11 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Definition of Translation
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Definition of Translation
There are many theoritical concepts developed by the experts related to
translation. They propose various definitions of translation. Some of them are weak,
some others are strong, and some are completing each other.
According to Catford (1965, p. 20) ―translation is the replacement of textual
material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another
language (target language)‖. This theory emphasize on the material that should be
changed, but ignore the message of the SL. In fact, the message is the one of
important part which should be defensible in translation. Besides, a translatior should
not change material of SL and TL because the structures are different. Adding the
theory of Catford, Brislin (1976, p. 1) says that the transferring message in translation
is not only in written form but also in oral form.
Translation is a general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target) whether the language are in
written or oral form, whether the language have established orthographies or do not have standardization, or whether one or both is based on sign, as with
sign language of the deaf.
The theory above gives pressure only in transferring the message without
considering the form of target language, in fact, the transfer of message in through the
target language.
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The other idea is stated by Nida (1975, p. 33) that ―translating consists in
reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of
the source language, first in term of meaning and secondly in style‖. This definition is
similar to the idea of Kridalaksana (1985 in Nababan, 2003, p. 19-20) who says that
translation as the transferring of the message of source language into target language
should reveal the message and style of the language. A concept which is stated into
two different form of languages (SL and TL) which refers to one or the same object
should be translated in a good form of languge, either oral or written by considering
the style of language.
To complete the definition of translation, Larson (1984, p. 2) explains that: Translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of the first language to the form of a second language by way of semantic structure. Thus, it is the meaning which is being transferred and must be held constant. It is only the form which changes.
In other words, it can be said that what is being transffered in translation
process is the content of the source of language. To express or rewrite the content in
the target language, changes in language structure are needed due to the language
system difference of both languages.
B. Definition of Subtitling
With the rapid growth of distribution of films and TV programs, people in
different countries are able to watch audiovisual products in different languages and
cultures. Many forms of entertainment have been produced to satisfy audience‘s
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demands. The huge opportunity widely opens to work as professional in providing
them professional service to overcome the language barriers, to solve translation
problems and as an effort have been made to convey the dialogue of the actors to the
audience. Therefore there is a term of subtitle that was formerly known as intertitles
in 1903. Intertitles are drawn or printed on paper, filmed and placed between
sequences of the film.
Soon the terms are called subtitle quite early on, as they were used in the same
way as subtitles in the newspapers. Subtitling may be defined as a translation practice
that consists of presenting a written text, generally appears on the lower part of the
screen in movies, letters, inserts, graffiti, inscriptions, placards, and the information
that is contained on the soundtrack (songs, voices off). The original titles were
removed, translated, filmed and inserted again. Subtitles are textual versions of the
dialog or commentary in films, television programs, video games, and the like,
usually displayed at the bottom of the screen. They can either be a form of
written translation of a dialog in a foreign language, or a written rendering of the
dialog in the same language (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtitle(captioning) cite on
January 13, 2014).
C. Names and Proper Names
Names are kind of nouns. A noun is a word or phrase that is a name of
something. A noun is used to identify a person or thing (Sinclair, 1990, p. 5). Sinclair
states that nouns are classified into six types: countable nouns, uncountable nouns,
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singular nouns, plural nouns, collective nouns, and proper nouns. He states that most
nouns do not begin with a capital letter, unless they used to start a sentence. However,
proper nouns or names are one of them which are spelled with a capital letter. From
the statement, we can find that the term of proper nouns or names refer to the similar
meaning. He defines proper nouns as the reference to people or things by name.
Särkkä (2007) states, nouns are classified as common or proper. Common nouns refer
to a class of entities (e.g. squirrel), while proper nouns have a unique referent (John,
London). This idea is similar to Fernandez‘s (2006, p. 45) who distinguishes a noun
based on the special nature of humans in terms of common and proper nouns.
Matthews (1997, p. 61 in Fernandez 2006, p. 45) states that a common nouns
is a name whose ―application is not restricted to arbitrary distinguished members of a
class‖ (e.g. day, horse, goblin). It can be said that the reference of the individual is not
specific. It will be different from proper nouns or names which are referred to a
particular individual. According to Matthews, proper noun is defined as ―the name of
a specific individual or a set of individuals distinguished only by their having that
name‖ (ibid). In short the proper nouns or proper names represent the individuals who
have their own characteristic distinguished by having that name. For example, in
Tinker Bell serial movies, we can find there are names of season as personal names,
such as Autumn, and Winter. To complete the definitions above, Asher (1994, p.
3372) asserts that proper names are terms for denoting specific individuals or
individual groups, with personal names being the most typical. In every society each
person has at least one personal names, and in large technological societies, a family
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name as well. It means, when we refer to a particular person, we can use their name.
People names are spelled with a capital letter, and do not have a determiner in front of
them (Sinclair, 1990, p. 37).
Basically, the science that studies names is known as onomastics (Greek
onomastikos from onoma ‗name‘), usually divided into the study of personal names
(anthroponomastics from Greek anthropos ‗human being‘) and places names
(toponomastics from Greek topos place) (Crystal, 1997, p. 112 in Fernandez 2006, p.
45). As he stated, the term onomastics is used to refer to personal names and
toponomastics to place names. He considered this division as an arbitrary one, as
places can be named after people (e.g. Alberta in Canada is named after the fourth
daughter of Queen Victoria, Princess Louise Caroline Alberta) and vice versa (e.g.
Israel is also used as a first name). From the example above, we know that different
places or areas have their own characteristic of names, either personal names or place
names or others depending on their beliefs or culture. Proper names sometimes
become the reflection of the character‗s personality traits brought by the users. By the
names (proper names), for example, an author or writer can create and portray the
character‗s traits which lead the readers throughout the plot of the story, especially in
children‗s literature.
