Journal of Indonesian and doi: 10.21776/ub.jitode.2021.009.01.04

Development Studies E-ISSN : 2338-1647 http://jitode.ub.ac.id

A Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices in Nglanggeran Village,

Rucitarahma Ristiawan1*, Guillaume Tiberghien2

1Tourism Studies Program, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia 2School of Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Glasgow, Crichton University Campus, Dumfries, Scotland

Abstract This study investigates the strategic managerial practices to overcome the developmental challenges of CBT in the Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village in , Indonesia. It evaluates, in particular, the CBT impacts on community economic well-being, socio-cultural development, and environmental sustainability. A qualitative case study approach based on semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders involved in the planning and development of the village was employed to assess the benefits and challenges of CBT practices and their compatibility with sustainable community development. Results indicate that despite new employment opportunities and an increase in environmental conservation efforts, CBT planning and development in the village led to unequal distribution of economic benefits induced by conflicts within the community, uneven participation opportunities of the local community in tourism, and incompatibility in fulfilling individual’s need for sustainable community development. Keywords: CBT Practices, Ecotourism Village, Sustainable Community Development.

INTRODUCTION [8,9,10]. In 2012, the Indonesian central The concept of Community-Based Tourism government launched a new strategic plan for (CBT) has arisen as a prominent term in as a basis for tourism developing countries’ tourism that centres on the development. This new strategic plan directly involvement of the host community in planning enhanced the community-based development and maintaining tourism development to create agendas in several major tourism destinations in a more sustainable ecotourism industry [1]. It is Indonesia, including Yogyakarta [11]. The plan argued that the development of CBT in encouraged tourism village development as one developing countries is mostly initiated by the of the national tourism development projects in community, although also supported by external Indonesia with regard to community aid both for technical or financial support [2,3]. empowerment and environmental sustainability On the other hand, the development of CBT in [12]. Yogyakarta, with its natural and cultural ecotourism raises questions related to its resources, appeared as an ideal area to plan a managerial practices, including increasing social tourism village that could enhance local unrest, lack of local tourism business knowledge community empowerment [13,14,15]. In the and training, and pseudo-participation of the same vein, the Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village local communities in the tourism planning was developed in 1999, and within a few years [4,5]. CBT, as part of the sustainable community received the award of the best ASEAN development agenda, occasionally ignores the sustainable tourism village in South-East Asia heterogeneous state of the local community [16]. However, despite the prominent and consisting of individuals with various economic, efficient model of management of local tourism, socio-cultural, and environmental needs, which the new CBT village strategy has induced socio- can result in a lack of community control to meet cultural, economic, and environmental impacts in individual needs [6,7]. the local context that need to be further Community-based development in the assessed. Indonesian tourism context is directly shaped by To this end, the overall aim of this study is to the international agenda [8]. Historically, investigate the economic, social, cultural, and Indonesia grew its industry environmental dimensions of the benefits and since the late 1960s with assistance from the challenges of CBT development in the context of World Bank and other international support Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village in Yogyakarta. It evaluates, in particular, the strategic managerial practices to overcome the challenges of CBT Correspondence address: development in the village, in particular the CBT Rucitarahma Ristiawan impacts on community economic well-being, Email : Rucitarahma Ristiawan Address : Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Gadjah socio-cultural development, and environmental Mada, Bulaksumur 55282

