of NARRA TREES in that place. This Naga city is named after Narra trees, in Bikol, Narra is known as Naga. The folk songs and legends of Poumai Naga narrated that they (Nagas) came from Deimaofii, (literal meaning Island or land with water) and ultimately reached MAKHEL, following the big rivers.'* Here Deimaophii might have also referred to the Seas Coast since the Nagas probably did not come from the Islands. Late Shimray also believed that the Nagas must have come from the seacoast or at least saw some Islands. Thus, he states, 52

“The hypothesis that the Nagas must have come from the seacoast or at least seen some Islands or the seas is strengthened by the life-style of the Nagas and the ornaments being used till today in many Naga villages. The Naga being left undisturbed for such a long time, have retained the culture of the most ancient times till today. Their fondness of Cowries shells for beautifying the dress, and use of Conch shells as ornaments (precious ornaments for them) and the facts that the Nagas have many customs £ind way of life very similar to that of those living in the remote parts of Borneo, Sarawak. Indonesia. Malaysia etc. indicates that their ancient abode was near the sea. if not in some islands."''^

According to the folktale and mythology of Poumai Naga, the Pou or Shipfo was one of the leaders who led the Nagas from Indo-Myanmar to MAKHEL (Dispersal site of Nagas) where, all the Nagas were dispersed to various parts of Naga Hills. It was only after they dispersed from MAKHHL; they were called by the name of tribe named after their progenitor (forefather).

All the Naga tribes came for a meeting at Shajouba Village near Makhel before their departure from Makhel. According to the legend of Poumai Naga, a man name POU (one of the prominent leader of Naga) erected his walking stick on the ground after the meeting and left for home. But his walking stick sprouted and took root inside the earth. The walking stick grew into a wild pear tree (Tyaobe) and is still alive at Shajouba near Makhel. Whether it sprouted from Pou’s walking stick or not. the Pear tree is believed to be planted during the Nagas departure from Makhel.

Photo 3.1 Sacred Tree at Makhel Photo 3.2 Naga Departure Tree at Shajouba 53

The Nagas called this Pear tree as departure tree since it was planted during their departure. This wild Pear tree is considered sacred and very important and is held in reverence by all the Nagas who migrated from Makhel. The falling of branches from the wild pear tree due to storm or wind signifies a bad omen. If any branches of that tree fall, the Makhelian (Poumai, Angami, Mao, Tangkhul, Zeliangrong Seema, Lotha, Maram and other Nagas) who dispersed from the dispersal site observe a day, which forbids one to work in the fields.

People were strictly restricted to choke-off even small branches from that tree. It is believed that anybody who cuts down any branches of that tree will die instantly and heavy rain and storm would come to the areas. For the Naga people the folktale and folksong of Poumai still plays a testimonial truth about the wild pear tree which are still alive the migration waves from Myanmar in the folksongs and folktales of Tangkhul tribe also support that the Nagas came from Myanmar. Thus, Shimray an authority onS Nagas wrote,

“The party that went to the right (Northeast) was the Tangkhuls and the Somras. The legend goes that one very brave man called ‘Shimray’ led Tangkhul Nagas. This party went on cutting down the bananas trees so that those who would be coming after them may follow the sign. However, since the banana trees sprouted quickly, the later wave of migration followed the left party thinking that it would be difficult to catch them (Tangkhuls). This is why the majority of the Nagas are found in the Mao-Maram, Tamenglong and Nagaland areas. The Tangkhul and Somrah Nagas were very small in number as compared to the other party that went leftward.”^®

The legends of Tangkhul tribe narrated that they went to Northeast and other larger group went to northwest and settled at Makhel, , Manipur, from there the various Naga tribes were dispersed to the Naga Hills. The majority of the Tangkhuls might have gone to the north east side during the retreat from Myanmar to Manipur, but the historical facts showed that many of the Tangkhuls were the descendants of Pou who were dispersed from Makliel.The Moi clan (now Muivah clan, Tangkhul) were the descendants of Pou. Basically the Muivah clan, was Poumai. Thus we may conclude that Nagas hailed from the mainland of China and/ migrated to Myanmar along the rivers and corridors. They migrated to the Southern Seas of Myanmar along the rivers and lived 54 near the Sea^oast of Moulmein (Myanmar) for generations before they retreated to Irrawaddy and Chindwin valleys