Discussing about proper names, we cannot ignore the categorization of proper
names. Asher (1994, p. 3373-3374) divides proper names based on two classes; they
are personal names and names of things. He classifies personal names into several
subclasses:
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1. Gender Specific Names
Most names are gender specific. Tanz (in Asher, 1994, p. 3373-3374) has
identified three common patterns:
a. Names may be gender specific and phonologically unrelated to a corresponding
name of the other gender, such as Thomas and Susan.
b. A masculine name can serve as a stem to which feminine suffixes are added: from
Paul can be formed Paula, Paulette, and Pauline.
c. A name can be formed from a neutral stem to which both masculine and feminine
suffixes are added, as in Latin, where feminine –a and masculine –us could be
added to most name stems, for example, Claudia, Claudius, and Julia, Julius.
2. Nicknames
Asher states that in English there are three primary principles of nicknaming.
a. A nickname can be constructed from the common vocabulary where an item
is selected that is appropriate for the specific individual. For example, a short
person might be called Shorty.
b. A conventional relationship between names and nicknames, though this
relationship is many-many rather than one-one. Conventional nicknames for
Elizabeth are Betty, Bess, and Liz, etc; for Robert are Bob, Rob, Bobby, and
even Bert. However, Bobby is also a nickname for Roberta and Barbara.
c. The third principle overlaps with the second, and consist of adding the
diminutive suffix –y to the name or part of the name: Anny, Maddy, Keithy are
nicknames for Ann, Madeleine, and Keith respectively.
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3. Personal Names for Roles
Although names generally denote specific individuals, there is a small class of
names that function as role generics in informal (and not very polite) speech,
particularly as vocatives. For examples: George for railway porter in a sleeping car in
American English, or Maria for a female street peddler in Mexico, or Mack as an
address for a stranger.
4. Proper Names that Shift to Common Nouns
The shift from proper nouns to common nouns is not unusual, where the
common noun denotes something associated with the name, something invented by
that person: (shrapnel, sandwich) or names in honor of someone, for example the
bakery product bismarck and napoleon. Asher (1994, p. 3373) states that the most
salient things that receive proper names are individual people and places. But,
actually, there are other things receive names as well, including individual creatures
and objects that are identifiable and important. Included in this category are domestic
animals, especially pets; important architectural objects such as large buildings,
bridges, and highways, and in a few places, houses; swords (in heroic epics),
important events, such as wars, and important weather phenomena, such as hurricanes
and earthquakes. Many of these things are named by words and phrases taken from
the common vocabulary, but they are proper name.
The subclasses of names for things are as the following:
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1. Pet Names
Carroll (1985 in Asher 1994, p. 3373-3374) states that in each of these
domains there are conventions, or patterns, of naming which vary across cultures, For
example, names for cats and dogs tend to be single words (commonly drawn from the
stock of human first names), compared to names for racehorses, which tend to have
two or three names (commonly have names that connote speed and winning). The
examples are Boris for dog or Garfield for cat, and Lucky or Winning Streak for
horse.
2. Names for Rock Groups
Names of rock groups, especially heavy metal bands, are often
unconventional, even outrageous and offensive. A large class of names deals with
death. Other common categories for selecting names are drugs, dangerous animals,
weapons, and abnormality. For example: Scorpions, Iron Maiden, or Brain Damage.
3. Street Names
Street names also follow patterns. In the USA, streets are typically named
after famous people, geographical features, trees, presidents, places (cities, states, and
islands), numbers, and letters. They are not named after dates for important events,
however a practice which is common in Mexico. In societies where streets may be
named after numbers and/or letters, then the streets conform to numerical order (of
positive whose integers) and the alphabet. For example: Whirley Street (Whirley is
name of people).
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4. Brand Names
Brand names are often considered to be a subclass of proper names, since they
are written with capital letters, but syntactically they act like common nouns;
semantically, they do not refer to unique individuals but to classes of objects or to
mass substances. However, brand names are like proper names in that they are
consciously and carefully applied, and moreover, unlike personal names, they can be
copyrighted so that no one else can use them.
Bolinger states that (1980 in Asher 1994, p. 3374) brand names are one of the
few areas of the vocabulary where words are coined from scratch, and names like
Xerox and Kodak with eye-catching spelling appear. Firms are also careful to select
appropriate sounding names, drawing on principles of sound symbolism.
Different with Asher, Sinclair (1990, p. 17-19) has his own categorization of
proper names. They are:
1. People’s names
People names refer to a particular person, such as Michael Hall, Jenny, or
Smith. They are spelled with capital letter.
Discussing about personal names, Sinclair (1990, p. 18) adds that sometimes a
person‘s name can be used to refer to something they create, such as a painting,
sculpture, or book by a particular person by using the person‘s name like a count
noun or music composed or performed by a particular person by using the person‘s
name like an uncounted noun. They are spelled with a capital letter.
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Examples:
I‘m reading an Agatha Christie at the moment.
I was looking at their Picassos and Matisses.
...instead of playing Chopin and Stravinsky all the time.
2. Relationship nouns
Sometimes in family level we found the use of nouns which refer to
relationship between the people in a family, such as mother, dad, aunt, grandpa, and
son. Sinclair states that they can also be used like names to address people or refer to
them. As the other proper names, they are spelled with a capital letter.
Example: I‘m sure Mum will be pleased.
3. Titles
Titles are words which show someone‗s social status or job. They are spelled
with capital letter. Title is placed in front of a person‗s name, usually their surname or
their full name. It commonly used in formal way for showing the respect to them. The
examples of common title are Doctor, Lord, Captain, Mrs., Miss, Cardinal, President,
Sister, etc.
