Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-60222-9 - Plant Variation and Evolution: Fourth Edition David Briggs and S

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-60222-9 - Plant Variation and Evolution: Fourth Edition David Briggs and S. Max Walters Index More information

INDEX

The index includes the Latin names of plants and animals investigated in the case studies analysed in the text. In the space available, it has not been possible to include the names of all the plants mentioned in the book. In general, common names of organisms are not listed. Figure page numbers in bold.

50/500 rule, 239 American Chestnut Restoration Project, 214 apospory, 111 Ammophila brevilingulata, 461 aquatic plants, 354 ABC model, 363 Amphicarpum purshii, 206 Aquilegia vulgaris,61 Abies, 404 amplified fragment length polymorphism Arabidopsis, 66, 372 Abies alba, 402 (AFLP), 95 Arabidopsis diploids, and synthesised abrupt speciation, 246 analysis of variance, 155 et seq. auto- and allopolyploids, 309 Achillea borealis, 143 ancient WGD events, 322 Arabidopsis halleri, 127, 182, 183, 191 Achillea millefolium, 29, 303 Anderson, 71, 270, 293, 297 Arabidopsis lyrata, 127, 191, 325 Acid Rain, 423 Androcymbium, 397 Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. petraea, 232 actinomorphy, 338 androdioecy, 121 Arabidopsis thaliana, 78, 80, 90, 153, 183, Adanson, 9 Andropogon scoparius, 143 200, 257, 258, 305, 306, 311, 325, Adansonia, 383, 393 aneuploidy, 309, 324 364, 404 adaptive and non-adaptive Angiosperm evolution: what role for Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, 90 characters, 196 saltational change?, 371 combined studies of crucial life cycle adaptive radiation, 128, 128 Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, 350 traits, 192 adaptive significance of introgressed angiosperms detecting the signature of selection, 190 traits, 283 origin and age of, 360 ecotypes, 87 advantages and disadvantages of differ- origin of, 385 experiments on phenotypic ent breeding systems, 116 polyphyletic origins?, 362 plasticity, 193 Aegilops squarrosa, 293 ANITA grade, 353 genetic transformation, 87 Aeonium, 397 Antennaria, 111 genome sequenced, 81 Aesculus x carnea, 297 Antennaria alpina, 132 genome size, 90 agamotypes, 144 Anthoxanthum odoratum, 153, 175, 266 genomic changes, 92 age of the Earth, 2, 17–18 Antirrhinum, 103 investigations of microevolution, 190 Agrobacterium tumefaciens,87 Antirrhinum majus, 364 model species, 86 Agrostis capillaris, 180 Aphanes, 132 molecular cloning, 87 Agrostis capillaris (A. tenuis), 145, 266 apogamy, 109 self-incompatibility, 127 Agrostis gigantea, 213 apomixes studies of adaptively significant Agrostis stolonifera, 180, 212, 213 molecular nature and origin, 113 traits, 195 Alchemilla, 124, 144, 315 apomixis synthetic allopolyploids, 326 Allee Effect, 235 adventitious embryony, 112 Arabis alpina, 398, 403 allelopathic effects, 61 agamospermy, 106, 107 Araucaria nemorosa, 215 Alliaria petiolata, 221, 227 Citrus, 124 Argyranthemum, 328 allopatric speciation, 250 cleavage polyembryony, 108 Armeria maritima, 182, 184, 266 allopolyploidy, 247, 289 embryology, 109 ‘arms race’, 199, 357 allozyme variation, 162 endosperm, 112 Arum maculatum, 197, 197 Aloe dichotoma, 429 environmental control, 125 asex, 124 Alopecurus myosuroides, 187 escape from sterility, 316 Asplenium, 397 alpha and omega taxonomy, 245, 338 facultative, 124 polyploids, 296, 296 Alyssum bertolonii, 182 genetics of, 113 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, 208 ambophilous condition, 363 pseudogamy, 108 assessment of extinction risk by Amborella Genome Project, 353, 375 some dogmas, 114 experts using IUCN and other Amborella trichopoda, 92, 369, 386 vegetative apomixis, 106 categories, 435

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-60222-9 - Plant Variation and Evolution: Fourth Edition David Briggs and S. Max Walters Index More information