[26] J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) sustainability. By examining CBT impacts across In practice, CBT has often benefited the more these four dimensions, this research provides a powerful within a community and failed to critical evaluation of whether CBT practices in the involve all residents [27], which may cause the context of the village meet the sustainable local community to develop a negative attitude community development criteria and lead to towards tourism that significantly influences the local planning and development. profitability of the industry [28]. In that case, CBT can encourage unequal benefits distribution as Community-Based Tourism in Benefiting and the benefits from tourism activities are mostly Challenging Community received by some local elites and individuals who A range of disciplines has used community- have dominant power in deciding the based approaches in extending their development direction of tourism [7]. development-related discussion, for example, Furthermore, the tourist industry’s environmental conservation [17], urban and rural conceptualisation of community may ignore the development [18], and tourism [19,20]. In the heterogeneous state of the community and how tourism context, CBT can be perceived as an community groups can act out of self-interest example of a bottom-up planning approach [4] rather than for the collective good [29], leading and emerged as a prominent strategy in poverty to outcomes that build exclusive club capital reduction, focusing on ownership and the instead of inclusive social capital [1]. CBT is also decision-making power of the local community assumed to be a high-cost project in which local resulting in some positive impacts on the local empowerment is perceived as adding to the cost community [21]. A number of previous studies of doing business or as irrelevant to the earning have debated the impacts of CBT in terms of of profit [30]. It can result in community irritation economic impact [22], socio-cultural impact and changing the ‘openness attitude’ of residents [23,24], and environmental impact [3]. CBT towards tourism for not being involved in the practices can be beneficial for the local tourism development surrounding their areas community by enabling more community [31]. opportunities for participating and gaining Culturally, CBT practices that promote local benefits from tourism activities, reducing traditional cultural resources may lead to a economic leakage, and increasing the higher commodification of culture. environmental sustainability awareness of both Commodifying local cultural resources potentially locals and visitors [2]. The higher the community generate more income for the local community participation level, the more benefits are through transactional activities in providing received by the local community [22]. Local cultural attractions for tourists [32]. These community involvement in tourism activities can commodification practices enhance the also result in the increase of a more even income community’s identity re-building through culture distribution from tourism activities towards the touristification processes [33]. This economic- local community [19]. driven cultural activity can enhance the In contrast, the development of CBT can also appearance of a new identity of the community create some challenges for the local community, in the context of tourism cultures [34]. However, including the potential increase in peasant commodifying local cultures as tourists’ differentiation and unrest, unequal local attraction can result in the loss of sacredness of community involvement in the decision-making the community’s cultural practices and beliefs. processes, and the restructuring of work and of Culture commodification can generate new roles time that is involved in introducing a new activity for artisans and objects based on the economic [4]. Matters of criticism of CBT include the need tendency in tourism development activities to put CBT as a community’s shared knowledge [35,32]. assuming community as a homogenous entity On the other hand, the commodification of [25] to address the power relations within the culture can influence how a community perceives community as well as varied capital of each its culture as a commodity, changing individual in the control of local tourism community’s living patterns in utilising their development [1,26] as means to secure personal cultural products as a new economic resource benefits from tourism, questioning what [13,36] that can change visitors’ perception of influences the individuals’ ability to engage in authenticity of the toured objects and the host- tourism [7,26]. guest relationship [37,38] and reduce tourists’ experience and satisfaction [36]. This results in a

J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 [27] Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) cultural clash between local communities and cooperation with other stakeholders such as tourists and appears as one of the most government and academics, community can be important challenges in managing and planning the main controller of their own development the cultural dimension of community-based progress [24,43]. The multiple stakeholder tourism in rural areas [26]. approach in developing a tourism village enables the local community to gain equal opportunities Tourism and Sustainable Community in deciding their own developmental direction Development [14]. Empowerment of local people, self-reliance, Lastly, community cultural identity building and social justice are increasingly considered emphasises the development practices that important elements in contemporary debates sustain community identity, purpose, and culture about sustainable development [39]. Therefore, to achieve common community objectives [34]. A it is important to look at a form of sustainable common identity, purpose, and culture appear as community development that balances economic the basis of a communities’ ability to sustain benefits from development with political, itself over generations [41]. In contrast, tourism cultural, and environmental tensions within development can transform a community’s communities [40] through assessing five identity influenced by how tourists perceive sustainable community development principles: them, which potentially influences their economic self-reliance, ecological sustainability, perception of being a rural resident and living a community control, meeting individual needs and rural life [32]. By transforming the community’s building a community culture [41]. Economic self- identity, tourism can provide a new platform reliance aims to increase the internal strength of through which identity can be managed, a community by enhancing its supply of local represented, and rebuilt [34]. This new identity wealth to fulfil community needs and retain formation is typically grounded in the community wealth through local-based representations of local cultures, traditions, and development resources. Collective self-reliance values of heritage that have little to do with the works to build the internal strengths of a socio-economic conditions of tourist destinations community and is a strategy to avoid exploitation [45]. and domination of one party over another. Local- based development should be ecologically RESEARCH METHODOLOGY sensitive, considering the inextricable relation of This research employed a qualitative case ecology as an important part of human nature, study focus [46] commonly used to consider and consider the sustainable use of ecological tourism impacts on community development as a resources [40]. Tourism as a community social phenomenon [47]. The case study method development tool should emphasis the larger can be used to assess community tourism scale productive activities in its development development practices as the method enable practices by emphasising the importance of deep examination of a specific social environmental conservation [3]. phenomenon using the particularity of the The community control aspect of sustainable selected case [46]. The researchers used a within- community development principles emphasises site single case study approach with one selected the ability of a community to gain more power location [48] to explore the potential and and control over its development decision- challenges of CBT in the village, its social, making [42]. Community control, therefore, cultural, and economic impacts, as well as the depends on the power-sharing within community compatibility of CBT practices with sustainable members based on bonding, networking, and community development principles. A single case coalition building [40]. Enabling a community to study can be used to critically assess and test a gain greater ability in shaping its own future and well formulated theory [46], and the Nglanggeran meeting the individual needs, therefore, appears Ecotourism Village provided a unique account as as the main objective of tourism development the first Geopark site in Indonesia certified by practices [44]. The strategy to rebuild and UNESCO (2017) and the best tourism village in revitalise a community should consider the South-East Asia [16]. emotional and physical well-being of its Data Collection individuals as the main factors impacting a In-depth semi-structured interviews using community’s long-term social, economic, and thirteen open-ended questions with twelve spiritual health [42]. Moreover, through enabling participants were employed to gain detailed