A few titles, such as King, Queen, Prince, Princess, Sir, Lady can be followed
just by the person‗s first name.
4. Titles used without names
Determiners, other modifiers, and qualifiers are sometimes used with titles,
and the person‗s name is omitted.
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Examples:
… Her Majesty the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.
… the President of the United States.
…Chief of Research and Development.
5. Titles used as count nouns
Most words which are titles can also be count nouns, usually without a capital letter.
Examples:
… lawyers, scholars, poets, presidents, and so on.
… a foreign prince.
6. Other proper nouns
The names of organizations, institutions, ships, magazines, books, plays,
paintings, and other unique things are also proper nouns and are spelled with capital
letter. They are sometimes used with =the ‗or another determiner. The determiner is
not spelled with a capital letter, except in the names of books, plays, and paintings.
For example:
… Birmingham University
They are sometimes used with =the‗ or another determiner:
…the Queen Mary … the University of Birmingham … The Encyclopedia of
Language and Linguistics … A Midsummer Night‘s Dream.
There are also other more detail and specific versions of proper names
classification. Értekezés affirms that ―In theory, we may distinguish as many types of
proper name as many classes of entities we can discern in the world‖ (2001, p. 105).
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He classifies proper names into several groups, they are names of persons,
geographical names, names of organizations and institutions, names of titles, brand
names, names of nationalities, names of events, names of temporal unit and festival,
names of abstract ideas, names of animals, names of species and other names.
1. Names of Person
Értekezés (2001) classifies personal names into two categories, real persons
and fictitious persons. Értekezés (2001) states that names of real persons belong to
the real person. Names of real persons usually are not translated into source
language. In the other hand, fictitious person names are imaginary names of person
which are created by an author.
Example 1:
ST: ―Like recently, I dreamed I was watching a Michael Jackson concert.‖
TT: ―Misalnya baru-baru ini, aku mimpi nonton konser Michael Jackson.‖
The name Michael Jackson relates to a real person. Michael Jackson is a well-
known United State pop singer. Thus, person name Michael Jackson is included in
the real person name.
Example 2:
ST: She wasn‘t a bit scared of Drew.
TT: Dia sama sekali tak takut pada Drew.
The person name Drew is a name created an author of novel and not related to
particular living person in the real world. Thus, Drew included in the fictitious
name.
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2. Geographical Names
Geography is the way in which the physical features of a place are arranged
(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 647). In addition Geography also
deals with the description, distribution, and interaction of the diverse physical,
biological, and cultural features of earth‘s surface (Merriam-Webster Dictionary
for android).
For example:
ST: On the horizon, the Spring Mountains loomed like jagged black teeth, the dim
glow of Las Vegas behind them.
TT: Di cakrawala, Pegunungan Spring menjulang bagaikan gigi hitam bergerigi,
Las Vegas redup di belakangnya.
Las Vegas is a city in the state of Nevada, US. Hence, the proper name Las
Vegas is included in geographical name.
3. Names of Institutions and Organizations
Institution is a large important organization that has a particular purpose, for
example, a university or bank (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p.
805). Meanwhile, organization is a group of people who form a business, club, etc.
together in order to achieve a particular aim (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, 2005, p. 1071).
For example:
ST: Carter got jeans, boots, and a T-shirt that read Property of Alexandria
University in English and Arabic.
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TT: Carter mendapat jins, sepatu bot, dan kaos yang bertuliskan Milik Universitas
Alexandria dalam bahasa Inggris dan Arab.
(Taken from the Red Pyramid book)
The proper name Alexandria University in the context is one of the names of
University in Egypt. Therefore, the proper name Alexandria University is included
in name of institution.
4. Titles
Title is the name of a book, poem, painting, piece of music, a particular book
or magazine, a word in front of a person‘s name to show their rank or profession,
whether or not they are married (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p.
1612).
For example:
ST: ―So many books have been written about me: Into Thin Air, Up in the Air,
Gone with the Wind—‖
TT: ―Sudah banyak sekali buku yag ditulis mengenai diriku: Into Thin Air, Up in
the Air, Gone with the Wind—”
The proper names Into Thin Air, Up in the Air, Gone with the Wind are titles
of books. Thus, Into Thin Air, Up in the Air, Gone with the Wind are included in
title.
5. Brand Names
Brand is a type of product made by a particular company (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 177).
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For example:
ST: Piper didn‘t steal a BMW.
TT: Piper tidak mencuri BMW.
The proper name BMW in the context refers to a car brand name. Hence, the
proper name BMW is included in the brand name.
6. Names of Nationalities
Nationality is the legal right belonging to a particular nation or a group of
people with the same language, culture and history who form part of a political
nation (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1014).
For example:
ST: Piper was still trying to figure out why. He‘d played all kinds of roles—a
Latino teacher in a tough L.A. school, a dashing Israeli spy in an action-
adventure blockbuster, even a Syrian terrorist in a James Bond movie.
TT: Piper masih mencoba menerka apa sebabnya. Ayahnya telah memainkan
segala macam peran—guru Latino disekolah L.A. yang keras, mata-mata
Israel yang tampan dalam film blockbuster laga petualangan, bahkan seorang
teroris Suriah dalam film James Bond.
The proper name Israeli is a name to call people from Israel. Israel is one of
the country in south-eastern. Thus, the proper name Israeli is included in name of
nationality.
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7. Names of Events
Event is a thing that happens (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005,
p. 523).
For example:
ST: ―He started the Great Fire of London, destroyed most of the city.‖
TT: ―Dia menyulut Kebakaran Hebat di London, menghancurkan sebagian besar
kota.‖
The proper name Great Fire of London is one of incident mentioned in the
book entitled The Heroes of Olympus: The Lost Hero. Therefore, the proper name
Great Fire of London is included in name of event.