570 Index

assisted migration, 475 blending inheritance, 14, 71 Chalara fraxinea, 421 assortative mating, 160 Bøcher, 139 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, 467 Aster furcatus, 238 Boechera holboelli, 108 Chamaelirium luteum, 208, 209 Asteraceae phylogenetic relationships, 352 Bonnier, 39, 40 Chamerion angustifolium (Epilobium asteroid impact hypothesis, 387 Borago, 400 angustifolium),39 Astragalus ampullaroides, 460 Botanic Gardens Conservation Chamerion latifolium (E. latifolium), 39 Astrophytum asterias, 214 International (BGCI), 449 chance events, 161, 201 Australia Bottleneck Effects, 161, 182, 201, 202, changes in chromosome number, 322 deforestation and forest degradation, 419 233, 238, 259, 406 changes in insect herbivores, 433 Australian fauna and flora, 392 Bowlby, 11 chaperonins, 96 autogamy, 129 Bowler, 45 chemotaxonomy: historic investigations autopolyploids, 312 Brachyscome dichromosomatica,84 of hybridisation, 275 autopolyploidy, 247, 289, 307 Brackman, 12 Chenopodium album, 186 Avena barbata, 221 Bradshaw, 145 Chinodoxa luciliae, 450 Avena sativa, 177 Branniban, 45 chlorofluorocarbons, 424 Brassica napus, 212, 309 chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), passim B chromosomes, 58, 59, 83 Brassica oleracea, 247, 309 phytogeographical studies, 401 back colonisation, 397 Brassica rapa, 309, 431 chloroplast genome, 86 bacterial groups, 368 Bromus tectorum, 220, 422, 434 chloroplasts, 85 Baker’s Law, 131, 217 Bryonia alba, 208 Chondrilla, 224 Banksia cuneata, 461 Buddleja davidii, 421 Chromosome Atlases, 303 Banksia spinulosa, 233 Buffon, 10 chromosome monosomy/trisomy, 309 Baptisia, 276 bulbils, 107, 315 chromosomes, 51 barcoding Burkhardt & Smith, 11 aneuploids, 58 advantages, 442 Butomus umbellatus, 230 centromeres, 83 effect of next generation sequencing, euchromatin, 59 445 C-value paradox, 82 heterochromatin, 59 herbarium material, 445 C4 photosynthesis, 354 idiograms, 56 in plant groups: future prospects, 444 callose, 100 karyotype, 56 in practice, 443 Calothamnus quadrifidus, 211 linkage, 55 questions about, 443 Caltha palustris, 137, 303 meiosis, 52 requirements for a fully functioning Campanula rotundifolia, 137 mitosis, 51 system, 444 Capsella bursa pastoris, 224, 374 number, 56 role in recognition of‘new’ species?, 444 Capsella rubella, 325 spindle, 83 route to the reinvigoration of taxon- carbon dioxide, 424 structural changes, 59, 60 omy?, 445 Carcinus maenas,69 telomeres, 83 websites, 442 Cardamine chenopodifolia, 121 Cineraria cruenta (Pericallis cruenta), 67 Barrett, 103, 118, 126, 129 Cardamine pratensis, 100, 324 Cirsium arvense, 221, 434 Bateson, 54, 67, 70 Carduus canescens, 468 Citrus, 112, 132 Bauplan, 375 Carex clade, 342 Beagle,11 range of chromosome numbers, 327 cladistics, 342 Bell, 118 carnivory, 353 Clarkia, 350 Bellis perennis,29 ‘carry-over’ effects, 153 relationships between species, 324, Bennett, Kenton & Bennett, 297 Cassiope tetragona, 398 325, 351 Bentham & Hooker, 376 Castanea crenata, 214 Clarkia biloba, 324 Bessey, 332, 339 Castanea dentata, 421 Clarkia concinna, 374 Beta vulgaris, 418 Castilleja levisecta, 461 Clarkia lingulata, 324 Betalains, 354 Catalogue of Life, 377 classification Betula, 317 Caucasus region, 404 artificial, 336 Betula nana, 398 centre(s) of origin of the flowering Darwin’s views, 20 biological control plants, 386 general purpose, 336, 378 examples, 241 centromeres, 56, 83, 322 natural, 336 biosystematics, 439 structure, 326 phenetic, 340 Biscutella, 403 Ceratocystis platani, 421 and the tree of life, 376 Biscutella laevigata, 35, 313 Chaenactis, 323, 324 Clausen, 71, 308 Black Death, 414 Chain of Being, 5–6 Clausen & Goodspeed, 247

Index 571

Clausen, Keck & Hiesey, 41, 139–42, 141 costs, 475 sampling populations, 452 Claytonia virginica, 324 creative approaches, 459 seed banks, 452–3 Clements, 39 crop plants, 453 setting priorities, 470 Cleistogamy, 122 cryopreservation, 453 species restoration projects: what climate change, 2, 466 economic and political considerations, counts as success?, 463 adaptation of plant species, 474 471 using wildflower mixtures, 459 adaptive responses to, 431 employing plants/seed of native pro- wide range of management techniques, altitudinal range changes, 428 venance, 459 458 biological effects of, 427 ex situ, 449–54 conservation economics, 472 direct observation of, 425 founding new populations: seed conservation plans based on biological ecosystem changes, 432 v. plants, 463 targets, 471 effects on Protea species in South by founding populations in new areas, continental drift, 384 Africa, 466 462 correlated variation, 33 extinction risk from, 437 future of restoration projects facing Correns, 47, 59 footprint of, 428 major drivers of change, 473 Coryanthes,16 forecasting future changes in distribu- future-orientated restoration, 470 co-selection in swards, 177 tion, 430 gap analysis, 457 Crassulacean acid metabolism future projections, 473 habitat loss, 435 (CAM), 354 human influences, 426 inbreeding and outbreeding depression, Crataegus, 108, 315 latitudinal range changes, 429 462 Crepis tectorum,58 phenological changes, 428 looking back and considering the Critica botanica,6 predictions, 425 future, 465 critical groups, 242 presents new selection pressures, 427 major centres for genetic preservation, Crocus scepusiensis, 218 reducing carbon emissions, 475 453 Cronquist, 20 responses of invasive plant species, 433 major concerns about ex situ crop mimicry, 185 sceptics and deniers, 426 approaches, 453 crossing experiments, 252 climate-induced drought brings changes managing reserves, 457 Cryphonectria parasitica, 421 to ecosystems, 433 manipulating and creating populations, ctinomorphy, 365 cline, 144, 146, passim 460 Cucumber, 326 ecocline, 145 micropropagation, 452, 453 cultivation experiments, 151 topocline, 145 migration: natural and assisted, 474 cultural landscapes, 414 clock timelines, 359 mitigation/off-setting agreements, 473 cyanogenesis, 166 calibrated by fossils, 360, 361, 395 mix or match plantings, 462 distribution of variants, 168, 169, 170 clonal growth, 228, 229 narrowing of genetic diversity, 454 frost-induced cyanide autotoxicity, 171 clones nature has an intrinsic value, 472 role of herbivory, 168 extensive, 149–50 nature reserve design, 455, 456 small-scale influences, 172 size and longevity, 229 paper parks, 455 Cynoglossum officinale, 451 coalescent trees, 367 past-orientated models, 469 Cypripedium calceolus,96 Cochlearia polonica, 450 from protection to restoration and cytoplasmic inheritance, 86 Code of Nomenclature, 337 beyond, 449 cytoplasmic male sterility, 257 codes of botanical and zoological quasi in-situ conservation, 469 nomenclature recommendations for better restora- Dactylis glomerata, 139, 184, 303, 316 publication of new names online, 447 tions, 463 Dactylis glomerata subsp. aschersoniana, codons, 76 by re-establishment of an extinct 317 coefficient of variation, 28 population, 461 Dactylorhiza, 349 Coeloglossum, 349 ‘resort to precedent’, 457, 465 Dalechampia, 400 coevolution, 199 restocking (augmentation, reinforce- Darlington, 118 colchicine, 247, 289 ment) of existing populations, 460 Darwin, C., 11–21, 89, 336, 378, 383, 441, competition for pollinators, 205 restoration projects: issues and pro- passim competitive exclusion, 405 spects, 463 botanical investigations, 100 conservation restoration techniques, 458–65 cleistogamy, 106 aims and objectives of, 465 restorations using clonal plants, 461 cross-fertilisation, significance of, 99 assisted migration, 466–9 rewilding, 465 evolutionary tree, 389 ‘balance of nature’, 457 role of corridors, 456 experiment with Maize, 99 Botanic Gardens and arboreta, 449 role of protected areas, 454, 456, gynodioecy, 121 corridors, 474 457 human origins, 18–19

