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Governs the Making of Photocopies Or Other Reproductions of Copyrighted Materials Warning Concerning Copyright Restrictions The Copyright Law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research. If electronic transmission of reserve material is used for purposes in excess of what constitutes "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. ~ ERSECUTION AND .. ART OF. WRITING . By Leo Strauss ~ Glencoe • Illinois THE FREE PRESS · PUBLISHERS Persecution and the Art of Writing ,not prod~ce conviction. It merely pave, ?Y sllencmg contradiction. What is cal 11! a large numbe:r of cases amounts t . 2 p~rposes consists of-the ability to ch different. views presented by the small are pu?hc speakers or writers.a If this only kmd o~ intellectual independence , are. cap~ble is destroyed, and that is the ~h~ch IS of political importance. p RRSECUTION AND THE AR~ OF WRITING llldISnPn""'ble ·~-..t: ' , .£ • · i;---- .-t'tnnr.t~-~~t . e..caUed logica e_quma. According to the ides, or to Gulliver's Houyhnhnm :\'' . ,.... s, "That vice has often proved an eman­ ".""nnot ~easonably ~ay "the thing whichone, it ..;;, .. cipator of the mind, is one of the most humiliating, but, at the same mconce1v~ble. This logic is not peculia;,'" .· time, one of the most unquestionable, ;' drawn philosophers, but determines, if in atl facts in history." ,, manner, the tho~ght of many ordinary >~,, -W. E. H. Leck)' ~.They _would admit, as a matter of course,,. :c:loes he. But they would add that lies are .. I Jtand the test of repetition-let alone of at therefore a statement which is In a considerable number of countries which, for about a hun­ e':er ~ontradicted must be true. Ano dred years, have enjoyed a practically complete freedom of pub­ , _!!ltams that a statement made by an lic discussion, that freedom is now suppressed and replaced by . he, but the truth of a statement made a co11.1pulsion to coordinate speech with such views as the gov­ ect~d man, and therefore panicularly ernment believes to be expedient, or holds in all seriousness. It ons1ble or exalted position, is moralf may be worth our while to consider briefly the effect of that t!1Y~emes lead to the conclusion that compulsion, or persecution, on thoughts as well as actions.1 1ch 1s constantly repeated by the head A large section of the people, probably the great majority of , er. c~ntra~icted is absolutely certain. ~e younger generation,2 accepts the government-sponsored '}'h~s implies that in the countries con views as true, if not at once at least after a time. How have they ,. king does not follow the rules of l been convinced? And where does the time factor enter? They ;c rds, all those capable of truly inde have not been convinced by compulsion, for compulsion does brought to accept the government-s , ' then, cannot prevent independent 1 Scribere est agere. See Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries, Book IV, chap. 6. Compare Machiavelli, Discorsi, III, 6 (I Classici del Giglio, pp. 424-26) and ' t even the expression of independent·,,. Descartes, Discours de la methode, VI, beginning. \ e today as it was more than two thou 2 "Socrates: Do you know by what means they might be persuaded- to accept · this story? Glauco: By no means, as far as they themselves are concerned, but I ). venture to tell the truth one knows know how it could be done as regards their sons and their descendants and the ·• Y acquaintances, or more precisely,. people of a later age generally speaking. Socrates: ••. I understand, more or less, · what you mean." Plato, Republic, 415 c6-d5. eason is but choosing" is the central thesis of to, Republic, 4 d ·ei.. , 22 50 3 Persecution and the Art of Writing 23 .not produce conviction. It merely paves the way for conviction by silencing contradiction. What is _called ~eedom of thought in a large number of cases amounts to-and even for all practical purposes consists of-the ability to choose between two or more different views presented by the small minority of people who are public speakers or writers.3 If this choice is prevented, the only kind of intellectual independence of which many people are capable is destroyed, and that is the only freedom of thought which is of political importance. Persecution is therefore the ~HE AllT OF WRITING incli~ble-£-enditioo--for-the--highest efficiency of what may be called logica equina. According to the horse-drawn Parmen­ ides, or to Gulliver's Houyhnhnms, one cannot say, or one "That vice has often proved an eman· cannot reasonably say "the thing which