Global Programmes & Organizations

Global Programmes & Organizations Our Earth & Environment Contents

1 Global Apollo Programme 1 1.1 Inspiration and aims ...... 1 1.2 Key areas of focus ...... 1 1.3 Key people ...... 1 1.3.1 Launch report authors ...... 1 1.3.2 Endorsers ...... 1 1.4 Reaction ...... 2 1.5 Key dates ...... 2 1.6 See also ...... 2 1.7 References ...... 2 1.8 External links ...... 3

2 United Nations Environment Programme 4 2.1 History ...... 4 2.2 Governance ...... 4 2.2.1 Executive Director ...... 4 2.2.2 List of Executive Directors ...... 4 2.2.3 Structure ...... 4 2.3 Activities ...... 5 2.3.1 Notable achievements ...... 5 2.3.2 Reports ...... 5 2.3.3 International years ...... 5 2.4 Reform ...... 6 2.5 See also ...... 6 2.6 References ...... 6 2.7 Further reading ...... 6

3 World Climate Research Programme 8 3.1 Major Projects ...... 8 3.2 See also ...... 8 3.3 External links ...... 8

4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 9

i ii CONTENTS

4.1 Origins and aims ...... 9 4.2 Organization ...... 10 4.3 Assessment reports ...... 10 4.3.1 Scope and preparation of the reports ...... 10 4.3.2 Authors ...... 11 4.3.3 First assessment report ...... 11 4.3.4 Supplementary report of 1992 ...... 11 4.3.5 Second assessment report ...... 12 4.3.6 Third assessment report ...... 12 4.3.7 Fourth assessment report ...... 13 4.3.8 Fifth assessment report ...... 14 4.4 Special reports ...... 15 4.4.1 Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) ...... 15 4.4.2 Special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation (SRREN) .... 15 4.4.3 Special Report on managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation (SREX) ...... 15 4.4.4 Methodology reports ...... 16 4.5 Activities ...... 16 4.6 Nobel Peace Prize ...... 16 4.7 Criticisms ...... 16 4.7.1 Projected date of melting of Himalayan glaciers ...... 16 4.7.2 Emphasis of the “hockey stick” graph ...... 17 4.7.3 Conservative nature of IPCC reports ...... 18 4.7.4 IPCC processes ...... 19 4.7.5 Outdatedness of reports ...... 19 4.7.6 Burden on participating scientists ...... 19 4.7.7 Proposed organizational overhaul ...... 19 4.8 InterAcademy Council review ...... 20 4.9 Archiving ...... 20 4.10 Endorsements of the IPCC ...... 20 4.11 See also ...... 21 4.12 Notes ...... 21 4.13 References ...... 21 4.13.1 Citations ...... 21 4.13.2 Sources ...... 26 4.14 Further reading ...... 28 4.15 External links ...... 28

5 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 30 5.1 Treaty ...... 30 5.1.1 Kyoto Protocol ...... 31 5.1.2 Paris Agreement ...... 31 CONTENTS iii

5.1.3 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions and Nationally Determined Contributions . 31 5.1.4 Other decisions ...... 32 5.1.5 Interpreting Article 2 ...... 32 5.1.6 Precautionary principle ...... 33 5.2 Parties ...... 34 5.2.1 Classiﬁcation of Parties and their commitments ...... 34 5.2.2 List of parties ...... 34 5.2.3 Annex I countries ...... 34 5.3 Conferences of the Parties ...... 34 5.4 Subsidiary bodies ...... 35 5.5 Secretariat ...... 35 5.6 Commentaries and analysis ...... 35 5.6.1 Criticisms of the UNFCCC Process ...... 35 5.6.2 Benchmarking ...... 36 5.7 See also ...... 36 5.8 Notes ...... 36 5.9 References ...... 38 5.10 External links ...... 40

6 World Meteorological Organization 41 6.1 The organization ...... 41 6.2 Functions ...... 41 6.2.1 Meteorological codes ...... 42 6.3 World Meteorological Day ...... 42 6.4 Awards and prizes ...... 42 6.5 WMO conference on climate prediction and information for decision-making ...... 43 6.6 Membership ...... 43 6.6.1 Current member states ...... 43 6.6.2 Historical member states ...... 43 6.6.3 Member territories ...... 43 6.6.4 Membership by regional associations ...... 43 6.7 See also ...... 47 6.8 References ...... 47 6.9 External links ...... 48

7 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 49 7.1 Purpose and function ...... 49 7.2 History ...... 49 7.3 Organizational structure ...... 50 7.3.1 National Weather Service ...... 50 7.3.2 National Ocean Service ...... 51 7.3.3 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service ...... 51 iv CONTENTS

7.3.4 National Marine Fisheries Service ...... 51 7.3.5 Oﬃce of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ...... 52 7.3.6 National Geodetic Survey ...... 52 7.3.7 National Integrated Drought Information System ...... 52 7.3.8 Oﬃce of Program Planning and Integration ...... 52 7.4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ...... 52 7.5 Flag ...... 53 7.6 See also ...... 53 7.7 References ...... 53 7.8 External links ...... 54

8 International Council for Science 55 8.1 Mission and principles ...... 55 8.2 History ...... 55 8.3 Universality of science ...... 55 8.4 Structure ...... 56 8.5 Finances ...... 56 8.6 Member Scientiﬁc Unions ...... 56 8.7 Member Scientiﬁc Associates ...... 56 8.8 See also ...... 56 8.9 References ...... 56 8.10 Bibliography ...... 56 8.11 External links ...... 56 8.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses ...... 57 8.12.1 Text ...... 57 8.12.2 Images ...... 59 8.12.3 Content license ...... 70 Chapter 1

Global Apollo Programme

The Global Apollo Programme is a call for a ma- are economists Professor Lord Stern (author of The Stern jor global science and economics research programme Review) and Lord O'Donnell (former Cabinet Secretary), to make carbon-free baseload electricity less costly than businessmen Lord Turner and Lord Browne (former electricity from coal by the year 2025.[1] Chief Executive of BP), cosmologist and astrophysicist Professor Lord Rees (former President of the Royal So- ciety) and labour economist Lord Layard.[8] 1.1 Inspiration and aims 1.3.2 Endorsers Launched in June 2015, the project - named for the Apollo Program, which brought together thousands of The following were signatories on an open letter published scientists and engineers to put mankind on the moon - to The Guardian newspaper, alongside the launch report calls for developed nations to commit to spending 0.02% authors, in September 2015.[9] of their GDP, for 10 years, to fund co-ordinated research to solve the challenge. This equates to $150 billion over • a decade, roughly the same cost committed to the Apollo Sir David Attenborough (video endorsement) [2][3] Program in 2015 money. Some developed nations, • Professor Brian Cox, University of Manchester including the UK, already meet the GDP percentage target spend, but many do not and there is little international • Paul Polman, CEO of Unilever coordination to maximise the results.[1] • Ed Davey, Former UK Secretary of State for Energy It has been modelled on the more recent International and Climate Change Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, an international research collaborative that is credited with greatly • Professor Sir Brian Hoskins, Chair of the Grantham and swiftly improving the quality and economics of semi- Institute conductor manufacture.[4] • Mark Kenber, CEO of The Climate Group • 1.2 Key areas of focus Ben Goldsmith Founder, Menhaden Capital • Zac Goldsmith, British MP and London mayoral • Renewable energy - in particular that derived from candidate solar and wind sources[5] • Professor Martin Siegert, Co-director of the • Energy storage Grantham Institute • Smart grids • Professor Joanna Haigh, Co-director, Grantham In- • hydrogen vehicles[6] stitute; vice-president of Royal Meteorological So- ciety

• Peter Bakker, President of the World Business 1.3 Key people Council for Sustainable Development

1.3.1 Launch report authors • Professor John Shepherd, University of Southamp- ton The initiative is spearheaded by the chemist Professor Sir David King, former Government Chief Scientiﬁc Ad- Professor Jeﬀrey Sachs, Professor of Sustainable De- viser to HM Government.[7] Amongst the Apollo group velopment and Director of the Earth Institute at

1 2 CHAPTER 1. GLOBAL APOLLO PROGRAMME

Columbia University has separately publicly endorsed the 1.6 See also programme.[10] Professor Sir David King has publicly stated that Prime • Mission Innovation Minister of India Narendra Modi is “keen” on the • Breakthrough Energy Coalition programme.[1]

1.4 Reaction 1.7 References

At last - an authoritative, practical and [1] Carrington, Damian. “Global Apollo programme seeks comprehensible plan that could avert the to make clean energy cheaper than coal”. The Guardian catastrophe that is threatening our planet. — (2 June 2015). Guardian News Media. Retrieved 2 June Sir David Attenborough, oﬃcial launch at the 2015. [11][12] Royal Society on 2 June 2015 [2] “A Budgetary Analysis of NASA’s New Vision for Space Exploration” (PDF). Congressional Budget Oﬃce. Congress of the United States. Retrieved 2 June 2015. [Research and development in renewables] should be like the Manhattan Project [3] Clark, Pilita (2 June 2015). "$150bn needed to save world and the Apollo Project in the sense that the from climate change, warn scientists”. Financial Times. government should put in a serious amount Pearson PLC. Retrieved 2 June 2015. of R&D. — Bill Gates, spearhead of Mission [4] “Summary - the organisation of the Programme”. Global [13] Innovation, 25 June 2015 Apollo Programme. Retrieved 3 June 2015.

[5] Rundle, Michael (2 June 2015). “How The 'Apollo The Global Apollo Programme would be a Programme' For Energy Might Just Save The Planet”. terriﬁc place to start... Now is the time for the WIRED. Retrieved 6 June 2015. Government and investors like ourselves to get [6] Stern, Nicholas (2015). Why Are We Waiting? The Logic, moving. — Nigel Wilson, Chief Executive of Urgency, and Promise of Tackling Climate Change (1st [14] Legal & General ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 267. ISBN 978- 0-262-02918-6.

We will work together and with other [7] Harrabin, Roger (2 June 2015). "'Moon shot' call on clean interested countries to raise the overall co- energy”. BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2 June 2015. ordination and transparency of clean energy research, development and demonstration... [8] Coghlan, Andy (2 June 2015). “New Apollo programme We ask our Energy Ministers to take forward wants moonshot budget to boost renewables”. NewScien- these initiatives... — Leaders of the G7, 41st tist. Retrieved 2 June 2015. G7 summit, Schloss Elmau, June 2015[15] [9] Letters. “Help the Global Apollo Programme make clean energy cheaper than coal”. The Guardian (15 September 2015). Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 16 September Foremost, governments need to fund 2015. research and development for low-carbon energy technologies at Apollo-program levels [10] Sachs, Jeﬀrey. “Our generation’s moonshot: A clean- of commitment... The required funding of this energy world by 2050”. MarketWatch. Dow Jones & ultimate public good is too great a risk with too Company. Retrieved 4 November 2015. little a reward for private companies. But it is [11] “Parliamentary Business, House of Lords”. Hansard. easily fundable by governments. — Professor Column 313. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015. Steven Pinker, Harvard University[16] [12] “Push to make renewables cheaper”. Yahoo! News. Press Association. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2015.

[13] Adams, Christopher; Thornhill, John (25 June 2015). 1.5 Key dates “Gates to double investment in renewable energy projects”. Financial Times. Pearson PLC. Retrieved 26 • The programme was discussed at the Energy Minis- June 2015. ters run-up meeting to the 41st G7 summit.[1] [14] Wilson, Nigel (16 August 2015). “Better late then never • It featured in the Leader’s Declaration of the 41st for clean energy in Britain”. thisismoney.co.uk. DMG Me- G7 summit itself.[15] dia. Retrieved 18 August 2015. 1.8. EXTERNAL LINKS 3

[15] “Leadersʼ Declaration, G7 Summit, 7–8 June 2015.” (PDF). G7 Germany 2015 Schloss Elmau. Group of Seven (G7). Retrieved 20 October 2015.

[16] Pinker, Steven; Goldstein, Joshua S. “Inconvenient truths for the environmental movement”. The Boston Globe (23 November 2015). Retrieved 25 November 2015.

1.8 External links Chapter 2

United Nations Environment Programme

The United Nations Environment Programme 2.1 History (UNEP) is an agency of United Nations and coordinates its environmental activities, assisting developing coun- UNEP headquarters were established in Nairobi, Kenya, tries in implementing environmentally sound policies in the late 1970s with a staff of 300, 100 of them profes- and practices. It was founded by Maurice Strong, its first sionals in a variety of fields and with a five‐year fund of director, as a result of the United Nations Conference more than $100 million. At the time, $40 million were on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference) pledged by the United States and the rest by 50 other in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri nations.[3] neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional offices and various country offices. UNEP has overall responsibility for environmental prob- 2.2 Governance lems among United Nations agencies but talks on addressing global warming are overseen by the Bonn-based Sec- retariat of the United Nations Framework Convention 2.2.1 Executive Director on Climate Change.[1] Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and terres- UNEP’s current Executive Director Erik Solheim suc- trial ecosystems, environmental governance and green ceeded the previous director Achim Steiner in 2016. economy. It has played a significant role in develop- The position was held for 17 years (1975–1992) by Dr. ing international environmental conventions, promoting Mostafa Kamal Tolba, who was instrumental in bringing environmental science and information and illustrating environmental considerations to the forefront of global the way those can be implemented in conjunction with thinking and action. Under his leadership, UNEP’s most policy, working on the development and implementation widely acclaimed success—the historic 1987 agreement of policy with national governments, regional institutions to protect the ozone layer—the Montreal Protocol was in conjunction with environmental non-governmental or- negotiated. ganizations (NGOs). UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development During December 1972, the UN General Assembly projects. unanimously elected Maurice Strong to head UNEP. Also Secretary General of both the 1972 United Nations Con- UNEP has aided in the formulation of guidelines and ference on the Human Environment, which launched the treaties on issues such as the international trade in po- world environment movement, and the 1992 Earth Sum- tentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air pollution, mit, Strong has played a critical role is globalizing the and contamination of international waterways. environmental movement. The World Meteorological Organization and UNEP established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. UNEP is also one of several Imple- 2.2.2 List of Executive Directors menting Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation 2.2.3 Structure of the Montreal Protocol, and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.[2] The International UNEP’s structure includes seven substantive Divisions: Cyanide Management Code, a program of best practice for the chemical’s use at gold mining operations, was de- • Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) veloped under UNEP’s aegis. • Environmental Policy Implementation (DEPI)

• Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE)

4 2.3. ACTIVITIES 5

• Regional Cooperation (DRC) for young people known as Tunza. Within this program are other projects like the AEO for Youth.[10] • Environmental Law and Conventions (DELC) Glaciers shrinking • Communications and Public Information (DCPI) Further information: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 • Global Environment Facility Coordination (DGEF) Glaciers are shrinking at record rates and many could [5] disappear within decades, the U.N. Environment Pro- gramme said on March 16, 2008. The scientists mea- suring the health of almost 30 glaciers around the world 2.3 Activities found that ice loss reached record levels in 2006. On average, the glaciers shrank by 4.9 feet in 2006, the most recent year for which data are available. The most severe UNEP’s main activities are related to:[6] loss was recorded at Norway's Breidalblikkbrea glacier, which shrank 10.2 feet in 2006. Glaciers lost an aver- • climate change; age of about a foot of ice a year between 1980 and 1999. • including the Territorial Approach to Climate But since the turn of the millennium the average loss has [11] Change (TACC); increased to about 20 inches. Electric vehicles • disasters and conflicts; At the fifth Magdeburg Environmental Forum held from • ecosystem management; 3–4 July 2008, in Magdeburg, Germany, UNEP and car manufacturer Daimler called for the establishment of in- • environmental governance; frastructure for electric vehicles. At this international • environment under review; conference, 250 high-ranking representatives from ce, politics and non-government organizations discussed so- • harmful substances; and lutions for future road transportation under the motto of “Sustainable Mobility–the Post-2012 CO2 Agenda".[12] • resource efficiency.

2.3.1 Notable achievements 2.3.2 Reports

UNEP has registered several successes, such as the UNEP publishes many reports, atlases and newsletters. 1987 Montreal Protocol for limiting emissions of gases For instance, the fifth Global Environment Outlook blamed for thinning the planet’s protective ozone layer, (GEO-5) assessment is a comprehensive report on envi- or the 2012 Minamata Convention, a treaty to limit toxic ronment, development and human well-being, providing mercury.[7] analysis and information for policy makers and the concerned public. One of many points in the GEO-5 warns UNEP has sponsored the development of solar loan pro- that we are living far beyond our means. It notes that the grams, with attractive return rates, to buffer the initial de- human population is now so large that the amount of re- ployment costs and entice consumers to consider and pur- sources needed to sustain it exceeds what is available. chase solar PV systems. The most famous example is the solar loan program sponsored by UNEP helped 100,000 In June 2010, a report from UNEP declared that a global people finance solar power systems in India.[8] Success in shift towards a vegan diet was needed to save the world [13] India’s solar program has led to similar projects in other from hunger, fuel shortages and climate change. parts of the developing world like Tunisia, Morocco, Indonesia and Mexico. 2.3.3 International years UNEP sponsors the Marshlands project in the Middle East . In 2001, UNEP alerted the international commu- • 2007 – (International) Year of the Dolphin nity to the destruction of the Marshlands when it released satellite images showing that 90 percent of the Marsh- (International) Patron of the Year of the Dolphin was lands had already been lost. The UNEP “support for En- H.S.H. Prince Albert II of Monaco, with Special Ambas- vironmental Management of the Iraqi Marshland” com- sador to the cause being Nick Carter, of the Backstreet menced in August 2004, in order to manage the Marsh- Boys.[14] land area in an environmentally sound manner.[9]

In order to ensure full participation of global communi- • 2010 – International Year of Biodiversity ties, UNEP works in an inclusive fashion that brings on board diﬀerent societal cohorts. UNEP has a programme • 2011 – International Year of Forests 6 CHAPTER 2. UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

• 2012 – International Year for Sustainable Energy for 2.6 References All • [1] Alister Doyle (February 17, 2013 ), Reformed U.N. for- 2013 – International Year of Water Cooperation mula for making planet greener to get ﬁrst test Reuters.

(See international observance and list of environmental [2] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved May 15, 2012. dates.) [3] Gladwinn Hill (October 20, 1975), U.N. Environment Ef- fort: A Start, a Long Way to Go New York Times.

2.4 Reform [4] Schrijver, Nico (2010). Development Without Destruc- tion: The UN and Global Resource Management. United Main articles: International Sustainable Energy Agency, Nations Intellectual History Project Series. Bloomington, UNEO, and IRENA IN: Indiana University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-253- 22197-1.

Following the publication of Fourth Assessment Re- [5] “UNEP Offices”. UNEP. port of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in February 2007, a “Paris Call for Action” read [6] “United Nations Environment Programme”. unep.org. November 2011. Retrieved November 17, 2011. out by French President Jacques Chirac and supported by 46 countries, called for the United Nations Environment [7] Alister Doyle (February 17, 2013 ), Reformed U.N. for- Programme to be replaced by a new and more powerful mula for making planet greener to get first test Reuters. “United Nations Environment Organization (UNEO)", also called Global Environment Organisation now sup- [8] Solar loan program in India ported by French President Nicolas Sarkozy and Ger- [9] UNEP Marshland project in Middle East Archived Octo- man Chancellor Angela Merkel, to be modelled on the ber 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. World Health Organization. The 46 countries included the European Union nations, but notably did not include [10] AEO-for-Youth Archived December 23, 2011, at the the United States, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China, the Wayback Machine. top four emitters of greenhouse gases.[15] [11] U.N.: Glaciers shrinking at record rate In December 2012, following the Rio+20 Summit, a decision by the General Assembly of the United Nations [12] “UNEP and Daimler Call for Infrastructure for Electric to 'strengthen and upgrade' the UN Environment Pro- and Fuel-cell Vehicles”. Climate-L.org. 4 July 2008. Re- trieved June 16, 2010. gramme (UNEP) and establish universal membership of its governing body was confirmed. [13] Felicity Carus UN urges global move to meat and dairy- free diet, The Guardian, 2 June 2010

• Also see “Energy and Agriculture Top Resource 2.5 See also Panel’s Priority List for Sustainable 21st Century”, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), • 2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership Brussels, 2 June 2010.

• United Nations Environment Program Finance Ini- [14] Newswise Science News | Pop Superstar Nick Carter to tiative Help Wild Dolphins and Oceans [15] Doyle, Alister (2007-02-03). “46 nations call for tougher • Global warming U.N. environment role”. Reuters. • International Renewable Energy Agency • Melbourne Principles 2.7 Further reading • Miss Earth Foundation • United Nations Environment Programme. “Natural • Timeline of environmental events Allies: UNEP and Civil Society.” Nairobi: United Nations Foundation, 2004. • UNEP GEO Data Portal • Paul Berthoud, A Professional Life Narrative, 2008, • UNEP/GRID-Arendal worked with UNEP and oﬀers testimony from the inside of the early years of the organization. • United Nations Billion Tree Campaign

• World Conservation Monitoring Centre Helpful links 2.7. FURTHER READING 7

• United Nations Environment Programme

• UNEP Finance Initiative • Frankfurt School – UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance • United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) • UNEP-Tongji Institute of Environment for Sustain- able Development • UNEP/GRID-Europe

• UNEP GEO Data Portal

• Sindrom Kodok Pada Manusia (Indonesia Lan- guage)

• Netherlands Commission for Environmental As- sessment

• UNEP Regional Seas Programme • Resources on United Nations Environment Pro- gramme (UNEP Chapter 3

World Climate Research Programme

The World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) was established in 1980, under the joint sponsorship of • International Council for Science and the World Me- http://clic.npolar.no/ Climate and Cryosphere teorological Organization, and has also been sponsored (CliC) by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of • http://www.clivar.org/ Climate Variability and Pre- UNESCO since 1993. It is a component of the World Cli- dictability (CLIVAR) mate Programme. The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of • http://www.gewex.org/ Global Energy and Water the physical climate system and climate processes needed Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate. The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere, 3.2 See also oceans, sea ice, land ice (such as glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets), and the land surface which together consti- • Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project tute the Earth’s physical climate system. (AMIP) WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty • in the Earth’s climate system including transport and David Carson (climatologist) storage of heat by the ocean, the global energy and • Tropical Ocean-Global Atmosphere program hydrological cycle, the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer, and the role of the cryosphere in climate. These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 3.3 External links Change, and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21. Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme, WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change. Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations.