572 Index

Darwin, C. (cont.) microsatellites, 82 Encode project, 84 natural selection, 68 minisatellites, 82 endangered species: an overview, 437 notebooks on transmutation, 11 mutation, 78 endosymbiosis, 85, 97, 368 Origin of Species,13 redundancy of the code, 78 Engler, 337 pangenesis, 46 replication, 75 epialleles, 80, 97 self-fertilisation in plants, 105 satellite, 82, 83 epigenetic changes in Spartina, 310 self-sterility in plants, 100 transcription, alternative splicing, 76 epigenetic effects, 97 sexual selection, 132 transcription and translation, 76 epigenetic induction of plant defences, 80 speciation, 251 DNA from herbarium specimens, sub- epigenetic mechanisms, 196 tangled bank model, 118 fossils and fossils, 96 epigenetic modification, 326 The Descent of Man, 18, 23 DNA transposons, 83 Erikkson, 9 variation of plants and animals under DNA–DNA hybridisation studies, 345 Erophila verna, 21, 22, 303 domestication, 46 Dobzhansky, 71 estimated trees and true trees, 366 Darwin, E., 10, 89 Dobzhansky–Muller (D–M) concept, 257 Eucalyptus globulus, 284 Darwiniothamnus, 397 domesticated–wild plant interactions, 418 eugenics, 23–4 dating of fossils, 359 domestication, 476 Eurasiatic/North American disjunctions, Datura stramonium, 433 drift, 259 399 Davenport, 24 drifting sea ice, 398 European Garden Flora, 417 de Vries, 47, 70, 247 Drosophila, 54, 255, 265 eutrophication, 423 de Wet, 307 Drosophila melanogaster,55 evo-devo, 374 de Wet & Harlan, 307 Dryas octopetala, 398 evo-devo approaches, 364 Decodon verticillatus, 230 duplicated genes, 92 evolution of self-compatibility, 126 deme terminology, 160 dysploid changes, 323 evolutionary hypotheses and falsification, demographic stochasticity, 233 dysploid chromosome reduction, 326 367 Dendroctonus ponderosae, 433 dysploid events, 326 exon, 76 Deschampsia cespitosa (Deschampsia experimental taxonomy, 439 caespitosa), 142, 181 Earth, age of, 17 extent of human-modified ecosystems, 414 designed experiments, 154 Earth’s sixth mass extinction, 477 extinction Desmond & Moore, 11 Echinacea angus, 461 re-diversification, 477 developmental processes: the role of Echinochloa crus-galli, 185, 433 vortex, 233, 234 model plants, 88 Echium, 396, 400 extinction debt, 237, 447 Di Cesnola, 69 Echium pininana, 450 extinction of populations, 233 Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus, 452 ecological niche modelling (ENM), 393 extinction rates, 447 Dianthus deltoides, 235 ‘ecosystem services’, 471 extinction threats to plant species, 447 dicotyledons, 353 ecotype extinctions, ancient, 386 different kinds of rarity, 470 biotic, 139 extrapolated correlates, 293 Digitalis purpurea,24 ecotypes, 136, 251 Dinizia excelsa, 211 recurrent origin of, 199 Fagus crenata, 404 dioecy, 98, 131 serpentine, 183 Fagus cretica, 318 diploid–tetraploid–dihaploid cycles in widespread occurrence of, 144 Fagus sylvatica, 401, 402 Bothriochloa–Dichanthium, 307 ‘ecotypic differentiation’, 147 Fallopia japonica, 219, 241, 421 diplospory, 111 edge effects, 237 Fallopia sachalinensis, 219 directional selection, 251 effect of chance, 15 Favarger & Villard, 303 disjunctions: long-distance dispersal or effective population size (Ne), 239 feral GM plants, 213 vicariance?, 398 effects of fragmentation, 236 feral plants dispersal Eichhornia paniculata, 129 Rhododendron ponticum, 418 ‘sweepstakes routes’, 405 electricity pylons, 180, 181 feral species dispersalism, 393 elementary species, 21 Olive in Australia, 417 divergence ‘hitchhiking’, 258 Elodea canadensis, 106 Festuca rubra, 184 DNA, 74, 75, passim Elymus elymoides spp.californicus, 431 Fibonacci number sequence, 32, 88 adaptive, neutral and junk, 81 Elymus glaucus, 260, 261, 318 Ficaria verna (Ranunculus ficaria), 32, 37, exchanges of segments, 79 Elytrigia repens (Elymus repens), 371 303, 315 gene silencing, epigenetic Empetrum, 396 Ficus sycomorus, 211 mechanisms, 79 Empetrum nigrum, 398 FISH, 309, 326 junk, 81, 84 Encephalartos latifrons, 460 Fisher, 24, 71, 72, 100, 151, 165

