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in the tension between the theatrical and the mundane. publications, including French Glamour, the New York His debut fashion show’s innovative staging emphasized Times, Le Figaro, and Essence. His clothing played a promi- the brand’s raw, edgy aesthetic. Kouyaté presented the nent role in Robert Altman’s film Ready To Wear (1994), show outside the conventional precincts of the fashion in which a fashion show in an underground subway sta- industry, at a public park. He did not use a runway or a tion presents XULY.Bët clothing as the work of one of sound system. Instead, models emerged from a bus that the film’s main characters. The designer’s personal back- pulled up at the site, each carrying a boombox that pro- ground as well as his work drew substantial attention from vided her own soundtrack to the event. No stage, no both the fashion and the popular press, particularly in the lights, no delineation of theatrical space separated the au- early 1990s. In the early 2000s Kouyaté continued to de- dience from the performers, just as the garments them- sign actively, marketing his clothing through several selves were but subtly separated from their previous, shops in Paris and for international clients. mundane lives. See also Fashion Designer; Fashion Shows; Recycled Tex- tiles; Textiles, African. African Elements Kouyaté’s work incorporates aspects of his own biogra- BIBLIOGRAPHY phy, which encompasses contemporary, urban Africa as Jacobs, P. “Xuly Bet: A Brother from the ‘Mother’ Turns Fash- well as the fashion worlds of Paris and New York. His ion Inside Out.” Essence 15 (May 1994): 26–27, 144. In- company’s name draws immediate attention to his troduction to Kouyaté’s background and his work, with African origins. In Oulouf (or Wolof), the predominant several illustrations. language of Senegal, xuly bët is a colloquial term that can Renaux, P. “Pari Dakar de Xuly Bët.” Glamour (April 1994). Fo- be roughly translated as “voyeur,” or, in a more nuanced cuses on the designer’s African background, documenting definition, as someone who breaks through appearances a trip home to Dakar to visit his family. to see the reality beneath the surface. This notion, peel- Revue Noire 27 (March 1998). Special issue on African fashion ing back the exterior to reveal the often uneven surfaces includes a large spread devoted to XULY.Bët, with gener- layered beneath, is embodied by Kouyaté’s exposed seams ous illustrations of his recycled line of clothing. An im- and loose threads. He has cited his roots in Africa as an portant publication for readers seeking insight into African important source of inspiration for his recycled fashion, fashion design as an international phenomenon. reflecting a widespread African ethic of reusing resources Spindler, A. M. “Prince of Pieces.” New York Times (2 May that is born out of necessity. Kouyaté draws on Africa in 1993): section 9, pp. 1, 13. Most substantive coverage of a more literal sense, using African fabrics in several of his the designer available, including an overview of his career designs and, in the early twenty-first century, working and extensive quotations from interview with Kouyaté. with dyers in Mali to create fabrics that he uses in his Van der Plas, E., and M. Willemsen, eds. The Art of African other clothing lines. Fashion. Lawrenceville, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1998. Kouyaté is one of a handful of African designers featured International Presence in this important publication. Several essays by academics and fashion practitioners situate African fashion design Kouyaté is among the few African designers to have within global markets. achieved an international profile; XULY.Bët clothing and the designer himself have been featured in prominent Victoria L. Rovine

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YAMAMOTO, YOHJI Yohji Yamamoto is widely re- Early Career garded as ranking among the greatest fashion designers Yamamoto was born in Tokyo on 3 October 1943. He of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. He never knew his father, who died in Manchuria during is one of the few in his profession who have successfully World War II; he was reared by his widowed mother broken the boundaries between commodity and art, by Yumi. A dressmaker by trade, Yumi suffered what Ya- creating clothing that ranges from basics like athletic mamoto recalls as the indignities of a highly skilled worker shoes and denim jeans to couture-inspired gowns that are whose gender and station in life afforded her little op- nothing short of malleable mobile sculptures. Lauded as portunity to make a rewarding living or to obtain recog- a blend of master craftsman and philosophical dreamer, nition for her talents. Yumi encouraged her son to become Yamamoto has balanced the seemingly incompatible ex- an attorney—he graduated with a law degree from Keio tremes of fashion’s competing scales. University but never practiced. The lure of becoming a designer, however, pulled Yamamoto into fashion. Despite the magnitude of his talent and the importance of his work, however, Yamamoto has yet to be the After completing his university studies in 1966, Ya- subject of serious critical discourse among fashion jour- mamoto studied fashion design at the famous Bunka- nalists and historians. It is perhaps ironic that the only fukuso Gakuin, a fashion institute in Tokyo. Despite his probing analysis of Yamamoto—both the man and the skills as a master craftsman, he started his career as an designer—came from someone who possessed little anonymous creator around 1970. Two years later he mar- knowledge of or interest in fashion. Wim Wenders, the keted his own designs under the label Y’s. Clothing un- renowned German filmmaker, produced a documentary der this label is now considered to be Yamamoto’s in 1989 entitled Notebook on Cities and Clothes. Through- lower-priced, or “bridge,” line. In 1977 he presented his out the film, Wenders dramatized Yamamoto’s creative Y’s collection for