8. Names of Temporal Units and Festivals
Temporal unit is connected with or limited by time (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1580). Festivals is a series of performances of
music, plays, films / movies, etc., usually organized in the same place once a year;
a series of public events connected with a particular activity or idea (Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 567).
For example:
ST: ―Since August,‖ Annabeth said.
TT: ―Sejak Agustus,‖kata Annabeth.
The proper name August is a month of the years which indicates unit of time.
Thus, proper name August is included in name of temporal unit and festival.
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9. Names of Abstract Ideas
Abstract Idea is based on general ideas and not on any particular real person,
thing or situation, existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical reality
(Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 6).
For example:
ST: ―The spirit of Delphi comes from within.‖
TT: ―Arwah Delphi datang dari dalam.‖
In the book entitled The Heroes of Olympus: The Lost Hero, the proper name
The spirit of Delphi refers to the oracle before Rachel. Hence, the proper name
Delphi is included in name of abstract idea.
10. Names of Animals
Animal is any living thing that is not a plant or a human (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 567).
For example:
ST: She was holding her cat, Muffin.
TT: Dia sedang menggedong kucingnya, Muffin.
(Taken from the Red Pyramid book)
The proper name Muffin is name of a pet which is a cat name. Thus, the
proper name Muffin is included in name of animal.
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11. Names of Species
Species is a group into which animals, plants, etc, that are able to breed with
each other and produce healthy young are divided (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, 2005, p. 1469).
For example:
ST: More wolves edged into the firelight—black beasts bigger than Great Danes,
with ice and snow caked on their fur.
TT: Semakin banyak serigala yang menghampiri cahaya api unggun—makhluk
yang lebih besar daripada anjing gembala Jerman, es dan salju menempel di
bulu mereka.
Great Dane is a very large dog with short hair (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, 2005, p. 680). The statement points out that the proper name Great
Dane is a species of dog. Therefore, the proper name Great Dane is included in
name of species.
12. Other Names
Értekezés (2001) states that the remains few of proper names are included
under other names.
12.1. Names of Tribes
Tribe is a group of people of the same race, and with the same customs,
language, religion, etc., living in a particular area and often led by a chief (Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1638).
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For example:
ST: ―My dad‘s Cherokee,‖ she said.
TT: ―Ayahku orang Cherokee‖, kata Piper.
Cherokee is a member of a Native American people, many of whom now live
in the US states of Oklahoma and North Carolina (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, 2005, p. 254). Cherokee is one of the tribes of Native America. Thus, the
proper name Cherokee is included in name of tribe.
12.2. Name of Sport
Sport is an activity that you do for pleasure and that needs physical effort or
skill, usually done in a special area and according to fixed rules (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1479).
For example:
ST: For one thing, it was in the Big House recreation room, around a Ping-Pong
table, and one of the satyrs was serving nachos and sodas
TT: Pertama-tama, diadakannya di ruang rekreasi Rumah Besar, di sekeliling meja
pingpong, dan salah satu satir sedang menyajikan nachos serta soda.
Name of sport is one of the names which are included in the other name. The
proper name Ping-Pong is another name of table tennis. Table tennis is a game played
like tennis with bats and a small plastic ball on a table with a net across it (Oxford
Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1560). Thus, the proper name Ping-Pong is
included in name of sport.
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12.3. Name of Quiz Program
Quiz is a competition or game in which people try to answer questions to test
their knowledge: a general knowledge quiz, a television quiz show (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1238).
For example:
ST: Leo‘s dream went fuzzy. Just for a moment, it turned into a rerun of Wheel of
Fortune.
TT: Mimpi Leo mengabur. Sekejab saja, mimpinya berubah menjadi tayangan ulang
kuis of Wheel of Fortune.
Wheel of Fortune is US television game show. Pat and Vanna are the hosts of
this show (http://www.wheeloffortune.com/). Hence, the proper name Wheel of
Fortune is included in name of quiz program.
12.4. Names of Weapons and Items
Weapon is an object such as a knife, gun, bomb, etc, that is used for fighting
or attacking (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 1727). Meanwhile,
item is an object which is not alive (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p.
825).
For example:
ST: ―She named the dagger Catoptrics.‖
TT: ―Helen menamai belati tersebut Katoptris.‖
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The proper name Catoptrics is a dagger used by Piper in the fights in the story
of the book entitled The Heroes of Olympus: The lost Hero. Therefore, Catoptrics’ is
included in name of weapon.
12.5. Name of Website
Website is a place connected to the Internet, where a company or an
organization, or an individual person, puts information (Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary, 2005, p. 1729).
For example:
ST: ―So if I looked him up on Google maps—‖.
TT: ―Jadi, kalau kucari dia pakai Google Maps—‖
The proper name Google refers to a website that can use for finding any
information when we type certain keywords.
12.6. Name of Council
Council is a group of people who are elected to govern an area such as a city
or county (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 347).
For example:
ST: ―Still, yeah, I made some enemies on the Council of Cloven Elders.‖
TT: ―Tapi.iya, aku punya musuh di Dewan Tetua Berkuku Belah.‖
In the context, Council of Cloven Elders refers to satyr honorary members.
Thus, Council of Cloven Elders is included in name of council.
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12.7. Name of Kingdom
Kingdom is a country ruled by a king or queen or an area controlled by a
particular person or where a particular thing or idea is important (Oxford Advanced
Learner's Dictionary, 2005, p. 848).
For example:
ST: SPQR—that‘s the motto of the old Roman Empire: Senatus Populusque
Romanus, the Senate and the People of Rome.