[28] J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) insights into CBT practices and tourism RESEARCH RESULT development in the village. Participants were CBT in Impacting Community Economic Aspects selected and interviewed in July 2017 using a CBT development in the Nglanggeran purposive sampling strategy as key stakeholders Ecotourism Village directly generated the involved in the planning and development of the development of new productive-economy village, encompassing the head of the tourism enterprises such as local homestays, traditional organisation, the marketing coordinator, the culinary services, and the production of art and secretary of the tourism village management, the cultural performances, , and coordinator of the development of the local handicrafts. It also enabled some new job community tourism organisation and the opportunities in guiding and organising tours, coordinator of the activities of local community security services, and promotional activities. tourism organisation. To ensure fair local Although the benefits varied as they depended community participation in tourism activities, the on the actual participation of community local community tourism organisation created members, CBT was argued by the head of local some groups consisting of local community community tourism organisation to increase the members. These groups are responsible for community members’ monthly income by about managing specific tourism development tasks IDR 800.000 - IDR 1.500.000, almost equal to a based on their abilities and competency, for monthly standard salary. Taking into account CBT instance, the farmers’ group is responsible for was only a modest alternative source of income managing activities, the culinary at the beginning of its development, this new group for managing the local culinary products revenue was considered a considerable amount and hygiene, and the group for of income by local community members. As organising and maintaining a high standard of stated by a homestay provider: homestay for the tourists. Structurally, these “In the beginning, we only relied on income from later groups are under the supervision of the agricultural products. Now, with the actual practices local community tourism organisation. Table 2 of tourism, it does not mean that we quit being describes the informants and their occupation farmers. We can still run our farming activities, but they have to be integrated with tourism activities.” roles in relation to the tourism management of the Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village. However, considering the diverse amount of The study employed a theory-driven thematic income individuals received from their analysis [49] methodology to analyse the data participation in tourism activities, the role of which splits the process into three stages. At the human capital in determining job provision in the first stage of analysis, the issues (the economic, village produced uneven wealth distribution socio-cultural, and environmental impacts of within the community that created conflicts tourism) related to the CBT benefits and within the community. As stated by one of the challenges in Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village local tour guides, having less opportunity for were decided and designed. Codes from the participating in tourism activities induced some theoretical framework (CBT impacts on the local internal conflicts in the village: community and sustainable tourism “We consider that every community member has development principals) were then generated different capabilities so we cannot directly involve through review and rewriting and applied to them in every tourism activity. They receive different categorise the raw information to determine income that depends on the participation of each individual in the activities. Some people would say their reliability. The codes resulting from stage that it is unequal, even some others become angry two were applied to the raw information in a and protest.” third stage. The researchers then interpreted and connected the coded data in the context of the Additionally, several external investors from conceptual framework to generate the main Surabaya and Jakarta in Indonesia aimed to buy themes (such as employment opportunities and the locals’ lands because as they were seen as an increase in environmental conservation efforts opportunity for developing tourism enterprises induced by CBT) that are detailed in the such as homestays and . The local subsequent sections. Results were finally communities in Nglanggeran Tourism Village compared with empirical data as a means to were resistant in retaining their land as they make the findings and conclusions credible. realised that the ownership of their land and properties were important in supporting local tourism development.