the first time in Tokyo. Along with his genius by setting the words of the late German philoso- compatriot Rei Kawakubo, he designed his first high-end pher Walter Benjamin against the urban backdrops of women’s ready-to-wear collection in 1981 and presented both Tokyo and Paris. Yet the director’s probing failed it in Paris. Over the next two years, Kawakubo and Ya- to illuminate the crucial elements that constituted Ya- mamoto pioneered the idea of deconstructed fashions. mamoto’s fashions. Neither the elements particular to the Their revolutionary aesthetic shocked the world with art of dressmaking nor Yamamoto’s particular aesthetic clothing that appeared to be unfinished, tattered, and contributions were discussed. haphazardly put together. Yamamoto’s loose, flowing sil- houettes and ubiquitous use of black further enhanced Inspiration from the intangible, mainly images of his groundbreaking work, which became the favored look historical dress from sources such as photographs, has of the 1980s urban aesthetic. In 1984 Yamamoto pre- been a mainstay in Yamamoto’s work. The crumpled col- sented a deluxe menswear line that incorporated many of lar in a August Sander portrait, the gauzy dresses cap- these same elements. tured by Jacques-Henri Lartigue while vacationing on the Riviera, and the gritty realism of Françoise Huguier’s Yamamoto’s Aesthetic travels among the Inuit of the Arctic Circle are but a few From the moment Kawakubo and Yamamoto presented examples. It is not surprising that the riveting catalogs their first fashion collections to an international audience created for each of Yamamoto’s high-end ready-to-wear in the 1980s, they were defined as Japanese designers. women’s collections have included the work of such no- Virtually every article about them as well as the critical table photographers as Nick Knight, Paolo Roversi, Inez reviews of their collections began by describing them as van Lamsweerde, and Vinoodh Matadin. Whether Ya- inseparable from and encapsulated in their Asian heritage. mamoto is evoking historicism via the ancien régime or Many journalists inaccurately assumed that they pro- the belle epoque, or ethnic garments made of richly wo- duced clothing worn by all Japanese people. The reality ven silks and woolens, he has come to epitomize the vast was that the loose, dark-colored, and seemingly tattered range of creative possibilities in the art of dress. garments were as startling to the average Japanese as they

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were to the Western audiences that first viewed them. Cristóbal Balenciaga, often created day suits, dresses, ball Although Yamamoto’s work changed and evolved over gowns, and coats devoid of any ornament. Charcoal gray, the next two decades, it retained several key elements— navy blue, and of course black woolens were often molded the ambiguities of gender, the importance of black, and and manipulated into pure sculptural forms that displayed the aesthetics of deconstruction. both marvelous engineering and tailoring techniques as well as a love of dramatic form. Gender ambiguity. Yamamoto’s professed love of and respect for women has not been evident to many because Deconstructed styles. The connection between decon- his clothes were often devoid of Western-style gender struction, originally a French philosophical movement, markers. He expressed an aversion to overtly sexualized and contemporary fashion design has yet to be fully ex- females, and often dressed women in designs inspired by plored by fashion historians. There is no direct evidence men’s wear. Such cross-gender role-playing has long that such ideas were the motivating force in the early de- been a part of Japanese culture, and a persistent theme signs of Yohji Yamamoto. It is more likely that he com- among performers and artists for centuries. The fact that bined a mélange of influences: the devastation and rapid Yamamoto on more than one occasion chose women as rebuilding of Japan in the postwar era; the revolt against models for his menswear fashion shows was another small bourgeois tastes; an affiliation with European street piece of his sexual identity puzzle. styles; and a desire, like that of the early proponents of Even when his later work embraced the sweeping abstraction in fine art, to find a universal expression of romanticism of postwar Parisian haute couture, Ya- design by erasing elements that assign people to specific mamoto’s historical recontextualizations contrasted socioeconomic and gender roles. sharply with the work of other marquee designers. De- Aesthetically, the dressmaking techniques that gave liberately absent from his runway presentations were the Yamamoto’s work its deconstructed look were also related requisites of the contemporary high-fashion wardrobe for to traditional non-Western methods of clothing con- women: high heels, rising hemlines, plunging necklines, struction as well as to the concept that natural, organic, and sheer fabrics. These characteristics might be the rea- and imperfect objects can also be beautiful. Yamamoto’s son that Yamamoto’s dark tailored suits and white shirts clothes masked the body with voluminous folds and lay- for both men and women have been some of his most ers of dark fabric; in addition, they diminished such evi- enduring and compelling products. Worn by Western dent elements of clothing as frontality and clear men of all classes for two centuries, the dark-colored suit demarcations between the inside and outside of a garment. and the white shirt have a combined ability to convey Yamamoto’s version of deconstruction fashion more both sexuality and power through conformity. This blend likely began by questioning the very essence of his post- of erotic appeal and strength was a perfect template for war existence. Japan’s initial efforts to rebuild its physical Yamamoto to express his postwar version of male and fe- and political infrastructure, and its later economic ascen- male sexuality. dancy, did provide the right environment to foster the tal- Basic