is not": that is, lies are <., cipator of the mind, is one of the inconceivable. This logic is not peculiar to horses or horse­ most humiliating, but, at the same drawn philosophers, but determines, if in a somewhat modified time, one of the most unquestion~ble, manner, the thought of many ordinary human beings as well. facts in. history." They would admit, as a matter of course, that man can lie and -W. E. H. Lecky does lie. But they would add that lies are short-lived and cannot stand the test of repetition-let alone of constant repetition-and I that therefore a statement which is constantly repeated and never contradicted must be true. Another line of argument - countries which, for about a hun­ maintains that a statement made by an ordinary fellow :n;i.ay be . 'ractically complete freedom of pub­ a lie, but the truth of a statement made by a responsible and .js now suppressed and replaced by respected man, and therefore particularly by a man in a highly speech with such views as the gov­ responsible or exalted position, is morally certain. These two ".ent, or holds in all seriousness. It enthymemes lead to the conclusion that the truth of a statement consider brieO.y the effect of that which is constantly repeated by the head of the government and on thoughts as well as actions.1 never contradicted is absolutely certain. & 1le, probably the great majority of This implies that in the countries concemed all those whose accepts the government-sponsored thinking does not follow the rules of logica equina, in other at least after a time. How have they words, all those capable of truly independent thinking, cannot does the time factor enter? They be brought to accept·the go~rnment-sponsored views. Persecu­ .by compulsion, for copipulsion does tion, then, cannot prJv~nt independent thinking. It cannot pre­ ,~ Blackstone, Commentaries, Book IV, chap. vent even the expression of independent thought. For it is as , m, 6 (I Classici del Giglio, pp. 424-116) and true today as it was more than two thousand years ago that it is a VI, beginning. :what means they might be persuaded to accept . safe venture to tell the truth one knows to benevolent and trust- · 4 1, 81 far as they themselves are concerned, but' I worthy acquaintances, or more precisely, to reasonable friends. " . Jteprdi0 their sons and their descendants and the ~g. Socrates: ••. I understand, more or less, s "Reason is but choosing" is the central thesis of Milton's Areopagitica. 4 Plato, Republic, 450 d3-e1. ,fk, 415 dki5. II 24 Persecution and the Art of Writing Persecutfon and the Art of Writing Persecution cannot prevent even public expression of the_he~ero­ liberali~m, for he woul~ silently drop allthe:'.fj do~rqth, for a man of independent th~ught can utter h1~ v1e~s in public and remain unharmed, pr<?v1de~ he _moves. with ~1r- _ o_f the liberal. creed_ which were allowed_j.:_-_:_:_--_­ tlme when hberahsm had succeeded. ,l cumspection. He can even utter them m ~~mt without mcu~mg proac~ing dormancy. His reasonable young'=­ any danger, provided he is capable of writmg between the lmes. first time catch a glimpse of the forbidden ' The expression "writing between the lines" i_ndicate~ the _bulk o_f the work, woul~ consist of virul~t subject of this article. For the i~fl.uenc~ of persecution on litera­ most v1rule~t utt~rances 1Ii the holy book oi:,:I ture is precisely that it compels all writers. who hold heter~dox party. T-9-e mtelhgent young man who, beiatj views to develop a peculiar technique of writing, the techmque _ then been somehow- attra_cted by those inuni which we have in mind when speaking of writing between the wou~d now be merely disgusted and, aftet ) lines. This expression is clearly metaphoric. Any attempt to forbidden fruit, even bored by them. Read~ express its meaning in unmetaphoric language woul_d lea~ to second and th~rd time, he would detect in tbtJj the discovery of a terra incognita, a_field whose very d1men~1ons o~ _the quotations from the authoritative bq,i are as yet unexplored and which ?ffers _am~le scope for highly d1t10ns to those few terse statements whi<;h-- intriguing and even important m~esugations. One may ~ay " of the rather short first part. · ,i without fear of being presently convicted of grave exaggeration .. Persecution, then, gives rise to a pecul~ that almost the only preparatory work to guide the exp~orer in i mg, and therewith to a peculiar type of lit · this field is buried in the writings of the- rhetoricians of trut~ about all ~rucial tliings is presented ·~ · antiquity.
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