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CBT: Impacting Social Life of Community benefits of tourism activities in the village cannot After being introduced in late 2008, CBT in be received instantly and are not easily accessible Nglanggeran Tourism Village directly impacted for some members of the village. We thus must social relationships among community members. mediate some conflicts within local community The coordinator of activities of the local members. A local state that: community tourism organisation argued that the “We found that making all community members management of the tourism village aimed at participate equally in the industry is a hard thing to including all community members to actively do, but we should make a greater effort in that contribute to tourism development by involving direction.” them with tasks compatible with their An additional social challenge of CBT also managerial abilities: emerged regarding the difficulty to make the “We can maximise the level of local community community understand CBT as their shared participation and local development as each task is knowledge, resulting in low development managed by ‘capable’ locals. We also held regular progress. Community members have their own pieces of trainings with local community members to perspectives of tourism development activities in give them basic knowledge regarding tourism development as a means to maximise benefits and this village. Some individuals do not want to be limit the negative impacts of tourism.” involved in tourism activities as, for them, their current activities such as farming and gardening CBT development contributed to reducing the can generate more income. Regardless of the number of local community members working local tourism organisation efforts in persuading outside the village as more job availability also some community members to be involved in decreased the numbers for juvenile delinquency tourism activities, the consensus around the and unemployment, increased the sense of development objectives seems hard to achieve in togetherness and harmony of the local that every individual of the community had community, and raised the security in the area. different perspectives for the development of Presently, there are only a few local community tourism in the village. It was highlighted by the members who work in foreign countries as secretary of the local community tourism labourers. More job availability also reduces the organisation, who considered this situation as an juvenile delinquency level as they can use their obstacle in ecotourism village development: time for working in tourism activities instead of being involved in criminal activity. “We tried to persuade them by continuously holding public meetings and workshops as well as personal CBT practices also encouraged community approaches for those who were still reluctant to participation in tourism including night activities, participate. Most of them can now actively contribute for example, walking to the top of the mountain, to tourism development in this village although there night gatherings, and bonfire performances as are some individuals who still refuse to be involved in well as seeing night art performances such as tourism activities.” Wayangan (leather puppet performances) that Through continuous personal development usually last until midnight. However, these and local-based training, the local community activities disturbed the resting time of some tourism organisation managed to have more community members, as stated by the head of local community members actively contributing the village government officials: to tourism village activities. “Some people in the village were complaining to me when there are some performances in the night which CBT and the Dynamics of Community Cultural disturb their resting time. I am aware of the negative Aspect responses of some communities, and they potentially In the need to deliver more authentic can lose their sense of welcome along with the further experiences and based on the consideration that development of tourism activities.” > 80% tourist visiting Yogyakarta are motivated Moreover, the uneven participation by cultural attractions offered [50], the opportunities resulting from the way the local community resurrected their ancient arts and community tourism organisation hired local culture performances as tourism attractions and community members based on their educated their children in their performance. competencies, knowledge, skills, and abilities Such learning-teaching activity induced a form of enhanced uneven job distribution, leading to knowledge transfer and expanded the collective conflicts within the community. Not all memory of an ancient culture that was projected community members can accept that the