TT: SPQR—itu adalah moto Kekaisaran Romawi kuno: Senatus Populusque
Romanus, Senat dan Rakyat Romawi.
Roman Empire is one of the empires in the ancient Roman period. Hence, the
proper name Roman Empire is included in name of Kingdom.
D. Translating Proper Names
Many translators consider that names have no semantic meaning in language.
In other words, usually they only transfer the original form of names instead of
translating it. Translator will borrow the original word of source language into target
language. Some experts state that proper names are sometimes translated as it is for
maintaining the message of the original author or keeping the uniqueness of objects
dealing with the referential function of names in presupposing the memorability. As
Tymoczko (1999, p. 225 in Fernandez 2006, p. 48) states, the referential function of
names presupposes a certain ―recognizability‖ and ―memorability‖ that is to say,
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names must in some way be memorable so as to serve their function as indicators of
unique objects.
Proper name brings the cultural value on which the setting is set. However,
Puurtinen (in Fernandez 2006, p. 44-48) argues that names have to be transferred in
equivalence word in target language, because some of names represent the
description of the characters in the story, especially in fiction story. If there are many
strange names in the story, it can be barriers for the young readers. In fictional story,
proper names often do not represent the factual characters in a real world. For
example in the children story book, various names are created from the imagination
of the writer that cannot be found in the reality.
In translating proper names, the translator is demanded to make the translated
text natural for the readers. The reason is that proper names have singular references.
They refer to particular person, place, or thing. They can serve as ―culture marker‖
indicating from which culture the names come. If the translator just leave the names
as they are without any necessary adjustment of the TL culture, it is possible that the
translation will sound strange and unacceptable. On the other hand, when the
translator changes the names, he or she does not transfer the message of SL because
of omitting the culture brought by the writer.
Actually, it will be a challenge for the translator in translating proper names,
especially in finding the target language translation equivalents. The translator should
comprehend that their role is to convey the message of the author by using the
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acceptable and readable words. In fact, in translation, there will be two poles which
trade-offs one another: accuracy and acceptability.
Those concepts are also happens in translating literary work; in semantic
terms, names have a prominent role in children‗s literature to describe a certain
quality of a particular narrative element and/or create some comic effects. In other
words, the readers can see the character of the story or comic by emphasizing the
attention to the names representing the vices or virtues. Besides, the translator does
not only convey the message but also in effects of humor when they translated such
names in comic or humor book. When the translator cannot hold the sense of humor
of the story, it means the translation is failed. Meanwhile, in semiotic discussion,
proper names can indicate gender, class, religious identity, nationality, and etc related
with signs. The translator may translate proper names as it is for holding the meaning
(Fernandes, 2006). On the other hand, Puurtinen (1998) states that, children's
literature was perhaps expected to be very simple linguistically in order for young
readers to fully comprehend the books' content and moral. It means that when the
children is faced to the complexity of sentences or words including new and strange
terms their reading activity will be annoyed because they will miss the message in the
story. It becomes the reason for the translator to change the setting and names
depending on the TT‗s culture in order to help the young readers identify the
message.
From the pronunciation‗s view, Fernandes states there will be sound symbolic
meanings which can be a barrier for the translator for translating names. There are
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two kinds of sound symbolic meanings: imitative sound symbolic meaning and
phonesthetic meaning (Fernandes, 2006).
Shisler (1997) explains that imitative sound symbolic meanings are related to
the use of onomatopoeia. An imitative sound symbol represents a sound actually
heard, but its actual component speech sounds may only vaguely resemble the
imitated sound. For example: Zzzzz for the sound symbol of the sleeping activity.
Meanwhile, phonetic meaning has to do with the use sound symbolic elements called
phones themes. A phones theme is a sound, sound cluster, or sound type that is
directly associated with a meaning. For example: the initial cluster /sl/ which is
connected with unpleasantness such as slime, slug, slithery, slobbery, and slog. This
phonetic pattern is used in Harry Potter as the name of the founder of the ill-reputed
Slytherin house Salazar Slytherin. This phones theme concept will help the translator
in determining the equivalence words in TT when they consider they should change
the setting and names depending on TT‗s culture.
Basically, the semantic, semiotic and sound symbolic meaning(s) will be the
problems of the translator in translating names of children‗s literature. It is dealing
with the terms of readability. The main point is the translator should not alienate
children from reading by the existing or retaining of foreign names.
E. Techniques of Translating Proper Names
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According to Särkkä (2007), translating proper names deals with a number of
ways in translation. He states that a proper name: first, can be transported wholesale
from the target text (allowance being made for possible transliteration or transcription
depending on the languages concerned); second, can be partly transported from the
source language (SL) and partly translated; thirdly, it can be replaced with more or
less different names in the target language (TL) (ibid). Finally, it can be dispensed
with altogether. It seems very simple ways for the translator in translating proper
name, in fact, in practice it will be many difficulties found.
Almost similar to that concept, Hervey, et al (1995b:21-24) gives several
alternatives in translating names that can be used by the translator, they are:
1. Exoticism
The names can be taken over without making some changes from the ST to
the TT. They are still in their original form without any changes to the TL culture.
The weakness of this technique is the condition when the translator used explanation
by adding footnotes, glosses or academic explanation which can reduce the text
attractiveness.
ST: I had to explain that you need a game system and a TV to play Twisted
Wizard, ...
TT: Aku terpaksa menjelaskan bahwa seseorang membutuhkan perangkat alat
permainan dan sebuah pesawat televisi untuk bisa memainkan Twisted Wizard…
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The example above is the example of exoticism. The word in bold is a proper
name which refers to the names of video games (name of things). It is simply
transferred and still in original form.