According to oral history and modem history of Poumai, it is traced back to Qin Dynasty of China (221-210 BC) most probably Qinshi Haundgdi, who built the Great Wall of China around 215 B.C to protect from Mongol’s invasion. To escape from this forceful construction work, some people absconded and went down to the south of China- Myanmar border. It is said that the king forcibly employed his subject to build the Great Wall of China. It is believed that Nagas are one of those groups who came from Yunnan province and ultimately reached at MAKHEL. Most probably they made a promise not to reveal the truth about their origin of migration to hide from the king. Thus the origin of Nagas and their route of migration are kept a secret for long and they fabricated a story of migrating from Makhel.

3.4 Route of Naga Migration

The exact route of migration is difficult to delineate but it may be traced through the study of folksongs, folktales and legends of different tribes of Nagas. According to the oral tradition, they did not migrate from Brahmaputra valley (Assam) to the Naga Hills. But the myths of origin traced the route of migration to Southeast. In ancient times, the migration took place mainly along the river corridors. So it is quite possible that they migrated from mainland of China and followed the route along the rivers to Myanmar and retreated to Naga Hills.

According to Keane, the migration of the people undoubtedly first took a southward turn from the Asiatic mainland, then from the Archipelago eastward to the Pacific. Contrary to eastward movement to the Pacific, the Nagas followed the southward movements from the Asiatic mainland and after reaching the Moulmein Sea coast (Myanmar) they migrated northwestward and lived in Irrawaddy and Chindwin Valley for some period of time and finally migrated to the present Naga Hills. It is also written by Kaith Buchanan that over hundreds of years the pre-Chinese people of central Asia were displaced into the 55 upland areas of Indo-Chinese lands far to the south. It is possible that Nagas were one such group who were displaced from central Asia and migrated to the .

The route of Southward movements from China by the Nagas would be difficult to delineate due to lack of written history. But geographically and from a geographical perspective, the Southward movement (migration) from main land China is possible following along the three rivers like Salween (Nu-Jiang), Mekong and Irrawaddy River.

It is believed that the Nagas migrated from Mainland China and followed the southward movement along the route of Salween River and eventually reached the Southern Seas in Moulmein (Myanmar). It is because the Salween River originated from the mainland of China near Tanglha Range and flowed to Southern Seas in Moulmein (southern Myanmar) and the other tributary near Bangkok.

Diagram 3.1 Route of Nagas Migration (Diagrammatical Representation)

Nagas from Mainland of China. Yunnam Province. _► Salween River (China) (China & Myanmar),

Moulmein Irradwaddy & Chindwin River -►Imphal River (Myanmar) (Myanmar) (Manipur)

Barak River Makhel (Dispersal site of Nagas) Naga Hills (Senapati District) (Senapati District) (India & Myanmar)

The Irrawaddy River and Chindwin River do not originate from mainland of China. The Mekong River originated from mainland of China but it runs through Laos, Cambodia and eventually to the Southern Seas in Mytho City in Vietnam. It is not proved by the historical facts that the Nagas took the route of migration along the Mekong River. 56

The custom and tradition of Nagas resemble those of the Tribes of Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia than to the tribal people in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Perhaps the Nagas took the route of migration along the Salween River to reach the southern seas of Moulmein (Myanmar).

Fig. 3,1 Map of South East Asian Peninsula Showing the possible route of Nagas migration 57

It is supported by historical facts that once the Nagas lived in Irrawaddy valley in the periphery of Salween River. One of the tributaries of Irrawaddy River from Mandalay, (Myanmar) also has a confluence with Salween River near Loi-Kaw (Myanmar), and it is possible to migrate through this river.