Index 573

fitness, 165 isolation requirement for crops, 203 Greenhouse Effect, 424 relative, 165 molecular studies, 207 Gregor, 29, 145 Fitzroya cupressoides, 404 paternity, 208 Grevillea mucronulata, 462 fixed heterozygosity, 321 pollen movement, 210 Grevillea scapigera, 453, 464 ‘floating island’ model of dispersal, 398 population variability and structure, 201 Guignard, 55 Flora Europaea, 303 primary and secondary dispersal, 212 Gymnadenia odoratissima, 375 floral evolution, 362 secondary dispersal, 206 gymnosperms molecular genetics of, 363 seed/fruit dispersal, 212 phylogenetic reconstructions, 366 floral symmetry, 364 transgenic crop plants, 212 gynodioecy, 123, 131 Florida Keys, 469 gene silencing: epigenetic alterations in flow cytometry, 305, 307 gene expression, 310 Haldane, 71 Flowering time network, 194 genecology, 137 ‘Half-Galton’ curves, 28 fluorescence in situ hybridisation, general-purpose genotypes, 223 Happlopappus gracilis,56 see FISH genetic control of chromosome pairing, Hardy–Weinberg Law, 160 forecasting, 394 294, 308 Hawaiian Islands, 399 founder effects, 161, 240, 250 genetic drift, 201, 218, 239, 250 heavy metal tolerance, 178, 181 weedy and ornamental species, 219 genetic erosion, 238, 450 Hedera, 397 founder events, 259 genetic load, 117 Hedera helix, 63,88 case histories, 218 genetics of small populations, 237 Heiser, 276, 283 successive, 220 genome analysis, 291, 292 et seq. Helianthus, 257, 283 founding events, 217 Genome-Wide Association homoploid species, 328 Fraxinus excelsior, 212, 421 Techniques, 88 Helianthus annuus, 191, 199 Fundamenta fructificatonis,9 genomic constitutions of species of Viola Hennig, 342, 343, 379, 382 Fusarium circinatum, 421 subsection Rostratae, 292 Henslow, 11 genomic in situ hybridisation, Heracleum mantegazzianum, 421 Galapagos Islands, 130 see GISH herbicide resistance, 186 Galax aphylla (now Galax urceolata), 307 genomic shock, 311 costs of, 187 Galeopsis speciosa, 288 genomic synteny-based modelling, 326 genetics of, 186 Galeopsis tetrahit, 288 genotype, 38 independent origin, 187 Galium mollugo, 317 Gentiana pneumonanthe, 234 mechanisms, 186 Galium pubescens, 288 Gentianella amarella, 350 seed of development, 187 Galium verum, 317 Gentianella anglica, 350 heteroblastic development, 62 Gallez & Gottlieb, 327, 509 Geranium sanguineum,37 heteroblasty, 88 Galton, 35, 37, 47, 48 germline, 79 heterosis, 114 gametophytic incompatibility, 100 Geum rivale, 137, 260, 263, 282 heterostyly, 103, 104, 105, 126 gametophytic self-incompatibility, 126 Geum urbanum, 260, 263, 282 Heterotheca latifolia, 206 Garden Pea (Pisum), 54 gigantism, 400 Hieracium, 108, 111 gel electrophoresis, 93 Gilia, 267, 269 Hieracium subgenus Pilosella, 315 gene flow, 161, 240 Gilmour, 160, 336, 376 Hieracium umbellatum, 136, 147, 199 agricultural experiments, 203 Ginkgo, 390 hindcasting, 393 animal-pollinated trees and shrubs, 211 GISH, 309 histones, 79 assignment of parentage, 210 glucosinates, 354 Hoffmann, 21 between refuges, 404 GM glyphosate-resistant Creeping Bent Holcus lanatus, 178, 184 dispersal kernels, 208 Grass (Agrostis stolonifera), 213 Holliday, junction model, 79 early ideas, 202 GM oilseed rape/ canola, 213 holocentric chromosomes, 327 estimating neighbourhoods, 206 Godron, 21 Holsinger, 333 future directions of research, 215 Godward, 327 homomorphic and heteromorphic incom- historic insights from the movement of Gondwanaland, 392 patibility systems, 103 pollen, 203 Gottlieb, 304, 325 homoplasy, 344 historic studies of seed dispersal, 205 Gottlieb & Pilz, 325 homoploid hybrid speciation, 327 insights critical in plant conservation, Gradual (Geographic) Speciation, 246 homoploid speciation, 327 214 gradual speciation, 251 homostyles, 104 insights from the use of microsatellite Grant, 267, 324 Hooglander, Lumaret & Bos, 121 markers, 208 ‘Great American Biotic Exchange’, 400 Hooker, 383, 384 isolation distances, modern studies, 212 ‘Great Chain of Being’,5 ‘hopeful monsters’, 374