3.1 Major Projects

• http://www.sparc-climate.org/ Stratosphere- troposphere Processes And their Role in Climate (SPARC)

• http://isccp.giss.nasa.gov/ International Satellite

8 Chapter 4

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

“IPCC” redirects here. For other uses, see IPCC on climate change,[10] producing reports which have the (disambiguation). agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments. The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in equal parts, between the IPCC and The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [11] (IPCC) is a scientific and intergovernmental body un- Al Gore. der the auspices of the United Nations,[1][2] set up at the request of member governments, dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective, scien- 4.1 Origins and aims tific view of climate change and its political and eco- [3] nomic impacts. It was first established in 1988 by two The IPCC developed from an international scientific United Nations organizations, the World Meteorologi- body, the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases set up cal Organization (WMO) and the United Nations En- in 1985 by the International Council of Scientific Unions, vironment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to 43/53. Membership of the IPCC is open to all members provide recommendations based on current research. [4] of the WMO and UNEP. The IPCC produces reports This small group of scientists lacked the resources to that support the United Nations Framework Convention cover the increasingly complex interdisciplinary nature of on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the main inter- climate science, The United States Environmental Pro- [5][6] national treaty on climate change. The ultimate ob- tection Agency and State Department wanted an inter- jective of the UNFCCC is to “stabilize greenhouse gas national convention to agree restrictions on greenhouse concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would gases, and the conservative Reagan Administration was prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] concerned about unrestrained influence from indepen- [5] interference with the climate system”. IPCC reports dent scientists or from United Nations bodies including cover “the scientific, technical and socio-economic infor- UNEP and the WMO. The U.S. government was the main mation relevant to understanding the scientific basis of force in forming the IPCC as an autonomous intergovern- risk of human-induced climate change, its potential im- mental body in which scientists took part both as experts [6] pacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.” on the science and as official representatives of their gov- The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor ernments, to produce reports which had the firm back- does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phe- ing of all the leading scientists worldwide researching the nomena itself. The IPCC bases its assessment on the pub- topic, and which then had to gain consensus agreement lished literature, which includes peer-reviewed and non- from every one of the participating governments. In this peer-reviewed sources.[7] way, it was formed as a hybrid between a scientific body and an intergovernmental political organisation.[3] Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute (on [12] a voluntary basis, without payment from the IPCC)[8] to The principles that the IPCC operates under are set writing and reviewing reports, which are then reviewed out in the relevant WMO Executive Council and UNEP by governments. IPCC reports contain a "Summary for Governing Council resolutions and decisions, as well as [13] Policymakers", which is subject to line-by-line approval on actions in support of the UNFCCC process. by delegates from all participating governments. Typ- The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information ically this involves the governments of more than 120 relevant to:[6] countries.[9] The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority 1. Human-induced climate change,

9 10 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

2. The impacts of human-induced climate change, • Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to cli- 3. Options for adaptation and mitigation. mate change, consequences, and adaptation options. Co-Chairs: Hans-Otto Pörtner and Debra Roberts[22] 4.2 Organization • Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and other- Korean economist Hoesung Lee is the chair of the IPCC wise mitigating climate change. Co-Chairs: [22] since October 8, 2015, following the election of the new Priyadarshi R. Shukla and Jim Skea IPCC Bureau.[14] Before this election, the IPCC was led • Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas by his vice-Chair Ismail El Gizouli, who was designated [20] acting Chair after the resignation of Rajendra K. Pachauri Inventories in February 2015.[15] The previous chairs were Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002; Robert Watson in The IPCC receives funding through the IPCC Trust Fund, 1997; and Bert Bolin in 1988.[16] The chair is assisted by established in 1989 by the United Nations Environment an elected bureau including vice-chairs, working group Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Or- co-chairs, and a secretariat. ganization (WMO), Costs of the Secretary and of housing The IPCC Panel is composed of representatives ap- the secretariat are provided by the WMO, while UNEP pointed by governments and organizations. Participation meets the cost of the Depute Secretary. Annual cash con- of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged. tributions to the Trust Fund are made by the WMO, by Plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC Working groups UNEP, and by IPCC Members; the scale of payments is are held at the level of government representatives. Non determined by the IPCC Panel, which is also responsi- Governmental and Intergovernmental Organizations may ble for considering and adopting by consensus the annual budget. The organisation is required to comply with the be allowed to attend as observers. Sessions of the IPCC [23] Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are Financial Regulations and Rules of the WMO. by invitation only.[17] Attendance at the 2003 meeting included 350 government officials and climate change experts. After the opening ceremonies, closed plenary ses- 4.3 Assessment reports sions were held.[18] The meeting report[19] states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions with about The IPCC has published five comprehensive assessment seven-eighths of participants being from governmental reports reviewing the latest climate science,[24] as well as organizations.[19] a number of special reports on particular topics. These There are several major groups: reports are prepared by teams of relevant researchers selected by the Bureau from government nominations. • IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about once a Drafts of these reports are made available for comment in year and controls the organization’s structure, pro- open review processes to which anyone may contribute. cedures, and work program. The Panel is the IPCC The IPCC published its first assessment report in 1990, corporate entity.[20] a supplementary report in 1992, a second assessment report (SAR) in 1995, a third assessment report (TAR) in • Chair: Elected by the Panel. 2001, a fourth assessment report (AR4) in 2007 and a fifth assessment report (AR5) in 2014. • Secretariat: Oversees and manages all activities. Supported by UNEP and WMO. Each assessment report is in three volumes, correspond- ing to Working Groups I, II, and III. Unqualified, “the • Bureau: Elected by the Panel. Chaired by the IPCC report” is often used to mean the Working Group I Chair. 30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co- report, which covers the basic science of climate change. Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups and Task Force.[21] 4.3.1 Scope and preparation of the reports • Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor and a technical support unit. climate related data. Lead authors of IPCC reports assess the available information about climate change based on • Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects published sources.[25][26] According to IPCC guidelines, of the climate system and climate change. Co- authors should give priority to peer-reviewed sources.[25] Chairs: Valérie Masson-Delmotte and Pan- Authors may refer to non-peer-reviewed sources (the mao Zhai[22] “grey literature”), provided that they are of sufficient 4.3. ASSESSMENT REPORTS 11 quality.[25] Examples of non-peer-reviewed sources in- 4.3.2 Authors clude model results, reports from government agencies and non-governmental organizations, and industry Each chapter has a number of authors who are responsible journals.[7] Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas for writing and editing the material. A chapter typically where the science has improved since the previous report has two “coordinating lead authors”, ten to fifteen “lead and also notes areas where further research is required. authors”, and a somewhat larger number of “contribut- There are generally three stages in the review process:[27] ing authors”. The coordinating lead authors are responsible for assembling the contributions of the other authors, ensuring that they meet stylistic and formatting require- • Expert review (6–8 weeks) ments, and reporting to the Working Group chairs. Lead authors are responsible for writing sections of chapters. • Government/expert review Contributing authors prepare text, graphs or data for in- • Government review of: clusion by the lead authors. Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of re- • Summaries for Policymakers searchers prepared by governments and participating or- • Overview Chapters ganisations, and by the Working Group/Task Force Bu- reaux, as well as other experts known through their pub- • Synthesis Report lished work. The choice of authors aims for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation, ensur- Review comments are in an open archive for at least five ing representation of experts from developing and devel- years. oped countries and countries with economies in transi- There are several types of endorsement which documents tion. receive: 4.3.3 First assessment report • Approval. Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement. Main article: IPCC First Assessment Report • Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are approved by their Working Groups. The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the UNFCCC. • Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is approved by Panel. The executive summary of the WG I Summary for Pol- icymakers report says they are certain that emissions re- • Adoption. Endorsed section by section (and not line sulting from human activities are substantially increas- by line). ing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases, resulting on average in an additional warming of • Panel adopts Overview Chapters of Methodol- the Earth's surface. They calculate with confidence that ogy Reports. CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced • Panel adopts IPCC Synthesis Report. greenhouse effect. They predict that under a “business as usual” (BAU) scenario, global mean temperature will • Acceptance. Not been subject to line by line discus- increase by about 0.3 °C per decade during the [21st] cen- sion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, tury. They judge that global mean surface air temperature objective, and balanced view of the subject matter. has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 °C over the last 100 years, broadly consistent with prediction of climate models, but • Working Groups accept their reports. also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. • Task Force Reports are accepted by the Panel. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more. • Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are accepted by the Panel after group approval. 4.3.4 Supplementary report of 1992 The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards. The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested There have been a range of commentaries on the IPCC’s in the context of the negotiations on the UNFCCC at the procedures, examples of which are discussed later in Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environ- the article (see also IPCC Summary for Policymakers). ment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Some of these comments have been supportive,[28] while The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did others have been critical.[29] Some commentators have “not affect our fundamental understanding of the sci- suggested changes to the IPCC’s procedures.[30] ence of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do 12 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first 4.3.6 Third assessment report IPCC scientific assessment”. It noted that transient (time- dependent) simulations, which had been very prelimi- Main article: IPCC Third Assessment Report nary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes. The Third Assessment Report (TAR) was completed in 2001 and consists of four reports, three of them from its 4.3.5 Second assessment report working groups: • Working Group I: The Scientific Basis[31] Main article: IPCC Second Assessment Report • Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and [32] Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Re- Vulnerability port (SAR), was finished in 1996. It is split into four • Working Group III: Mitigation[33] parts: • Synthesis Report[34] • A synthesis to help interpret UNFCCC article 2. A number of the TAR’s conclusions are given quantitative • The Science of Climate Change (WG I) estimates of how probable it is that they are correct, e.g., greater than 66% probability of being correct.[35] These • Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate are "Bayesian" probabilities, which are based on an expert Change (WG II) assessment of all the available evidence.[36][37] • Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change “Robust findings” of the TAR Synthesis Report include: (WG III) • “Observations show Earth’s surface is warming. Globally, 1990s very likely warmest decade Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate in instrumental record".[38] Atmospheric concen- working group, and each has a Summary for Policymak- trations of anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) ers (SPM) that represents a consensus of national repre- greenhouse gases have increased substantially.[38] sentatives. The SPM of the WG I report contains head- ings: • Since the mid-20th century, most of the observed warming is “likely” (greater than 66% probabil- 1. Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to ity, based on expert judgement)[35] due to human increase activities.[38] • 2. Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative ra- Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions diative forcings Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least 3. Climate has changed over the past century (air tem- the last 10,000 years.[38] perature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C • “Projected climate change will have beneficial and since the late 19th century; this estimate has not sig- adverse effects on both environmental and socio- nificantly changed since the 1990 report). economic systems, but the larger the changes and 4. The balance of evidence suggests a discernible the rate of change in climate, the more the adverse [38] human influence on global climate (considerable effects predominate.” progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing be- • "Ecosystems and species are vulnerable to climate tween natural and anthropogenic influences on cli- change and other stresses (as illustrated by observed mate, because of: including aerosols; coupled mod- impacts of recent regional temperature changes) and els; pattern-based studies) some will be irreversibly damaged or lost.”[38] 5. Climate is expected to continue to change in the • “Greenhouse gas emission reduction (mitigation) future (increasing realism of simulations increases actions would lessen the pressures on natural and hu- confidence; important uncertainties remain but are man systems from climate change.”[38] taken into account in the range of model projections) • "Adaptation [to the effects of climate change] has the potential to reduce adverse effects of climate 6. There are still many uncertainties (estimates of fu- change and can often produce immediate ancillary ture emissions and biogeochemical cycling; mod- benefits, but will not prevent all damages.”[38] An els; instrument data for model testing, assessment example of adaptation to climate change is building of variability, and detection studies) levees in response to sea level rise.[39] 4.3. ASSESSMENT REPORTS 13

Comments on the TAR not specifically directed at policy. The Sum- mary for Policymakers reflects less emphasis In 2001, 16 national science academies issued a joint on communicating the basis for uncertainty statement on climate change.[40] The joint statement was and a stronger emphasis on areas of major con- made by the Australian Academy of Science, the Royal cern associated with human-induced climate Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts, change. This change in emphasis appears to the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society be the result of a summary process in which of Canada, the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, the scientists work with policy makers on the doc- Chinese Academy of Sciences, the French Academy ument. Written responses from U.S. coordi- of Sciences, the German Academy of Natural Scien- nating and lead scientific authors to the com- tists Leopoldina, the Indian National Science Academy, mittee indicate, however, that (a) no changes the Indonesian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Irish were made without the consent of the conven- Academy, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), the ing lead authors (this group represents a frac- Academy of Sciences Malaysia, the Academy Council of tion of the lead and contributing authors) and the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish (b) most changes that did occur lacked signifi- Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society (UK).[40] cant impact. The statement, also published as an editorial in the journal Science, stated “we support the [TAR’s] conclusion that it is at least 90% certain that temperatures will 4.3.7 Fourth assessment report continue to rise, with average global surface temperature projected to increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 °C Main article: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report above 1990 levels by 2100”.[41] The TAR has also been endorsed by the Canadian Foundation for Climate and [42] The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was published in Atmospheric Sciences, Canadian Meteorological and [53] Oceanographic Society,[43] and European Geosciences 2007. Like previous assessment reports, it consists of Union[44] (refer to "Endorsements of the IPCC"). four reports: In 2001, the US National Research Council (US NRC)[45] • produced a report that assessed Working Group I’s (WGI) Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis contribution to the TAR. US NRC (2001)[46] “generally • Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulner- agrees” with the WGI assessment, and describes the full ability WGI report as an “admirable summary of research activities in climate science”.[47] • Working Group III: Mitigation IPCC author Richard Lindzen has made a number of criticisms of the TAR.[48] Among his criticisms, Lindzen has • Synthesis Report stated that the WGI Summary for Policymakers (SPM) does not faithfully summarize the full WGI report.[48] People from over 130 countries contributed to the For example, Lindzen states that the SPM understates IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, which took 6 years the uncertainty associated with climate models.[48] John to produce.[53] Contributors to AR4 included more than Houghton, who was a co-chair of TAR WGI,[49] has re- 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 con- sponded to Lindzen’s criticisms of the SPM.[50] Houghton tributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.[53] has stressed that the SPM is agreed upon by delegates from many of the world’s governments, and that any “Robust findings” of the Synthesis report include:[54] changes to the SPM must be supported by scientific [50] evidence. • “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is IPCC author Kevin Trenberth has also commented on the now evident from observations of increases in global WGI SPM.[51] Trenberth has stated that during the draft- average air and ocean temperatures, widespread ing of the WGI SPM, some government delegations at- melting of snow and ice and rising global average tempted to “blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages sea level”.[55] in the report”.[51] However, Trenberth concludes that the SPM is a “reasonably balanced summary”.[51] • Most of the global average warming over the past 50 years is “very likely” (greater than 90% proba- US NRC (2001)[52] concluded that the WGI SPM and bility, based on expert judgement)[56] due to human Technical Summary are “consistent” with the full WGI activities.[55] report. US NRC (2001)[47] stated:

[...] the full [WGI] report is adequately • “Impacts [of climate change] will very likely in- summarized in the Technical Summary. The crease due to increased frequencies and intensities full WGI report and its Technical Summary are of some extreme weather events”.[57] 14 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• “Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would Climate change is occurring, is caused continue for centuries even if GHG emissions were largely by human activities, and poses sig- to be reduced sufficiently for GHG concentrations nificant risks for—and in many cases is al- to stabilise, due to the time scales associated with ready affecting—a broad range of human climate processes and feedbacks”.[57] Stabilization and natural systems [emphasis in original of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations is dis- text]. [...] This conclusion is based on a sub- cussed in climate change mitigation. stantial array of scientific evidence, including recent work, and is consistent with the conclu- • “Some planned adaptation (of human activities) is sions of recent assessments by the U.S. Global occurring now; more extensive adaptation is re- Change Research Program [...], the Intergov- quired to reduce vulnerability to climate change”.[58] ernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth Assessment Report [...], and other assessments • “Unmitigated climate change would, in the long of the state of scientific knowledge on climate term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, change. managed and human systems to adapt”.[58]

• “Many impacts [of climate change] can be reduced, Some errors have been found in the IPCC AR4 Work- delayed or avoided by mitigation”.[58] ing Group II report. Two errors include the melting of Himalayan glaciers (see later section), and Dutch land area that is below sea level.[72] Global warming projections from AR4[59] are shown below. The projections apply to the end of the 21st century (2090–99), relative to temperatures at the end of 4.3.8 Fifth assessment report the 20th century (1980–99). Add 0.7 °C to projections to make them relative to pre-industrial levels instead of Main article: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report 1980–99.[60] Descriptions of the greenhouse gas emissions scenarios can be found in Special Report on Emis- sions Scenarios. The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was completed in 2014.[73] AR5 followed the same general format “Likely” means greater than 66% probability of being as of AR4, with three Working Group reports and a Syn- correct, based on expert judgement.[56] thesis report.[73] The Working Group I report (WG1) was published in September 2013.[73] Response to AR4 Conclusions of AR5 are summarized below:

Several science academies have referred to and/or reiter- Working Group I ated some of the conclusions of AR4. These include:

• “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and • Joint-statements made in 2007,[61] 2008[62] and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are 2009[63] by the science academies of Brazil, China, unprecedented over decades to millennia”.[74] India, Mexico, South Africa and the G8 nations (the “G8+5”). • “Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels • Publications by the Australian Academy of Sci- unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years”.[75] ence.[64] • Human influence on the climate system is clear.[76] • A joint-statement made in 2007 by the Network of It is extremely likely (95-100% probability)[77] that African Science Academies.[65] human influence was the dominant cause of global [76] • A statement made in 2010 by the Inter Academy warming between 1951-2010. Medical Panel[66] This statement has been signed by 43 scientific academies.[lower-alpha 1] Working Group II

The Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency • “Increasing magnitudes of [global] warming in- (PBL, et al., 2009;[67] 2010)[68] has carried out two re- crease the likelihood of severe, pervasive, and irre- views of AR4. These reviews are generally supportive versible impacts”[78] of AR4’s conclusions.[69][70] PBL (2010)[70] make some recommendations to improve the IPCC process. A liter- • “A ﬁrst step towards adaptation to future climate ature assessment by the US National Research Council change is reducing vulnerability and exposure to (US NRC, 2010)[71] concludes: present climate variability”[79] 4.4. SPECIAL REPORTS 15

• “The overall risks of climate change impacts can be The SRES scenarios are “baseline” (or “reference”) sce- reduced by limiting the rate and magnitude of cli- narios, which means that they do not take into account mate change”[78] any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g., the Kyoto Protocol to the United [89] Working Group III Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). SRES emissions projections are broadly comparable in range to the baseline projections that have been devel- • Without new policies to mitigate climate change, oped by the scientiﬁc community.[90] projections suggest an increase in global mean temperature in 2100 of 3.7 to 4.8 °C, relative to pre- industrial levels (median values; the range is 2.5 to Comments on the SRES 7.8 °C including climate uncertainty).[80] There have been a number of comments on the SRES. • The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas Parson et al. (2007)[91] stated that the SRES represented emissions is not consistent with limiting global “a substantial advance from prior scenarios”. At the same warming to below 1.5 or 2 °C, relative to pre- time, there have been criticisms of the SRES.[92] industrial levels.[81] Pledges made as part of the Cancún Agreements are broadly consistent with The most prominently publicized criticism of SRES fo- cost-eﬀective scenarios that give a “likely” chance cused on the fact that all but one of the participat- (66-100% probability) of limiting global warming ing models compared gross domestic product (GDP) (in 2100) to below 3 °C, relative to pre-industrial across regions using market exchange rates (MER), in- levels.[82] stead of the more correct purchasing-power parity (PPP) approach.[93] This criticism is discussed in the main SRES article. Representative Concentration Pathways

Projections in AR5 are based on "Representative Concen- 4.4.2 Special report on renewable energy [83] tration Pathways" (RCPs). The RCPs are consistent sources and climate change mitiga- with a wide range of possible changes in future anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Projected changes in tion (SRREN) global mean surface temperature and sea level are given in the main RCP article. This report assesses existing literature on renewable energy commercialisation for the mitigation of climate change. It covers the six most important renewable energy technologies, as well as their integration into present 4.4 Special reports and future energy systems. It also takes into consideration the environmental and social consequences associ- In addition to climate assessment reports, the IPCC is ated with these technologies, the cost and strategies to publishing Special Reports on specific topics. The prepa- overcome technical as well as non-technical obstacles to ration and approval process for all IPCC Special Reports their application and diffusion. follows the same procedures as for IPCC Assessment Re- More than 130 authors from all over the world con- ports. In the year 2011 two IPCC Special Report were fi- tributed to the preparation of IPCC Special Report on nalized, the Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Miti- and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) and the Special gation (SRREN) on a voluntary basis – not to mention Report on Managing Risks of Extreme Events and Dis- more than 100 scientists, who served as contributing asters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX). authors.[84][94] Both Special Reports were requested by governments.[84]

4.4.1 Special Report on Emissions Scenar- 4.4.3 Special Report on managing the ios (SRES) risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adapta- The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) is a tion (SREX) report by the IPCC which was published in 2000.[85] The SRES contains "scenarios" of future changes in emissions The report assesses the effect that climate change has on of greenhouse gases and sulfur dioxide.[86] One of the the threat of natural disasters and how nations can better uses of the SRES scenarios is to project future changes in manage an expected change in the frequency of occur- climate, e.g., changes in global mean temperature. The rence and intensity of severe weather patterns. It aims to SRES scenarios were used in the IPCC’s Third[87] and become a resource for decision-makers to prepare more Fourth Assessment Reports.[88] effectively for managing the risks of these events. A po- 16 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE tentially important area for consideration is also the de- 4.5 Activities tection of trends in extreme events and the attribution of these trends to human influence. The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted More than 80 authors, 19 review editors, and more than to it by the relevant WMO Executive Council and UNEP 100 contributing authors from all over the world con- Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on tributed to the preparation of SREX.[84][95] actions in support of the UNFCCC process.[6] While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the 4.4.4 Methodology reports Data Distribution Centre[100] and the National Green- house Gas Inventories Programme,[101] required under Within IPCC the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory the UNFCCC. This involves publishing default emission Program develops methodologies to estimate emissions factors, which are factors used to derive emissions esti- of greenhouse gases.[96] This has been undertaken since mates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial 1991 by the IPCC WGI in close collaboration with the production and so on. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UN- ment and the International Energy Agency. The objec- FCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological tives of the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Program Advice (SBSTA). are:

• to develop and reﬁne an internationally agreed 4.6 Nobel Peace Prize methodology and software for the calculation and reporting of national greenhouse gas emissions and Main article: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize removals; and

• to encourage the widespread use of this methodol- In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded the Nobel ogy by countries participating in the IPCC and by Peace Prize “for their eﬀorts to build up and disseminate signatories of the UNFCCC. greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change”. The award is shared with For- Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Green- mer U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate [102] house Gas Inventories change and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth.