[30] J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) to sustaining the community’s culture for further attractions with sound consideration for purpose. environmental sustainability in the area. We offered However, some informants detailed that conservation activities as tourists’ attraction to gain more environmental understanding for locals and tourists’ culture could also possibly bring tourists.” negative impacts towards the local community’s culture. A member of a local youth organisation CBT practices in the village directly enhanced stated that the community members were aware the conservation efforts of the local community. of acculturation and cultural shock provided by Along with tourism development and the rise of tourism activities: concern for environmental sustainability, the “Tourists bring their own cultures which are different organisation provided conservation activities as to our culture and custom, for instance, how they are attractions offered to tourists. By branding dressed that is totally different to our custom and themselves as an ecotourism village, the local culture. We are aware that it can influence the community tourism organisation increased the community’s culture, particularly for our young prices of attractions and targeted more mature generation.” visitors (25-50 years old) with high income and Interestingly, the tourism culture directly high purchasing power from the big cities of influenced the local community perspectives in as the new market segment, as revealed by the strengthening their identity as a homestay development coordinator of the local community provider emphasised the cultural opportunities tourism organisation: created by such tourism culture: “We consider that the village’s visitation number has “We can positively respond to it by strengthening our increased year by year so it could damage the natural own culture. We can give an understanding to the environment surrounding the village. We decided to tourists of what should or should not be done when increase the ticket price and target high-income they do activities referring to our culture and local visitors as our new market. By using these strategies, wisdom. Surprisingly, the great willingness from we were able to decrease the tourists’ number by 21 tourists to accept our cultural rules and norms shows % and 27 % in 2015 and 2016 respectively and our willingness in conserving our culture and retaining multiply income up to IDR 100.000.000 (£5277) and our identity.” IDR 180.000.000 (£9499) in 2015 and 2016, respectively.” Commodifying the locals’ cultural practices into tourism attractions encouraged the This new segmentation strategy deployed by community’s collective memories resulting in the local community tourism organisation stronger local identity within cultural assimilation directly influenced the visitation number and processes between host and guest. In attending income the organisation received. the cultural attractions, the tourists were also Projecting CBT Development through forced to be active participants in the Sustainable Community Development Lens performances to enhance the traditional Existing practices of CBT in Nglanggeran experience they got from visiting the village. Ecotourism Village encouraged the local CBT and Its Environmental Impacts for Locals community to be more independent The head of the farmer group of Nglanggeran economically. The income individuals received Ecotourism Village argued that at the beginning from tourism activities directly supported their of tourism activities in Nglanggeran, tracking and abilities to fulfil daily needs. Presently, all service walking activities provided for tourists decreased providers, including homestay providers, culinary the number of endemic fauna such as long-tailed providers, and tour guides in Nglanggeran monkey (Macaca fascicularis) and Javanese eagle Village, are locals. Community members have (Nisaetus bartelsi), as well as the harming natural more opportunities in developing new products environment because of the rubbish brought by based on local resources, such as chocolate and visitors. batik (traditional Javanese clothes), and to be more independent in gaining economic benefits “Tourism activities decreased the number of Javanese eagles and long-tailed monkeys who have been living from tourism that supported their daily needs here for a long time, even the eagles have through CBT development. disappeared and cannot be seen anymore. We also In terms of environment conservation aspect, get a lot of rubbish coming from irresponsible visitors. by enabling the development of CBT in the We decided to change our development strategy. We village, all respondents argued that the established an ecotourism area based on our conservation efforts in Nglanggeran Ecotourism environment and community developments’ interests. We use our environmental resources as tourist Village were increasing. The local tourism