black. No color in the fashion palette has been as ents of an amazingly creative generation that included the important in the work of Yohji Yamamoto as black. This architects Tadao Ando, Arata Isozaki, and Kenzo Tange early unrelenting black-on-black aesthetic earned his as well as the furniture designer Shiro Kuramata and the devotees the nickname karasuzoku, or members of the fashion designers Yamamoto and Kawakubo. crow tribe. Black has certain associations in the history It seems more plausible that Yamamoto was fueled of the West that have been processed through a kaleido- by the anger typical of the generation that spearheaded scope of self-conscious modernist or postmodernist the- the social changes of the 1960s. Thus he arrived at a new ories and assumptions. As a result of historical vision for fashion that railed against the bourgeois con- recontextualization, black had by the last quarter of the formity that resulted from what Yamamoto obliquely re- twentieth century acquired a range of meanings, such as ferred to as American colonialism. Though the exact poverty and devastation for some fashion critics, and so- elements that led him to the creation of his particular briety, intellectualism, chic, self-restraint, and nobility in style may not be known, more than one journalist con- dress for others. cluded that Yamamoto’s clothing reflected a kind of anger The aesthetic attributes of traditional Japan and con- that evoked images of nuclear holocaust survivors and temporary culture, as well as the role black plays in fash- were labeled the “Hiroshima bag lady” look by some. A ion, can be seen in the color’s association with poverty. few critics even made an alliance between his fashions For some observers, black is an illusion of—or perhaps and a coven of witches. an allusion to—rusticity, simplicity, and self-restraint. In Despite such misunderstandings, the designs of Ya- Japan, black dyes may connote rural origin as well as no- mamoto paralleled the rise of punk fashions and street ble warrior status. An important connection between style, and their connection with mid-twentieth-century black and the symbolic associations of old Europe, tradi- urban degradation. In fact, more than one writer noted tional Japan, and the modern urban landscape may also that the look established by Yamamoto was neither a pure be derived from the couture atelier. Yamamoto, like invention on his part nor a derivative of Asian culture.

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Such London-based designers as Malcolm McLaren and After the success of this collection, he was honored as in- Vivienne Westwood, like other disenfranchised English ternational designer of the year by the Council of Fash- youth, turned clothing into a medium for political ex- ion Designers of America in New York City in June 2000. pression and were at the forefront of the punk movement. Yamamoto continued to evolve in the early 2000s. Yamamoto’s ability to see beauty in degradation, His spring 2003 collection was not shown during the however, and to strip things to their foundation in a Paris ready-to-wear fashion week in October of 2002, but search for the inherent integrity of each object is pro- instead during the haute couture presentations earlier foundly Japanese. This aesthetic of imperfection, incom- that year. Simultaneously, he became the designer for a pleteness, or poverty, is a hallmark of wabi-sabi. A new line of clothing produced in conjunction with the worldview that originated in Zen Buddhism, wabi-sabi Adidas sportswear company called Y’s 3. This agreement was later applied to the creation of objects characterized came about after Yamamoto first designed an astound- by external lack of ornamentation and internal refine- ingly successful set of trainers, athletic shoes, and sports ment (wabi) and an emphasis on the ephemeral nature of shoes for Adidas in 2001. all things that eventually leads to decay (sabi). While Ya- mamoto did not formally study wabi-sabi, he is the prod- See also Benjamin, Walter; Fashion, Theories of; Film and Fashion; Japanese Fashion; Punk; Street Style; West- uct of his culture, one that is arguably the most wood, Vivienne. aesthetically refined in the world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Mature Work Armstrong, Lisa. “Deconstructing Yohji.” British Vogue (August The initial impact of Yamamoto’s designs began to di- 1998): 134–137. minish as the 1980s came to a close; the designer fell into Chua, Lawrence. “Exploring the Yamamoto Cult.” Women’s a self-professed decline for the next few years. By the Wear Daily (April 1988). mid-1990s, however, Yamamoto experienced a resur- Hildreth, Jean C. A New Wave in Fashion: Three Japanese De- gence of creativity rare in contemporary fashion. His out- signers, March 1–April 24, 1983. Phoenix, Ariz.: The Ari- put was vastly different from his work of a decade earlier, zona Costume Institute of the Phoenix Art Museum, 1983. in that it fully embraced the most lyrical and fleeting el- Hirokawa, Taishi. Sonomama Sonomama: High Fashion in the ements of historical modes. His designs became a blend Japanese Countryside. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, of street-style realism and Victorian romanticism, re- 1988. shaped and reconfigured for a contemporary audience. Kondo, Dorinne. About Face: Performing Race in Fashion and The- At both extremes, Yamamoto retained his very personal ater. New York: Routledge, 1997. vision—creating clothes for an ideal woman who, ac- Koren, Leonard. New Fashion Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha Inter- cording to the couturier, does not exist. national, 1984. Perhaps the most potent quality that Yamamoto dis- Martin, Richard. “Destitution and Deconstruction: The Riches played was his brilliant ability to recontextualize the fa- of Poverty in the Fashions of the 1990s.” Textile and Text miliar into wearable creations that came as close to works 15 (1992): 3–12. of art as any clothing designed in the early 2000s. Al- Takashina, Shuji. “Japonism: An Aesthetic of Shadow and Frag- though he created several lines of clothing for both men ment.” In Japonism in Fashion. Edited by A. Fukai. Tokyo: and women, it was his couture-inspired creations for Kyoto Costume Research Foundation, 1996. women that manifested this concept most completely. Wenders, Wim. Aufzeichnungen zu Kleidern und Städten (Note- One of the best fashion presentations in recent memory book on Cities and Clothes.) Berlin: Road Movies Filmpro- was the spring 1999 collection that Yamamoto created duktion in cooperation with Centre National d’Art et du around the theme of a wedding. All the Yamamoto hall- Culture Georges Pompidou, 1989. marks were evident: the play on androgyny as seen Patricia Mears through an array of masculine-tailored suits; the reliance on a neutral color scheme of black, white and khaki; and magnificent three-dimensional gowns that evoked both the Victorian era and the golden age of twentieth-cen- YARNS Yarns are linear structures that are formed by tury Parisian haute couture. The glory of the garments collecting and twisting fibers together. Converting fibers was further enhanced by the lyrical presentation itself, into yarns is a necessary step for weaving or knitting fab- with the highlight being a young bride who performed a rics. Yarns can be classified in a number of ways: by type, reverse striptease. Rather than disrobing, as is usually the size, number of parts, or similarity of parts. These clas- case in fashion shows, the mannequin, dressed in an un- sifications determine the specification of yarns for end- adorned hoop-skirted wedding gown, pulled her mantle, use textile products with different properties. Yarn a pair of sandals, a hat, gloves, and finally, a bouquet of structure can affect fabric strength, appearance, comfort, flowers from pockets hidden in the gown. Fittingly, the feel or hand, and drape among other properties. usually jaded fashion journalists found themselves shed- The two main types of yarns are staple and filament. ding tears before giving Yamamoto a standing ovation. Staple yarns, also called spun yarns, are made of fibers

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that come in short discrete lengths. All natural fibers ex- are deposited by centrifugal force in the groove and then cept silk are staple fibers. Filament yarns are collections drawn off through a center delivery tube. The operation of long continuous filament fibers. Silk is such a fiber, bears some resemblance to a cotton candy machine. As and manufactured fibers are produced in filament form. the fine candy fibers are formed they are caught and col- The manufactured filaments can then be cut into staple lected. In rotor spinning, fibers are caught by the “open lengths if staple yarns are desired. end” of a previously formed yarn and the rapid rotation of the rotor twists the yarn. Rotor spun yarns are more Staple Yarns uniform than ring-spun yarns, but not as strong. In ad- Staple fibers are formed into yarns by a series of pro- dition, they cannot be made in very fine sizes. Most cot- cessing steps that have been developed over time for spe- ton yarns for denim are rotor spun. cific fibers. Cotton, wool, and linen yarns all have their Friction spinning is another open-end method. A distinctive processes. The cotton system is the most com- mixture of air and fibers is fed between two drums ro- monly used, for both cotton and cotton-blend yarns. tating in opposite directions. This inserts twist into the In the cotton system, fibers from bales are first run fibers, much as spinners did in ancient times by rolling through rollers with spikes to pull the clumps apart, and clumps of fibers between their fingers. are then further separated in an opening and cleaning An increasingly popular spinning method is air-jet step where trash is removed. This is followed by carding, spinning. Yarns are formed by jets of air forcing the outer in which the fibers are passed through fine wires or pins layers of fibers in a sliver to wrap around the interior to individually separate and align them. They emerge as fibers. Air-jet yarns are weaker than ring or open-end a loose collection of aligned fibers known as a sliver. The spun yarns, but can be made in finer sizes. sliver can then be combed, an optional step in which the carded fibers are pulled through fine combs to remove Filament Yarns shorter fibers and arrange the longer fibers into a paral- Filament yarns are made by gathering together long con- lel form. Cotton fabrics made from these yarns are tinuous fibers, with or without inserting twist. Filament smooth and soft and often labeled “fine combed cotton.” yarns produce fabrics that are smooth and slippery to the As can be imagined, combed cottons are more expensive touch. They are also stronger than staple yarns, which is than yarns that are carded only. After several processes why before the discovery of synthetic manufactured fibers in which the carded or carded and combed fibers are parachutes were made of silk. Because of their value, the drawn through rollers, they are slightly twisted to form parachutes used during World War II were often re- a soft rope called a roving. The roving is tightly twisted trieved by civilians and made into garments. Filament in the final spinning step. yarns are also associated with luxury fabrics such as satin Preparation of wool fibers for spinning is similar. and velvet, which were traditionally made with silk fila- Fibers that are carded only are formed into woolen yarns, ment yarns. which are soft and bulky. Worsted yarns, on the other To change their properties, filament yarns can be hand, are combed and also subjected to a special draw- textured or “bulked.” This makes them softer, stretchier, ing process, gilling, where pins help to straighten the more resilient, and more like staple yarns. Textured yarn fibers. Worsted yarns are more tightly twisted in the fi- fabrics are also more permeable to moisture and air, in- nal spinning step, making them smoother and more com- creasing the