The 1996 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas In- vestories provide the methodological basis for the estima- 4.7 Criticisms tion of national greenhouse gas emissions inventories.[97] Over time these guidelines have been completed with There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific good practice reports: Good Practice Guidance and Un- community, which is reflected in publications by other certainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inven- scientific bodies[40][61][71] and experts.[103] However, crit- tories and Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land- icisms of the IPCC have been made.[104] Use Change and Forestry. Since 2010 the IPCC has come under yet unparalleled The 1996 guidelines and the two good practice reports are public and political scrutiny.[105] The global IPCC con- to be used by parties to the UNFCCC and to the Kyoto sensus approach has been challenged internally[106][107] Protocol in their annual submissions of national green- and externally with the 2009 Climatic Research Unit house gas inventories. email controversy (“Climategate”) an important (but not sole) threshold.[108] It has been deemed an information monopoly with results for both the quality and the impact 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas of the IPCC work as such.[106][109] Inventories

The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas 4.7.1 Projected date of melting of Hi- Inventories is the latest version of these emission esti- mation methodologies, including a large number of de- malayan glaciers fault emission factors.[98] Although the IPCC prepared this new version of the guidelines on request of the parties Main article: Criticism of the IPCC AR4 to the UNFCCC, the methods have not yet been oﬃcially accepted for use in national greenhouse gas emissions re- A paragraph in the 2007 Working Group II report (“Im- porting under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.[99] pacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”), chapter 10 in- 4.7. CRITICISMS 17 cluded a projection that Himalayan glaciers could disappear by 2035

Glaciers in the Himalaya are receding faster than in any other part of the world (see Table 10.9) and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate. Its total area will likely shrink from the present 500,000 to 100,000 km2 by the year 2035 (WWF, 2005).

This projection was not included in the final summary for policymakers. The IPCC has since acknowledged that the date is incorrect, while reaffirming that the conclusion The original northern hemisphere hockey stick graph of Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999, smoothed curve shown in blue with its in the final summary was robust. They expressed regret uncertainty range in light blue, overlaid with green dots showing for “the poor application of well-established IPCC pro- the 30-year global average of the PAGES 2k Consortium 2013 cedures in this instance”. The date of 2035 has been cor- reconstruction. The red curve shows measured global mean tem- rectly quoted by the IPCC from the WWF report, which perature, according to HadCRUT4 data from 1850 to 2013. has misquoted its own source, an ICSI report “Variations of Snow and Ice in the past and at present on a Global and Regional Scale”. Rajendra K. Pachauri responded in an interview with Sci- ence.[110]

Watson criticism

Former IPCC chairman Robert Watson has said “The mistakes all appear to have gone in the direction of making it seem like climate change is more serious by overstating the impact. That is worrying. The IPCC needs to look at this trend in the errors and ask why it happened”.[111] Martin Parry, a climate expert[112] who had been co-chair of the IPCC working group II, said Comparison of MBH99 40-year average from proxy records, as that “What began with a single unfortunate error over used in IPCC TAR 2001 (blue), with IPCC 1990 schematic Fig- Himalayan glaciers has become a clamour without sub- ure 7.1.c (red) [based on Lamb 1965 extrapolating from central stance” and the IPCC had investigated the other al- England temperatures and other historical records]; central Eng- leged mistakes, which were “generally unfounded and land temperatures to 2007 shown from Jones et al. 2009 (green [114] also marginal to the assessment”.[113] dashed line). Also shown, Moberg et al. 2005 low frequency signal (black).

4.7.2 Emphasis of the “hockey stick” graph the Medieval Warm Period than the mid 20th century. The schematic was not an actual plot of data, and was Main articles: Hockey stick graph and Hockey stick con- based on a diagram of temperatures in central England, troversy with temperatures increased on the basis of documen- The third assessment report (TAR) prominently tary evidence of Medieval vineyards in England. Even featured[115] a graph labeled “Millennial Northern Hemi- with this increase, the maximum it showed for the Me- dieval Warm Period did not reach temperatures recorded sphere temperature reconstruction” based on a 1999 pa- [114] per by Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley and Mal- in central England in 2007. The MBH99 finding was colm K. Hughes (MBH99), which has been referred to as supported by cited reconstructions by Jones et al. 1998, the "hockey stick graph". This graph extended the similar Pollack, Huang & Shen 1998, Crowley & Lowery 2000 graph in Figure 3.20 from the IPCC Second Assessment and Briffa 2000, using differing data and methods. The Report of 1995, and differed from a schematic in the Jones et al. and Briffa reconstructions were overlaid with the MBH99 reconstruction in Figure 2.21 of the IPCC first assessment report that lacked temperature units, but [116] appeared to depict larger global temperature variations report. over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during These studies were widely presented as demonstrating 18 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

that the current warming period is exceptional in com- the TAR) and Osborn & Briffa 2006. Ten of these 14 parison to temperatures between 1000 and 1900, and reconstructions covered 1,000 years or longer. Most re- the MBH99 based graph featured in publicity. Even constructions shared some data series, particularly tree at the draft stage, this finding was disputed by con- ring data, but newer reconstructions used additional data trarians: in May 2000 Fred Singer's Science and Envi- and covered a wider area, using a variety of statistical ronmental Policy Project held a press event on Capitol methods. The section discussed the divergence problem Hill, Washington, D.C., featuring comments on the graph affecting certain tree ring data.[124] Wibjörn Karlén and Singer argued against the graph at a United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Sci- ence and Transportation hearing on 18 July 2000. Con- 4.7.3 Conservative nature of IPCC reports trarian John Lawrence Daly featured a modified version of the IPCC 1990 schematic, which he mis-identified Some critics have contended that the IPCC reports tend to as appearing in the IPCC 1995 report, and argued that underestimate dangers, understate risks, and report only “Overturning its own previous view in the 1995 report, the “lowest common denominator” findings.[125] the IPCC presented the 'Hockey Stick' as the new or- thodoxy with hardly an apology or explanation for the On 1 February 2007, the eve of the publication of IPCC’s abrupt U-turn since its 1995 report”.[117] Criticism of major report on climate, a study was published suggest- the MBH99 reconstruction in a review paper, which was ing that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or quickly discredited in the Soon and Baliunas controversy, above the maximum rates proposed during the last IPCC was picked up by the Bush administration, and a Sen- report in 2001.[126] The study compared IPCC 2001 pro- ate speech by US Republican senator James Inhofe al- jections on temperature and sea level change with obser- leged that “manmade global warming is the greatest hoax vations. Over the six years studied, the actual tempera- ever perpetrated on the American people”. The data and ture rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC’s methodology used to produce the “hockey stick graph” 2001 projection, and the actual sea level rise was above was criticized in papers by Stephen McIntyre and Ross the top of the range of the IPCC projection. [118] McKitrick, and in turn the criticisms in these papers Another example of scientific research which suggests were examined by other studies and comprehensively re- that previous estimates by the IPCC, far from overstat- [119] futed by Wahl & Ammann 2007, which showed er- ing dangers and risks, have actually understated them [120] rors in the methods used by McIntyre and McKitrick. is a study on projected rises in sea levels. When the On 23 June 2005, Rep. Joe Barton, chairman of the researchers’ analysis was “applied to the possible sce- House Committee on Energy and Commerce wrote joint narios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- letters with Ed Whitfield, chairman of the Subcommittee mate Change (IPCC), the researchers found that in 2100 on Oversight and Investigations demanding full records sea levels would be 0.5–1.4 m [50–140 cm] above 1990 on climate research, as well as personal information levels. These values are much greater than the 9–88 about their finances and careers, from Mann, Bradley and cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assess- Hughes.[121] Sherwood Boehlert, chairman of the House ment Report, published in 2001”. This may have been Science Committee, said this was a “misguided and ille- due, in part, to the expanding human understanding of gitimate investigation” apparently aimed at intimidating climate.[127][128] scientists, and at his request the U.S. National Academy In reporting criticism by some scientists that IPCC’s then- of Sciences arranged for its National Research Council impending January 2007 report understates certain risks, [122] to set up a special investigation. The National Re- particularly sea level rises, an AP story quoted Stefan search Council’s report agreed that there were some sta- Rahmstorf, professor of physics and oceanography at tistical failings, but these had little effect on the graph, Potsdam University as saying “In a way, it is one of the which was generally correct. In a 2006 letter to Nature, strengths of the IPCC to be very conservative and cau- Mann, Bradley, and Hughes pointed out that their origi- tious and not overstate any climate change risk”.[129] nal article had said that “more widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be In his December 2006 book, Hell and High Water: Global reached” and that the uncertainties were “the point of the Warming, and in an interview on Fox News on 31 Jan- article”.[123] uary 2007, energy expert Joseph Romm noted that the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report is already out of date The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published and omits recent observations and factors contributing to in 2007 featured a graph showing 12 proxy based tem- global warming, such as the release of greenhouse gases perature reconstructions, including the three highlighted from thawing tundra.[130] in the 2001 Third Assessment Report (TAR); Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 as before, Jones et al. 1998 and Political influence on the IPCC has been documented by Briffa 2000 had both been calibrated by newer studies. the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush ad- In addition, analysis of the Medieval Warm Period cited ministration, and its effects on the IPCC’s leadership. reconstructions by Crowley & Lowery 2000 (as cited in The memo led to strong Bush administration lobbying, evidently at the behest of ExxonMobil, to oust Robert 4.7. CRITICISMS 19

Watson, a climate scientist, from the IPCC chairman- 4.7.5 Outdatedness of reports ship, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more mild-mannered and industry- Since the IPCC does not carry out its own research, it op- friendly.[131][132] erates on the basis of scientific papers and independently documented results from other scientific bodies, and its schedule for producing reports requires a deadline for submissions prior to the report’s final release. In principle, this means that any significant new evidence or events that change our understanding of climate science between 4.7.4 IPCC processes this deadline and publication of an IPCC report cannot be included. In an area of science where our scientific understanding is rapidly changing, this has been raised as a Michael Oppenheimer, a long-time participant in the serious shortcoming in a body which is widely regarded as IPCC and coordinating lead author of the Fifth Assess- the ultimate authority on the science.[143] However, there ment Report conceded in Science Magazine's State of has generally been a steady evolution of key findings and the Planet 2008–2009 some limitations of the IPCC levels of scientific confidence from one assessment report consensus approach and asks for concurring, smaller to the next. assessments of special problems instead of the large scale approach as in the previous IPCC assessment The submission deadlines for the Fourth Assessment Re- reports.[107] It has become more important to provide a port (AR4) differed for the reports of each Working broader exploration of uncertainties.[107] Others see as Group. Deadlines for the Working Group I report were well mixed blessings of the drive for consensus within adjusted during the drafting and review process in order the IPCC process and ask to include dissenting or to ensure that reviewers had access to unpublished ma- minority positions[133] or to improve statements about terial being cited by the authors. The final deadline for [144] uncertainties.[134][135] cited publications was 24 July 2006. The final WG I report was released on 30 April 2007 and the final AR4 The IPCC process on climate change and its efficiency Synthesis Report was released on 17 November 2007. and success has been compared with dealings with other environmental challenges (compare Ozone depletion and Rajendra Pachauri, the IPCC chair, admitted at the global warming). In case of the Ozone depletion global launch of this report that since the IPCC began work on it, regulation based on the Montreal Protocol has been suc- scientists have recorded “much stronger trends in climate cessful, in case of Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol change”, like the unforeseen dramatic melting of polar [145] failed.[136] The Ozone case was used to assess the effi- ice in the summer of 2007, and added, “that means [146] ciency of the IPCC process.[137] The lockstep situation of you better start with intervention much earlier”. the IPCC is having built a broad science consensus while states and governments still follow different, if not op- posing goals.[138] The underlying linear model of policy- 4.7.6 Burden on participating scientists making of more knowledge we have, the better the political response will be is being doubted.[138][139] Scientists who participate in the IPCC assessment process do so without any compensation other than the According to Sheldon Ungar’s comparison with global normal salaries they receive from their home institu- warming, the actors in the ozone depletion case had tions. The process is labor-intensive, diverting time a better understanding of scientific ignorance and and resources from participating scientists’ research uncertainties.[140] The ozone case communicated to lay programs.[147] Concerns have been raised that the large persons “with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors de- uncompensated time commitment and disruption to their rived from the popular culture" and related to “imme- own research may discourage qualified scientists from diate risks with everyday relevance”, while the public participating.[148] opinion on climate change sees no imminent danger.[140] The stepwise mitigation of the ozone layer challenge was In May 2010, Pachauri noted that the IPCC currently had based as well on successfully reducing regional burden no process for responding to errors or flaws once it issued sharing conflicts.[137] In case of the IPCC conclusions and a report. The problem, according to Pachauri, was that the failure of the Kyoto Protocol, varying regional cost- once a report was issued the panels of scientists producing benefit analysis and burden-sharing conflicts with regard the reports were disbanded.[149] to the distribution of emission reductions remain an un- solved problem.[136] In the UK, a report for a House of Lords committee asked to urge the IPCC to involve better 4.7.7 Proposed organizational overhaul assessments of costs and benefits of climate change[141] but the Stern Review ordered by the UK government In February 2010, in response to controversies regard- made a stronger argument in favor to combat human- ing claims in the Fourth Assessment Report,[150][151] five made climate change.[142] climate scientists – all contributing or lead IPCC re- 20 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE port authors – wrote in the journal Nature calling for 4.9 Archiving changes to the IPCC. They suggested a range of new organizational options, from tightening the selection of Papers and electronic files of certain working groups lead authors and contributors, to dumping it in favor of of the IPCC, including reviews and comments on a small permanent body, or even turning the whole cli- drafts of their Assessment Reports, are archived at the mate science assessment process into a moderated “liv- Environmental Science and Public Policy Archives in the [152][153] ing” Wikipedia-IPCC. Other recommendations Harvard Library. included that the panel employ a full-time staff and re- move government oversight from its processes to avoid [154] political interference. 4.10 Endorsements of the IPCC

4.8 InterAcademy Council review Various scientific bodies have issued official statements endorsing and concurring with the findings of the IPCC. In March 2010, at the invitation of the United Na- • tions secretary-general and the chair of the IPCC, the Joint science academies' statement of 2001. “The InterAcademy Council (IAC) was asked to review the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate IPCC’s processes for developing its reports.[155][156] The Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the in- IAC panel, chaired by Harold Tafler Shapiro, convened ternational scientific community on climate change on 14 May 2010 and released its report on 1 September science. We recognise IPCC as the world’s most re- 2010.[149][157] liable source of information on climate change and its causes, and we endorse its method of achieving The IAC found that, “The IPCC assessment process has this consensus”.[40] been successful overall”. The panel, however, made seven formal recommendations for improving the IPCC’s as- • Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric sessment process, including: Sciences. “We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 1. establish an executive committee; Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment...”[42] 2. elect an executive director whose term would only last for one assessment; • Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Soci- ety. “CMOS endorses the process of periodic cli- 3. encourage review editors to ensure that all reviewer mate science assessment carried out by the Intergov- comments are adequately considered and genuine ernmental Panel on Climate Change and supports controversies are adequately reflected in the assess- the conclusion, in its Third Assessment Report, ment reports; which states that the balance of evidence suggests a [43] 4. adopt a better process for responding to reviewer discernible human influence on global climate.” comments; • European Geosciences Union. “The Intergovern- 5. working groups should use a qualitative level-of- mental Panel on Climate Change [...] is the main understanding scale in the Summary for Policy Mak- representative of the global scientific community ers and Technical Summary; [...][The] IPCC third assessment report [...] represents the state-of-the-art of climate science sup- 6. “Quantitative probabilities (as in the likelihood ported by the major science academies around the scale) should be used to describe the probability of world and by the vast majority of scientific re- well-defined outcomes only when there is sufficient searchers and investigations as documented by the evidence"; and peer-reviewed scientific literature”.[44]

7. implement a communications plan that emphasizes • International Council for Science. "...the IPCC 4th transparency and establish guidelines for who can [158] Assessment Report represents the most compre- speak on behalf of the organization. hensive international scientific assessment ever conducted. This assessment reflects the current collec- The panel also advised that the IPCC avoid appearing tive knowledge on the climate system, its evolution to advocate specific policies in response to its scientific to date, and its anticipated future development”.[161] conclusions.[159] Commenting on the IAC report, Nature News noted that “The proposals were met with a largely • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- favourable response from climate researchers who are ea- tion (USA). “Internationally, the Intergovernmental ger to move on after the media scandals and credibility Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)... is the most se- challenges that have rocked the United Nations body dur- nior and authoritative body providing scientific ad- ing the past nine months”.[160] vice to global policy makers”.[162] 4.13. REFERENCES 21

• United States National Research Council. “The • Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts IPCC Third Assessment Report'] conclusion that • Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, most of the observed warming of the last 50 years Egypt is likely to have been due to the increase in green- • Académie Nationale de Médecine, France house gas concentrations accurately reflects the cur- • rent thinking of the scientific community on this The Delegation of the Finnish Academies of Sci- issue”.[163] ence and Letters • Union of German Academies of Sciences and Hu- • Network of African Science Academies. “The manities IPCC should be congratulated for the contribu- • Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Leopoldina tion it has made to public understanding of the • nexus that exists between energy, climate and Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales de Guatemala sustainability”.[164] • Hungarian Academy of Sciences • Royal Meteorological Society, in response to the • Indonesian Academy of Sciences release of the Fourth Assessment Report, re- • ferred to the IPCC as “The world’s best climate Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei scientists”.[165] • TWAS, academy of sciences for the developing world • Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society • Islamic World Academy of Sciences of London. “The most authoritative assessment of • climate change in the near future is provided by the Science Council of Japan Inter-Governmental Panel for Climate Change”.[166] • African Academy of Sciences • Kenya National Academy of Sciences • The National Academy of Sciences, Rep. of Korea 4.11 See also • Akademi Sains Malaysia • National Academy of Medicine of Mexico • 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Con- • ference Nigerian Academy of Science • National Academy of Science and Technology, • Avoiding dangerous climate change Philippines • • Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Polish Academy of Sciences • The Caribbean Academy of Sciences • Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Bio- • Russian Academy of Medical Sciences diversity and Ecosystem Services • Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts • List of authors from Climate Change 2007: The • Academy of Science of South Africa Physical Science Basis • National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka • Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas • Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences emissions • The Tanzania Academy of Sciences • Robust decision making • Thai Academy of Science and Technology • Turkish Academy of Sciences • Uganda National Academy Sciences 4.12 Notes • Academy of Medical Sciences, UK • Institute of Medicine, US NAS [1] • Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires • Academy of Medical Sciences of Armenia • Austrian Academy of Sciences 4.13 References • Bangladesh Academy of Sciences • Academia Boliviana de Medicina 4.13.1 Citations • Brazilian Academy of Sciences [1] “Organization”. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate • Cameroon Academy of Sciences Change. Retrieved 15 January 2010. • Chinese Academy of Engineering [2] “A guide to facts and fictions about climate change” • Academia Nacional de Medicina de Colombia (PDF). The Royal Society. March 2005. Retrieved 30 • Croatian Academy of Medical Sciences November 2009. 22 CHAPTER 4. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

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and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (PDF). Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL) (PDF), Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Bilthoven, Netherlands: PBL. Report website. Second Assessment Report (SAR) of the Intergov- ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cam- • Rive, N.; Jackson, B.; Rado, D.; Marsh, R. (11 bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56051-9 (pb: June 2007). “Complaint to Ofcom Regarding “The 0-521-56854-4) Great Global Warming Swindle” (ﬁnal revision)". OfcomSwindleComplaint website.. Also available • ITGP (October 2010), THIRTY-SECOND SESSION as a PDF OF THE IPCC, held in Busan, (IPCC-XXXII/INF. 4 (27.IX.2010)). REVIEW OF THE IPCC PRO- • Stern, N. (2006). “Stern Review Report on the CESSES AND PROCEDURES: Notes on the Informal Economics of Climate Change (pre-publication edi- Task Group on Procedures (ITGP) (PDF), IPCC, tion)". London, UK: HM Treasury Archived from the original on 6 July 2013, retrieved 1 February 2014. • UK Royal Society, Climate Change: A Summary of the Science (PDF), London: Royal Society. Report • Lambeck, K. (7 February 2007), Science Policy: On website. the edge of global calamity, Canberra: Australian Academy of Science. • US NRC (2001), Climate Change Science: An Anal- ysis of Some Key Questions. A report by the Com- • Meinshausen, M.; et al. (November 2011), “The mittee on the Science of Climate Change, US Na- RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their exten- tional Research Council (NRC), Washington, D.C., sions from 1765 to 2300 (open access)", Climatic USA: National Academy Press, ISBN 0-309-07574- Change, 109 (1-2): 213–241, doi:10.1007/s10584- 2, archived from the original on 5 June 2011 011-0156-z.