However, the researchers believed that the Nagas migrated further south to Moulmein Sea, where marine shells are found. It is supported by their (Nagas) fondness of marine shells in decorating their dresses (kilt) and the marine shells are not found in the hills. They were also very familiar with the cowries and conches since time immemorial. The Nagas are basically from the mainland of China most probably from the Yurmam province taking southward migration along the Salween River to the south of Moulmein (Myanmar) and lived there for some period of years. It is also believed that some of their (Naga) clans (brothers) were left in Moulmein and they retreated to the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Valleys.

Those who were left in the vicinity of seas coast continued to press further southward through the south of Myanmar to Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. Once the Naga are believed to have lived near the seas but the reason for their migration from the Southern Seas to the Nagas Hills is still obscure. It is difficult to ponder on this matter and give a reasonable reason. Some of the probable reasons for their retreat may be mentioned as-

i) The plains people who were more civilized with better equipment in warfare in Moulmein or near the seacoast might have pressed the Nagas to push up the Irrawaddy Valley. ii) There could be frequents waves, tornados and pestilence living near the seacoast. iii) Another reason may be; they felt safe from their enemies’ attacks, living in the hills than living in the plain, where there is not much protection. iv) As they were basically from the mainland, they may not be adapted to the coastal environment and may liked to pursue other occupations like hunting, 58

gathering fruits; cultivation etc which might have made them shift to the hills of Chindwin and Irrawaddy River valleys near Monywa (Myanmar).

3.5 The Poumai Naga-Etymology The Poumai Naga tribe is a major tribe and one of the oldest among Nagas. The descendants of POU are known, as POUMAI. The descendants of POU were MEO, LEO and PAO. The Poumai Naga and Mao were referred to as Poumai Naga since their progenitor was POU. The Mao people called the Poumai as Shipfo while the Angami tribe called Poumai as Sopvama. But during the British Anthropological survey in Manipur, the interpreter wrongly informed the British that Poumai and Mao are known as Mao T ribe.Since then the name of the tribe was recorded as Mao tribe. There was a tiff between the Poumai Naga and Mao for many years due to this misinformation. The problem was solved only after the POUMAI NAGA tribe was recognized as a separate tribe by the Central Government of India under the Constitution of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled tribe Order (Amendment) Act 2002.

The word Poumai is derived from two "‘POU’’ and “MAP'. "POU” was the progenitor of Poumai and “MAI” is the descendants of POU. In other words, POU is the name of the ancestor and his descendants are known as POUMAI. The literal meaning of POUMAI means “People of Pou” According to Vaison Pou there are eight different patriarchal heads namely- Memiiwo, Khrasi, Akrow, Paodu, Dukku, Liidu, Lapaosuru and Prowo. They lived together at Makhel for some period of time before they migrated to the different villages.^^ As the legends and folktales were not written in the olden days, there is variation from one person to another person about the patriarchal heads and migration. But it is believed that Lapaosuru, Paoyao (Paodu) and Propoziio were the last Poumai progenitors who took the Poumai enmass from Makhel to their present villages. According to the oral history of Mao tribe, it is believed that a White Cloud (Kahe kakra) enveloped a woman named Dziiliamosiiro, while she was sleeping under the peepal tree and she conceived and bore three sons, namely- Ashupfo Alapha (dark complexion race), Chiituwo (Meitei race) and Khephip (Naga race). 59

Diagram 3.2 Genealogical evolution 23

White Cloud (Kahe). ______^ Peepal tree (Marabu) -► ^Dziiliamosiiro (woman)

Ashupfo Alapha Chiituwo Khephio (Dark complexion race) (Non-Naga, Meiteis race) (Nagas race)

Shipfowo *Fujiiwo, Shiinawo, Osiikozhowo, Loshewo, Takai, Epuwo, Mariwo, Pihu, Moshowo, Kochowo, Satowo