J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 [31] Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) organisation also puts on conservation activities toilets, signage, and building a Joglo (Community as tourist attractions considering the added Centre) as a hub for community activities. We also economic value of eco and green terms, as stated cooperated with tour operators mainly from Yogyakarta, Jakarta, and Bali to promote our natural by the coordinator of development of local and cultural attractions.” community tourism organisation: “We realise that ‘eco’ and ‘green’ terms are an Collaborations between local community important tagline in promoting environmental-based tourism organisations with these tourism tourism in the village. However, we also have a stakeholders external to the village were responsibility to provide comprehensive explanations intended to develop the village’s tourism regarding environmental resources and the benefits of attractions and community members’ capability ecological conservation to make the tourists more in managing tourism development. Considering aware of the importance of protecting the environment.” the various motivations of stakeholders involved in tourism development, the local community The transformation of the village induced by tourism organisations made clear the extent to tourism also enhanced the community’s positive which the stakeholders could cooperate with participation in sustainably developing their them, as stated by the head of the farmers’ village. Conservation activities directly increased group: community members’ environmental concern, as “We understand that each stakeholder has his or her stated by a homestay provider: own importance for cooperating with us. We always “We are more aware of the need for having a negotiated each project before agreeing to cooperate. proactive attitude towards environmental It is fine if the projects are beneficial and do not sustainability in the village. We created the Clean provide any negative impacts on the local community. Friday tagline along with the local youth organisation All the projects can support the development of to make it mandatory for community members to tourism by assisting us in creating a management regularly, once in a week, clean their surrounding plan and helping us in building new facilities so that environment so the view of our village will always be the tourists can use them.” good in the eyes of the tourists.” The success of the collaborations between Conservation activities included in their various stakeholders thus depended on how the tourism packages offered to visitors, for instance, community-controlled the progress of tourism planting trees and releasing and spreading fish development in the village. Also, the success of seed in the river, directly increased CBT depends heavily on to what extend CBT can environmental concern within community enable the locals to meet their individual needs. members. Besides, all activities and enterprises The local community tourism organisation in in Nglanggeran Tourism Village are based on local Nglanggeran Ecotourism Village encouraged the ownership in that local community members development process of the village by classifying directly control their assets, determining the and clustering community members into several long-term welfare of a community [41]. The local groups. This attempt caused internal community community tourism organisation also conflicts as it meant individuals with less or accommodates community members’ unmatched cultural capital could not efficiently aspirations, critiques, and evaluations regarding participate in tourism development, as revealed tourism development in the village by providing by the head of local youth organisation: regular meetings (Selasa Kliwon Forum) for “Some individuals cannot be included in tourism evaluating the progress of tourism development activities because they have no skills in managing in the village. The organisation also had several specific tourism activities. They are low educated modes of cooperation with external parties, for individuals. We try to persuade them to do easy tasks example, NGOs, local regional government, such as securing the parking area but they claim it is not enough to make a living. They did some protests academics and tour operators. A local tour guide resulting in conflicts within community members but further argued that these external relationships we managed that situation using dialogue and essentially supported the community mediation.” development effort: Moreover, several community members have “We have cooperated with many stakeholders protested as the practices of tourism including UNESCO in developing the management development largely only focused on two plan of this village as a part of Gunung Sewu Geopark site assisted by academics from University Gadjah hamlets (Nglanggeran Kulon and Nglanggeran Mada. We also received funds from the Indonesian Wetan), which implied that the three other Ministry of Tourism to build new facilities including hamlets’ community members were receiving

[32] J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) fewer benefits from tourism development, as village. As power relations can determine argued by the head of the village government community members’ involvement in tourism officials: activities [6], the job distribution and community “The benefit distribution is unequal within the five involvement in the village thus highly depended hamlets. Most members of the Local Community on the individual’s social capital. The local Tourism Organisation are from Nglanggeran Kulon community tourism organisation as an and Nglanggeran Wetan. There are only a few overarching body of tourism development individuals from three other hamlets who are contributing to tourism development which means activities directly encouraged a situation in which CBT cannot meet each individual need within the the power relations between the organisation community.” and high-competence individuals determined the successfulness of development outcomes [2]. Issues related to fulfilling individual’s needs in This institutional arrangement in which the local the village, therefore, appeared as the result of tourism organisation appeared as the main unequal distribution of benefits within regulator of development [51] resulted in community members, and a need to potentially community conflicts that were mainly caused by enhance individuals’ self-fulfilment by evenly uneven participation opportunities between distributing benefits within the community. individuals and benefits they received from In the cultural context, CBT practices directly tourism development. Therefore, the local power increased the effort to bring back obsolete art relationship in the village was potentially and cultural performance, including traditional factional [26] separating those who lacked social dances, traditional Javanese music, rites, and capacity and capital from development [29] from traditional ceremonies that enhance the re- the ones who were able to participate. Thus, CBT building of community identity and culture. As practices in the village indirectly marginalised revealed by the local tour guide, CBT practices some individuals in the village who had lesser have cultural impacts on their ancient art and social and cultural capital and therefore not able cultural activities: to participate and gain benefits from tourism “Art and cultural attractions become tourist activities. attractions in this village. That means our culture is being recognised by tourists. They are even interested It is important to notice that in achieving in following the art and cultural activities. It is the maximum profits through the development of time to show them our identity. Tourism can be CBT, community empowerment through tourism beneficial in strengthening our identity.” can result in taking more time [6]. In the In the cultural aspect context, all respondents Nglanggeran Tourism Village, the practices of CBT interviewed stated CBT practices directly are mainly driven by economic motivation such increased the effort to revive art and cultural as job creation and income generation which in performance such as traditional dances, turn can potentially challenge the local tourism traditional Javanese music, rites, and traditional organisation in enabling equal distribution and ceremony. Increasing demand for a more empowerment of all members of the village. authentic form of in the village Similar to a previous study that examining the made the community aware of their cultural empowerment of the local community through assets. However, several changes were made to CBT in four rural communities in Peru [39], CBT some art and cultural activities which impacted practices in the village encouraged the their ‘sacredness’. They usually shorten the community's economic self-reliance by providing duration of religious rites without deeper and creating more local employment religious practice because we consider that opportunities alongside the growth of CBT in the tourists are coming from many different religious village. It also generated more social problems backgrounds. including uneven participation opportunities between local community members in regard to DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION the control of CBT. CBT development in the village increased the The community found obstacles in local income that directly benefited some harmonising their perspectives about tourism members of the local community. Such a planning and development, such as having some situation inevitably created an uneven local community members who did not aim to distribution of opportunities to participate in the follow tourism development because of their planning and development of tourism due to the willingness to retain their existing livelihood wide range of roles and profiles within the practices. Occasionally, the whole community