574 Index

Hordeum, 177 interpretation of experiments, 159 Kochia scoparia, 187 horizontal gene transfer, 368 interspecific hybridisation: a threat to Kohn, 11 Hortus Cliffortianus,6 some endangered species, 419 Kölreuter, 9 House of Lords Science and Technology introduced fungal pathogens Kruckeberg, 142 Committee, 440 case studies, 421 K–T extinction, 387 How many species are threatened with introduced species extinction?, 434 changes in toxicity, 227 lag phase, 222 human activities failure to establish, 222 Lamarck, 10, 17, 39, 97 a threat to biodiversity?, 419 phenotypic plasticity and developmen- Lamprecht, 55 human impact on the environment, 411 tal adaptability, 223 Langlet, 37 human impacts on ecosystems: sources of sources, 220 Last Universal Common Ancestor evidence, 412 what factors contribute to the success (LUCA), 89 human influences of new populations?, 226 Lasthenia californica, 284 climate change, 424 introductions late-acting self-incompatibility habitat loss and fragmentation, 419 multiple, 220 systems, 104 introduced organisms, 420 introgression, 277, passim Lathyrus japonicus (L. maritimus), 135 the effects of pollution, 422 ancient, 286, 318 Lathyrus odoratus,54 human populations asymmetric, 279 Latin in botanical taxonomy, 442 projections, 413 critical tests of the hypothesis, 276 Layia Huxley, 71, 118, 145 cytoplasmic capture, 282 crossing experiments, 252 hybrid fitness, 279 Helianthus annuus, 283 Layia glandulosa, 252, 252, 253, 254 hybrid index method, 271 a key concept in microevolution, 285 Layia species hybrid inviability, 257 new stable hybrid species, 279 molecular investigations, 254 hybrid necrosis, 257 its role in evolution, 286 leading-edge expansion of species, 402 hybrid swarms, 261, 286 zones of, 285 Leavenworthia alabamica, 191 hybrid vigour, 115 introgression of genes across a ploidy leptokurtic distribution, 28, 203, 205 hybridisation between taxa in the evolu- barrier, 317 leptokurtic distribution of pollen, 211 tion of some invasive species introgressive hybridisation, 270, 271, Leucanthemum vulgare (Chrysanthemum case studies, 419 327, 368, 475 leucanthemum), 29 Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra, 238, 462 intron, 76 Levin, 322 hyperaccumulation, 182 invasive species, 418 Lewis, 324, 328 herbivory, 183 Ipomoea caerulea,62 Lilium martagon, 56, 57 hyperaccumulators Ipomopsis sancti-spiritus, 461 Linaria vulgaris, 8, 80, 99 400 species, 182 Iris fulva, 272, 278, 280, 281 lineage sorting, 368 Hypericum canariense, 225 Iris hexagona var. giganticaerulea, 272, Linnaeus, 6–10, 137, 376, 382, 383 Hypericum canariense var. 278, 280, 281 sexual system, 336 canariense, 222 Iris nelsonii, 328 Linroth, 9 Hypericum perforatum, 111, 241 origin through hybridisation, 327 ‘living dead’, 211 Iris versicolor, 297 Lloydia serotina, 470 Icelandic flora, 404 island biogeography, 455 local races, 32 et seq. Iltis, 45 island endemics, 251, 400 local refugia, 404 in situ hybridisation (ISH), 297 isolating mechanisms, 244, 249 locating the affinities of little-known inbreeding depression, 105, 116 isozymes, 93, 161, 208 groups, 356 inbreeding effects, 314 Lolium perenne, 177, 184 incomplete lineage sorting, 286 Johannsen, 38, 70 Lolium rigidum, 186 Index of Plant Chromosome Numbers Jonsell, 333 long-distance dispersal, 208, 218, 383, 395 (IPCN project), 303 Juniperus virginiana, 423 new insights, 395 India, 392 junk DNA, 96 Lotus alpinus,39 insidious domestication, 451 Lotus corniculatus, 39, 61, 167, 168, 194 Intelligent Design, 16–17 Karpechenko, 247 Louisiana Irises International Botanical Code, 376 karyotypes, 295 introgression, 278 International Botanical Congress in Kelvin, 17 Luceño & Castroviejo, 327 Melbourne of 2011, 442 Kerner, 39 Lumaret, 317 International Code of Botanical Kihara & Ono, 247 Lupinus texensis, 208 Nomenclature, 242 King, 333 Luzula, 327