comfort to the wearer. Common texturing pact in appearance. methods are: false twist, in which the yarns are twisted, There are several techniques for inserting the final heated to set the twist, and then untwisted; and air jet, twist in staple yarns. Ring spinning is the most mature in which the slack filaments in the yarn are entangled and spinning method. The yarn is wound on a bobbin or spool formed into loops by jets of air. False twist imparts stretch that rotates at a high rate of speed. The rotation twists as well as the look and feel of staple yarn fabrics. Air jet the loose rope of fibers into a strong yarn. Ring spinning yarns are soft and bulky but have little stretch. The poly- gets its name from a ring that travels up and down the ester double-knit fabrics of the 1960s were made of tex- spindle. A small clip, the traveler, holds the yarn and tured filament yarns. moves around the ring. Ring-spun yarns are smoother and stronger than yarns made by other spinning techniques, Yarn Size and can also be made in finer sizes. Ring spinning is slower Over the years different systems have emerged for des- and therefore more expensive than other methods, ignating the size of textile yarns. The oldest systems are prompting garment makers to identify ring-spun yarns in “indirect,” in that the higher the number is the smaller, products such as cotton underwear and T-shirts. or finer, the yarn. Cotton count is an indirect system for Another process for twisting staple yarns is open-end specifying the size of cotton and cotton-blend yarns. It spinning. In its most common manifestation, rotor spin- is the number of 840-yard lengths of yarn in one pound. ning, the fiber roving is carried by an air stream into a As spinning processes were developed for wool and linen, rapidly spinning rotor with a V-shaped groove. The fibers specific yarn numbering systems were created for these

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Yarn dyeing. A worker lowers four spoils of yarn into a dyeing vat with a remote control. Textile styles such as bouclé and tweed can be produced by blending different color yarns. © ROGER BALL/CORBIS. REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION.

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fibers, differing in the lengths that are specified per Color can be used to produce or enhance novelty ef- pound of yarn. fects. In plied yarns for example, single yarns of differ- These indirect systems for yarn size were based on ent colors can be twisted together. This effect is enhanced English measuring units (yards, pounds); the move to- in bouclé, ratiné, or corkscrew yarns. Tweed fabrics are ward universally accepted metric units has resulted in made from novelty single yarns; the novelty lies in com- yarn numbering systems in which the yarn count varies bining different colored fibers in a single spun yarn. directly with the size. Tex is the weight in grams of 1,000 meters of yarn, while denier is the weight in grams of Blended Yarns 9,000 meters. Tex is the more general term as it can be Blended yarns, which contain mixtures of fibers, have sev- used for sizing both staple and filament yarns. eral purposes. Self-blending is done to more thoroughly mix fibers, particularly natural fibers, from different An understanding of the relative sizes of yarns can be sources. This minimizes the possibility of concentrat- used to determine appropriate end-uses for fabrics. Prop- ing fiber defects in one section or batch of yarn. Another erties such as strength, smoothness, drape, and wrinkle purpose of blending is to combine the properties of dif- resistance are affected by yarn size. For example, heavier ferent fibers, for example the comfort and absorbency of yarns are used in denim fabrics for jeans and pants be- cotton with the strength and wrinkle resistance of poly- cause both strength and some degree of wrinkle resistance ester. Cotton-polyester blends are popular fabrics and are desired. Cotton blouses and shirts, however, would re- are usually made by mixing the fibers at some stage of quire smaller yarns for a smooth comfortable feel. processing. Fibers can be blended when bales or boxes are Number and Similarity of Parts opened and cleaned prior to carding. They can also be Yarns can be single, ply, or cord. Single yarns are made mixed by drawing several slivers together. Repeated from staple or filament fibers twisted together. Ply yarns drawing of blended slivers enhances the mixing. Yarns are two single yarns twisted together. They are stronger for Harris tweed fabrics are made by blending different and smoother than singles. Most sewing threads are ply colored wool fibers in large chambers supplied with air yarns. The strength and smoothness help the threads with- streams, prior to carding. stand the friction and mechanical action during sewing. Twisting two or more ply yarns together forms cord yarns, See also Spinning; Spinning Machinery; Wool. which are stronger still. Cords are mostly destined for in- dustrial uses such as cables and ropes, although they can BIBLIOGRAPHY be used in apparel for different effects and textures. Demir, Ali, and Hassan Mohamed Behery. Synthetic Filament If all parts of a yarn, be it single, ply, or cord, are Yarn. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1997. uniform in size and have a regular surface, the yarn is Goswami, Bhuvenesh Chandra, J. G. Martindale, and F. L. termed a simple yarn. Varying the structure of one or Scardino. Textile Yarns: Technology, Structure, and Applica- more of the parts of a yarn produces a novelty yarn. An tions. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1977. example of a novelty single yarn is a crepe yarn, which is Billie J. Collier over twisted to yield kinks and an irregular surface. A great variety of novelty yarns can be made by ply- ing two dissimilar singles or twisting similar singles in an YEOHLEE A native of Malaysia, Yeohlee Teng (1955– ) irregular structure. In a bouclé yarn, one ply (the effect came to the United States to study at the Parsons School yarn) forms irregular loops around the base yarn. Ratiné of Design in New York City. She worked in New York yarns are similar in structure, but the loops are regularly since her graduation from Parsons, and opened her own spaced along the yarn. The loops are visible in fabrics house, Yeohlee Inc., in 1981. made with bouclé or ratiné yarns. Another variation of Yeohlee’s strong and consistent approach to cloth- this is twisting the effect yarn irregularly around the base ing design has made her name synonymous with effi- yarn so that it creates knots or nubs in some places. These ciency, striking geometrical designs, and concise are called knot, spot, or nub yarns. Varying the degree of functionalism. All of her clothing patterns have incorpo- twist along single or ply yarn produces thick soft “slubs” rated the principle of maximum utilization of fabric. Her in the yarn. Slub yarns show these irregularities in the fab- signature garment was a one-size-fits-all hooded cape cut ric; one such fabric is shantung, often made of silk. Spi- from a single 3.25-yard piece of 60-inch fabric, using all ral or corkscrew yarns are made of two plies, one of which of the material with no waste whatsoever. This unique is heavy and soft, winding around a finer core yarn. cape brought her widespread attention when it was in- Chenille yarns are different from other structures in cluded in her first collection in 1981, and it has been in that a fabric is first woven, then cut into strips that form every one of her collections since then. Yeohlee also pi- the yarn. The strips have fiber ends sticking out on all oneered the use of high-tech fabrics and surface treat- sides and the yarn resembles a caterpillar. These fluffy ments to produce wrinkle- and stain-resistant clothes that ends protrude in fabrics containing chenille yarns. are easy to care for and easy to pack. She worked with a

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palette of colors that emphasized black, white, and earth YOUTHQUAKE FASHIONS A tag, a slogan, and a tones, though her collections were also often accented rallying cry, “Youthquake” exemplifies the slickness as with striking shades of green, red, and orange. Yeohlee well as the conviction, the spontaneous ebullience as well designed for the urban nomad, a postmodern customer as the commercial aggression that during the 1960s who demanded adaptable, functional, low-maintenance marked the triumph of London ready-to-wear. Powered clothing that looked appropriate and made a powerful by the momentum of a cresting youth culture, a cadre of impression in a wide range of situations. The designer British designers, mostly women, wrenched dominance was associated with the phrases “clothing as shelter” and away from the Paris couture houses and profoundly al- “intimate architecture.” tered global fashion. The output of Yeohlee Inc. was aimed at a relatively Youthquake fashion cannot be explored or under- small and loyal customer base rather than at the mass stood without acknowledging its social and political market; the company sold through a limited number of context. In Fifty Years of Fashion, Valerie Steele notes department stores and specialty shops in the early 2000s. that the “narrow, apolitical approach,” preferred by Yeohlee’s designs tended to be relatively uninfluenced by many fashion journalists “becomes insupportable when seasonal and annual fashion trends, but rather followed dealing with the 1960s” (p. 49). These clothes garbed the evolution of her own design vision. Her clothes ap- armies of protagonists in the ongoing narrative of pealed to the sophisticated, design-conscious clientele of women’s economic, sexual, and social independence, the early 2000s. and the consequent and reciprocal expansion of men’s Yeohlee’s work, often described as “architectural,” personas. In 1988, Mary Quant recalled: “Women had attracted the attention of critics and professionals in been building to this for a long time, but before the pill other fields of design. To an extent unusual for fash- there couldn’t be a true emancipation. It’s very clear in ion designers, her clothes were exhibited as design art the look, in the exuberance of the time—a rather child- in many museums and galleries in the 1990s and early like exuberance. “Wow—look at me!—isn’t it lovely? At 2000s. Her participation in the group show Intimate last, at last!’” (Conversation with author, December, Architecture: Contemporary Clothing Design, pre- 1988). sented at the Hayden Gallery at the Massachusetts In- Youthquake fashion was also a lever as well as a prod- stitute of Technology in 1982, won a great deal of uct of the increased social mobility engendered by the favorable attention for her work and was an important postwar Labor governments of Britain. Due to government- factor in the early success of her company. Her clothes subsidized tuition, an unprecedented number of students were also featured in solo shows at the Aedes East of humble origin were now able to pursue careers in the Gallery, Berlin; P.S. 1, New York City; the Nether- fine and commercial arts. At the Royal College of Art, lands Architecture Institute, Rotterdam; the London Madge Garland, formerly editor in chief of British Vogue, College of Fashion in association with the Victoria and had developed a graduate program in fashion design. Pro- Albert Museum, London; and the Museum at the Fash- fessor Janey Ironside became the program’s principal in ion Institute of Technology, New York, as well as in a 1956. “We were trained to see, to explore, to enjoy our- number of other group shows. Her work was also placed selves,” recalled RCA alumna Sally Tuffin, one half of in the permanent collections of the Costume Institute celebrated Youthquake design team (Marion) Foale and of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum at the Tuffin. “We felt as though we could go off and do any- Fashion Institute of Technology, and other major fash- thing, without restriction.” (Conversation with author, ion museums