Kapeo (Kapenmata) Toluwo (Tolupemata) Memeo (ememei)

*These are the forefathers of the other Nagas tribes

The above genealogical evolution from a woman is only a legend and not very scientific and one finds since the historic times human beings create myths and narrate different stories at different times. However the genealogical evolution from Shipfowo (Pou) to his descendants is convincing and narrated from generation to generation. According the oral tradition of Nagas and based on oral history, genealogical evolution can be traced as-

Diagram 3.3 Oral History-Genealogical Evolutions Nagas from China ------► Myanmar (Nagas reached)

POU (Shipfo) one of the Naga leaders)

MEO LEO PAO Prou Other Nagas T i Kheapou Dukhou Napou Rokhuo Siipou Paoyao Proupoziio i Mao (Ememei) Le Daona Paomata Chi nve

Mao Paodai Lepao Paodai Paotya Paodai Proungidai 60

The Poumai Naga took the wave of migration from Makhel in two directions-Northeast and South East direction. The descendant of Liio (Lepaona) took the southeast direction and settled at Koide village under the leadership of Chief Rokhuo.

Diagram 3.4 Poumai Paoh (Progenitors of Poumai) Progenitors of Poumai

Paotya Paodai Lepao Paodai Proungidai

Siipao, Phyapao Nahiipao, Shochaonapao Kodom, Lakhamai Khipao and Zhaipao Lanapao and Dumaipao Sirong and Shamai

The descendants of Pao (Paomata) took the northeast direction and settled at Saranamai village after the four Chiefs were chosen to head the new settlement. The descendants of Prou (Chiliive) also wen: in the northeast direction and settled at Prouphii. However some believed that all thie Poumai first migrated to Saranamai and then migrated to different circles or areas. The whole Poumai Naga community is divided into three units or circles for administrative convenience as- 1. Paomata Circle 2. Lepaona Circle 3. Chiliive Circle

3.5.1. Paomata Circle The descendants of PAO are called as Paomata. The word PAOMATA is derived from their progenitor name Pi^.O. In Paomata circle, there are two historical ethnic groups known as “Ranapao” and “Raonapao”. Ranapao had four sons and Raonapao hads two sons. Migration from Makhel The Paomata migrated from Makhel to the north of Makhel under the leadership of Paoyao and settled at SIIFII (Saranamai village). In order to select the residence of the 61 chief, a bell was struck to test the audacity of its sound and a cock was also made to crow. As the bell sound was good and the cock crew in four different spots. Four chiefs were chosen to head the new settlements. The four chiefs houses were built by four “Peorow” who were fortune tellers and lastly the public houses were built.^"*

Migration from Saranamai village The Paomata first settled at Saranamai (Siifii) after they emigrated from Makhel. The Saranamai settled at the present Saranamai village, while many others moved towards northeast seeking a better place where the present villages are located. Today, the persons in Paomata circle have migrated from six villages from Saranamai, The Saranamai, Maiba, Phuba, and Liyai were the descendants of RANAPAO.ln the other two villages of Tungjoy and Tunggam were the descendants of RAONAPAO.^^

Ranapao descendants: The descendants of Siipao settled at Saranamai village while the other three descendants migrated to different areas and formed their own settlements. The Khipao (Maibai’s progenitor) went to the south of Saranamai village crossing the and settled down near the Koide village. The Zhaipao led his descendants to the northeast of Saranamai and settled at present in Liyai village. The present Liyai village is the biggest village amongst the Poumai villages. The Phyapao led the migration in the northeast direction and went beyond Liyai village. It seems they migrated after the Zhaipao since the Zhaipao had already occupied the land, they were pressed fiirther northeast from Liyai village. The descendants of Ranapao took a sacred vow during their dispersal from Saranamai village not to fight each other in Headhunting. They also made a vow to unitedly fight against their enemies. They have a common observation of death rituals when some one dies in their villages.