• NASAC (2007), Joint statement by the Network of • US NRC (2010), America’s Climate Choices: Panel African Science Academies (NASAC) to the G8 on on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; A re- sustainability, energy eﬃciency and climate change port by the US National Research Council (NRC), (PDF), Nairobi, Kenya: NASAC Secretariat. State- Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, ment website. ISBN 0-309-14588-0, archived from the original on 29 May 2014 • PAGES 2k Consortium (21 April 2013), “Continental-scale temperature variability during the past two millennia”, Nature Geoscience, 4.14 Further reading 6 (5): 339–346, Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..339P, doi:10.1038/ngeo1797 (78 researchers, corre- • sponding author Darrell S. Kaufman). Agrawala, S. (August 1998). “Context and Early Origins of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate • Parson, E.; et al. (July 2007), Global Change Sce- Change”. Climatic Change. 39 (4): 605–620. narios: Their Development and Use. Sub-report doi:10.1023/A:1005315532386. 2.1B of Synthesis and Assessment Product 2.1 by the • Agrawala, S. (August 1998). “Structural and Pro- U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Sub- cess History of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- committee on Global Change Research, Washington, mate Change”. Climatic Change. 39 (4): 621–642. DC., USA: Department of Energy, Oﬃce of Bio- doi:10.1023/A:1005312331477. logical & Environmental Research • The World Bank climate change and water sector, • PBL; et al. (November 2009), News in climate sci- 2009 Water and Climate Change: Understanding ence and exploring boundaries: A Policy brief on the Risks and Making Climate-Smart Investment developments since the IPCC AR4 report in 2007. Decisions. Retrieved 31 October 2013. A report by the Netherlands Environmental Assess- ment Agency (PBL), Royal Netherlands Meteorologi- cal Institute (KNMI), and Wageningen University and 4.15 External links Research Centre (WUR) (PDF), Bilthoven, Nether- lands: PBL, archived from the original (PDF) on 1 • May 2014. Report website. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change • IPCC Organisation • PBL (5 July 2010), Assessing an IPCC assessment. • An analysis of statements on projected regional im- “IPCC Principles” (PDF). (8.38 KB) pacts in the 2007 report. A report by the Netherlands • IPCC publications 4.15. EXTERNAL LINKS 29

• “IPCC – 16 years of Scientiﬁc Assessment in Support of the Climate Convention" (PDF). (618 KB). • IPCC AR4 WG1 Report Available for Pur- chase • Summaries for Policymakers (SPMs) of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: • “Working Group I (The Physical Sci- ence Basis)" (PDF). (3.67 MB), • “Working Group II (Impacts, Adap- tation and Vulnerability)" (PDF). (923 KB) • “Working Group III (Mitigation of Climate Change)" (PDF). (631 KB) • “Papers of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”. Harvard College Library. — The collection of drafts, review-comments and other documents relating to the work of the Working Group I of the Assessment Re- port 4.

• A summary of the Fifth Assessment Report WG1 TS and of the Fourth Assessment Report SPMs by GreenFacts.org • The World Bank – Climate Change and concerns over water resources The World Bank’s portal to climate change and water publications.

• IPCC article at the Encyclopedia of Earth – General overview of the IPCC • Climate Change – What Is the IPCC by Jean-Marc Jancovici • Climate Change Freeview Video Interview 2006 – Sherwood Rowland, Nobel Laureate (1995) for work on ozone depletion discusses climate change. Provided by the Vega Science Trust. • Evolution of Climate Science in the IPCC Assess- ments: Understanding the 20th Century Climate Change. A video of a lecture given at Princeton University by Venkatachalam Ramaswamy, Acting Director and Senior Scientist, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), Professor in Geo- sciences and Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Princeton University. • IPCC Data Distribution Centre Climate data and guidance on its use. • Kirkby J, Curtius J, Almeida J, et al. (25 August 2011). “Role of sulphuric acid, ammonia and galac- tic cosmic rays in atmospheric aerosol nucleation”. Nature. 476: 429–433. doi:10.1038/nature10343. PMID 21866156. Chapter 5

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on for the commitment of those countries to GHG reduc- Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international tions. Updated inventories must be regularly submitted environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in by Annex I countries. Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, then entered The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations into force on 21 March 1994. The UNFCCC objective Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of is to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the the Convention, with offices in Haus Carstanjen, and atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous [3] UN Campus (known as Langer Eugen) Bonn, Germany. anthropogenic interference with the climate system". From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was The framework set no binding limits on greenhouse gas Christiana Figueres. In July 2016, Patricia Espinosa from emissions for individual countries and contains no en- Mexico succeeded Figueres. The Secretariat, augmented forcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental how specific international treaties (called “protocols” or Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), aims to gain consensus “Agreements”) may be negotiated to set binding limits through meetings and the discussion of various strategies. on greenhouse gases. Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention during 5.1 Treaty its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992. The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992, and opened for signature on 4 June 1992.[4] UNFCCC has 197 parties The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate as of December 2015. The convention enjoys broad legit- Change (UNFCCC) was opened for signature at the 1992 imacy, largely due to its nearly universal membership.[5] United Nations Conference on Environment and Devel- opment (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro (known by its pop- The parties to the convention have met annually from ular title, the Earth Summit). On 12 June 1992, 154 na- 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess tions signed the UNFCCC, that upon ratification commit- progress in dealing with climate change. In 1997, the ted signatories’ governments to reduce atmospheric con- Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally centrations of greenhouse gases with the goal of “prevent- binding obligations for developed countries to reduce ing dangerous anthropogenic interference with Earth’s their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008- climate system”. This commitment would require sub- 2012.[6] The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future stantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (see the global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 later section, “Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentra- °F) relative to the pre-industrial level.[7] The Protocol tions”) was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013- [8] 2020 in the Doha Amendment, which -as of December Article 3(1) of the Convention states that Parties should 2015- not entered into force. In 2015 the Paris Agree- act to protect the climate system on the basis of “comment was adopted, governing emission reductions from mon but differentiated responsibilities”, and that devel- 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious oped country Parties should “take the lead” in address- Nationally Determined Contributions. ing climate change. Under Article 4, all Parties make general commitments to address climate change through, One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signa- for example, climate change mitigation and adapting to tory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inven- the eventual impacts of climate change.[9] Article 4(7) tories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, states:[10] which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and The extent to which developing country

30 5.1. TREATY 31

Parties will effectively implement their com- 5.1.2 Paris Agreement mitments under the Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed Main article: Paris Agreement country Parties of their commitments under the Convention related to financial resources and In 2011, parties adopted the “Durban Platform for En- transfer of technology and will take fully into hanced Action”.[16] As part of the Durban Platform, par- account that economic and social development ties have agreed to “develop a protocol, another legal in- and poverty eradication are the first and over- strument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the riding priorities of the developing country Par- Convention applicable to all Parties”.[16] At Durban[17] ties. and Doha,[18] parties noted “with grave concern” that current efforts to hold global warming to below 2 or 1.5 °C relative to the pre-industrial level appear inadequate. The Framework Convention specifies the aim of de- In 2015, all (then) 196 then parties to the convention veloped (Annex I) Parties stabilizing their greenhouse came together for the UN Climate Change Conference gas emissions (carbon dioxide and other anthropogenic in Paris 30 November - 12 December and adopted by greenhouse gases not regulated under the Montreal Pro- consensus the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global [11] tocol) at 1990 levels, by the year 2000. warming to less than two degrees Celsius, and pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.[19] The Paris Agreement is to be signed in 2016 and will enter into force upon ratification by 55 countries representing over 55% of greenhouse gas emissions. 5.1.1 Kyoto Protocol

Main article: Kyoto Protocol 5.1.3 Intended Nationally Determined Contributions and Nationally Deter- After the signing of the UNFCCC treaty, Parties to the mined Contributions UNFCCC have met at conferences ("Conferences of the Parties" – COPs) to discuss how to achieve the treaty’s Main article: Intended Nationally Determined Contribu- aims. At the 1st Conference of the Parties (COP-1), Par- tions ties decided that the aim of Annex I Parties stabilizing their emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000 was “not [12] At the 19th session of the Conference of the Parties in adequate”, and further discussions at later conferences Warsaw in 2013, the UNFCCC created a mechanism led to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol sets emis- for Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (IN- sions targets for developed countries which are binding DCs) to be submitted in the run up to the 21st session under international law. of the Conference of the Parties in Paris (COP21) in The Kyoto Protocol has had two commitment periods, 2015.[20] Countries were given freedom and flexibility the first of which lasted from 2008-2012. The second one to ensure these climate change mitigation and adaptation runs from 2013-2020 and is based on the Doha Amend- plans were nationally appropriate;[21] this flexibility, es- ment to the Protocol, which has not entered into force. pecially regarding the types of actions to be undertook, allowed for developing countries to tailor their plans to The US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol, while Canada denounced it in 2012. The Kyoto Protocol has been rati- their specific adaptation and mitigation needs, as well as towards other needs. fied by all the other Annex I Parties. All Annex I Parties, excluding the US, have participated In the aftermath of COP21, these INDCs became Na- in the 1st Kyoto commitment period. 37 Annex I coun- tionally Determined Contributions (NDCs) when a country ratified the Paris Agreement, unless a new NDC was tries and the EU have agreed to second-round Kyoto tar- [22] gets. These countries are Australia, all members of the submitted to the UNFCCC at the same time. The 22nd European Union, Belarus, Croatia, Iceland, Kazakhstan, session of the Conference of the Parties (COP22) in Mar- Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine.[13] Belarus, Kaza- rakesh focused on these Nationally Determined Contri- butions and their implementation, after the Paris Agree- khstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw [23] from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amend- ment entered into force on the 4th of November 2016. ment with second round targets.[14] Japan, New Zealand, The Climate and Development Knowledge Network and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first-round but (CDKN) created a guide for NDC implementation, for have not taken on new targets in the second commitment the use of decision makers in Less Developed Countries. period. Other developed countries without second-round In this guide, CDKN identified a series of common chal- targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Pro- lenges countries face in NDC implementation, including tocol in 2012)[15] and the United States. how to: 32 CHAPTER 5. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• build awareness of the need for, and beneﬁts of, ac- communications to the secretariat speciﬁc understand- tion among stakeholders, including key government ings on the nature of the Accord and related matters, ministries based on which they have agreed to [the Accord].” The Accord was not formally adopted by the Conference of • mainstream and integrate climate change into na- the Parties. Instead, the COP “took note of the Copen- tional planning and development processes hagen Accord.”[26] • strengthen the links between subnational and na- As part of the Accord, 17 developed country Parties and tional government plans on climate change the EU-27 have submitted mitigation targets,[34] as have 45 developing country Parties.[35] Some developing coun- • build capacity to analyse, develop and implement try Parties have noted the need for international support climate policy in their plans. • establish a mandate for coordinating actions around As part of the Cancún agreements, developed and devel- NDCs and driving their implementation oping countries have submitted mitigation plans to the UNFCCC.[36][37] These plans are compiled with those • address resource constraints for developing and im- made as part of the Bali Action Plan. plementing climate change policy.[24]

Developing countries 5.1.4 Other decisions

[38] [39] [40] In addition to the Kyoto Protocol (and its amendment) At Berlin, Cancún, and Durban, the development needs of developing country parties were reiterated. and the Paris Agreement, parties to the Convention have [40] agreed to further commitments during UNFCCC Con- For example, the Durban Platform reaffirms that: ferences of the Parties. These include the Bali Action Plan (2007),[25] the Copenhagen Accord (2009),[26] the [...] social and economic development and Cancún agreements (2010),[27] and the Durban Platform poverty eradication are the first and overrid- for Enhanced Action (2012).[28] ing priorities of developing country Parties, and that a low-emission development strategy Bali Action Plan is central to sustainable development, and that the share of global emissions originating in de- As part of the Bali Action Plan, adopted in 2007, all developing countries will grow to meet their so- veloped country Parties have agreed to “quantified emis- cial and development needs sion limitation and reduction objectives, while ensuring the comparability of efforts among them, taking into account differences in their national circumstances.”[29] 5.1.5 Interpreting Article 2 Developing country Parties agreed to "[nationally] appropriate mitigation actions [NAMAs] context of sus- Further information: Avoiding dangerous climate change tainable development, supported and enabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, in a measurable, re- The ultimate objective of the Framework Convention portable and verifiable manner.”[29] 42 developed coun- is to prevent “dangerous” anthropogenic (i.e., human- tries have submitted mitigation targets to the UNFCCC caused) interference of the climate system.[3] As is stated secretariat,[30] as have 57 developing countries and the in Article 2 of the Convention, this requires that GHG African Group (a group of countries within the UN).[31] concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, Copenhagen Accord and Cancún agreements food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion. As part of the 2009 Copenhagen negotiations, a number of countries produced the Copenhagen Accord.[26] The Accord states that global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F).[26] This may be strengthened in 2015 with a target to limit warming to below 1.5 °C.[32] The Accord does not specify what the baseline is for these temperature targets (e.g., relative to pre-industrial or 1990 temperatures). According to the UNFCCC, these • [33] Climate targets are relative to pre-industrial temperatures. change mitigation scenarios: projected global 114 countries agreed to the Accord.[26] The UNFCCC greenhouse gas emissions, years 2000 to 2100 secretariat notes that “Some Parties [...] stated in their 5.1. TREATY 33

Dangerous anthropogenic interference

Further information: Reasons for concern and Eﬀects of global warming

• There are a range of views over what level of climate Climate [43] change mitigation scenarios: projected changes in change is dangerous. Scientiﬁc analysis can provide information on the risks of climate change, but deciding atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, years [44] 2000 to 2100 which risks are dangerous requires value judgements. The global warming that has already occurred poses a risk to some human and natural systems (e.g., coral reefs).[45] Higher magnitudes of global warming will generally increase the risk of negative impacts.[46] According to Field et al. (2014),[46] climate change risks are “considerable” with 1 to 2 °C of global warming, relative to pre- industrial levels. 4 °C warming would lead to signiﬁ- cantly increased risks, with potential impacts including • Climate widespread loss of biodiversity and reduced global and change mitigation scenarios: projected global mean regional food security.[46] temperature, years 2000 to 2100 Climate change policies may lead to costs that are relevant to Article 2.[44] For example, more stringent policies to control GHG emissions may reduce the risk of more To stabilize atmospheric GHG concentrations, global an- severe climate change, but may also be more expensive thropogenic GHG emissions would need to peak then de- to implement.[46][47][48] cline (see climate change mitigation).[41] Lower stabilization levels would require emissions to peak and decline earlier compared to higher stabilization levels.[41] The Projections graph above shows projected changes in annual global GHG emissions (measured in CO2-equivalents) for var- There is considerable uncertainty over future changes ious stabilization scenarios. The other two graphs show in anthropogenic GHG emissions, atmospheric GHG the associated changes in atmospheric GHG concentra- concentrations, and associated climate change.[42][49][50] tions (in CO2-equivalents) and global mean temperature Without mitigation policies, increased energy demand for these scenarios. Lower stabilization levels are associ- and extensive use of fossil fuels[51] could lead to ated with lower magnitudes of global warming compared global warming (in 2100) of 3.7 to 4.8 °C relative to to higher stabilization levels.[41] pre-industrial levels (2.5 to 7.8 °C including climate uncertainty).[52] To have a likely chance of limiting global warming (in 2100) to below 2 °C, GHG concentrations would need [53] to be limited to around 450 ppm CO2-eq. The current trajectory of global emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 °C.[54]

5.1.6 Precautionary principle

In decision making, the precautionary principle is considered when possibly dangerous, irreversible, or catas- trophic events are identified, but scientific evaluation of Projected global warming in 2100 for a range of emission sce- the potential damage is not sufficiently certain (Toth et narios al., 2001, pp. 655–656).[55] The precautionary principle There is uncertainty over how GHG concentrations and implies an emphasis on the need to prevent such adverse global temperatures will change in response to anthro- effects. pogenic emissions (see climate change feedback and Uncertainty is associated with each link of the causal climate sensitivity).[42] The graph opposite shows global chain of climate change. For example, future GHG emis- temperature changes in the year 2100 for a range of emissions are uncertain, as are climate change damages. How- sion scenarios, including uncertainty estimates. ever, following the precautionary principle, uncertainty is 34 CHAPTER 5. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE not a reason for inaction, and this is acknowledged in Ar- • Annex B: Parties listed in Annex B of the Kyoto ticle 3.3 of the UNFCCC (Toth et al., 2001, p. 656).[55] Protocol are Annex I Parties with first- or second- round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets (see Kyoto Protocol for details). The first-round targets 5.2 Parties apply over the years 2008–2012. As part of the 2012 Doha climate change talks, an amendment to Annex B was agreed upon containing with a list of Annex I Parties who have second-round Kyoto targets, which apply from 2013–2020.[61] The amend- ments have not entered into force.

• Least-developed countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and are given special status under the treaty in view of their limited capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change.[58]

• Non-Annex I: Parties to the UNFCCC not listed in Annex I of the Convention are mostly low- Parties to the UNFCCC [62] [58] Annex I and II parties income developing countries. Developing Annex I parties countries may volunteer to become Annex I coun- Non-annex parties tries when they are suﬃciently developed. Observer states 5.2.2 List of parties Main article: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 5.2.3 Annex I countries

As of 2015, the UNFCC has 197 parties including all There are 43 Annex I Parties including the European [57] United Nations member states, United Nations General Union. These countries are classiﬁed as industrialized [58] Assembly observer State of Palestine, UN non-member countries and economies in transition. Of these, 24 are [60] states Niue and the Cook Islands and the supranational Annex II Parties, including the European Union, and [59] union European Union.[2][56] The Holy See is not a mem- 14 are Economies in Transition. ber state, but is an observer.[56] Notes

5.2.1 Classiﬁcation of Parties and their [1] Annex II Party commitments [2] Economy in Transition Parties to the UNFCCC are classiﬁed as:

• Annex I: There are 43 Parties to the UNFCCC 5.3 Conferences of the Parties listed in Annex I of the Convention, including [57] the European Union. These Parties are clas- Main article: United Nations Climate Change conference sified as industrialized (developed) countries and "economies in transition" (EITs).[58] The 14 EITs are the former centrally-planned (Soviet) economies The United Nations Climate Change Conference are of Russia and Eastern Europe.[59] yearly conferences held in the framework of the UNFCC. They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCC Par- • Annex II: Of the Parties listed in Annex I of ties (Conferences of the Parties) (COP) to assess progress the Convention, 24 are also listed in Annex II of in dealing with climate change, and beginning in the the Convention, including the European Union.[60] mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to establish These Parties are made up of members of the legally binding obligations for developed countries to re- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel- duce their greenhouse gas emissions.[6] From 2005 the opment (OECD). Annex II Parties are required to Conferences have also served as the Meetings of Parties provide financial and technical support to the EITs of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP). Also parties to the Con- and developing countries to assist them in reducing vention that are not parties to the Protocol can partici- their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mit- pate in Protocol-related meetings as observers. The first igation) and manage the impacts of climate change conference (COP1) was held in 1995 in Berlin. The 3rd (climate change adaptation).[58] conference (COP3) was held in Kyoto and resulted in 5.5. SECRETARIAT 35 the Kyoto protocol, which was amended during the 2012 outcome with legal force under the Conven- Doha Conference (COP18, CMP 8). The latest Confer- tion applicable to all Parties.” [65] The ADP ence (COP21, CMP11) was held in Paris and resulted in concluded its work in Paris on 5 December adoption of the Paris Agreement. The next conference is 2015.[66] planned November 2016 in Marrakech, Morocco. 5.5 Secretariat 5.4 Subsidiary bodies The work under the UNFCCC is facilitated by a sec- A subsidiary body is a committee that assists the Confer- retariat in Bonn, Germany. The secretariat is estab- ence of the Parties. Subsidiary bodies include:[63] lished under Article 8 of the Convention. It is headed by the Executive Secretary. The current Executive Sec- • Permanents: retary, Patricia Espinosa, was appointed on 18 May 2016 by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and • The Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Techno- took office on 18 July 2016.[67] She succeeded Christiana logical Advice (SBSTA) is established by Ar- Figueres who held the office since 2010. Former Exec- ticle 9 of the Convention to provide the Con- utive Secretaries have been Yvo de Boer (2006-2010), ference of the Parties and, as appropriate, its Joke Waller-Hunter (2002-2005) and Michael Zammit other subsidiary bodies with timely informa- Cutajar (1995-2002). tion and advice on scientific and technological matters relating to the Convention. It serves as a link between information and assessments 5.6 Commentaries and analysis provided by expert sources (such as the IPCC) and the COP, which focuses on setting policy. 5.6.1 Criticisms of the UNFCCC Process • The Subsidiary Body of Implementation (SBI) is established by Article 10 of the Convention The overall umbrella and processes of the UNFCCC and to assist the Conference of the Parties in the the adopted Kyoto Protocol have been criticized by some assessment and review of the effective imple- as not having achieved its stated goals of reducing the mentation of the Convention. It makes rec- emission of carbon dioxide (the primary culprit blamed ommendations on policy and implementation for rising global temperatures of the 21st century).[68] At issues to the COP and, if requested, to other a speech given at his alma mater, Todd Stern — the US bodies. Climate Change envoy — has expressed the challenges • Temporary: with the UNFCCC process as follows, “Climate change is not a conventional environmental issue...It implicates • Ad hoc Group on Article 13 (AG13), active virtually every aspect of a state’s economy, so it makes from 1995 to 1998; countries nervous about growth and development. This • Ad hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate is an economic issue every bit as it is an environmen- (AGBM), active from 1995 to 1997; tal one.” He went on to explain that, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is a multi- • Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commit- lateral body concerned with climate change and can be ments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto an inefficient system for enacting international policy. Protocol (AWG-KP), established in 2005 by Because the framework system includes over 190 coun- the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to consider tries and because negotiations are governed by consensus, further commitments of industrialized coun- small groups of countries can often block progress.[69] tries under the Kyoto Protocol for the period beyond 2012; it concluded its work in 2012 The failure to achieve meaningful progress and reach when the CMP adopted the Doha Amend- effective-CO2 reducing-policy treaties among the par- ment;[64] ties over the past eighteen years have driven some countries like the United States to never ratify the UNFCCC’s • Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Co- largest body of work — the Kyoto Protocol, in large part operative Action (AWG-LCA), established because the treaty didn't cover developing countries who in Bali in 2007 to conduct negotiations on now include the largest CO2 emitters. However, this fails a strengthened international deal on climate to consider the historical responsibility for climate change change; since industrialisation, which is a contentious issue in the • Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Plat- talks, and the responsibility of emissions from consump- form for Enhanced Action (ADP), established tion and importation of goods.[70] It has also led Canada at COP 17 in Durban in 2011 “to develop a to withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol out of a desire to protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed not force its citizens to pay penalties that would result in 36 CHAPTER 5. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE wealth transfers out of Canada. Canada formally with- 5.7 See also drew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2011.[71] Both the US and Canada are looking at Voluntary Emissions Reduc- • Climate ethics tion schemes that they can implement internally to curb carbon dioxide emissions outside the Kyoto Protocol.[72] • Individual and political action on climate change The perceived lack of progress has also led some coun- • Kyoto Protocol tries to seek and focus on alternative high-value activities like the creation of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition • List of international environmental agreements to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants which seeks to • Montreal Protocol regulate short-lived pollutants such as methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which together are • Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas believed to account for up to 1/3 of current global warm- emissions ing but whose regulation is not as fraught with wide economic impacts and opposition.[73] • United Nations Climate Change conference In 2010, Japan stated that it will not sign up to a second • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifica- Kyoto term, because it would impose restrictions on it tion not faced by its main economic competitors, China, India and Indonesia.[74] A similar indication was given by the • Keeling curve Prime Minister of New Zealand in November 2012.[75] At the 2012 conference, last minute objections at the conference by Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan 5.8 Notes were ignored by the governing officials, and they have indicated that they will likely withdraw or not ratify the [1] See the UNFCCC website. treaty.[76] These defections place additional pressures on the UNFCCC process that is seen by some as cumber- [2] “Status of Ratification of the Convention”. United Na- some and expensive: in the UK alone the climate change tions Framework Convention on Climate Change. Re- department has taken over 3,000 flights in two years at a trieved 2013-06-25. [77] cost of over ₤1,300,000 (British Pounds). [3] “Article 2” (PDF). The United Nations Framework Con- Before the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Con- vention on Climate Change. Retrieved 23 May 2016. ference, National Geographic Magazine added criticism, [4] Status of Ratification of the Convention, United Nations writing: “Since 1992, when the world’s nations agreed at Framework Convention on Climate Change, retrieved 10 Rio de Janeiro to avoid 'dangerous anthropogenic inter- May 2015 ference with the climate system,' they’ve met 20 times without moving the needle on carbon emissions. In that [5] R. Stavins, J. Zou, et al., “International Cooperation: interval we’ve added almost as much carbon to the atmo- Agreements and Instruments.” Chapter 13 in: Climate sphere as we did in the previous century.”[78] Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge 5.6.2 Benchmarking University Press, 2014. [6] “What is the UNFCCC & the COP”. Climate Leaders. Benchmarking is the setting of a policy target based on Lead India. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2009. some frame of reference.[79] An example of benchmarking is the UNFCCC’s original target of Annex I Parties [7] King, D.; et al. (July 2011), “Copenhagen and Cancun”, limiting their greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels by International climate change negotiations: Key lessons the year 2000. Goldemberg et al. (1996)[80] commented and next steps, Oxford, UK: Smith School of Enter- prise and the Environment, University of Oxford, p. 12, on the economic implications of this target. Although doi:10.4210/ssee.pbs.2011.0003, archived from the orig- the target applies equally to all Annex I Parties, the eco- inal on 1 August 2013 PDF version is also available nomic costs of meeting the target would likely vary between Parties. For example, countries with initially high [8] UNFCCC Article 3: Principles, in United Nations 1992 levels of energy efficiency might find it more costly to [9] UNFCCC Article 4: Commitments, archived from the orig- meet the target than countries with lower levels of energy inal on 24 January 2011, in United Nations 1992 efficiency. From this perspective, the UNFCCC target could be viewed as inequitable, i.e., unfair. [10] UNFCCC Article 4: Commitments, paragraph 7, archived Benchmarking has also been discussed in relation to the from the original on 24 January 2011, in United Nations 1992 first-round emissions targets specified in the Kyoto Proto- col (see views on the Kyoto Protocol and Kyoto Protocol [11] UNFCCC Article 4: Commitments: 2a, b, archived from and government action). the original on 24 January 2011, in United Nations 1992 5.8. NOTES 37