2. Cultural Borrowing
Cultural borrowing is the first alternative to transfer a ST precisely into the
TT (Hervey, 1995b). The translator may choose this strategy when it is impossible to
find a suitable expression in the TL for translating the ST expression. The names are
borrowed then it can be modified to fit the phonological/ graph logical system of the
TL.
For example:
ST: January
TT: Januari
January is the name of month in Christian calendar that have been used all
over the world, including Indonesia. Januari is the Indonesian standard version of
January. This transliteration is used to adjust the pronunciation sounds of January
which is spelled.
3. Calque
Calque is .an expression that consists of TL words and respects TL syntax, but
is unidiomatic in the TL because it is modeled on the structure of a SL expression. In
essence, calque is a form of literal transliteration (ibid).
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For Example:
ST: This kid named Preston Mudd got named Athlete of the Month for being the
best player in the basketball unit.
TT: Ada seorang anak bernama Preston Mud yang mendapatkan gelar Atlet
Bulan Ini karena dia merupakan pemain terbaik dalam tim bola basket.
The example above shows that the underlined words are translated literally by
their most common meaning in Indonesia.
4. Communicative Translation
In contrast with cultural borrowing, the translator may opt for communicative
translation. For example, many proverbs, idioms, and clichés have already
identifiable communicative equivalents in such cases (Hervey, 1995b).
The example:
ST: Police News of the Past.
TT: Kumpulan Kasus Seru.
The example above is the title of article. The ST is translated using
communicative translation since it is more brief and clear. It slightly different with
the original but its meaning can be understood by the readers. The ST is translated
literally, limited by the SL grammatical construction. Then, the ST s paraphrased into
‘Kumpulan Kasus Seru’ which is simpler and to the point.
5. Cultural Transplantation
Cultural transplantation is the opposite of exoticism (ibid). It is hardly called
as translation and is more like adaptation. This technique adapts the entire setting of
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the ST, making the TT is completely in the target cultural setting. The example of
cultural transplantation can be seen through some famous drama/ films, such as
Shakespeare‗s Romeo and Juliet which adapted into the Hollywood musical film
West Side Story, or Shaw’s Pygmalion into My Fair Lady.
Like Harvey, Fernandez (2006, p. 50) has the concepts in translating names
depending on the Herman‘s concept. He proposes a set of ten techniques in the
translation of names based on information extracted from PEPCOCFL – The
Portuguese-English Parallel Corpus of Children‗s Fantasy Literature. The techniques
are:
1. Rendition
This is a coincidental procedure and is used when the name is transparent or
semantically motivated and is in standardized language, that is, when the name in a
source text is enmeshed in the lexicon of that language, thus acquiring meaning to be
rendered in the target language.
The example:
ST: A real Sea Dragon is fifty times as big as that little creature.
TT: Seekor Naga Laut sungguhan berukuran lima puluh kali lebih besar daripada
makhluk kecil itu.
The example shows that when the proper names in the ST are enmeshed in the
TL, then the meaning is rendered in the TL. Creature names Sea Dragon is directly
translated into Indonesian Naga Laut.
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2. Copy
This procedure bears resemblance to Vinay and Darbelnet‗s concept of
―borrowing‖ as the simplest type of translation. In this procedure, the names are
reproduced in the translated text exactly as they appear in the source text without
suffering any sort of orthographic adjustment. From a phonological perspective,
however, Nord (2003, p. 187) points out that these names often acquire a different
pronunciation in the TL.
For example, the personal name Daniel in SL is translated into Daniel in
Bahasa Indonesia as TL.
3. Transcription
This is a procedure in which an attempt is made to transcribe a name in the
closest corresponding letters of a different target alphabet or language. In other
words, this procedure occurs when a name is transliterated or adapted at the level of
morphology, phonology, grammar, etc., usually to conform to the target language
system.
In this procedure the translator may suppress, add, and changed the position of
letters, probably as a way to preserve the readability of the text in the TT context.
For example, the personal name Andy in English is translated into Andi in
Bahasa Indonesia, and the name of month December is translated into Desember.
4. Substitution
In this type procedure, a formally and/ or semantically unrelated name is a
substitute in the target text for any existent name in the source text. In other words,
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the TL name and the SL name exist in their respective referential worlds, but are not
related to each other in terms of form and/ or semantic significance. For example: in
Harry Potter there is a personal name, ‗Harvey‘ and ‗Harold‘ (ST) which is translated
into ‗Ernesto‘ and ‗Eduardo‘ in the Brazilian Portuguese language as TT. The
translator of Harry Potter series is not only replaced the two SL names, but also took
into consideration the alliteration (i.e. the use of the same letter or sound at the
beginning of words that are close together) present in the original.
5. Recreation
This type of procedure consists of recreating an invented name in the SL text
into the TT, thus trying to reproduce similar effects of this newly-created referent in
another target cultural setting. It is important to stress that recreation differs from
substitution in the sense that in recreation the lexical item does not exist in the SL or
in the TT.
For example:
ST : Well, the Quaffle – that‘s the biggish red one – is the one that scores goals.
TT : Bem, a goles, a vola vermelha meio grande e a que os gols.
(as cited in Fenandes, 2006)
Another example of word Quaffle can be found in Harry Potter series. There
is a thing name the Quaffle. It is the name given to one of the balls used to play
=Quidditch‗. Both in Brazilian Portuguese and in SL has no lexical meaning for the
word QuaffleI. So that the translator may translates it into a goles and not capitalized
which is more familiar with the Brazilian grammar rule and the target reader.