Raonapao descendants: The present Tunggam and Tungjoy villagers are known to be the descendants of Raonapao. They are the blood brothers as they are from the same ancestors. Tungjoy led the migration from Saranamai in the northeast direction and settled at the present 62

Tungjoy village, while Tunggam took the southwest direction from Saranamai village and settled in Tunggam village. These two villages are located in the northwestern parts of Poumai dominated areas where better road transportation is available at present; it is bordered with of Nagaland.

3.5.2. Lepaona Circle Liio or Leo was the progenitor of Lepaona. Leo’s descendants are called Lepaona or Leopaonese. The Lepaona, guided by a Tiger and Eagles migrated from Makhel (Naga dispersal site) to Koide village (Lepaona dispersal site). The name LEPAONA is derived from the word PAO-LIIO-NA, which means “grand father Liio’s progenies or descendants”. The literary meaning of LEPAONA means “grandchildren of Liio or descendants of Liio”

Migration from Makhel In the history of Lepaona it is mentioned that they migrated in the southeast direction from Makhel. During their exodus from Makhel, they were constrainted to migrate from Makhel to Koide village. A strong and brave man name Khyapou Dukhuo (Dukhuo from Makhel) blocked the way with a sword (kho/). He restricted the Lepaona to leave from Makhel. But a lionhearted man name LAPAOSIJRU (Ron) screamed at the top of his voice and jumped over Dukhuo and his shield was slightly cut by Khyapou Dukhuo. rhe Lanamai believed that the shield used by Lapaosuru is still preserved at Photo: 3.3 Lapaosuru's Shields the King’s residence at Purui Atongba. During fieldwork, the researcher met the present King and interviewed him and also took the picture of that shield. (See photo). Thus, the Liipaona conceded that they emigrated from Makhel and first settled at Koide village under the Chief of ROKHUO.'^ Poudufli or Poudeifii is located at Koide village. According to Raini Pao. the literary meaning of POUDUFII means “the discussion place of the Poumai Naga community” All the important meetings and deliberations were held 63 at Poudufii at Koide village. It is mentioned that even the Angami tribe from Nagaland also joined in the meetings and discussions held at Koide village. The Poumai Naga community erected a memory stone at Poudufii. There are five important villages in l.epaona circle namely, Koide, Purul, Thingba Khullen, Thingba Khunou and Oinam village. All the other village in the periphery of the five villages are settled by migrants from those five villages and some from other villages. The Khongdei villagers who were migrants from Koide village (dispersal site of Lepaona) actually belong to Lepaona circle but now administratively they bare in Chiliive circle.

Migration of Lepaona from Koide village: i). Koide and Purul

In ancient times, Koide village was an important site or village for Poumai Naga community for discussing important matters. The Koide or Naamai settled at Koide village. But the Hiimai (Purul) migrated from Koide and settled at Purul village around 5 kms to the northeast of Koide village.

Photo 3.4 Lepaona Departure Photo 3.5 Monolith at Koide village

Koide and Purul are blood brothers according to legend. The Hiima migrated to the present Purul village due to increase of the population at Koide village. Today, there are three Purul villages namely - Purul Atongba, Purul Akutpa and Rosofii. 64 ii) Thingba Khullen and Khunou According to legend, Thingba, Khullen and Khunou villagers are blood brothers. They migrated from Koide village and settled at Thingba Khunou (Chaonamai) around seven km to the south of Koide village. The Thingba Khullen (Shomai) first settled at Chaonamai village and tlien shifted to Shomai village around 5 km from Chaonamai village due to increase of population in the village. The literary meaning of Shomai means, “Shifted people” Today, the population of Shomai is little larger than Chaonamai. iii) Dumai (Khongdei) Khongdei migrated from Koide village to the Northeast, around 15 km and settled at Khongdei village. Dumai first migrated from Koide and settled at Purul village and that area is still known as "Dunafii” which mean Dumai’s site. According to legend, the site (Purul Akutpa) they first settled was filled with thorny bushes and stones. So they migrated further in search of a better site for settlement. Another legend tells us that Dumai Pao carried a stone from Makehl with an instruction that Dumai Pao should settle in that particular site where the stone falls down. As the stone fell at the present Dumai village, they settled there. There are three Dumai villages at present. By origin, Dumai were Lepaona but they migrated to southeast of Lepaona area and now they are included in Chiliive area. Khongdei village is one of the oldest villages in Chiliive area. iv) Lahnamai Lahnamai’s (Rou) descendants were known as Lahnamai.They first settled at Upper Koide village and still dilapidated Lanapao (Lana’s mound stones) remained at Koide village. It is alleged that Naamai and Lahnamai squabbled with each other due to the notorious life style of Lapaosuru, so later he and his clan migrated to Rosofii around 5 km from Koide village. Then they migrated to Dunaphii, another area (now occupied by Dunamai) and lived there for some years. In the past this clan was well known for moving from one area to another area.