[12] Depledge, J. (25 November 2000), United Nations Frame- [41] Section 5.4 Emission trajectories for stabilisation, in: work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Techni- Synthesis Report, in: IPCC AR4 SYR 2007 cal paper: Tracing the Origins of the Kyoto Protocol: An Article-by-Article Textual History (PDF), UNFCCC, p. 6 [42] Chapters 2 and 3, in: US NRC 2011 [43] van Vuuren & others 2009, pp. 29–33 [13] Figueres 2012 [44] Edenhofer, O., et al., TS.1 Introduction and framing [14] Allan & Kruppa 2012 (pp.3-6 of ﬁnal draft), in: Technical summary (archived [15] Status of Ratiﬁcation of the Kyoto Protocol: (withdrawal Archived 29 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine.), in: of Canada), UNFCCC, 18 January 2012 IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 [45] Cramer, W., et al., Executive summary, in: Chapter 18: [16] Paragraphs 2-4, in COP 2012, p. 2 Detection and attribution of observed impacts (archived [17] COP 2012, p. 2 Archived 18 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.), pp.982-984, in IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014 [18] COP 2013, p. 19 [46] Field, C.B., et al., Section B: FUTURE RISKS AND [19] “COP21 | United nations conference on climate change”. OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADAPTATION, in: Technical www.cop21.gouv.fr. Retrieved 2015-12-07. summary (archived Archived 18 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.), pp.59-84, in IPCC AR5 WG2 A [20] “INDC - Climate Policy Observer”. Climate Policy Ob- 2014 server. Retrieved 2017-01-23. [47] Rogner, H-.H., et al., Section 1.2.1: Article 2 of the Con- [21] Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for vention (archived Archived 23 September 2014 at the Enhanced Action Second session, part seven, UNFCCC, Wayback Machine.), in: Chapter 1: Introduction, p.99, Geneva, 12 December 2014 in IPCC AR4 WG3 2007

[22] Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Cli- [48] Edenhofer, O., et al., TS.3.1.3 Costs, investments and bur- mate. “NDC registry”. unfccc.int. Retrieved 2017-01-23. den sharing (p.31 of final draft), in: Technical summary (archived Archived 29 June 2014 at the Wayback Ma- [23] “United Nations Treaty Collection”. Retrieved 2017-01- chine.), in: IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 23. [49] Clarke, L., et al., Section 6.3.1: Baseline scenarios [24] “Planning for NDC implementation: A Quick-Start (pp.14-16 of final draft), in: Chapter 6: Assessing Trans- Guide”. www.cdkn.org. Retrieved 2017-01-23. formation Pathways (archived Archived 20 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.), in: IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 [25] COP 2008 [50] Clarke, L., et al., Section 6.3.2.6: The link between con- [26] COP 2010, p. 5 centrations, radiative forcing, and temperature (pp.31-36 of final draft), in: Chapter 6: Assessing Transforma- [27] COP 2011 tion Pathways (archived Archived 20 October 2014 at the [28] COP 2012 Wayback Machine.), in: IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 [51] Clarke, L., et al., Section 6.3.1.3 Baseline emissions pro- [29] Decision 1/CP.13, in COP 2008, p. 3 jections from fossil fuels and industry (pp.17-18 of final [30] • UNFCCC 2012c (23 August) draft), in: Chapter 6: Assessing Transformation Pathways (archived Archived 20 October 2014 at the Wayback Ma- • UNFCCC 2013a (18 February) chine.), in: IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 • [31] UNFCCC 2013b (28 May) [52] SPM.3 Trends in stocks and flows of greenhouse gases • UNFCCC 2013c (1 July) and their drivers, in: Summary for Policymakers, p.8 (archived Archived 2 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine., [32] COP 2009, p. 7, paragraph 12. in IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 [33] UNFCCC 2012a (16 May) [53] SPM.4.1 Long‐term mitigation pathways, in: Summary for Policymakers, p.11 (archived 2 July 2014), in IPCC [34] UNFCCC 2011a (25 February) AR5 WG3 2014 [35] UNFCCC 2012b (21 May) [54] Victor, D., et al., Executive summary, in: Chapter 1: In- troductory Chapter, p.4 (archived Archived 3 July 2014 [36] UNFCCC 2011c (7 June) at the Wayback Machine., in IPCC AR5 WG3 2014 [37] UNFCCC 2011b (18 March> [55] Toth, F.L.; et al. (2001). “10.4.2.2 Precautionary Consid- erations”. In B. Metz; et al. Chapter 10. Decision-making [38] COP 1995, pp. 4–5 Frameworks. Climate Change 2001: Mitigation: Contri- [39] COP 2011, p. 2 bution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Re- port of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [40] COP 2012, p. 9 Cambridge University Press. 38 CHAPTER 5. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

[56] “Parties to the Convention and Observer States”. United [72] “U.N. Global Warming Summit: Heading Over the Cli- Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Re- mate Cliﬀ”. Time. 27 November 2012. Retrieved 29 trieved 2013-06-25. November 2012.

[57] “List of Annex I Parties to the Convention”. United Na- [73] “Secretary Clinton To Announce a Climate and Clean Air tions Framework Convention on Climate Change. Re- Initiative To Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants”. US trieved 2014-05-15. Dept of State. Retrieved 29 November 2012.

[58] Parties & Observers, United Nations Framework Conven- [74] McCarthy, Michael (2 December 2010). “Japan derails tion on Climate Change, retrieved 2014-05-15 climate talks by refusing to renew Kyoto treaty”. The In- dependent. London. Retrieved 29 November 2012. [59] Full text of the convention - Annex I, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, retrieved [75] “NZ backs off Kyoto climate change route”. The New 2014-05-15 Zealand Herald. 10 November 2012. Retrieved 29 November 2012. [60] Full text of the convention - Annex II, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, retrieved [76] Andrew Allan & Marton Kruppa (10 December 2012), 2014-05-15 “Belarus negotiator hints at Kyoto exit, says others could follow”, REUTERS, Reuters, retrieved 2012-12-18 [61] UNFCCC. Conference of the Parties serving as the meet- [77] “UK climate change department takes over 3000 flights at ing of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) (8 Decem- a cost of over £1.3m”. The Commentator. Retrieved 29 ber 2012), Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working November 2012. Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol. Draft decision proposed by the Pres- [78] Fresh Hope for Combating Climate Change, National Ge- ident (EN). Notes: Agenda item 4: Report of the Ad Hoc ographic, November 2015, page 14 of print edition Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Par- ties under the Kyoto Protocol. Meeting: Conference of the [79] Verbruggen, A. (ed.), “Annex I: Glossary:", Benchmark Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Missing or empty |title= (help), in IPCC AR4 WG3 2007 Protocol (CMP), Eighth session, 26 November – 7 Decem- [80] Goldemberg, J.; et al., “1. Scope of the Assessment: 1.4.1 ber 2012, Doha, Qatar. FCCC/KP/CMP/2012/L.9 (PDF), General issues: Benchmarks”, Missing or empty |title= Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office, pp.6–7. (help), in IPCC SAR WG3 1996, pp. 32–33 (pp.38–39 Other languages available. of PDF) [62] UNFCCC (25 October 2005), Sixth compilation and synthesis of initial national communications from Par- ties not included in Annex I to the Convention. Note 5.9 References by the secretariat. Executive summary. Document code FCCC/SBI/2005/18, Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations • Andrew Allan & Marton Kruppa (10 December Office, p. 4 2012), “Belarus negotiator hints at Kyoto exit, says [63] “Glossary of climate change acronyms”. Essential Back- others could follow”, REUTERS, Reuters, retrieved ground. UNFCCC.int. Retrieved 23 August 2016. 2012-12-18 [64] “What is the AWG-KP?". UNFCCC.int. Retrieved 23 • COP (6 June 1995), FCCC/CP/1995/7/Add.1: Re- August 2016. port of the Conference of the Parties (COP) on its first session, held at Berlin from 28 March to 7 April [65] “Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action” (PDF). Decision 1995. Addendum. Part two: Action taken by the 1/CP.17. UNFCCC.int. Retrieved 23 August 2016. Conference of the Parties at its first session (PDF), Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Office. Avail- [66] “What is the ADP?". UNFCCC.int. Retrieved 23 August able as a PDF in the official UN languages. 2016. • COP (14 March 2008), Report of the Conference of [67] “Executive Secretary”. unfccc.int. Retrieved 28 August the Parties (COP) on its thirteenth session, held in Bali 2016. from 3 to 15 December 2007. Addendum. Part Two: [68] “The Kyoto Protocol: Hot air”. Nature. Retrieved 29 Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its November 2012. thirteenth session, Geneva, Switzerland: United Na- tions Office. Reference: FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1. [69] ""Voices” speaker talks climate change”. The Dartmouth. Retrieved 29 November 2012. • COP (30 March 2010), FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1: Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth [70] Clark, Duncan (21 April 2011). “Which nations are most session, held in Copenhagen from 7 to 19 Decem- responsible for climate change?". London: Guardian. Re- ber 2009. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by trieved 2 January 2013. the Conference of the Parties at its fifteenth session [71] “Canada pulls out of Kyoto Protocol”. CBC News. Re- (PDF), Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office. Library trieved 29 November 2012. record. 5.9. REFERENCES 39

• COP (15 March 2011), FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1: • IPCC AR5 WG3 (2014), Edenhofer, O.; et al., eds., Report of the Conference of the Parties (COP) on its Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth to 10 December 2010. Addendum. Part two: Action Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental taken by the Conference of the Parties at its sixteenth Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge Uni- session, Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office versity Press. Archived 29 June 2014. • COP (15 March 2012), FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1: • King, D.; et al. (July 2011), International Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sev- climate change negotiations: Key lessons and enteenth session, held in Durban from 28 November next steps, Oxford, UK: Smith School of Enter- to 11 December 2011. Addendum. Part two: Action prise and the Environment, University of Oxford, taken by the Conference of the Parties at its seven- doi:10.4210/ssee.pbs.2011.0003, archived from the teenth session, Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office original on 1 August 2013 PDF version is also • COP (28 February 2013), FCCC/CP/2012/8/Add.1: available Report of the Conference of the Parties on its eigh- • UNFCCC (25 February 2011a), Information pro- teenth session, held in Doha from 26 November to vided by Annex I Parties relating to Appendix I of the 8 December 2012. Addendum. Part two: Action Copenhagen Accord (quantified economy-wide emis- taken by the Conference of the Parties at its eighteenth sions targets for 2020), UNFCCC. session. (PDF), Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office. Library record. • UNFCCC (18 March 2011b), FCCC/AWGLCA/2011/INF.1: Compilation of • Figueres, C. (15 December 2012), “Environmental information on nationally appropriate mitigation issues: Time to abandon blame-games and become actions to be implemented by Parties not included proactive - Economic Times”, The Economic Times / in Annex I to the Convention (PDF), Geneva, Indiatimes.com, Times Internet, retrieved 2012-12- Switzerland: UN Office. Library record. 18 • UNFCCC (7 June 2011c), • IPCC SAR WG3 (1996), Bruce, J. P.; Lee, H.; FCCC/SB/2011/INF.1/Rev.1: Compilation of Haites, E. F., eds., Climate Change 1995: Economic economy-wide emission reduction targets to be and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (PDF), implemented by Parties included in Annex I to the Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Convention. Revised note by the secretariat (PDF), Second Assessment Report (SAR) of the Intergov- Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office. Library record. ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cam- • bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-56051-9 (pb: UNFCCC (16 May 2012a), Meetings: Copenhagen 0-521-56854-4) Climate Change Conference - December 2009, UN- FCCC. • IPCC AR4 WG3 (2007), Metz, B.; Davidson, O. R.; • Bosch, P. R.; Dave, R.; Meyer, L. A., eds., Climate UNFCCC (21 May 2012b), Information provided Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, Contri- by non-Annex I Parties relating to Appendix II of bution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fourth the Copenhagen Accord (nationally appropriate mit- Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel igation actions of developing country Parties), UN- on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University FCCC. Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4 (pb: 978-0-521- • UNFCCC (23 August 2012c), FCCC/TP/2012/5: 70598-1). Archived 12 October 2014. Quantified economy-wide emission reduction targets by developed country Parties to the Convention: as- • IPCC AR4 SYR (2007), Core Writing Team; sumptions, conditions, commonalities and differ- Pachauri, R.K; Reisinger, A., eds., Climate Change ences in approaches and comparison of the level of 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working emission reduction efforts. Technical paper (PDF), Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office. Library record. of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, • Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, ISBN 92-9169-122-4. UNFCCC (18 February 2013a), FOCUS: Mitigation - Nationally appropriate mitigation commitments or actions by developed country Parties, UNFCCC • IPCC AR5 WG2 A (2014), Field, C.B.; et al., eds., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and • UNFCCC (28 May 2013b), Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. FCCC/SBI/2013/INF.12/Rev.2: Compilation of Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth information on nationally appropriate mitigation Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental actions to be implemented by developing country Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge Uni- Parties. Revised note by the secretariat (PDF), versity Press. Archived 20 October 2014. Geneva, Switzerland: UN Office. Library record. 40 CHAPTER 5. UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• UNFCCC (1 July 2013c), FOCUS: Mitigation - NAMAs, Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions, UNFCCC

• United Nations (9 May 1992), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, New York

• US NRC (2011), Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia. A report by the US National Research Council (US NRC), Washington, D.C., USA: National Academies Press, archived from the original on 27 March 2014

• van Vuuren, D.P.; et al. (7 December 2009), Meeting the 2 degree target. From climate objective to emission reduction measures. PBL publication number 500114012 (PDF), Netherlands Envi- ronmental Assessment Agency (Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving (PBL)), archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2013. Archived 2 November 2013. [http://www.pbl.nl/node/46765 Report website (archived 21 August 2014).

5.10 External links

• UNFCCC Newsroom

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

• Text of the UNFCCC • Ratiﬁcations

• Earth Negotiations Bulletin: detailed summaries of all COPs and SBs

• Road to Doha, a project following COP18 in Qatar by Carboun

• UNFCCC on India Environment Portal • Conference of Parties (COP)

• Introductory note by Laurence Boisson de Cha- zournes, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the United Nations Framework Conven- tion on Climate Change in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of Interna- tional Law Chapter 6

World Meteorological Organization

“WMO” redirects here. For other uses, see WMO decisions and meets once a year. (disambiguation). • Six regional associations for addressing regional concerns (see the section on regional associations, The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is below) an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 191 Member States and Territories. It originated from • Eight technical commissions provide technical rec- the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), ommendations for WMO and the national services. which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO became the specialised agency of the United Na- • The secretariat headed by the Secretary-General co- tions for meteorology (weather and climate), operational ordinates the activities of WMO with a regular staff hydrology and related geophysical sciences. It has its of more than 250 employees.[6] headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, and is a member of the United Nations Development Group.[1] The current Secretary-General is Petteri Taalas.[2] The current presi- 6.2 Functions dent is David Grimes.[3] The World Meteorological Organization provides a framework for international cooperation in the develop- 6.1 The organization ment of meteorology and operational hydrology and their practical application.[7] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a spe- Since its establishment, WMO has played a unique and cialized agency of the United Nations. It is the UN sys- powerful role in contributing to the safety and welfare tem’s authoritative voice on the state and behavior of the of humanity. Under WMO leadership and within the Earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the framework of WMO programs,[8] National Meteorolog- climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water ical and Hydrological Services[9] contribute substantially resources.[4] to the protection of life and property against natural dis- WMO has a membership of 191 member states and ter- asters, to safeguarding the environment and to enhancing ritories, as of February 2014. The Convention of the the economic and social well-being of all sectors of so- World Meteorological Organization was signed 11 Oc- ciety in areas such as food security, water resources and tober 1947[5] and established upon ratification on 23 transport.[7] March 1950. WMO became the specialized agency of the The WMO and United Nations Environment Programme United Nations in 1951 for meteorology (weather and cli- (UNEP) jointly created the Intergovernmental Panel on mate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sci- Climate Change (IPCC). It is also directly responsible for ences. It originated from the International Meteorologi- the creation of the Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW). cal Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873.[4] The IPCC has received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 The WMO hierarchy: “for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay • The World Meteorological Congress determines the the foundations for the measures that are needed to coun- policy of WMO and meets every four years. Each teract such change.”[10] Member country is represented by a Permanent WMO promotes cooperation in the establishment of net- Representative with WMO. The Permanent Repre- works for making meteorological, climatological, hydro- sentative should be the director of the National Me- logical and geophysical observations, as well as the ex- teorological or Hydrometeorological Service. change, processing and standardization of related data, • The Executive Council (EC) implements Congress and assists technology transfer, training and research. It

41 42 CHAPTER 6. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION also fosters collaboration between the National Meteo- rological and Hydrological Services of its Members and furthers the application of meteorology to public weather services, agriculture, aviation, shipping, the environment, water issues and the mitigation of the impacts of natural disasters. WMO facilitates the free and unrestricted exchange of data and information, products and services in real- or near-real time on matters relating to safety and security of society, economic welfare and the protection of the environment. It contributes to policy formulation in these areas at national and international levels.[11] In the specific case of weather-, climate and water-related hazards, which account for nearly 90% of all natural disasters, WMO’s programs provide vital information for the advance warnings that save lives and reduce damage to property and the environment. WMO also contributes to reducing the impacts of human-induced disasters, such as those associated with chemical and nu- clear accidents, forest fire and volcanic ash. Studies have shown that, apart from the incalculable benefit to human well-being, every dollar invested in meteorological and hydrological services produces an economic return many times greater, often ten times or more. WMO seat in Geneva shared with the GICHD, the GCSP and the WMO plays a leading role in international efforts to mon- Group on Earth Observations itor and protect the environment through its programs. In collaboration with other UN agencies and the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services, WMO supports the implementation of a number of environmental conventions[12] and is instrumental in providing advice and assessments to governments on related matters. These activities contribute towards ensuring the sustainable development and well-being of nations. WMO publishes the International Cloud Atlas, the international standard cloud atlas since 1896. WMO member states WMO member territories 6.2.1 Meteorological codes

In keeping with its mandate to promote the standardization of meteorological observations, the WMO main- 6.4 Awards and prizes tains numerous code forms for the representation and exchange of meteorological, oceanographical, and hydrological data. The traditional code forms, such as • International Meteorological Organization Prize[14] SYNOP, CLIMAT and TEMP, are character-based and their coding is position-based. Newer WMO code forms are designed for portability, extensibility and universality. • Vilho Väisälä Award[15] These are BUFR, CREX, and, for gridded geo-positioned data, GRIB. • Norbert Gerbier-Mumm International Award[16]

6.3 World Meteorological Day • WMO Research Award for Young Scientists[17]

• World Meteorological Day is held annually on 23 March.[13] • Professor Mariolopoulus Award[18] 6.6. MEMBERSHIP 43

6.5 WMO conference on climate 6.6.2 Historical member states prediction and information for 6.6.3 Member territories decision-making 6.6.4 Membership by regional associations World Climate Conference−3 (WCC-3) was held from The member states of the WMO are divided into six re- 31 August to 4 September 2009 in Geneva, Switzerland, gional associations. The division is as follows:[29] under the auspices of WMO. Its goal was to address ad- vancements in seasonal to multi-decadal climate predic- tions and to spur their applications to decision-making in socio-economic sectors, including food, water, energy, health, tourism and development sectors. The Confer- The sum of member states in the regional associations is ence aimed to contribute to the achievement of the United larger than the total number of member states because Nations Millennium Development Goals and broader UN some nations are members to more than one regional as- climate goals through support for climate adaptation.[19] sociation.