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6. Deletion
This procedure is a drastic way of dealing with lexical items, but even so it has
been often used by translators. Deletion (ø) as a translation procedure involves
removing a source-text name or part of it in the target text. It usually occurs when
such names are apparently of little importance to the development of the narrative,
and are not relevant enough for the effort of comprehension required for their readers.
For example:
ST: …, but Mom said I had to finish my Christmas thank-you before I went out
anywhere.
TT: …, tetapi Mom bilang aku harus menyelesaikan semua kartu ucapan terima
kasih sebelum aku pergi ke mana pun.
From the example above, we know that the translator applies deletion
technique because he omits the word in TT. One can see that there is the other proper
noun which is name of event Christmas in the ST. The phrase my Christmas thank-
you, should be translated into TT as semua kartu ucapan terima kasih Natal is
translated the phrase into semua kartu ucapan terima kasih. The translator deleted
that the word Natal in TT because there is little importance to the story‗s plot
development. The inexistence of the word Natal in TT did not reduce the message/
meaning of ST.
7. Addition
This procedure is the one in which extra information is added to the original
name, making it more comprehensible or perhaps more appealing to its target
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audience. Sometimes it is used to solve ambiguities that might exist in the translation
of a particular name.
Example:
ST: …, and that he‗s suspended from Patrols for a week. (p 181)
TT: …, dan dia dibebas-tugaskan dari tim Pengawas selama seminggu.
In the example above, Patrols is translated into tim Pengawas. The word tim
is added for the structural acceptability in the TT.
8. Transposition
This procedure is defined as the replacement of one word class with another
without changing the meaning of the original message. For Chesterman (1997), this
procedure also involves structural changes, but it is often useful to isolate the word-
class change as being of interest in itself.
Example:
ST: …, but if I can get voted as a Class Favorite, I‗ll go out on a high note.
TT: …, tapi jika aku bisa sampai terpilih sebagai Favorit di Kelas, aku akan
mendapatkan reputasi baik.
In example above, there is a replacement of word class of a Class Favorite
which s translated into Favorit di Kelas. In SL it includes into noun, but in its
translation it becomes an adjective for the word Favorit and noun for the word Kelas.
Meanwhile di (TT) itself is kind of preposition which is similar with the word in
(SL).
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9. Phonological Replacement
This is a procedure in which a TT name attempts to mimic phonological
features of a ST name by replacing the latter with an existing name in the target
language which somehow invokes the sound image of the SL name being replaced.
The latter involves adaptation of a SL name to the phonology/morphology of a target
language while the former involves the replacement of a SL name with a TT name
which is phonemically/ graph logically analogous to it.
This technique is detected especially in the translations of the Harry Potter
series. The proper name Jim Mc Guffin is translated into Jorge Mendes or Myrtle is
translated into Murta in Brazilian Portuguese as TT. These examples show that
names apparently unmotivated were replaced with names that have a similar
orthography and phonology.
10. Conventionality
This procedure occurs when a TT name is conventionally accepted as the
translation of a particular SL name. It is commonly used with names of historical/
literary figures and geographical locations.
For example the proper name Archimedes in .Artemis Fowl as SL is translated
into Arquimedes in Brazilian version as TT. It shows that a historical and a
geographical name in the source texts (i.e. Archimedes) were replaced with
conventionalized forms in the target culture, namely Arquimedes.
From the concepts above, we find various techniques used by the translator in
translating proper names. It is important to say that combinations among all the
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procedure above are possible, as names can be rendered, copied, transcriber, or
substituted and deleted.
F. The Quality of Translation
A translator is demanded to produce a good quality translation. The translator
has to ensure that the result has fulfilled the requirements of qualified translation. The
translation is good or not cannot be subjectively judged. There are certain criteria to
assess the quality of translation including accuracy, acceptability, and readability.
The concept of accuracy, acceptability, and readability is determined by the
receptor language with its own assessment.
1. Accuracy
Many translation experts emphasize the importance of transferring meaning
that the message has to be transferred correctly and precisely. Thus, the accuracy
aspect has to completed Accuracy has relation to the expression of the SL message or
content to the TT. Dealing accuracy, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997, p. 3) state that:
Accuracy is a term used in translation evaluation to refer the extent to which a translation matches its original. While it usually refers to preserve the
information content of ST to TT, with an accurate translation being generally literal rather than free, its actual meaning in the content of a given translation
must depend on the type of equivalence.
Accuracy in translation means the preciseness of message transfer of the
translation. The accuracy of the message in the source text has to be the first aspect
that a translator has to convey. Although a translator has right to change the structure
of the sentence or even the grammar, the information found in the product of
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translation has to match with its source text. Thus, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997, p.
3) emphasize accuracy as a term used in translation evaluation to refer to the extent to
which a translation matches its original.
The quotation above points out on the preservation of information content of
ST in TT. Larson (1998, p. 529 – 530) says that ―sometimes in restructuring the
translator is working hard at getting across the meaning and in so doing adds
information which was not really in the source text‖.
In proper names translation, the level of accuracy will decrease when the
translator give such additional information or omit/ delete some information of SL.
The process of adding or omitting information of SL has a possible risk in reducing
the accuracy level of translation.
The translation of proper name is accurate if the message is accurately
delivered, such as using the correct equivalence word in TT, referring to the correct
reference, and the translation is match for the context situation so that it is not
ambiguous and the audiences easily understand the story. On the contrary, the
translation of proper name is inaccurate if the message is not delivered. It may be
caused by the translation is incorrect, or the message is omitted or ambiguous.
2. Acceptability
If accuracy deals with meaning, acceptability is closely related to cultural
aspect. With the competencies owned, a translator has to produce natural translation
that is widely known in the readers‘ society. Acceptability relates to the naturalness
of the translation. A translator should be able to produce translation which is natural
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according to the target language system includes grammatical, norms and culture
matters.