They further shifted to Purul Atongba. During the feast of paddy transplantation, when Lapaosuru went out from his house to get some meat for the feast, some men form Thiwa 65 village lynched him. After Lapaosuru was killed, all his clan migrated to Khamsom village, extreme south of Lepaona area and settled there. Pao Lepei and Hiinii Ngaole Pao came back to Purul Akutpa from Khamsom and settled down permanently.

Oinam village is one of the largest villages in Lepaona circle. The Poumai earthen pots are manufactured only in this village since time immermorial. According to Dowang, the Oinam (people of Oinam) led the migration in the southeast direction from Makhel reaching the Barak River, and then proceeded to the south through Nghaphouzhe range and eventually reached Koide and then sojourned at Pouduffi for some time. However they started to move further to the present Oinam village for a permanent settlement. When they reached Oinam, the rooster did crow in the hand of the ancestor. Then the ancestor dug up the earth with a walking stick and found the similar soil found at Makhel for making earthen pots. Since then they settled at the present Oinam village. Today there are other four villages namely, Ngamju, Tingsong, Sorbung and Laila who migrated from Oinam village. In addition, some of the Oinam villagers have also migrated to Ukhrul district and Thangal areas in Senapati district where they merged with the other tribes.

3.5.3 Chiliive Circle The people from Chiliive circle migrated originally from Saranamai village. The community of this circle is called as ‘‘Proumai” Prou was the ancestor of Proumai and his descendants are called Proumai. There are some settlers, who are not the descendants of Prou and those villages are mainly settled by emigrants from Paomata and Lepaona areas.

Immigration to Chiliive Circle The people from Chiliive circle also originally emigrated from Makhel. They first settled at Saranamai village and then moved to Paomata circle and ultimately settled at Chiliive circle. However based on personal interview and fieldwork, it is found that they had directly migrated from Makhel. An egg was given to their ancestor with instructions not to settle down in at any site until the chicken is hatched. As they reached Prouphii, a chicken wasj^tched and their ancestor settled there after all the religious rites and rituals were performed. Some of the villages in the Chiliive area are said to be from Paomata 66

Circle and Lepaona circle. It is obvious that Khongdei villagers had migrated from Koide village that belong to Lepaona circle. The Proumai initially inhabited at Khoubu (Phuba Thapham) but later shifted to Chiliive areas. The substantial villages of Proumai are Kodom, Lakhamai. Shirong and Shamai. However, Shamai village was merged with other villages. There are some other villages in Chiliive circle in addition to the four largest villages. All the religious rites and rituals were observed together in those four villages. Photo 3.6 Monolith of Proumai dispersal site

3.5.4. Poumai in Phek District, Nagaland Today about 6,500 Poumais live in Phek District of Nagaland. They are commonly called “Razeba”in the Chakhesang tribe. There are four Poumai villages in Phek district they are namely; - Razeba, Zhavame, Zelome, Razeba and Tsufume. 27

Emigration from Paomata to Phek district (Nagaland) The Poumai Villagers in Phek district hail from the Paomata villages. The British geographically demarcated the Poumai villages in Phek district and included them in Nagaland during the British period because they have the same custom, tradition, rites and rituals as the other Poumai Nagas in Manipur. Due to contacts with other tribes in Nagaland, they speak Poula (Poumai dialect) and also the common dialect Tenyidie, Chokri and Khezha of Chakhesang dialect, apart from Nagamese. The Poumai Ma Sou Me (Poumai Naga Union) PMM is the apex body of all the Poumais. The Poumais in Phek district also comes under this PMM where they participate and celebrate together all the Poumais feasts like Thounii, held in 2002.