6.6 Membership

As of February 2014, member states of the organisation include 183 of the 193 UN members, the Cook Islands and Niue, for a total of 185 member states. Additionally The member states of the World Meteorological Organization di- there are 6 member territories, listed below.[20] vided into the six regional associations, shown on a world map There are 10 states that are members of the United Nations, but not of the WMO. These are: Andorra, Equatorial Guinea, Grenada, Liechtenstein, Marshall Is- Region I (Africa) lands, Nauru, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vin- Region I consists of the nations of Africa and a few for- cent and the Grenadines and San Marino; the most popu- mer colonial powers, and has 57 member states and no lous of these countries is Equatorial Guinea, with nearly member territories; these are:[30] 700,000 inhabitants. Non-members of either organisation include the Vatican City and the states with limited recognition. • Algeria The six member territories are: the British Caribbean • Angola Territories (joint meteorological organisation and membership),[21] French Polynesia, Hong Kong, Macau, • Benin Curaçao and Sint Maarten (joint meteorological service and membership),[21] and New Caledonia. Below is a • Botswana table of all members with admission dates. • Burkina Faso

• Burundi

• Cameroon

6.6.1 Current member states • Cape Verde

States that joined the WMO before they joined the UN • Central African Republic are marked with a blue background. States that are mem- • bers of the WMO, but not of the UN are marked with a Chad green background. For comparison, see Member states • Comoros of the United Nations. The dates are the dates of the ratiﬁcation of the WMO Convention by the member, or • Republic of the Congo the date of accession.[22] The national meteorological services belonging to each member state are also listed.[23] • Côte d'Ivoire 44 CHAPTER 6. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

• Democratic Republic of the Congo • Spain

• Djibouti • Sudan • Swaziland • Egypt • • Eritrea Tanzania, United Republic of • • Ethiopia Togo • • France Tunisia • • Gabon Uganda • The Gambia • Zambia • Ghana • Zimbabwe • Guinea Not member • Guinea-Bissau • Equatorial Guinea • Kenya

• Lesotho Region II (Asia) • Liberia Region II consists of nations in Asia, having a total of 33 • Libya member states and 2 member territories. The member states are:[31] • Madagascar • Afghanistan • Malawi • Bahrain • Mali • Bangladesh • Mauritania • • Mauritius Bhutan • • Morocco Cambodia • • Mozambique People’s Republic of China • Democratic People’s Republic of Korea • Namibia • • Niger India • • Nigeria Iran, Islamic Republic of • • Portugal Iraq • • Rwanda Japan • São Tomé and Príncipe • Kazakhstan • Kuwait • Senegal • Kyrgyzstan • Seychelles • Lao People’s Democratic Republic • Sierra Leone • Somalia • Maldives • South Africa • Mongolia • South Sudan • Myanmar 6.6. MEMBERSHIP 45

Region IV (North America, Central America, and the • Nepal Caribbean) • Oman Region IV consists of the nations of North America, • Pakistan Central America, and the Caribbean, including three na- • Qatar tions based in Europe with dependencies within the region. It has a total of 25 member states and 2 member • Republic of Korea territories. The member states are:[33] • Russian Federation • Antigua and Barbuda • Saudi Arabia • Bahamas • Sri Lanka • • Tajikistan Barbados • Belize • Thailand • • Turkmenistan Canada • United Arab Emirates • Colombia • Uzbekistan • Costa Rica • Viet Nam • Cuba • Yemen • Dominica

The member territories are: • Dominican Republic

• Hong Kong - China • El Salvador

• Macau - China • France

• Guatemala Region III (South America) • Haiti Region III consists of the nations of South America, in- • Honduras cluding France (French Guiana is an overseas region of France in South America). It has a total of 13 mem- • Jamaica ber states and no member territories. The member states are:[32] • Mexico

• Argentina • Netherlands • • Bolivia, Plurinational State of Nicaragua

• Brazil • Panama • Chile • Saint Lucia • Colombia • Trinidad and Tobago • Ecuador • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern • French Guiana Ireland • Guyana • United States of America • Paraguay • Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of • Peru The two member territories are: • Suriname • Uruguay • British Caribbean Territories

• Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of • Curaçao and Sint Maarten 46 CHAPTER 6. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Not members • New Caledonia

• Grenada Not members • Saint Kitts and Nevis • Marshall Islands • Saint Vincent and the Grenadines • Nauru • Region V (South-West Paciﬁc) Palau

Region V consists of nations in the south-west Paciﬁc. Region VI (Europe) This includes 21 member states and 2 member territories. [34] The member states are: Region VI consists mostly of nations in Europe, but also of a few in Western Asia. It has 50 member states and no • Australia member territories. These are:[35] • Brunei Darussalam • Albania • Cook Islands • Armenia • Fiji • Austria • Indonesia • Azerbaijan • Kiribati • Belarus • Malaysia • Belgium • Federated States of Micronesia • Bosnia and Herzegovina • New Zealand • Bulgaria • Niue • Croatia • Papua New Guinea • Cyprus • Philippines • Czech Republic • Samoa • Denmark • Singapore • Estonia • Solomon Islands • Finland • Timor-Leste • France • Tonga • Georgia • Tuvalu • Germany • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland • Greece • United States of America • Hungary • Vanuatu • Iceland The Cook Islands and Niue are both member • Ireland states despite the fact that neither is a member state of • the United Nations; both are in free association with New Israel Zealand. • Italy The member territories are: • Jordan • French Polynesia • Kazakhstan 6.7. SEE ALSO 47

• Latvia States with membership in more than one region

• Lebanon A total of ten member states have membership in more than one region. Two nations are members to four dif- • Lithuania ferent regions, while eight are members of two regions. These nations, with their regions, are as follows: • Luxembourg • France (Regions I, III, IV, and VI) • Malta • United Kingdom (Regions I, IV, V, and VI) • Monaco • Colombia (Regions III and IV) • Montenegro • Kazakhstan (Regions II and VI)

• Netherlands • Netherlands (Regions IV and VI)

• Norway • Portugal (Regions I and VI)

• • Poland Russian Federation (Regions II and VI) • • Portugal Spain (Regions I and VI) • United States of America (Regions IV and V) • Romania • Venezuela (Regions III and IV) • Republic of Moldova

• Russian Federation 6.7 See also

• Serbia • Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR)

• Slovakia • Cloud atlas • Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) • Slovenia • International Cloud Atlas • Spain • Regional Specialized Meteorological Center • Sweden

• Switzerland 6.8 References

• Syrian Arab Republic [1] “UNDG Members”. United Nations Development Group. Retrieved 7 August 2013. • [25] Republic of Macedonia [2] “Secretary-General”. World Meteorological Organiza- tion. Retrieved 7 August 2013. • Turkey [3] “President”. World Meteorological Organization. Re- trieved 7 August 2013. • Ukraine [4] WMO in Brief – World Meteorological Organization • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern (WMO). Wmo.int (1 January 2013). Retrieved on 22 Au- Ireland gust 2013. [5] Convention of the World Meteorological Organization. Not members [6] WMO Strategic Plan

[7] PWMU. “WMO in Brief – World Meteorological Orga- • Andorra nization (WMO)". wmo.int. Retrieved 12 January 2014.

• Liechtenstein [8] WMO.int 48 CHAPTER 6. WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

[9] WMO.int [29] “Members of WMO”. World Meteorological Organiza- tion. Retrieved 22 August 2013. [10] “IPCC Nobel Peace Prize”. Nobel Prize Committee. 12 October 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2010. [30] “Members of Regional Association I (Africa)". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 Aug 2013. [11] Gwam, C. U. (2011). “World meteorological organization (WMO)". Yearbook of International Environment Law. [31] “Members of Regional Association II (Asia)". World Me- 21 (1): 617–632. Retrieved 18 September 2016. teorological Organization. Retrieved 22 Aug 2013.

[12] WMO.int [32] “Members of Regional Association III (South America)". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 Aug [13] “World Meteorological Day”. World Meteorological Or- 2013. ganization. Retrieved 15 July 2013. [33] “Members of Regional Association IV (North America, [14] http://www.wmo.int/pages/about/awards/awards_imo_ Central America and the Caribbean)". World Meteorolog- new_en.html ical Organization. Retrieved 22 Aug 2013. [15] http://www.wmo.int/pages/about/awards/vaisalaaward_ en.html [34] “Members of Regional Association V (South-West Pa- ciﬁc)". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 [16] http://www.wmo.int/pages/about/awards/ Aug 2013. norbert-gerbier-mumm_en.html [35] “Members of Regional Association IV (Europe)". World [17] http://www.wmo.int/pages/about/awards/research_en. Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 Aug 2013. html

[18] http://www.wmo.int/pages/about/awards/ mariolopoulos_award_en.html 6.9 External links

[19] WCC-3 • – Oﬃcial Website [20] WMO membership • WMO country codes from the International Com- [21] WMO National services prehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set

[22] “Members of the World Meteorological Organization with • WCC-3 date of ratiﬁcation or accession”. World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 22 August 2013.

[23] “National Meteorological or Hydrometeorological Ser- vices of Members”. World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 19 October 2013.

[24] The following statement is given at the WMO oﬃcial site at the request of the Government of the People’s Republic of China: “On 11 October 1947, the representative of the Chinese Government signed the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, her rightful seat in WMO was usurped by the Chiang Kai-shek clique, whose 'rat- iﬁcation' of the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization on 2 March 1951 was illegal and null and void. The rightful seat of the People’s Republic of China was restored to her on 25 February 1972.” For details, see China and the United Nations.

[25] Referred to by the United Nations as “The Former Yu- goslav Republic of Macedonia” due to the Macedonia naming dispute.

[26] http://www.met.gov.my/index.php?option=com_ content&task=view&id=100&Itemid=177

[27] Both North and South Vietnam were members of the WMO prior to this date, which is the date of the reuniﬁcation of Vietnam.

[28] This is the date of the uniﬁcation of the Yemen Arab Re- public and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, both of which were WMO members before this date. Chapter 7

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- NOAA supplies information to its customers and tion (NOAA; pronounced /ˈnoʊ.ə/, like "Noah") is an partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and the American scientific agency within the United States De- atmosphere. This is clearly manifest in the produc- partment of Commerce focused on the conditions of the tion of weather warnings and forecasts through the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of danger- National Weather Service, but NOAA’s information ous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of products extend to climate, ecosystems, and com- ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to im- merce as well. prove understanding and stewardship of the environment. • A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services. In addition to its civilian employees, over 11,000 as of NOAA is also the steward of U.S. coastal and 2015,[5] NOAA research and operations are supported marine environments. In coordination with fed- by 379 uniformed service members who make up the eral, state, local, tribal, and international author- NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps. The current Under ities, NOAA manages the use of these environ- Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at ments, regulating fisheries and marine sanctuaries the Department of Commerce and the agency’s adminis- as well as protecting threatened and endangered ma- trator is Kathryn D. Sullivan, who was nominated Febru- rine species. ary 28, 2013, and confirmed March 6, 2014.[6] • A Leader in Applied Scientific Research. NOAA is intended to be a source of accurate and objec- 7.1 Purpose and function tive scientific information in the four particular areas of national and global importance identified above: ecosystems, climate, weather and water, and commerce and transportation.[7]

The ﬁve “fundamental activities” are:

• Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. • Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data. • Assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. • Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information. • Managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment.[8] Two NOAA WP-3D Orions

NOAA plays several speciﬁc roles in society, the bene- ﬁts of which extend beyond the US economy and into the 7.2 History larger global community: NOAA was formed on October 3, 1970, after Richard • A Supplier of Environmental Information Products. Nixon proposed creating a new agency to serve a na-

49 50 CHAPTER 7. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. NOAA works toward its mission through six major line offices, the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS), the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the National Ocean Service (NOS), the National Weather Service (NWS), the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) and the Office of Marine & Aviation Operations (OMAO).[11] and in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorol- ogy, the NOAA Central Library, the Office of Program Planning and Integration (PPI).[11]

7.3.1 National Weather Service

Seal of the NOAA Commissioned Corps

tional need "… for better protection of life and property from natural hazards … for a better understanding of the total environment … [and] for exploration and development leading to the intelligent use of our marine resources ...” NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government. They were the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, formed in 1807; the Weather Bureau, formed in 1870—Geodetic Survey and Weather Service had been combined by a 1965 consolidation into the Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA); and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, formed in 1871. NOAA was established within the Department of Com- merce via the Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970.[9] In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.[10] Seal of the National Weather Service

The National Weather Service (NWS) is tasked with pro- 7.3 Organizational structure viding “weather, hydrologic, and climate forecasts and warnings for the United States, its territories, adjacent waters and ocean areas, for the protection of life and property and the enhancement of the national economy.” This is done through a collection of national and regional centers, 13 river forecast centers (RFCs), and more than 120 local weather forecast oﬃces (WFOs). They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches, and warnings on a daily basis. They issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is also relevant to the issues of global warming and ozone depletion. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a nationwide network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation and their velocities. Many of their products are broad- NOAA HQ in Silver Spring, Maryland cast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of radio transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe The NOAA Commissioned Oﬃcer Corps is a uniformed weather statements, watches and warnings 24 hours a 7.3. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 51

day.[12]

7.3.2 National Ocean Service

The National Ocean Service (NOS) focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, and pro- ductive. NOS scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists serve America by ensuring safe and efficient marine transportation, promoting innovative solutions to protect coastal communities, and conserving marine and coastal places. The National Ocean Service is composed of eight program offices: the Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services,[13] the Coastal Services Center,[14] the National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science,[15] the Office of Coast Survey,[16] the Office of National Geode- tic Survey,[17] the Office of National Marine Sanctu- aries[18] the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management[19] and the Office of Response and Restora- tion.[20] There are two NOS programs, namely the Mussel Watch Contaminant Monitoring Program and the NOAA Inte- grated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) and two staff offices, the International Program Office and the Manage- ment and Budget Office. NOAA engineer at work 7.3.3 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (DMSP) satellites on behalf of the Air Force Weather Agency. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Infor- New generations of satellites are developed to succeed mation Service (NESDIS) was created by NOAA to op- the current polar orbiting and geosynchronous satellites, erate and manage the US environmental satellite pro- the Joint Polar Satellite System) and GOES-R, which is grams, and manage NWS data and those of other gov- scheduled for launch in March 2017. ernment agencies and departments. NESDIS’s National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) archives NESDIS runs the Office of Projects, Planning, and Analysis (OPPA)] formerly the Office of Systems data collected by the NOAA, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, [21] the Federal Aviation Administration, and meteorological Development, the Office of Satellite Ground Sys- tems (formerly the Office of Satellite Operations)[22] services around the world and comprises the Center for [23] Weather and Climate (previously NOAA’s National Cli- the Office of Satellite and Project Operations, matic Data Center) and the Center for Coasts, Oceans, the Center for Satellite Applications and Research (STAR)],[24] the Joint Polar Satellite System Program and Geophysics (created by a merger of NOAA’s Na- [25] tional Coastal Data Development Center (NCDDC), Office the GOES-R Program Office, the Interna- tional & Interagency Affairs Office, the Office of Space National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) and the [26] National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)). Commercialization and the Office of System Archi- tecture and Advanced Planning. In 1960 TIROS-1, NOAA’s first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NES- DIS has managed polar orbiting satellites (POES) and 7.3.4 National Marine Fisheries Service since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites (GOES) . In 1979 NOAA’s first polar-orbiting environ- The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) was ini- mental satellite was launched. Current operational satel- tiated in 1871, with a primary goal of the research, lites include NOAA-15, NOAA-18, NOAA-19, GOES protection, management, and restoration of commercial 13, GOES 14, GOES 15, Jason-2 and DSCOVR. In fisheries and protected species. The NMFS operates six 1983, NOAA assumed operational responsibility for fisheries science centers throughout the United States, Landsat satellite system. Since May 1998, NESIDS has which are the sites of research and management on ma- operated the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program rine resources. The NMFS also operates the National 52 CHAPTER 7. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Of- management services. Research programs are augmented fice for Law Enforcement in Silver Spring, Maryland, by the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric which is the primary site of marine resource law enforce- Studies (CIMAS), a joint enterprise with the University ment. of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. CIMAS enables AOML and university scientists to collaborate on research areas of mutual interest 7.3.5 Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric and facilitates the participation of students and visiting Research scientists. AOML is a member of a unique community of marine research and educational institutions located on Main article: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Re- Virginia Key in Miami, Florida. search In 1977 the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) deployed the first successful moored equatorial NOAA’s research, conducted through the Office of current meter – the beginning of the Tropical Atmosphere Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), is the driv- Ocean, TAO, array. In 1984 the Tropical Ocean-Global ing force behind NOAA environmental products and ser- Atmosphere program (TOGA) program began. vices that protect life and property and promote economic growth. Research, conducted in OAR laboratories and by extramural programs, focuses on enhancing our un- 7.3.6 National Geodetic Survey derstanding of environmental phenomena such as torna- does, hurricanes, climate variability, solar flares, changes The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is the primary sur- [27][28] in the ozone, air pollution transport and dispersion, veying organization in the United States. El Niño/La Niña events, fisheries productivity, ocean currents, deep sea thermal vents, and coastal ecosystem health. NOAA research also develops innovative tech- 7.3.7 National Integrated Drought Infor- nologies and observing systems. mation System The NOAA Research network consists of seven inter- nal research laboratories, extramural research at 30 Sea The National Integrated Drought Information System is Grant university and research programs, six undersea re- a program within NOAA with an interagency mandate to search centers, a research grants program through the Cli- coordinate and integrate drought research, building upon mate Program Office, and 13 cooperative institutes with existing federal, tribal, state, and local partnerships in academia. Through NOAA and its academic partners, support of creating a national drought early warning in- thousands of scientists, engineers, technicians, and grad- formation system. uate students participate in furthering our knowledge of natural phenomena that affect the lives of us all. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is one of the labo- 7.3.8 Office of Program Planning and In- ratories in the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Re- tegration search. It studies processes and develops models relating to climate and air quality, including the trans- The Office of Program Planning and Integration (PPI) port, dispersion, transformation and removal of pollutants was established in June 2002 as the focus for a new from the ambient atmosphere. The emphasis of the corporate management culture at NOAA. PPI was cre- ARL’s work is on data interpretation, technology devel- ated to address the needs to foster strategic management opment and transfer. The specific goal of ARL research among NOAA Line and Staff Offices, Goal Teams, Pro- is to improve and eventually to institutionalize prediction grams, and Councils, support planning activities through of trends, dispersion of air pollutant plumes, air quality, greater opportunities for active participation of employ- atmospheric deposition, and related variables. ees, stakeholders, and partners, build decision support The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Labo- systems based on the goals and outcomes set in NOAA’s ratory (AOML), is part of NOAA’s Office of Oceanic strategic plan, and guide managers and employees on pro- and Atmospheric Research, located in Miami, Florida. gram and performance management, the National Envi- AOML’s research spans hurricanes, coastal ecosystems, ronmental Policy Act, and socioeconomic analysis. oceans and human health, climate studies, global carbon systems, and ocean observations. AOML’s organizational structure consists of an Office of the Director and 7.4 Intergovernmental Panel on three scientific research divisions (Physical Oceanogra- phy, Ocean Chemistry and Ecosystems, and Hurricane Climate Change Research). The Office of the Director oversees the Lab- oratory’s scientific programs, as well as its financial, ad- Since 2001, the organization has hosted the se- ministrative, computer, outreach/education, and facility nior staff and recent chair, Susan Solomon, of the 7.7. REFERENCES 53

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's working • Minerals Management Service group on climate science.[29] • NOAA’s Environmental Real-time Observation Network

7.5 Flag • NOAA’s Virtual World Program

• Oﬃce of Naval Research

• Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations

• United States Naval Research Laboratory

• University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System

• Volcanic Ash Advisory Center

• Weather Modification Operations and Research Board The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration flag, flown as a distinguishing mark by all commissioned NOAA ships. 7.7 References The NOAA flag is a modification of the flag of one of its predecessor organizations, the United States Coast and [1] Celebrating 200 Years NOAA website, 2007. Geodetic Survey. The Coast and Geodetic Survey’s flag, authorized in 1899 and in use until 1970, was blue, with [2] “About Our Agency | National Oceanic and Atmospheric a white circle centered in it and a red triangle centered Administration”. Noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03. within the circle. It symbolized the use of triangulation in surveying, and was flown by ships of the Survey. [3] “BestPlacesToWork.org Agency Report”. Best Places to Work. Retrieved 1 Jul 2014. When NOAA was established in 1970 and the Coast and Geodetic Survey’s assets became a part of NOAA, [4] http://www.noaa.gov/leadership/benjamin-friedman NOAA based its own flag on that of the Coast and Geode- [5] “BestPlacesToWork.org Agency Report”. Best Places to tic Survey. The NOAA flag is in essence the Coast Work. Retrieved 1 Jul 2014. and Geodetic Survey flag, with the NOAA logo—a circle divided by the silhouette of a seabird into an upper [6] “Kathryn Sullivan confirmed as NOAA administrator”. dark blue and a lower light blue section, but with the NOAA. Retrieved 12 May 2014. “NOAA” legend omitted—centered within the red triangle. NOAA ships in commission display the NOAA [7] “About the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- flag; those with only one mast fly it immediately beneath tration (NOAA)" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-05-18. the ship’s commissioning pennant or the personal flag of [8] “New Priorities for the 21st Century NOAA STRATE- a civilian official or flag officer if one is aboard the ship, GIC PLAN FY 2005 – FY 2010” (PDF). oceanser- while multimasted vessels fly it at the masthead of the for- vice.noaa.gov. U.S. Department of Commerce, National wardmost mast.[30] NOAA ships fly the same ensign as Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Pro- United States Navy ships but fly the NOAA flag as a dis- gram Planning and Integration, NOAA Strategic Plan- tinguishing mark to differentiate themselves from Navy ning. Retrieved 30 May 2013. ships. [9] “Reorganization Plan 4 - 197 - NOAA Central Library”. Lib.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

7.6 See also [10] Shea, Eileen. “A History of NOAA”. Department of Commerce Historical Council. Retrieved 30 May 2013. • Center for Environmental Technology (CET) [11] “Organization | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- • Climate Mirror ministration”. Noaa.gov. 2016-03-30. Retrieved 2016- 04-03. • Federation of Earth Science Information Partners (ESIP Federation) [12] Service, US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather. “NOAA Weather Radio”. www.weather.gov. • List of auxiliaries of the United States Navy Retrieved 2017-01-30.

• Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 [13] http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ 54 CHAPTER 7. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

[14] NOAA Oﬃce for Coastal Management ADS Group. • Records of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric “NOAA Oﬃce for Coastal Management”. Csc.noaa.gov. Administration in the National Archives (Record Retrieved 2016-04-03. Group 370)

[15] “Home - NOAA Tides & Currents”. Tidesandcur- • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration rents.noaa.gov. 2013-10-15. Retrieved 2016-04-03. in the Federal Register [16] “Nautical Charts & Pubs”. Nauticalcharts.noaa.gov. Re- trieved 2016-04-03.

[17] “National Geodetic Survey - Home”. Geodesy.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[18] “NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries”. Sanctuar- ies.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[19] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on October 27, 2006. Retrieved October 25, 2006.

[20] “Our role is stewardship; our product is science”. Re- sponse.restoration.noaa.gov. 1989-03-24. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[21] “NOAA/NESDIS Oﬃce of Systems Development Homepage”. Osd.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[22] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on Novem- ber 10, 2013. Retrieved July 22, 2015.

[23] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on May 28, 2015. Retrieved July 22, 2015.

[24] “NOAA Star : Center for Satellite Applications and Re- search”. Star.nesdis.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[25] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved July 22, 2015.

[26] Office of Space Commerce. “Office of Space Commerce | Helping U.S. businesses use the unique medium of space to benefit our economy”. Space.commerce.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-03.

[27] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X. CRCpress.com

[28] Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dis- persion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0- 2. www.air-dispersion.com

[29] Pearce, Fred, The Climate Files: The Battle for the Truth about Global Warming, (2010) Guardian Books, ISBN 978-0-85265-229-9, p. XVIII.

[30] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on Decem- ber 24, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2009.

7.8 External links

• Media related to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at Wikimedia Commons

• Oﬃcial website Chapter 8

International Council for Science

community and governments, civil society, and the private sector.”[1]

Activities focus on three areas: International Research Collaboration, Science for Policy, and Universality of Science.

8.2 History members members as participants in the Caribbean Academy of Sciences or University of the South Pacific ICSU is one of the oldest non-governmental organizations in the world and represents the evolution and expansion of two earlier bodies known as the International Asso- The International Council for Science (ICSU, af- ciation of Academies (IAA; 1899-1914) and the Inter- ter its former name, International Council of Scien- national Research Council (IRC; 1919-1931). In 1998, tific Unions) is an international organization devoted to Members agreed that the Council’s current composition international cooperation in the advancement of science. and activities would be better reflected by modifying the Its members are national scientific bodies and interna- name from the International Council of Scientific Unions tional scientific unions. As of 2012, it comprises 120 to the International Council for Science, while its rich his- multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Asso- tory and strong identity would be well served by retaining ciates and Observers representing 140 countries and 31 the existing acronym, ICSU.[2] international, disciplinary Scientific Unions. ICSU also has 22 Scientific Associates. 8.3 Universality of science

8.1 Mission and principles “The universality of science in its broadest sense is about developing a truly global scientific community on the ba- “ICSU’s mission is to strengthen international science sis of equity and non-discrimination. It is also about for the benefit of society. To do this, ICSU mobilizes ensuring that science is trusted and valued by societies the knowledge and resources of the international science across the world. As such, it incorporates issues related community to: to the conduct of science; capacity building; science education and literacy; access to data and information and • Identify and address major issues of importance to the relationship between science and society. [...] Under- science and society. pinning this broader concept of universality is the Prin- ciple of the Universality of Science (ICSU Statute 5)[3] • Facilitate interaction amongst scientists across all which is more narrowly focused on the freedoms and re- disciplines and from all countries. sponsibilities of science. Adherence to this Principle is a condition of ICSU membership. The policy Committee • Promote the participation of all scientists — regard- on Freedom and Responsibility in the conduct of Science less of race, citizenship, language, political stance, (CFRS)[4] serves as the guardian of the Principle and un- or gender — in the international scientific endeav- dertakes a variety of actions to defend scientific freedoms our. and promote integrity and responsibility.”[5] • Provide independent, authoritative advice to stim- The “Freedom and Responsibility Portal” on the ICSU’s ulate constructive dialogue between the scientific website documents its activities in these areas.[6]

55 56 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

8.4 Structure 8.10 Bibliography

The ICSU Secretariat (20 staff in 2012) in Paris en- • Greenaway, Frank (2006) Science International: sures the day-to-day planning and operations under the A History of the International Council of Sci- guidance of an elected Executive Board. Three Policy entific Unions Cambridge University Press ISBN Committees − Committee on Scientific Planning and Re- 9780521028103 view (CSPR), Committee on Freedom and Responsibil- • Frängsmyr, Tore (1990) Solomon’s house revis- ity in the conduct of Science (CFRS) and Committee ited: the organization and institutionalization of sci- on Finance − assist the Executive Board in its work and ence. Science History Publications, U.S.A. ISBN a General Assembly of all Members is convened every 9780881350661 three years. ICSU has three Regional Offices − Africa, Asia and the Pacific as well as Latin America and the • Crawford, Elisabeth (2002) Nationalism and Inter- Caribbean. nationalism in Science, 1880-1939. Cambridge Uni- versity Press ISBN 9780521524742

8.5 Finances 8.11 External links The principal source of ICSU’s finances is the contri- • Official website butions it receives from its members. Other sources of income are the framework contracts from UNESCO • ICSU at University of Waterloo Scholarly Societies (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or- directory ganization) and grants and contracts from United Nations bodies, foundations and agencies, which are used to sup- • ICSU at United Nations port the scientific activities of the ICSU Unions and interdisciplinary bodies.

8.6 Member Scientiﬁc Unions

8.7 Member Scientiﬁc Associates

8.8 See also

• Diversitas project, closed Dec 2014 transferred Jan 2015 to ICS as Future Earth

8.9 References

[1] ICSU’s About us web page, updated on 14 December 2011

[2] ICSU’s A brief history web page, updated on 8 August 2012

[3] ICSU Statute 5

[4] ICSU Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the conduct of Science

[5] ICSU’s Universality of Science web section

[6] ICSU’s freedom and responsibility web portal 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 57

8.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.12.1 Text • Global Apollo Programme Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Apollo_Programme?oldid=765805835 Contributors: Greenrd, War wizard90, Simonjon, Antrocent, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 3 • United Nations Environment Programme Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme?oldid= 766471555 Contributors: Ed Poor, Andreas T. Hagli, SJK, SimonP, Nknight, Kku, Liftarn, Mac, Kaihsu, Phoebe, Jusjih, Hajor, Rob- bot, Dann, Postdlf, Texture, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Edcolins, JRR Trollkien, Quadell, Kate, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Lankiveil, Viriditas, Inukawa, PaulHanson, Hektor, GenkiNeko, Rd232, Ynhockey, Fasten, Tony Sidaway, Flit, Tabletop, Hard Raspy Sci, Graham87, SpNeo, Ground Zero, Tedder, Taichi, Chobot, Rewster, YurikBot, Wavelength, Adamhauner, Brabo~enwiki, RussBot, Eleas- sar, Nirvana2013, Zwobot, Aaron Schulz, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Black Falcon, Arthur Rubin, Codemonkey, Fraxen, Teryx, The Way, GrinBot~enwiki, BomBom, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Gjs238, Chris the speller, MalafayaBot, Ctbolt, Chlewbot, Nils Simon, Richard001, Fitzhugh, RJBurkhart, Deiz, J 1982, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Cesarharada, Benkeboy, Optakeover, Waggers, RichardF, Dean1970, Hu12, Joseph Solis in Australia, Tawkerbot2, Mamut, Van helsing, Godardesque, Vectro, Cydebot, Harryblutstein, Teratornis, Thijs!bot, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Gralo, Mojo Hand, Mereda, PLM Community, Tellyaddict, Utsav80, JAnDbot, Wikiwikiwriter, Jvher- tum, SSZ, Kitale, Pauly04, MartinBot, RP88, Adethomas, Bot-Schafter, KylieTastic, Jesangel, DASonnenfeld, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Mean- ingful Username, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, DaveWFarthing, Broadbot, Ilyaroz, Greswik, Toyin Adejonwo-Osho, Yk Yk Yk, O adria, Adam.J.W.C., Alaniaris, HybridBoy, Energybase, SieBot, Dondesnet, Diabloman, Flyer22 Reborn, Nopetro, Fanina~enwiki, DCPI-Intern, ImageRemovalBot, One-world-generation~enwiki, Loren.wilton, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Cpiint51, Dani75, Goldoman, Pablosinovas, 718 Bot, DragonBot, Bruceanthro, Arjayay, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, Veritycowper, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Elmondo21st, Mag- nusA.Bot, Misterx2000, Place blood fd, Iakov, ChenzwBot, आशीष भटनागर, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kseniair, Rubinbot, AdjustShift, Arthur- Bot, S7evyn, Xqbot, Ssola, The Evil IP address, RibotBOT, Olivierbertu, Jagislaqroo, FrescoBot, Menwith, Steve Quinn, NickGBSOD, Adlerbot, Foxhound66, Beao, Mat2010tam, NortyNort, Lotje, Vrenator, Billsfan11, Akrokerama, EmausBot, LeoLavish, Wikitanvir- Bot, Look2See1, Bowei Huang 1, BantuPoet, 16rl, Krd, UFO Digital Artist, Sophie VIS, Annehardon, ClueBot NG, Movses-bot, Widr, Newyorkadam, Bunker.Boots, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, AvocatoBot, Dgs772, Meclee, Whym, CYGNET2912, Justincheng12345-bot, DiabloInDetails, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Mediran, Krystaleen, FSgruening, Joshuaw1946, GabeIglesia, Pruny200, EmilJabrayilov, Epicgenius, Joseph the writer, Megharapi, Filedelinkerbot, ChamithN, Jodielavery, Thanmy, BacLuong, GeneralizationsAreBad, Inter- netArchiveBot, Roniee, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Srimal2017 and Anonymous: 148 • World Climate Research Programme Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Climate_Research_Programme?oldid=767086588 Contributors: William M. Connolley, Vsmith, DS1953, Jaraalbe, Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, robot, Bluebot, Nils Simon, Pflatau, Rosarinagazo, Pdeitiker, RedAndr, Rosiestep, Addbot, Materialscientist, Silberštejn, EmausBot, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, HMSSo- lent, RaphaelQS, BacLuong and Anonymous: 7 • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change? oldid=766794983 Contributors: Eloquence, Pinkunicorn, Ed Poor, Danny, Heron, Hephaestos, Leandrod, Edward, Ubiquity, Earth, Kku, MartinHarper, Seav, Mac, William M. Connolley, Ojs, Marco Krohn, Cherkash, Guaka, Viajero, Daniel Quinlan, Wik, Blackjack3, Tp- bradbury, Dragons flight, Greglocock, SEWilco, Morn, Geraki, Raul654, Rossnixon, ChrisG, RedWolf, Stephan Schulz, Securiger, Low- ellian, Dumky, Postdlf, Anthony, HaeB, Xanzzibar, Alan Liefting, JamesMLane, MPF, Mintleaf~enwiki, Art Carlson, Gamaliel, Thierryc, Unconcerned, Duncharris, Theblog, Bosniak, Bobblewik, JRR Trollkien, Utcursch, Antandrus, BozMo, PDH, Rdsmith4, Roisterer, Lu- midek, Askewchan, Clubjuggle, Thorwald, Brianjd, Seldumonde, Spiffy sperry, Imroy, A-giau, Blanchette, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Dave souza, Martpol, Stbalbach, Bender235, Jensbn, Kwamikagami, Weiwensg, Guettarda, Nigelj, JonGwynne, John Vandenberg, Shenme, Viriditas, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS, Jonathunder, Rd232, Jeltz, Plumbago, John Quiggin, Dark Shikari, Cortonin, Fourthords, HenkvD, Tony Sidaway, TenOfAllTrades, Gene Nygaard, Kardrak, Kenyon, Falcorian, Zntrip, Dejvid, Ondrejk, Philthecow, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Percy Snoodle, Unigolyn, Scjessey, Cpu111, JFG, Emerson7, Yuriybrisk, Chun-hian, Ando228, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Tim!, Koavf, Chirags, Josiah Rowe, MZMcBride, Stubedoo, StephanieM, Firebug, FlaBot, Gurch, Riki, Fosnez, Taichi, Chobot, Theo Pardilla, Dj Capricorn, Kummi, YurikBot, Wavelength, Kafziel, Arzel, Arado, Hede2000, Gaius Cornelius, Cunado19, NawlinWiki, Romanc19s, SEWilcoBot, Kinser, Grafen, Albedo, Cholmes75, Facethefacts, Zwobot, MaxVeers, RonCram, DeadEyeArrow, TimK MSI, Rktect, Ms2ger, Sandstein, Zzuuzz, Macademe, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Mastercampbell, DGaw, Naught101, JLaTondre, Kungfuadam, Pix- pixpix, Philip Stevens, Matt Heard, TechBear, Yvwv, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Slarre, Classicfilms, Od Mishehu, Cla68, AnOddName, BokuAlec, Alsandro, Gilliam, Folajimi, Isaac Dupree, Squiddy, Schmiteye, Bluebot, Kurykh, RDBrown, DroEsperanto, Raymond ar- ritt, Silly rabbit, Miguel Andrade, Sgt Pinback, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Fuhghettaboutit, Nakon, VegaDark, Robapalooza, Nils Simon, Nrcprm2026, DMacks, ILike2BeAnonymous, Er Komandante, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Sckchui, JzG, John, JoseREMY, Pe- terlewis, Pflatau, 16@r, Kkken, Mrfeek, Essolo, Daphne A, Icez, Jaywalker911, NJA, Dean1970, Joseph Solis in Australia, Wjejskenewr, Blackcloak, Twas Now, FairuseBot, Fdssdf, Oos, JForget, CmdrObot, Van helsing, Runningonbrains, Cydebot, Tristan Bukowski, HStel, Tellstar, DumbBOT, Narayanese, Ssilvers, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Blah42, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Gralo, Electron9, Itsmejudith, Rjeong, Dawnseeker2000, Escarbot, KrakatoaKatie, Prolog, SteveWolfer, Jayron32, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, SmokeyTheCat, Cjs2111, Tillman, Yellowdesk, Rbb l181, Narssarssuaq, Criptofcorbin, Gcm, Sonicsuns, Fetchcomms, OhanaUnited, Rueben lys, 100110100, Ma- gioladitis, Skyemoor, Obedium, AuburnPilot, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Charlesreid1, Harelx, Marhadiasa, Brusegadi, Tonyfaull, WhatamI- doing, Gabriel Kielland, Bharathiya, Oren0, MartinBot, Ben MacDui, Sm8900, R'n'B, Mange01, UBeR, Numbo3, Ginsengbomb, Acala- mari, Vegasprof, Ryan Postlethwaite, Touisiau, Gmchambless1, Ephebi, Plasticup, Birdbrainscan, DadaNeem, Peanutashbourne, Tanaats, Burkhard.Plache, WJBscribe, Natl1, Jimtitus, DASonnenfeld, Enescot, Shaunus4, Idioma-bot, Maniaphobic, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Shortride, Johnfos, Murderbike, Kevinkor2, AlnoktaBOT, Katydidit, PNG crusade bot, Kevin stanchfield, Childhoodsend, Evaniax, Jacob Lundberg, Hairy beast, Red Act, Rei-bot, AlexDenney, Voorlandt, Sintaku, Jpat34721, Leafyplant, HuskyHuskie, LadyLancer, PDFbot, Bentley4, Tidertommy, Kaenneth, BotKung, Mishlai, Polycrest, CO, Andy Dingley, 2ulus, Theclubhq, Dmcq, AlleborgoBot, FlyingLeop- ard2014, GirasoleDE, Rtol, SieBot, Mnjuckes, BotMultichill, Dawn Bard, Jason Patton, Flyer22 Reborn, Tonyfarr, MaynardClark, Momo san, Nopetro, Lightmouse, Int21h, Svm1 63, Behroozh, Pmarbaix, Boarderex, Svick, Correogsk, Alokprasad84, Kallog, Sphilbrick, Mr- february, Someone111111, Sagredo, ClueBot, Rumping, Pcirrus~enwiki, Rjd0060, Gugax451, Der Golem, Razimantv, AnnuitSophia, Watti Renew, Gum-tree-chopper, Pras, Shahidsidd, Dr.CoxDiesel, Deselliers, Awickert, Excirial, Udonknome, TinusPulles, GoRight, Telekenesis, Readin, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, TheRedPenOfDoom, Snacks, MilesAgain, Obediun, Harry Pothead117, Wedjj, Melon- Bot, Sterculius, Boehner, Bacteriophage, Mirkin man, Mr. merkin, Arnold Babar, Mister Poon, Pharge, Amoebic dysentery, Indef block, DumZiBoT, Mob Rules, Scheisse Chemie, XLinkBot, Frenstad, Nathan Johnson, Jprw, Fly Me Courageous, Good Olfactory, Hermoine Gingold, Addbot, Wyatt Stringfellow, Narayansg, CurtisSwain, Y2K Denier, Half The Way Valley, Sword and Shield, Thailboat, Grecian 58 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