Index 575

Luzula luzuloides, 327 Milium montianum, 297 Nicotiana tabauca, 370 Luzula multiflora, 327 Milium vernale, 297 Nicotinana tabacum, 247, 370 Luzula nivea, 327 Mimulus, 260 Nilsson-Ehle, 49 Lycopersicum esculentum, 246 Mimulus guttatus, 178, 262, 284 nitrous oxide, 424 Lyell, 384 mini- and microsatellites, 95 Noah’s Ark, 382 Lynch, 67 Minimum Critical (or Dynamic) Area, 240 Nogler, 307 Lysimachia nummularia, 119 minimum spanning-trees, 338 non-coding RNAs, 77 Lythrum salicaria, 104, 225 Minimum Viable Population non-Mendelian inheritance, 59 (MVP), 239, 451 normal distribution, 27, 28 et seq macroevolution, 373 minority-type disadvantage, 313 Nothofagus, 383 Madagascar, 475 Mirabilis jalapa, 59, 72 NSF-PEET scheme, 446 MADS-box genes, 364 mitochondria, 85 nucleosomes, 79 Magnolia, 383 mitosis, 52,79 nullisomics, 294 Maize mixed reproduction, 122 numerical taxonomy, 340, 341–2 domestication of, 374 ‘modern synthesis’, 71, 374 nunataks, 403 Malthus, 13 molecular clock, 359 Mantis religiosa,69 molecular phylogenetic analysis, 344 Oenothera, 70, 247 Manton, 248 molecular studies of self-incompatibility Oenothera erythrosepala Marchi et al., 303 systems, 102 (O. lamarckiana), 247 ‘mass extinction’, 386 monocotyledons, 353 Olby, 45 mass extinction of plants, 388 Morgan, 55 Ophioglossum reticulatum, 56, 57, 304 maternal effects, 152 multiple colonisation, 208 optimal foraging by animals, 205 maternal (matroclinous) inheritance, 108 Müntzing, 288 Orchis laxiflora, 461 Mather, 118 ‘mutation hot spots’,79 Oryctes nevadensis, 470 Matthews, 118 mutation of DNA, 78 Oryza indica-japonica hybrids, 257 Matthiola, 397 mutation theory of evolution, 70 Oxford Botanic Garden, 328 Mayr, 71, 250, 333, 334 Myrica faya, 422 Oxyria digyna, 144 McClintock, 311 Myricaria germanica, 461 ozone tolerance, 184 mean, 25 myrmecochory, 354 Medicago sativa,69 palaeoecology: insights from the study of Mediterranean island endemics, 400 Nägeli, 21, 39, 44 ancient DNA, 407 meiosis, 53,79 Narcissus assoanus, 235 palaeo-endemics, 394 Melaleuca quinquenervia, 223, native versus introduced species, 416 Pangaea, 385, 386 422, 468 natural grafts, 369 Papaver rhoeas, 24, 27, 131 Mendel, 37, 43, 45, 54, 83 natural hybridisation Papaver somniferum,24 experiments on Hieracium,45 frequency, 260 parapatry, 250 independent rediscovery of his natural selection, 161 parasitism, 353 work, 47 NatureServe conservation status cate- Park Grass Experiment, 174, 175, 270 particulate inheritance, 42 gories, 436 parsimony, 342 two-factor crosses, 43, 44 ‘neighbourhoods’ in wild populations, Paspalum, 314 Mendelian population, 160, 206 206–07 et seq Pastinaca sativa, 227 Mendel’s experiments, 41 Nemecˇ, 288 paternal effects, 153 messenger RNA (mRNA), 76 neo-endemics, 394 Pearson, 24, 48 metal-tolerant populations nested chromosome insertion, 326 Pedicularis furbishiae, 216 origin of, 181 neutral theory of evolution, 81 Peloria,8,9,80 metapopulations, 216–17, 233 ‘New Synthesis’,96 peripatric speciation, 250 methane, 424 New Zealand flora, 399 peripheral isolate, 255 Methylination-Sensitive Amplification next generation methods, 258 Persicaria amphibia (Polygonum amphi- Procedure (MSAP), 310 next generation sequencing, 285, 309 bium), 65, 66, 220 microevolution in a golf course, 188 next generation sequencing methods, 82, Phalaris arundinacea, 221, 226 MicroRNAs (miRNA), 77 93, 130, 133, 200 Phaseolus vulgaris,38 Microstegium vimineum, 224 niche construction, 411, 475 phenotype, 38 migration: implications of specialisation, Nicotiana, 100 phenotypic plasticity, 64, 193, 400 Nicotiana glauca, 370 196, 223 migration routes, 401 Nicotiana glutinosa, 247 Philosophia botanica,7 Milankovitch cycles, 391 Nicotiana species, 369 Phleum alpinum,39