Toury (in Shuttleworth and Cowie, 1997, p. 2) states that the acceptable
translation is the one fulfilling the requirements of ―reading as an original‖ written in
the target language and sounds natural for the target reader rather than that of
‖reading as the original‖. Larson suggests naturalness test to see if the form of the
translation is natural and the style is appropriate.
From the statement above, the writer found that in proper names translation,
acceptability will be fulfilled when the translator can find the equivalence words/
terms in TL for every single proper name in SL in order to make the translation
natural. When the readers or audiences feel that the translation does not like
translation works, it means the acceptability of the book, movie subtitle, or any kind
of translation product is fulfilled. The translation of proper name sounds natural, such
as the use of the common cultural terms, or common words in TL. In order to fulfill
the level of acceptability, the translator has right to change the grammatical structure
or the sentence arrangements of the source text. Besides, the translator also has rights
to reconstruct, adapt, or rewrite whatever said in the source text without neglecting
the context.
3. Readability
Readability deals with the readability level of the translation. Readability
deals with the readers‘ understanding of the message and how easy a translation can
be read and understood by its readers. Richards et al states that readability concerns
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on how easily written materials can be read and understood (in Nababan, 2003, p.
63). It means that readable translation will not make the target reader confused and
there are no ambiguous words. Richards et al then classify three factors influencing
the translation readability, they are: the average length of sentence, the number of
new words used, and the grammatical complexity of TL.
In addition, readability also deals with the dictions, the sentences, and the
arrangements of ideas. The other important factors are the content of a text, the
appearance of a text, and the ability of both the translator and the readers (Nababan,
1999, p. 64-78).
G. Other Related Study
Proper names are an interesting topic to study in a research, so there were
various objectives and various results done by researchers.
Dinar Rusdyana (2012) conducted a research entitled An Analysis Of The
Translation Of Proper Names in The Novel – Diary of A Wimpy Kid. The research
observed about the proper names found in the novel. The objectives of the research
are to find out the kinds of proper names found in the novel Diary of a Wimpy Kid
and they way they are translated into Bahasa Indonesia and also to find out the
translation quality in term of accuracy, acceptability, and readability in the novel.
Another research was done by Ornella Widyahutami (2014). The research title
is A Translation Analysis of Proper Names In The Fantasy Greek And Roman
Mythology Novel – The Heroes Of Olympus: The Lost Hero. She observed proper
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names found in the book entitled The Heroes of Olympus: The Lost Hero book and its
Indonesian translation. It also focuses to find out the types of proper names, the
technique applied by the translator and the impacts of the strategies on the quality of
translation in terms of its accuracy and acceptability of proper names translation.
The difference prior to the latest research lies in the object and the objective.
Both previous research data are taken from fiction novels. While in this study the
researcher took data from different sources. The author took the data from the movie:
Tinker Bell Enter the World of Fairies (2008), Tinker Bell and The Lost Treasure
(2009), Tinker Bell and The Great Fairy Rescue (2010), and the newest series Tinker
Bell Secret of the Wings (2012). The researcher examines kinds of proper names find
in the movies. It also focuses on the translation technique used for translating proper
names. In terms of translation quality; accuracy, acceptability, and readability, the
writer only focuses on the accuracy and acceptability of the translation.
H. Tinker Bell Serial Movies
Tinker Bell is a 2008 computer fiction animated film based on the Disney
Fairies franchise produced by Disney Toon Studios. Tinker Bell serial movies tell
about a new fairy who was born from the first laugh of baby and brought by the wind
to Pixie Hollow. She is very enthusiast fairy, creative, can fix many broken things
and create useful innovative tools for her colony. Unfortunately, Tinker Bell is a bit
easy to get angry and careless. Within the whole series Tinker Bell deals with many
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new experiences such her tasks as a tinker fairy, and her life with her fairy colony in
Pixie Hollow.
Tinker Bell movie series consist of four series; Tinker Bell Enter the New
World (2008), Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure (2009), Tinker Bell The Great Fairy
Rescue (2010) and the latest is Tinker Bell Secret of the Wings (2012).
In first movie Tinker Bell Enter the New World, Tinker Bell is a new fairy
who was birth from the first laugh of baby and brought by the wind to Pixie Hollow.
Her fairy talents are creating new tools, and fixing broken things. With
encouragement from her friends Rosetta, Silvermist, Fawn and Iridessa, Tink learns
the key to solving her problems lies in her unique abilities as a tinker and she needs to
believe herself, magical things can happen.
In Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure, Queen Clarion, leader of Pixie Hollow
ask Tinker Bell to make autumn scepter from blue moonstone. With some help from
her friend Terence – and a charming, rascally firefly named Blaze – Tink braves an
astonishing new world and discovers the gratest treasure of all.
In Bell The Great Fairy Rescue, Tinker Bell meets a human being, a little girl
named Lizzy. Lizzy is a little girl with steadfast belief in the power of pixie dust and
the magic land of Fairies. Tinker Bell and Lizzy becomes a friend. They try hard safe,
and takes a huge risk, putting their own safety and the future of all fairykind in
jeopardy.
The latest Tinker Bell movie is Tinker Bell Secret of the Wings. It is told about
fairies in Pixie Hollow and the Winter Woods are strictly off limits. And Tinker Bell
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comes face-to-face with a frost fairy named Periwinkle, the only fairy who can help
unlock the secret of the wings. With fun and laughter, they form a magical connection
and make an astonishing discovery. They‘re more than friends, they‘re sisters. When
Pixie Hollow is threatened, this perfect pair must work together to save their two
worlds.
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