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From the Plains to the Plateau: Indian and Emigrant

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From the Plains to the Plateau: Indian and Emigrant FROM THE PLAINS TO THE PLATEAU: INDIAN AND EMIGRANT INTERACTIONS DURING THE OVERLAND TRAIL MIGRATIONS by CHRISTOPHER C. SMITH A THESIS Presented to the Department of History and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts June 2014 i THESIS APPROVAL PAGE Student: Christopher C. Smith Title: From the Plains to the Plateau: Indian and Emigrant Interactions During the Overland Trail Migrations This thesis has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree in the Department of History by: Jeffrey Ostler Chairperson Marsha Weisiger Member Julie Weise Member and Kimberly Andrews Espy Vice President for Research and Innovation; Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2014 ii © 2014 Christopher C. Smith iii THESIS ABSTRACT Christopher C. Smith Master of Arts Department of History June 2014 Title: From the Plains to the Plateau: Indian and Emigrant Interactions During the Overland Trail Migrations American emigrants frequently encountered Native North Americans during the overland trail migrations of the 1840s-1860s. This study examines the frequency and nature of those interactions in two geographic sections: the first half of the trail, from the Missouri River to the eastern slope of the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains, and the second half, from the western slope of South Pass to Oregon City, Oregon. While the predominant historiography of these migrations has focused on a binary of hostile or non- hostile interactions between Indians and emigrants, the focus on violence has obscured the larger issue of frequent and amicable interactions between emigrants and Indian peoples along the overland route. Factors such as trade, the availability of resources, and cultural differences influenced the nature of these inter-ethnic interactions, which varied from the beginning of the trail on the Plains to the end of the trail on the Columbia Plateau. iv CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Christopher C. Smith GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene University of California, Los Angeles Long Beach City College, Long Beach, California Fullerton Junior College, Fullerton, California DEGREES AWARDED: Master of Arts, History, 2014, University of Oregon Bachelor of Arts, History, 2011, University of California, Los Angeles Associate of Arts, 2009, Long Beach City College AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Native American History History of the Nineteenth Century American West PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2012-2014 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Peggy Pascoe Fellowship For Graduate Study in the History of the American West, University of Oregon, 2012-2018 Summer Research Award, University of Oregon, 2013 Summer Research Award, University of Oregon, 2014 PUBLICATIONS: Mary Marki and Christopher Smith, “Vigilantism During The Gold Rush” in Invitation To An Execution: A History Of The Death Penalty In The United States, ed. Gordon Morris Bakken (Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 2010). v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to deeply thank Professor Ostler for his continued inspiration, support, and feedback that has allowed me to define and continuously refine this study. I wish to express sincere appreciation to Professor Weisiger for her assistance in the preparation of this manuscript in both its content and execution. I would also like to thank Professor Weise for encouraging me to think about how my subjects were interacting with one another in terms of cultural differences in order to instill depth and nuance to my treatment of the human actors at the heart of this work. In addition, special thanks are due to the librarians of the Bancroft Library at University of California, Berkeley, and Knight Library Special Collections at University of Oregon for their help in navigating their collections of trail diaries. I also wish to thank my fellow graduate students in the Department of History, who have provided constant inspiration, support, and friendship over the past two years. vi For My Mother, LuCretia. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 1 II. INDIAN AND EMIGRANT EXPECTATIONS ALONG THE OVERLAND TRAIL ROUTE............................................................................................................ 18 Indian Expectations................................................................................................ 18 Emigrant Expectations........................................................................................... 32 III. ONTO THE PLAINS: INDIAN AND EMIGRANT INTERACTIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE OVERLAND TRAIL.............................................. 51 IV. BEWARE OF THE SNAKE: INDIAN AND EMIGRANT INTERACTIONS AT THE END OF THE OREGON TRAIL.................................................................. 73 V. CONCLUSION....................................................................................................... 103 REFERENCES CITED................................................................................................ 108 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The overland migrations of the mid-nineteenth century have been a topic of American popular culture and scholarship of the American West since the first “great migration” slogged west in 1843. “The Oregon Trail” conjures images of covered wagons slowly trudging along in a single track across the plains as men in wide-brimmed hats steer from the buckboard and women in ankle-length dresses and bonnets sit beside the wagon driver. For many Americans, the overland trail migrations exemplify American exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny. For many historians, the massive collection of primary source material that was produced by emigrants has yielded (and continues to yield) rich scholarship on the American West.1 Overlanders who emigrated west along the series of routes that were collectively known as the “overland trail” often chronicled their journey in diaries or journals as part of a tradition that was introduced at the turn of the nineteenth century by the Lewis and 1 The overland or Oregon trail is defined in this study as the collection of routes that facilitated overland emigration to the western coast between 1840 and 1860. This study is framed by these two decades as they are representative of the emigration phenomena, yet there was significant change that occurred in those two decades. The trail began at “jumping off places” in St. Joseph or Independence Missouri, although many emigrants had already traveled some distance west to arrive at that point. This study tracks the movements of missionaries, farmers, families, and argonauts as they crossed the plains and the Rocky Mountains. At Fort Hall in present day Idaho, the trail forked and emigrants to California and Utah turned south while emigrants en route to Oregon headed northwest. This study follows emigrants who continued on to Oregon territory after leaving Fort Hall. This study interchanges the terms “Americans” with “emigrants,” and the term “Indian” is used as a general term to describe Native people when it is not possible to represent specific Indian national identities or affiliations. At times other terms are used; It must also be stated that within each of these distinctions exists a complex mix of personal identities tied to European heritage, gender, religion, and economic or social status, which cannot possibly be addressed in detail in the scope of this study. 1 Clark expedition.2 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark kept detailed accounts of their journey as part of their job as emissaries and explorers employed by the United States. Similarly, many of the diaries maintained on the overland trail were detailed and thorough. Often these earlier journals were published by their authors to serve as guides for future emigrants. Some of the early emigrants were missionaries such as the infamous Whitmans, some were employed as record keepers for larger expeditions, and some, like John C. Frémont, were employed by the United States government as official surveyors.3 These earlier emigrants tended to be highly literate, and their journals reflected a literary eloquence that helped further the practice of journal writing as a overland tradition. As those early migrations grew into the great migrations of 1843 and 1849-50, the practice of journaling became a fixture of the journey undertaken by writers of varying degrees of literacy.4 Writing eloquence and spelling varied as much as the content of journals. Some diaries catalogued important events along their journey: accidents, deaths, significant losses or triumphs. Others offered more strict forms of accounting of goods or, more 2 The entirety of the Lewis and Clark Journals have been chronicled and are available as an online archive by the University of Nebraska. The journals can be found at http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/. 3 Marcus and Narcissa Whitman first travelled to Oregon in 1836, where they operated a small mission until their murder at the hands of Cayuse Indians in 1847. For more information, see John D. Unruh, The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 118, 360-364. Thomas J. Farnham is one example of a member of a
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