Formula, Kinderhaus, Macedonian King, Cuspid Groove, Baunret, Eve’s Plumb, Wavie Gravy, Sea Hags, Vanished user oerjio4kdm3, Victim of Changes, Driving and Crying, Thoroughfare, Misterx2000, Riding on the Wind, Shlomo Bar-Levy, Yesterday and Tomorrow, ,ماني ,Sloe Bloe, Glare of the Midnight Sun, Cst17, Operation Nimrod, An American Gigolo, BepBot, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, Krano Jarble, J. Johnson, Yobot, Yngvadottir, Membre, Nallimbot, Kjaer, AnomieBOT, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, AdjustShift, Citation bot, GB fan, ArthurBot, DirlBot, Quebec99, Jayarathina, Gilo1969, Davshul, The Evil IP address, Off2riorob, Ardg08, MerlLinkBot, Gssnoop, RUClimate, FrescoBot, Menwith, Citation bot 1, DigbyDalton, Wikispan, DrilBot, Gaba p, Miguelaaron, Tom.Reding, Tinton5, , MastiBot, Slongshot, Fumitol, Trappist the monk, Diannaa, Knit wicker, Tbhotch, WVBluefield, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Alister Kinkaid, Weakopedia, I love SUV’s, World Lever, DarknessShines2, EmausBot, Kekkian, Jong-C, Orphan Wiki, Shadowimages, Bundcheon, Zollerriia, Mambo Bananapatch, GoingBatty, RA0808, Peaceray, Afeard, Dcirovic, Lesswealth, Traxs7, H3llBot, Unreal7, Wikignome0530, Lennoxman2, Brandmeister, Hoppyh, Palosirkka, Jess, Sailsbystars, Vanished 1850, ThePowerofX, Good & Plenty, Kit Kaboodle, Illinikiwi, 9Questions, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Carfix2000ca, Chester Markel, Coastwise, SuzBenson, Beckham87, Snotbot, Frietjes, ScottSteiner, John Boehner, LovelyButz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, Jmoini, BG19bot, NewsAndEvents- Guy, TimOsborn, Habitmelon, Dwergenpaartje, Bibizee, HCPH, Whym, EdwardH, BattyBot, Ehr1Ros2, Cyberbot II, Smartguysmarts, Do Kah, Dexbot, Cerabot~enwiki, JJF99, Junaji, Rfassbind, Everymorning, Master of Time, Polentarion, Ginsuloft, Sfdiversity, Robevans123, Larsen Shelfeau, Indianssuck, Whisper of the heart, Monkbot, Asdklf;, Rishabhkumar176, Goglognio, Skoritz, Eteethan, Gilles dB., Serten II, Iaepetus, Tabiibnafsanii, Quorum816, Streyli, Wee Willie Winky, Tex Justice, Bhyrt5, InternetArchiveBot, RobbieIanMorrison, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, I2padams, Van Dulsox and Anonymous: 287 • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_ Convention_on_Climate_Change?oldid=767774932 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ed Poor, Fnielsen, SJK, Nknight, Ram- Man, MartinHarper, Dcljr, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Mac, Nanshu, Docu, William M. Connolley, Jiang, The Tom, Wik, CB- Dunkerson, Tpbradbury, SEWilco, Indefatigable, Robbot, Simonf, Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Postdlf, Mushroom, Ruakh, Alan Liefting, Oleg326756, Avala, Bobblewik, Neilc, BozMo, Rdsmith4, Absinf, Fanghong~enwiki, Grstain, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Johannes Rohr, Jensbn, Kwamikagami, Semper discens, Cje~enwiki, Nofreak~enwiki, Jonathunder, Finduilas, Rd232, Doopokko, Alinor, Snowolf, Woohookitty, Tabletop, , BD2412, Plau, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Kalo~enwiki, Ligulem, AySz88, Syced, DF5GO, FlaBot, Nicmila, Fosnez, Chobot, Dj Capricorn, Gwernol, Kummi, YurikBot, Infos~enwiki, Hede2000, NawlinWiki, Ashwinr, Facethefacts, Ezeu, Dan- laycock, Tony1, Eclipsed, Bota47, PanchoS, CLW, UW, American2, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Dbarefoot, Otto ter Haar, Snalwibma, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, C.Fred, Jab843, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, Squiddy, Thumperward, Potatohai, Somewildthingsgo, AdeMi- ami, Ohconfucius, NotMuchToSay, Euchiasmus, Robofish, Mwgillenwater, Pflatau, Calibas, Andrwsc, Alan.ca, Igoldste, BoH, Harej bot, Raz1el, Cydebot, Wakeyjamie, Teratornis, Arb, Theprime, Thijs!bot, Gralo, Id447, Werdnanoslen, B7088mh~enwiki, Dawnseeker2000, SvenAERTS, BokicaK, Cstreet, Smartse, Yellowdesk, Alphachimpbot, JAnDbot, Toutoune25, Magioladitis, GetDownAdam, JamesB- Watson, Vernon39, Brusegadi, Couki, Hiplibrarianship, Me...™, Enquire, Tonicthebrown, Xbrouwer, Sm8900, R'n'B, Lilac Soul, Shaun- jason, Sliberdrache, Stalane, Ephebi, Ipigott, Lbeaumont, InspectorTiger, Peanutashbourne, Woood, DASonnenfeld, Enescot, WWGB, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Floggingkatie, PNG crusade bot, TXiKiBoT, Rei-bot, Martin.schoenberg, Kjell.kuehne, BotKung, Stv59, Gramshee, AlleborgoBot, Typofier, Lejman, SieBot, Froztbyte, E8, BotMultichill, ToePeu.bot, Gerakibot, This, that and the other, Andrewjlockley, Prillen, Grundle2600, Nopetro, Anchor Link Bot, Asdirk, Denisarona, Mrfebruary, ClueBot, Philip Sutton, Enthusiast01, Der Golem, AnnuitSophia, Kofiannansrevenge, PixelBot, L.tak, Craigallan.za, MelonBot, Jeff dowter, LabcoatJesus, Loranchet, Boyd Reimer, Wik- Head, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Narayansg, Zarcadia, Fluffernutter, MrOllie, Download, BepBot, Frangipani Schnitz, Favonian, Zorrobot, Otrfan, Thomas Yeardly, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Sageo, AnomieBOT, P3d1a-3d1t-w1k1, Materialscientist, Lil- Helpa, Brackenheim, Xqbot, Night w, Mengmeng12388, J JMesserly, NOrbeck, S0458241, MerlLinkBot, FrescoBot, Rifram, Menwith, Nepomuk 3, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Rennell435, LilyKitty, Sheilajep, KeptSouth, RjwilmsiBot, Mayeenul Islam, Pyc- nopodia, EmausBot, Zollerriia, L587631, Pwjohnson, Dcirovic, Cfireman, Werieth, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, NEWxR0MANTiC, Guptaaks007, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Bp6133, Tathanasiou, Alfaf, Mrs.rulala, Іванко1, Socialservice, Diamondland, ClueBot NG, Prak- tiRed, Coastwise, 30,000 Rooms and I Have The Key, Frietjes, Monsoon Waves, Funraiser, Brodie.bike, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, NewsAndEventsGuy, Robberd77, Polmandc, Justanonymous, Ankitagrawal079, Ehr1Ros2, Mrt3366, Teagreyearl, Rejaul Karim Mamun, UNAVL, Rajulbat, BurritoBazooka, Mesbah76435, Pratheeknagaraj, Pokechu22, ArmbrustBot, Werddemer, American Money, TiWash, Mumpaladf, Munchkin2013, Lette Sgo, Monkbot, Grantstanleywilson, Skoritz, CStreiss, St.White Gifted, Steveodinkirk, Orivaaaaa B!, InternetArchiveBot, Givhv, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Nelly Cookhyles, Karen Twilaral, Juancarojas1, ADHY94 and Anonymous: 259 • World Meteorological Organization Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization?oldid=762595474 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Jkominek, Karl Palmen, Formulax~enwiki, Lquilter, Seav, William M. Connolley, Jiang, Rawr, Cherkash, Itai, Shizhao, Denelson83, Postdlf, Cyrius, Davidcannon, Cantus, Yekrats, Deus Ex, JRR Trollkien, Andycjp, Alexf, Beland, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Tsemii, Kate, Vsmith, ESkog, El C, Temistokles~enwiki, Tom, Evolauxia, Lokifer, Jum- buck, Alinor, Dhartung, Gene Nygaard, Instantnood, Anthony aragorn, 25or6to4, Kelisi, Palica, Titoxd, Rimush, FlaBot, Intgr, TeaDrinker, SGreen~enwiki, Chobot, Lightsup55, Manxruler, NHSavage, SmackBot, Gilliam, Good kitty~enwiki, Tsca.bot, Милан Јелисавчић, Ajdz, Greenshed, DMacks, Jóna Þórunn, Ohconfucius, Icelandic Hurricane, John, J 1982, Gregorydavid, Thegreatdr, Pierre cb, Meco, Dean1970, MCalamari, Checkguy, Zarex, Runningonbrains, Aussiepete, Flying Saucer, Hebrides, Heff01, Roberta F., Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Gralo, BokicaK, Golf Bravo, Skew-t, Gabriel Kielland, R'n'B, Numbo3, Ggow, DASonnenfeld, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Station1, Rei-bot, Una Smith, Jb.migraine, Vladsinger, Yk Yk Yk, 2ulus, AlleborgoBot, Abuuabubakar, SieBot, VVVBot, Gerakibot, Da Joe, Antzervos, Má- tyás, Sunrise, Matthijs J, Martarius, ClueBot, Feline Hymnic, L.tak, Ark25, Architect JDF, XLinkBot, Raso mk, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Glane23, Lucian Sunday, Lightbot, Romanskolduns, DrFO.Tn.Bot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cbtarunjai87, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Gaelle sevenier, Xqbot, The Evil IP address, Pinkwriter, Kylelovesyou, RibotBOT, FrescoBot, Foxhound66, Tinton5, RedBot, Tahir mq, Trappist the monk, Zanhe, Lotje, LilyKitty, Slon02, EmausBot, John of Reading, Dolescum, WikitanvirBot, Zollerriia, Jaysully, TuHan- Bot, PVLiska, Philafrenzy, ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31, Counny, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Rezabot, Michelplatin, BG19bot, Snaevar-bot, 700ikiw, AvocatoBot, Compfreak7, Kirananils, Whym, HTML2011, Motorhead II, Clarenullis, Ect2, BattyBot, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, BDE1982, Md Faisal Ansari, Venajaguardian, Nariko Berlin -chan, Inglok, WMO-CPA, RaphaelQS, Lowe D. C. Clog, World Met Org, Wanda wanna vota, CV9933, Sbfiauir, Mp4545a, I2padams, Rajyay430 and Anonymous: 79 • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_ Administration?oldid=766342012 Contributors: The Cunctator, Mav, Ed Poor, Amillar, SimonP, Tedernst, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Isomorphic, Delirium, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Poor Yorick, Cherkash, Raven in Orbit, Itai, Bevo, JonathanDP81, Raul654, Denelson83, Murray Langton, Postdlf, ElBenevolente, Cyrius, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Ryjaz, Steviethe- man, Utcursch, Pgan002, Keith Edkins, Quadell, MisfitToys, Melikamp, PDH, Klemen Kocjancic, Muijz, Fanghong~enwiki, Flyhighplato, Famartin, Kmccoy, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, N328KF, JTN, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Ardonik, Xezbeth, Berkut, Bender235, Tom, Bobo192, TomStar81, Chemboss, Smalljim, Redlentil, LeonardoGregianin, Giraffedata, Vicarage, Pearle, Alan- sohn, PaulHanson, Bart133, Geraldshields11, Wyatts, Instantnood, Tainter, Woohookitty, GrouchyDan, Scriberius, Pauley2483, Jpers36, 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 59

MyFavoriteMartin, SDC, Hard Raspy Sci, Waterboy12, Graham87, Clotho, Rillian, Titoxd, FlaBot, G Clark, Ground Zero, Siddhant, YurikBot, Wavelength, NTBot~enwiki, RussBot, Briaboru, Leuliett, Epolk, Bergsten, Hydrargyrum, Mbellavia, CambridgeBayWeather, Ianwatts, Voidxor, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, JonathanLamb, Ageekgal, Arthur Rubin, SMcCandlish, Hurricanehink, John Broughton, Sar- danaphalus, SmackBot, Zyxw, Eskimbot, Cla68, Commander Keane bot, TimBentley, Jprg1966, Cybercobra, Derek R Bullamore, Robo- maeyhem, John, Gobonobo, Mbeychok, Neovu79, Green Giant, Pierre cb, MrDolomite, MCalamari, CapitalR, Eastlaw, Joey80, Cm- drObot, Badseed, Cydebot, Reywas92, ST47, Shirulashem, Kozuch, A7x, Heidijane, Rougher07, Thijs!bot, Insituburn, Akeane, Zachary, Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, Ryanneve, Ironiridis, JAnDbot, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Qubert, Skew-t, Jud- sonfeder, MartinBot, Sm8900, Leyo, RJBurkhart3, Radlib, Jesant13, Being blunt, Halftank, Jer10 95, Skier Dude, Antony-22, Jorfer, Hackshaven, Uaimh, Jvcdude, Andy Marchbanks, Infoman99, PRoy1956, Sdsds, Philip Trueman, Rei-bot, IronMaidenRocks, SGT141, Oceanexplorer, Kairologic, SieBot, Barliner, Pubdog, MilFlyboy, Nopetro, Lightmouse, Int21h, XU-engineer, StaticGull, CultureDrone, Melcombe, TaerkastUA, Ademine, Randy Kryn, Davidj pearson, ClueBot, Dgabbard, Farras Octara, Tommy Gao, Puchiko, Brennanhay, Rhfoote, Two Hearted River, Frenstad, SilvonenBot, Mellen22, Addbot, Between the Hammer and the Anvil, Vrray people1000, Quercus ,Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Webmgr, Emmiej, AnomieBOT ,زرشک ,solaris, Mdnavman, Tide rolls, Anas1712 Katenielsen2005, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, W90, Xqbot, Mercury34, Sfgiants906, Omni- paedista, Seelouise58, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, Surv1v4l1st, Haeinous, Maverick9711, Pinethicket, Tinton5, Skyerise, Jose Concepcion, RedBot, Pbsouthwood, Dalehawaii, Lotje, Beyond My Ken, Diiscool, Jackthelizard, LeoC4, Aleuts, Illegitimate Barrister, Bob Northug, The Nut, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, CopperSquare, Dannerswork, Damionpaulhart, Calidum, Cgruda, YahwehSaves, John222222, Nwseo, Neøn, Socal212, Rm1271, Th4n3r, Cyberbot II, 14GTR, Graphium, GabeIglesia, Peaceful Ocean, Jodosma, Wuerzele, Master of Time, MattKaymans, Killerwhale24680, Archwayh, Trackteur, Kdkd131313, Esci459djw, KN2731, Mattes, KasparBot, Proud User, Dbh30, Tomdogs156, TotalTruthTeller24, GreenC bot, Arbutron3 and Anonymous: 153 • International Council for Science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_for_Science?oldid=767082475 Contrib- utors: Bryan Derksen, SJK, Lorenzarius, Kku, Lquilter, JorgeGG, Altenmann, Timpo, LiDaobing, Paulscrawl, Almit39, TonyW, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Poccil, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, YUL89YYZ, Paleorthid, YurikBot, Wavelength, Charles Gaudette, Ansell, Member, Mc- cready, Rathfelder, AlexD, Renesis, TCY, Greenshed, Cybercobra, Meco, ICSU, Gregbard, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Martin23230, Thijs!bot, .anacondabot, Lasius, Yk Yk Yk, Hxhbot, Jóhann Heiðar Árnason, WurmWoode, Trivialist, 718 Bot, Brews ohare, Kakofonous, Trosswall, Fgnievinski, AkhtaBot, Lightbot, Noumenon, Legobot, Yobot, 1exec1, Omnipaedista, SchreyP, Wikiborg4711, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Polisher of Cobwebs, Guest2625, Japinderum, ICSU oﬃce, Dexbot, Ropﬁste, Rs wrangler, Sheijltjes, GabeIglesia, RaphaelQS, J.meija, Brarock AddockK, ColRad85, BacLuong, Wisi eu, KasparBot, Hatpsg, Dreight, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 17

8.12.2 Images

• File:2016-05-09_17_23_45_National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration_headquarters_at_the_intersection_of_ Colesville_Road_(Maryland_State_Route_384)_and_East-West_Highway_(Maryland_State_Route_410)_in_Silver_Spring, _Montgomery_County,_Maryland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/2016-05-09_17_23_45_ National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration_headquarters_at_the_intersection_of_Colesville_Road_%28Maryland_State_ Route_384%29_and_East-West_Highway_%28Maryland_State_Route_410%29_in_Silver_Spring%2C_Montgomery_County%2C_ Maryland.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Famartin • File:Achim_Steiner.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Achim_Steiner.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lipstar • File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_(IIASA)._Atmospheric_greenhouse_gas_concentrations_2000-2100.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_%28IIASA%29._Atmospheric_ greenhouse_gas_concentrations_2000-2100.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Enescot • File:Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_(IIASA)._Global_greenhouse_gas_emissions_2000-2100.png Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_%28IIASA%29._Global_greenhouse_gas_ emissions_2000-2100.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Enescot • File:Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_(IIASA)._Global_mean_temperature_-_2000-2100.png Source: https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios_%28IIASA%29._Global_mean_temperature_ -_2000-2100.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Enescot • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Cumulus_clouds_in_fair_weather.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Cumulus_clouds_in_ fair_weather.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: legacy.openphoto.net Original artist: Michael Jastremski • File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: English Wikipedia Original artist: Eric Rolph at English Wikipedia • File:Dowdeswell_Throne.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Dowdeswell_Throne.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Ontario as represented by the Office of the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario • File:Earth_Day_Flag.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png License: Public domain Contributors: File:Earth flag PD.jpg, File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png Original artist: NASA (Earth photograph) SiBr4 (flag image) • File:Emblem_of_the_United_Nations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Emblem_of_the_United_ Nations.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg Original artist: Spiff 60 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

• File:Erik_Solheim.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Erik_Solheim.jpg License: Attribution Contribu- tors: Nordic Council Original artist: Magnus Fröderberg • File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This vector image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from this: National emblem of Afghanistan.svg. Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Albania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Flag_of_Albania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractéristiques du Drapeau Algérien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp. • File:Flag_of_Andorra.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Andorra.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Llibre de normes gràﬁques per a la reproducció i aplicació dels signes d'Estat per als quals el Govern és autoritat competent (Aprovat pel Govern en la sessió del dia 5 de maig de 1999) Original artist: HansenBCN • File:Flag_of_Angola.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Antigua_and_ Barbuda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Government of Argentina • File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.elibrary.az/docs/remz/pdf/remz_bayraq.pdf and http://www.meclis.gov.az/?/az/topcontent/21 Original artist: SKopp and others • File:Flag_of_Bahrain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Bahrain.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.moci.gov.bh/en/KingdomofBahrain/BahrainFlag/ Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Barbados.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Barbados.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.gov.bb/bigportal/big/articles/showArticle.php?file=National_Flag.xml&ag=big Original artist: User: Denelson83 • File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Belgium.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Van den Bussche, E., Chief of Protocol, Belgian Federal Department of the Interior (2008) Noble Belgique, ô Mère chérie - LE PROTOCOLE EN BELGIQUE (PROTOCOL IN BELGIUM), Heule: Editions UGA ISBN: 9789067689359. Original artist: Dbenbenn and others • File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Belize.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Used as Air Force insigna seen here • Improved version from xrmap ﬂag collection 2.9. Original artist: Caleb Moore • File:Flag_of_Benin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Benin.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion (original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version) • File:Flag_of_Bolivia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 61

• File:Flag_of_Bolivia_(state).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Flag_of_Bolivia_%28state%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: xrmap flag collection Original artist: Caleb Moore • File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_ Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic • File:Flag_of_Botswana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_Botswana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe, rewritten by User:Madden Original artist: User:SKopp, User:Gabbe, User:Madden • File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The flag of Bulgaria. The colors are specified at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034& n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Burundi.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Flag_of_Burundi.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. SKopp assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new flag by User:_ • File:Flag_of_Cameroon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- • File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Chad.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Quelle · Fonto: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/td.html Original artist: SKopp & others (see upload log) • File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Colombia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Colombia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica_(state).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Costa_Rica_%28state% 29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image originally derived from the public domain flags of the CIA World Factbook (see:Image: Costa rica flag 300.png) Original artist: user:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Croatia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sabor.hr/Default.aspx?sec=4317 Original artist: Nightstallion, Elephantus, Neoneo13, Denelson83, Rainman, R-41, Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370, Ma Ga (based on Decision of the Parliament) • File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden • File:Flag_of_Curaçao.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Flag_of_Cura%C3%A7ao.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Cyprus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Vzb83 • File:Flag_of_Côte_d'Ivoire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jon Harald Søby • File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden • File:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg License: CC0 Contrib- utors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Dominica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Flag_of_Dominica.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: Own work: Flag of Dominica originally from the Open Clip Art website. Redrawn by User:Vzb83 except for the parrot. Colours are adapted from FOTW Flags Of The World website because of the currentness (refreshed 2001). The colour sceme is found at the government website of the Commonwealth of Dominica and THE WORLD FACTBOOK of the CIA. Original artist: User:Nightstallion 62 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

• File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work • Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Vom 1. Oktober 1959 • Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 3. Januar 1973 • Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 12. Juli 1979 Original artist: • diese Datei: Jwnabd • File:Flag_of_East_Timor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Flag_of_East_Timor.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ecuador.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Flag_of_Ecuador.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.presidencia.gob.ec/pdf/Simbolos-Patrios.pdf Original artist: President of the Republic of Ecuador, Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art • File:Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: [[user:]] • File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP to match the image at [1]. • File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File based on the specification given at [1]. 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Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_France.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_French_Guiana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_French_Guiana.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Madden • File:Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg Li- cense: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Gabon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ghana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) • File:Flag_of_Grenada.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Grenada.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SKopp Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Guatemala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:K21edgo • File:Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 63

• File:Flag_of_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Flag_of_Guinea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Guyana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_Guyana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Coat of arms from: Coat of arms of Haiti.svg by Lokal_Proﬁl and Myriam Thyes Original artist: (colours and size changes of the now deletied versions) Madden, Vzb83, Denelson83, Chanheigeorge, Zscout370 and Nightstallion

• File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/chi/r_flag/index.html Original artist: Tao Ho • File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others • File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/ lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: • This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Office of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist: Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie • File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/IsraelAt50/Pages/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem.aspx Original artist: “The Pro- visional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. • File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: The source code of this SVG is valid. • File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi- • File:Flag_of_Kenya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.kenyarchives.go.ke/flag_specifications.htm Original artist: User:Pumbaa80 • File:Flag_of_Kiribati.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kiribati.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for the Sodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain. • File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Latvia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi. 64 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

• File:Flag_of_Lesotho.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Flag_of_Lesotho.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Liberia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Version 1: SKopp Original artist: Government of Liberia • File:Flag_of_Libya.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Flag_of_Libya.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Flag of Libya (1951).svg Original artist: The source code of this SVG is valid. • File:Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Flag_of_Liechtenstein.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuﬀKopp • File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www. legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Macau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Flag_of_Macau.svg License: Public domain Contributors: GB 17654-1999 Original artist: PhiLiP • File:Flag_of_Macedonia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Flag_of_Macedonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Madagascar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Malawi.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version) Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

• File:Flag_of_Maldives.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Maldives.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Mali.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Malta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Mauritius.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006 • File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public domain Contributors: vector coat of arms image traced by User:Nameneko from Image:Moldova gerb large.png. Construction sheet can be found at http://flagspot.net/flags/md.html#const Original artist: Nameneko and others • File:Flag_of_Monaco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian ﬂag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS 6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1] Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Montenegro.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: B1mbo, Froztbyte • File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco

Moroccan royal decree (17 November 1915), BO-135-ar page 6 Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Mozambique.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Li- cense: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 65

• File:Flag_of_Namibia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Flag_of_Namibia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Nauru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Flag_of_Nauru.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Source: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Nepal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Flag_of_Nepal.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, Article 5, Schedule 1 [1] Original artist: Drawn by User:Pumbaa80, User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass and many others • File:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: Law About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua Original artist: C records (talk · contribs) • File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: The “burnt orange” color in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pan- tone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF. Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p. • File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Niue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Niue.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_North_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_North_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_Oman.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Flag_of_Oman.svg License: CC0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Palau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Palau.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Nightstallion assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Flag_of_Panama.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, FOTW Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_Paraguay.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: This file is from the Open Clip Art Library, which released it explicitly into the public domain (see here). Original artist: Republica del Paraguay • File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick • File:Flag_of_Peru_(state).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Flag_of_Peru_%28state%29.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: National Emblems of Peru - National Flag (State) Original artist: Republic of Peru - Republica del Peru • File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Colum- bano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources) • File:Flag_of_Qatar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Flag_of_Qatar.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- • File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? 66 CHAPTER 8. INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE

• File:Flag_of_Rwanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.primature.gov.rw/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_download/gid,859/Itemid,95/ Original artist: This vector image was created with Inkscape by Zscout370, and then manually edited. • File:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flag designed by Đorđe Andrejević-Kun[3] • File:Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Saint_Kitts_and_ Nevis.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work in accordance with http://www.vexilla-mundi.com/saint_kitts_and_nevis.htm Original artist: User:Pumbaa80 • File:Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, Government of Saint Lucia Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Flag_of_ Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. SKopp assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Flag_of_Samoa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Samoa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_Principe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_ Principe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: the actual flag Original artist: Unknown • File:Flag_of_Senegal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original upload from Openclipart : Senegal. However, the current source code for this SVG file has almost nothing in common with the original upload. Original artist: Original upload by Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/o_skupstini/simboli/simboli.asp. Original artist: sodipodi.com • File:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Singapore.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing was based from http://app.www.sg/who/42/National-Flag.aspx. Colors from the book: (2001). The National Symbols Kit. Singapore: Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts. pp. 5. ISBN 8880968010 Pantone 032 shade from http://www.pantone.com/pages/pantone/colorfinder.aspx?c_id=13050 Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Sint_Maarten.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG source for the coat of arms is from File:Coat of arms of Sint Maarten.svg, with background colors and dimensions hand-drawn per previous versions. Original artist: User:Shervinafshar, based on work of User:Washiucho. Earlier non-PD versions by User:SiBr4, User:Fry1989, and User:Andrwsc. • File:Flag_of_Slovakia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; here, colors Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Slovenia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work construction sheet from http://flagspot.net/flags/si%27.html#coa Original artist: User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see upload history • File:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Per specifications in the Constitution of South Africa, Schedule 1 - National flag Original artist: Flag design by Frederick Brownell, image by Wikimedia Commons users • File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and color guidelines (Russian/English) Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_South_Sudan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Flag_of_South_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.fotw.us/flags/ss.html / Flag of the World Original artist: User:Achim1999 • File:Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Flag_of_South_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: (see history) Original artist: (many, see history) • File:Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_South_Yemen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SLS 693 - National flag of Sri Lanka Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83 8.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 67

• File:Flag_of_Suriname.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Flag_of_Suriname.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn according Description of ﬂag and Corporate design guidelines - National ﬂag colours. Original artist: Un- known • File:Flag_of_Swaziland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Flag_of_Swaziland.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet

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