576 Index

Phleum pratense,39 polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 93 principal component analysis Phlox glaberrima, 268 polyploid series, 304 (PCA), 275, 282 Phlox pilosa, 268 polyploids, 57 principal coordinates analysis (PCO), 282 PhyloCode, 376 cytogenetic changes in the longer prions, 97 phyletic groups, types of, 379 term, 311 progenitor-derivative species pairs, 325 phylogenetic methods, 347–9 et seq., 349 evidence of chromosome repatterning, Prospero, 325 phylogenetic studies, 89 309 Prunella vulgaris, 139 phylogenetic trees, 3, 21, 68, 91, 336, 348, the implications of their recurrent for- pseudogamy, 112 365 mation, 311 Pteridium aquilinum, 149 layout of, 350 origin of, 305 ‘punctuated equilibrium’ concept, 388, 390 phylogeography, 382 polytopic multiple origin of, 297 pure lines, 114, 115 Phytophthora austocedrae, 421 their potential for evolutionary Phytophthora ramorum, 421, 449 change, 307 Quantiative Trait Loci, 96, 257 Phytophthora species, 421 single origin, 301 Quarin & Hanna, 314 phytoremediation, 183 polyploidy, 246 Quercus, 401 Picea breweriana, 466 ancient, 320, 389 Quercus petraea, 273, 275 Picea mariana, 229 in arctic plants, 321 Quercus robur, 273, 275 pictorialised scatter diagram, 271 change in breeding system, 313 Quercus suber, 406 Pilosella, 111, 124 chemical studies, 296 Quetelet, 23 Pilosella officinarum (Hieracium pilo- correlation with apomictic reproduc- sella), 422 tion, 315 Ranalian theory, 337 Pinus banksiana, 433 delimitation of taxa, 302 random amplified polymorphic DNA Pinus contorta, 433 evidence for chromosome structural (RAPD), 94 Pinus edulis, 433 changes in, 309 random drift, 81 Pinus radiata, 205, 421, 468 geographical distribution, 318, 319 rank terminations, 337 Pinus sylvestris, 37, 208, 467 et seq. Ranunculus auricomus, 108, 307, 315 Pinus taeda, 208, 433 historic estimates of the incidence Ranunculus bulbosus, 159 plant domestication of, 303 Ranunculus carpaticola, 321 maize, 408 reticulate patterns of variation, 318 Ranunculus cassubicus, 321 plant mimicry, 198 secondary, 320 Ranunculus repens, 28, 229 plant/herbivore interactions, 357 Polypogon monspeliensis, 213 Ranunculus subgenus Batrachium, 64, 65 Plantago lanceolata, 121, 173, 205 polytomies, 349 Raphanobrassica, 247 Plantago major, 155, 185 Popper, 154, 367 Raphanus raphanistrum, 80, 160 Plantago maritima, 29, 30, 145 population bottleneck, 127 Raphanus sativus, 208, 247 plants: their different roles in cultural Population Viability Analysis, 240 Raven, 4 landscape, 416 Populus tremuloides, 229 Ray, 4, 37, 353 Platanthera bifolia, 350 Posidonia oceanica, 229 reciprocal transplant experiments, 159, Platanthera chlorantha, 350 position effects, 61 173, 200 platykurtic distribution, 28 post-pollination barriers, 256 reconstructing past climates pleiotropic effects, 187 Potentilla, 124, 132 proxy methods, 394 pleiotropy, 61 Potentilla argentea, 315 recurrent origins Pleistocene, 391 Potentilla crantzii, 111 Draba, 301 Poa annua, 176, 186, 188, 295 Potentilla glandulosa, 64, 139, 251 Saxifraga, 301 Poa bulbosa, 120 Potentilla tabernaemontani/neumanni- Red Data books, 436 Poa infirma, 295 ana, 111 Red Queen, 118, 388 Poa pratensis, 111 pre-pollination mechanisms, 256 reduction in chromosome numbers in Poa supina, 295 primitive angiosperm flower, 337 grasses, 326 pollen discounting, 230 Primula refugia, 394, 401, 402 pollen stainability, 274 supergene, 104 in different parts of the world, 404 pollination disruptions and declines, 235 Primula egaliksensis, origin of, 309 refugial hypothesis of Amazonian spe- pollination limitation, 235 Primula hirsuta, 408 ciation, 407 pollinators Primula kewensis, 248, 287, 305 reinforcement, 265–70, 267 coevolution, 127 Primula scotica, 470 crossing experiments, 267 polygenomic organism, 370 Primula sieboldii, 450 relaxed clock models, 359 polygonal graph method, 272, 274 Primula veris, 29, 103, 271, 273 relaxed molecular clocks, 382 polyhaploids, 307 Primula vulgaris, 271, 273 reproductive assurance, 118, 229

Index 577

reserve design, 456 comparing ‘young and ‘adult’ genera- Spartina townsendii, 300 resistance to pesticides, 412 tions, 176 Spartina × neyrautii, 301 restriction endonucleases, 93 directional, 164, 178 spatial autocorrelation, 232 Restriction Fragment Length directional selection for high and low Special Creation, 1, 10, 376 Polymorphism (RFLP), 94 oil content in Maize, 178 speciation retrotransposons, 82 disruptive, 164, 266 quantum, 255 Rhizobium, 177 disruptive selection evidence for, 173 role of hitchhiking, 284 Rhododendron ponticum, 421 natural, 165 speciation genes, 255 ribosomes, 76 r- and K-selection, 164 species rice, 90 signature of, 191 biological reality, 332 Rieseberg, 283, 328, passim stabilising or normalising, 161 Biological Species Concept, 243 et seq., Robinia pseudoacacia, 421 selection, natural, 13 333 Rorippa amphibia, 312 self-incompatibility, 101, 102, passim concepts, 242 Rorippa microphylla (N. microphyllum), origin, 126 definition of, 4 248 Senecio cambrensis, 300, 312, 394, 470 disruptive, 268 Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum Senecio carniolicus, 318 ecological species concept, 243 (Nasturtium officinale), 248 Senecio inaequidens, 222 evolutionary reality, 333 Rorippa sylvestris, 312 Senecio squalidus, 102, 223, 225, 300 evolutionary species concept, 243 Rorippa × anceps, 312 homoploid origin, 328 fixity of, 6 Rubus, 108, 124, 315 Senecio vulgaris, 24, 185, 300, 318 how many are polyploid?, 302 Rubus alceifolius, 220 Senecio × baxteri, 300 local races, 32 Rubus chamaemorus, 398 ‘sentinel’ or ‘bait’ individuals, 212 mental reality of, 332 Rückert, 52 Sequoiadendron giganteum, 467 morphological, 242 Ruderals, 418 serpentine nature of specific difference, 19 Rulingia spp. ‘Trigwell Bridge’, 453 independent recurrent origin of popu- origins, 245, passim Ruse, 333 lations, 184 as part of natural classifications, 331 Sewall Wright, 71, 73 phylogenetic (cladistic) species con- Salix herbacea, 398, 409 sex chromosomes, 133 cept, 243 Salvia pratensis, 238 signatures of selection, 200, 258 reproductively isolated, 333 Salvinia molesta, 422 Silene dioica, 35, 184, 216 transmutation of, 4, 7 sampling, 148, 367 Silene latifolia (S. alba), 35, 210, 216 species and gene trees, 367 sampling techniques, 147 Silene otitis, 451 species concept, 331 Sapium sebiferum, 422 Silene vulgaris, 182 Species Distribution Models Sarracenia purpurea, 218 Simarouba amar, 212 (SDMs), 408, 430 Saxifraga cernua, 403 Simpson, 71 Species plantarum,7 Saxifraga cespitosa, 461 single and recurrent long-range species–area relationships, 434 Saxifraga rivularis, 398 dispersal, 396 speed of microevolutionary change: agri- Saxifraga stellaris, 403 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 95 cultural experiments, 177 Scabiosa, 349 sky islands, 399 Spergula arvensis, 197 Scabiosa columbaria, 116, 239 small interfering ribonucleic acids spindle, 56 Schinus terebinthifoius, 223 (siRNAs), 77 spliceosomes, 76, 96 Scopelophila cataractae, 181 small, cryptic or micro-refugia, 404 ‘splitters’ and ‘lumpers’, 108 Scorzoneroides autumnalis (Leontodon Solanum, 314 sporophytic incompatibility, 101 autumnalis), 147 Solanum carolinense, 120 sporophytic self-incompatibility, 126 seamounts, 397 Solanum nigrum, 246 standard deviation, 26 seasonal dimorphism, 69 Solidago altissima, 224 Stapledon, 137, 140 Secale cerale, 319 Solidago gigantea, 224 Stebbins, 71, 292, 296, 308, 319, sedimentary aDNA, 408 somatic mutations, 79, 228 320, 329 seed banks, 176, 232 Sonchus, 397 Stephanomeria diegensis, 327 seed dispersal, 354 Sorbus, 108, 315, 320 Stephanomeria exigua subspecies coro- segmental allopolyploidy, 291 Sorghum, 369 naria, 325 Seiridium cardinale, 421 Sorghum halepense, 433 Stephanomeria malheurensis, 325, 461 selection Spartina alterniflora, 235, 300 stress-induced methylation epigenetic catastrophic, 328 Spartina anglica, 305, 312, 394 changes, 200 Spartina maritima, 300 Striga hermonthica, 369