worldwide. November, 1988). In the words of the late fashion historian Richard Harrison Martin, Yeohlee “is one of the few practition- Boutiques ers of her art who has fully eschewed fashion hyperbole Throughout the 1950s, British fashion was dominated by to engage in a critical discourse about clothing in space the Paris couture, and the long shadow it cast over Lon- [and] on the body.” don couturiers such as Norman Hartnell and Hardy Amies. British manufacturers followed the parameters See also Fashion Museums and Collections; High-Tech laid out by the high end of fashion. But the emerging Fashion; Performance Finishes; Techno-Textiles. generation wanted something entirely different and entirely their own. They were out of sympathy with the BIBLIOGRAPHY mores of expensive made-to-order clothing. “The cou- Major, John S., and Yeohlee Teng, eds. Yeohlee: Work—Mater- ture was for kept women,” said Barbara Hulanicki, who ial Architecture. Mulgrave (Victoria), Australia: Peleus opened the London boutique Biba after working as a Press, 2003. fashion illustrator in the late 1950s and early ’60s. As she Steele, Valerie, and John S. Major. China Chic: East Meets West. sketched the couture for London newspapers, Hulanicki New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, objected as well to “the snobbery that was designed to 1999. make everyone feel inferior.” (Conversation with author, John S. Major November, 1988)

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mal and monochromatic uniforms. As the couture never could, Quant and her brethren acknowledged, even as- serted defiantly, that a primary design inspiration was the clothes of the young wandering the streets outside their workrooms. Quant was enamored, too, of the look of tap dancing students she’d watched as a child, as they practiced wearing short skirts, black tights, and patent-leather shoes. She kept on raising hemlines, and eventually Quant became known as “Mother of the Miniskirt.” Some accounts have her showing skirts above the knee by 1958, although Quant’s claims to precedence were challenged by Paris couturier André Courrèges. But who was first, or if there indeed was a first, is of peripheral importance. As far back as the late 1920s, hemlines were almost above the knee, and it was inevitable that after the long skirts of the late 1940s, they would rise again. As well, the inexorable shifts in society provided an historical imperative. In 1968, British fashion historian James Laver described the miniskirt as “the final word in the emancipation of women—in proving her economic independence…Long, hampering skirts were fetters to keep a woman at home. The very short ones scream: ‘I am stepping out’” (WWD March 22, 1968, p.8).

King’s Road Audrey Hepburn wears a Courrèges hat, 1965. Youthquake Eventually, there were three Bazaars in London. They designers pushed forward the mod look, which favored mono- survived until 1968, by which time Quant was presiding chrome and streamlined outfits. © DOUGLAS KIRKLAND/CORBIS. RE- PRODUCED BY PERMISSION. over a vast wholesale and licensing empire. Bazaar was a catalyst in King’s Road’s transformation into a stream- ing, coursing artery of fashion and display. Kiki Byrne, Youthquake fashion found its own staging ground as who had worked as Quant’s assistant, also opened a cel- the boutique replaced the couture salon as fashion incu- ebrated boutique there, where Hulanicki was enthralled bator. The Youthquake boutique was somewhere be- by Byrne’s “wonderful black dresses … shifts that weren’t tween a neighborhood dressmaker’s atelier and the over-designed” (conversation with author, November auxiliary shops maintained within some Paris couture 1988). Her generation wanted something much looser strongholds, in which accessories and related bagatelles both philosophically and structurally even than the un- might be sold. Youthquake fashion could be said to have fitted shape that was being shown in the Paris couture as begun in November 1955, when Quant, recently gradu- the 1950s progressed. The Youthquake silhouette was ated from art college, opened her boutique “Bazaar” in less determined, less sculptural, less constructed, and usu- the London district of Chelsea. A year later she started ally less decorated. “Our clothes had to be comfortable,” designing because she couldn’t find the type of clothes Tuffin recalled. “That was the main requirement” (con- she wanted to stock her store. versation with author, November 1988). “What was wrong at that stage was that fashion only While the Paris couture continued to take itself very came through one route,” Quant recalled, “which de- seriously, the kingdom of Youthquake teemed with hu- signed for a way of life which was very much that of a mor and irreverence. Quant gave droll names to her minority.”…She instead would design for “women who clothes and arranged gag tableau in her store windows. had a job and a fantasy life that took that job into ac- Foale and Tuffin put Y’s across the front of shift dresses— count” (conversation with author, December 1988). The “Y-fronts” were men’s underwear briefs. daughter of schoolteachers, Quant was married to Where pants for women were concerned, London Alexander Plunkett Greene, scion of an aristocratic lin- was more adventurous than the Paris couture or even the eage. Their marriage became emblematic of falling class “ye-yes,” the young ready to wear designers of Paris. The barriers. Foale and Tuffin trouser suit became a global proto- type—“The cut was incredible,” Betsey Johnson recalled, The Miniskirt Emerges “the best I’ve ever seen” (conversation with author, Au- Chelsea had long been a magnet for London artists and gust, 1987). They were strongly advocating trousers well bohemians, and during the 1950s it was a haunt for the before Courrèges’s pants-dominated couture collections city’s Beatnik culture. Quant paid tribute to their mini- of the mid-1960s. Yet in 1961, when they first began