J. Ind. Tour. Dev. Std., Vol.9, No.1, January 2021 [33] Critical Assessment of Community-Based Tourism Practices (Ristiawan & Tiberghien) participating equally in the planning and ceremonies such as Kenduri to fulfil the tourists’ management of the village was perceived as desire for authenticity by providing a tourism time-consuming and costly. Additionally, the version of traditional dances that were regularly transformation of community livelihood from a performed in several traditional village farming and agriculture-based economy into ceremonies. The community also perceived that tourism was rejected by some individuals in the their traditional clothes convey specific village from Doga and Karangsari hamlet, meanings. Therefore, they use them as a tour potentially diminishing the development of CBT guide uniform, encapsulating a new community in the related areas. tourism identity emerging with local tourism Culturally, some ancient community’s cultural development. assets were commodified through the Practically, to overcome the developmental development of CBT in the village by including challenges of CBT in the village, in particular, the them as tourism attractions. Such cultural CBT impacts on community economic well-being, commodification generated more income for the socio-cultural development, and environmental local community through transactional activities. sustainability, local tourism planners could On the other hand, the commodification of consider community participations’ operational, cultural performances influenced how the structural and cultural limits [52] when community perceived its culture as a commodity developing CBT in the village. The present that potentially resulted in the loss of their development stage of CBT in the Nglanggeran cultural sacredness. It leads to diminishing their Tourism Village is compatible with the attractiveness for tourists that resulted in fewer spontaneous participation phase [53] in which tourists attracted to the area and fewer several community members appear as the main economic benefits that the community could actors for development with some of them gain from tourism activities. having a deeper understanding of tourism From the environmental conservation planning and development than others. perspective, CBT practices in the village were In achieving sustainable development, local- successful in increasing the environmental level participation is important to be considered, conservation efforts, such as the Clean Friday but such participation potentially encourages a initiative. The local community tourism shift of power from local authorities to local organisation took the right to control the actors [53]. Moreover, true local control desired visitation along with including the environmental by local communities is difficult to be realised in cost in their pricing. Although the pricing the village considering that CBT practices are only strategies used for cultural performances were managed and organised by a group of people increased to limit the number of visitors in the with regard to their social and cultural capital in village, as well as re-planting trees and the village. In the future, using the research vegetation surrounding the tourism village area, result as a basis, a series of educational training the total revenue from tourism activities got sessions in managerial aspects of the increased. environment and visitor management of CBT The effort to assess the compatibility of CBT experience in the village could be initiated by the development practices in Nglanggeran Tourism local government to give equal basic training in Village with sustainable community development tourism for the local community, particularly for additionally raises a question regarding cultural those who lack social capacity and capital from identity development in the village. By enabling tourism development. In that regard, further cultural transactions between hosts and guests, research would be required to critically examine mutual interactions between the supply and whether such a model of CBT in various other demand sides of tourism can generate a tourism Indonesian village tourism destinations leads to a culture in the village as a new distinctive critical and emancipatory approach for emergent culture that is shaped by local sustainable community development. communities and shapes the local tourism REFERENCES context [34]. The local community’s culture of [1] Jones, S. 2005. Community-based the Nglanggeran Tourism Village is slowly ecotourism: The significance of social transforming itself into a tourism culture which in capital. Annals of Tourism Research 32(2), turn potentially becomes the new local 303-324. community identity. Some local community members performed regular traditional

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