578 Index

sulphur dioxide tolerance, 184 transgenes contaminating maize?, 214 vicariance, 250, 251 Sutton, 53 transgressive hybridisation, 283 vicariance biogeography, 393 Svalbard, 397 transgressive segregation, 312 Viola Swietenia humilis, 211 transposable elements, 200, 311 cleistogamy, 122, 122 synteny, 91, 375 transposons, 82 Viola persicifolia, 234 synthetic theory, 81 Tree of Life, 1, 2, 366, 368 Viola quercetorum Trifolium repens, 119, 149, 168, 171, 172, origin of, 296 tabula rasa concept, 408 177, 206 Viscum album,70 Tansley, 417 Tripsacum, 111 vivipary, 119 Taraxacum, 58, 108, 111, 112, 224 Triticum aestivum, 192 von Tschermak, 47 Taraxacum officinale, 108, 316 origin of, 292 taxonomic challenge ahead, 439 Triticum dicoccum (now called Wallace, 12, 265 taxonomists T. turgidum), 293 Walters, 144, passim number of, 447 Turesson, 135 et seq., 144, 147 weed evolution, 188 taxonomy Typha minima, 450 weeds, 418 barcoding, 442 Wegener, 384 renewal of, 440–2 UCN, 437 weighting, 371 web-based, 441 Ulex europaeus, 62 weighting characters, 338 taxonomy in an era dominated by mole- Ulmus procera, 229 Weldon, 32, 67 cular biology, 446 unconscious selection, 451 Wheat, 49, 293, 308 Tephroseris integrifolia (Senecio integri- United Nations Environment Programme Whole Genome Duplication (WGD), 90, folius), 164, 235 (UNEP), 455 305, 329 teratological variants, 374 units of selection, 81 Wicken Fen Nature Reserve, 155, 454 tetrasomic inheritance, 307, 312 unreduced gametes, 305, 306 wild versus crop plants, 417 Thiselton-Dyer, 67 Ustilago violacea, 216 wildlife, 417 Thlaspi caerulescens, 182, 183 Wilson, 435 Thlaspi calaminare, 182 Vaccinium uliginosum, 398, 406 wind pollination, 363 threatened species: estimates using Vanda spathulata, 453 Winge, 247 a proxy, 436 variance, 26 Winkler, 247 timescales and timetrees, 359 variation Withania aristata, 120 Townsendia hookeri, 321 continuous, 48 World Conservation Monitoring Centre trade-offs, 357 developmental, 62 (WCMC), 435 Tragopogon dubius, 298 discontinuous patterns, 70 Wright, 206, 234 Tragopogon mirus, 298, 470 habitat modifications, 135 Wright’s F-statistics model, 202 Tragopogon miscellus, 298, 309, intraspecific, 4 310, 470 phenotypic, 60, 80 Xanthium strumarium, 144 Tragopogon porrifolius,9,298 within and between populations, 161 Tragopogon pratensis,9,298 Veratrum species, 318 Yellowstone National Park, 231, 454 trailing edge of migrating populations, Verbascum thapsus, 223 Yule, 48 406 vernal pools, 189 transcriptome, 76 Veronica peregrina, 189 Zea, 203 transcriptome techniques, 221 Vestiges of the Natural History of Zea mays, 265 transgenes, 212 Creation, 11, 13 zygomorphy, 338, 365