In addition to above the circles and villages, there are 11 other villages, which are located in the periphery of National Highway 39. The Moi clan (Muivah clan) Tangkhu! 67 clan hails from Shirong village (Chiliive areas) and they later migrated to Sodom village. The Muivah clan of Tangkhul and Poumai from Sirong still retain contacts each other, They are trying hard to have better relations with each other despite major differences the regarding demarcation of different districts and tribes.

To quote Shimray, the MOI clan (now Muivah clan) has clearly traced their origin from Makhel, and gradually to Liyai, Shirong, Khongdei, Lunghar and Somdal village for some periods of time before they moved on to the next.’'^^ The Ngatang people were also believed to be Poumai by origin and they speak Poula. Ngatang and still inhabit the Poumai dominated areas, but later they merged with the Maram tribe in 1980s.

References 1. R.R. Shimray (1985), Origin and Culture of Nagas New Delhi, Somsok Publications, p-2 2. J.P. Mills (1922) The , p-xvi 3. Iralu D. Kaka (2001), Nagaland history and their relations with other communities, http :kuknalim. com/modules .php?name=hi story 4. Op cit. Shimray (1985) p-10 5. J.P. Hutton (1921), The Angami Nagas, Oxford University Press, p-39 6. J.P. Mills (1922) The Lotha Naga, London: Macmillan and co. Ltd, p-24 7. Gen. Maj. Sardespande (1987), The Pakoi Nagas, p-vii, Delhi: Daya Publishing House 8. R. R. Shimray, p-6 9. Johnstone Sir James K.C.S.I (1896), Manipur and the Naga Hills Cultural Publishing house, Delhi, p-28 10. J.P. Hutton (1921) The Angami Nagas, Oxford University Press p-8 11. op.cit. Shimray (1985), p-3 12. Ramunny Murot: (1988), The World of Nagas, Delhi: Northern Book Center, p-5 13. M. Horam (1975), Naga Polity and New Delhi: B.R. Publishing Co. p-28 14. R.R. Shimray, p-21 15. Ibid, p-13 16. Shakespeare L.W. (1914), History of upper Assam, Upper Burma and North East Frontier, p-197 17. Horam (1975), p-25 18. Personal interview (2003), Saluni P. (Head man Koide village) interviewed on 23 May at Koide village and Vio R. Ex-MLA interviewed on 3"‘* June at Vakho village. 19. Shimray R.R., p-13 20. Ibid, p-31 21. Vio R. 2003, Personal Interviews on 3 June 2003 at Vakho village. 22. Pou Vaison P.S., p-31 68

23. Nepuni William (1999), Our language and etymology, in Communique, Mao Students, Delhi, p-8 24. Pao Raini, (2002), A socio-cultural profile of the Poumai tribe, Souvenir: The Poumai Thounii Celebration 2002, at Zhaimai-Liyai, p-11 25. James R.K. (1985), The Poumai Naga Tribe of Manipur: A Socio-Cultural Study, M.Phil. Thesis, Manipur University, Unpublished, p-17 26. Personal Interviews 2003, Salunii P. On 23-5-03 at Koide village, and Vio R. on 3-6- 03 at Vakho village. 27. Rhi Zhonyi 2002, Poumai Community in Nagaland, Souvenir: The Poumai Thounii Celebration, on 4-7 Jan.2002 at Zhaimai- Liyai Village, p-23 28. Shimray R.R., p-26