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teaming pants instead of skirts with jackets, the combi- nation seemed so incongruous that “we actually fell about laughing,” Tuffin recalled. Lines were straight, shoulders natural, the jacket semi-fitted like riding attire, but devoid of constructed reinforcement. The trouser suit was one of Youthquake fashion’s most controversial provo- cations, but also one of its most enduring legacies. Youthquake fashion at its most egalitarian and in- clusive was represented by London’s Biba boutique, which Hulanicki opened with her husband Stephen Fitz- Simon in 1964. “We practically gave our things away to the public,” Hulanicki claimed. Biba practiced a rapid re- sponse to the trends of the street, alternately spurring and parrying the restless experimentation of the young. “I couldn’t stand wholesale,” Hulanicki said, “because it’s just between you and the buyer, and the buyers are always wrong, anyway. They want what sold last year, but we were working right on the moment, all the time” (conversation with author, November 1988). Biba kept mov- ing to larger and large quarters, its decor an iconoclastic mise-en-scène of oddments and antiques. With Biba, the Youthquake boutique reached its apogee as destination, event, parade ground, and crossroads. Although at Biba the use of inexpensive synthetics was dictated by the need to keep prices down, synthetics were also championed by Youthquake fashion for reasons other than necessity. Rather then simply a pallid imita- tion of natural fibers, they could manifest novel textures and appearances. Machine-tooled fabrics were celebrated as a threshold to a utopia of increased leisure and less- ened drudgery. Quant extolled their ability to look “like Mary Quant with model wearing miniskirt. Quant became a delicious soufflé that happened with a pure kind of joy— known “the Mother of the Miniskirt,” a garment that became without anybody’s tears on them” (conversation with au- very popular with young women in the late 1960s. © thor, December 1988). Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced by permission. Youthquake designers were certainly gratified by the boggled attention their work received by mainstream manufacturers, journalists, and even the couture itself. clothes that had been obligatory since the Regency epoch But they were primarily concerned with designing for of the nineteenth century. Young working-class men of themselves and their contemporaries, and because of the the late 1950s organized themselves into coteries—The exploding youth market, were able to do so without com- Teddy Boys, The Mods, the Rockers—each with its own promise. Certainly mature women could legitimately odd and distinctive uniform. Around this time, Scottish- complain that the ubiquitous narrow armholes of the born retailer John Stephens began to transform London’s Youthquake silhouette were not easy to fit into. Women Carnaby Street into a chockablock concentration of who’d been brought up on the postwar British rations stores inviting men to cast off the fetters of old. Once all were not robust. Hulanicki noted that the average but completely polarized, men’s and women’s clothes women’s shoe size during the 1960s was 3 1/2 or 4, while could now converge into unisex outfits designed to be twenty years later it had jumped two sizes. The some- worn by either sex. A colony of men’s and unisex bou- what androgynous silhouette privileged by Youthquake tiques sprung up around London, allowing men a selec- fashion was also an aesthetic and sexual statement, how- tion unlike anything previously imaginable. ever, a rejection of the overblown ideal of hourglass fem- ininity that been promulgated during the 1950s by the Clothing Anarchy couture and, perhaps more oppressively, by the imagery Biba’s enveloping of new world fashions in the warm of popular culture. patina of vintage furnishings could be seen to anticipate the historical bent of late ’60s London fashion. The city’s Men’s New Look archival closets were turned inside out and its streets be- Women’s reassessment of gender-specific clothes and became a fantastic masquerade. The rage for antique cloth- havior, unleashed from men a rejection of the dour ing, as well as the folklore and psychedelic panoply of the

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hippies dominated this second phase of Youthquake. The hippies’ sartorial revolution evolved from the fashions of the Beats and the British ready-to-wear sisterhood; its founding mothers smoothly negotiated this second phase of Youthquake. The late ’60s also saw the rise of designers like Ossie Clark and Zandra Rhodes, whose gossamer and fanciful creations recalled the romanticism of Arts and Crafts dress of the previous century. Vanguard London fashion of the late ’60s was more anarchic than earlier in the decade. The laissez-faire of the hippies necessitated less homogeneous internal consistency to broadcast its sartorial and cultural message.

The End of an Era By the mid-1970s, however, the very moniker Youthquake was superannuated. Many of the movers and shakers were in states of decompression or stately retreat. Quant was by now concentrating entirely on licensing. Foale and Tuffin disbanded. After Hulanicki and Fitz-Simon’s alliance with outside capital, Biba suffered a bitter demise not long after reaching its apotheosis taking over a huge Art Deco department store. On the other hand, designers like Rhodes thrived amid a London fashion environment that continued to appreciate the eccentric. Conversely, the more muted and classic designs of Youthquake’s Jean Muir became more popular than ever. The plucky young firebrands of Youthquake had suc- ceeded in radically upending global fashion markets. London itself has never returned to the fashion back- waters it was in the 1950s. The social and economic lev- eling proclaimed by Youthquake’s habits and habiliments were not defeated by reactionary political developments during Britain in the 1980s. The Youthquake movement will always be an inspiration to those who seek to de- mocratize fashion and tap the creative vitality of youth.