REVIEW ARTICLE THE SOLUTION OF THE DREAM: A NEW INTERPRETATION OF BILGAMES’ DEATH

Niek Veldhuis University of Groningen

The excavations in Tell Haddad (ancient demonstrate that my reading is plausible from a Meturan) have added significantly to our knowl- philological point of view and produces a coher- edge of the Sumerian Bilgames narratives.1 The ent story line. I will begin with my conclusions: fragments of Bilgames’ Death from Tell Hada the plot (§1). This new reconstruction of the nar- (Meturan) were recently published and edited by rative is justified through the discussion of some and Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (2000).2 Since key passages in §2. Finally, the new translation Kramer’s publication of some Nippur fragments (§3) is meant as a general orientation aid for the (1944), little progress had been made on this com- reader, and as a means to demonstrate my under- position for more than half a century. Although standing of the narrative. The Appendix presents the Meturan version differs in many details from a previously unrecognized fragment that could be the Nippur fragments, Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi joined to the main Nippur source. succeeded in establishing the correct order of all In many ways this article takes the edition of scenes and in presenting some version of the text Bilgames’ Death by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi for nearly all passages. (2000) as its point of departure, or as the giant’s Notwithstanding the dramatic progress in tex- shoulder on which to stand. The editors have pro- tual reconstruction, the basic story line remains vided a solid textual basis from which every fu- largely unclear. Given our imperfect knowledge ture discussion has to start. Moreover, they have of the grammar and lexicon, the reconstruction of collected and edited the most important texts and a Sumerian literary text is always fraught with passages that elucidate one or another aspect of uncertainties. In the present case, however, the the composition. If in the following pages one en- fragmentary nature of some of the pivotal passages counters more criticism than praise, this does not and the unusual orthography of the Meturan texts adequately represent my appreciation of the book. render all interpretations provisional. I hope to 1. The Plot of Bilgames’ Death My understanding of the narrative differs in one 1. See Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (1993a; 1993b). 2. A translation of Bilgames’ Death appeared in George central point from previous ones. Bilgames has a (1999: 195–208). George’s translation largely follows the un- dream in which he is told that he will die. This derstanding of the text by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi. The dream is then repeated word for word. We then ETCSL translation of Bilgames’ Death (Black et al. 1998), appeared in October 2000, after the present article was fin- learn that the “solution” of the dream was revealed ished. to Urlugal. This “solution” was interpreted by pre-

133 JCS 53 (2001) 134 NIEK VELDHUIS vious scholars as referring to an explanation of the The second part (M[92]–125 // M182–[216]) re- dream. The “second dream,” according to this read- fers to the future. It is a speech directed to Bilgames ing of the text, is in the voice of Bilgames, who about the burying and mourning rituals that will recounts his dream in order to obtain an exegesis. be performed on his behalf. The identity of the The building of the hero’s tomb follows the dream speaker is unfortunately unclear. In the Nippur interpretation. version it appears to be (N v 12). In the There are several problems with this reconstruc- Meturan version it may be the ghost Sisig (see tion of the narrative. First, Bilgames’ dream does below), but that remains uncertain. A few lines in not seem to require an interpretation, as it is clear the first part of the dream are repeated almost ver- enough by itself. Furthermore, the narrative func- batim in the second part. These lines are crucial tion of the dream and its interpretation, and their for the understanding of what the dream is all relation to the tomb building remain unclear. It will about. be argued instead that the repetition of the dream answers An and Enlil, who apparently pro- is the dream come true. Furthermore, the “solu- posed to save Bilgames from death. In his answer tion” of the dream and the building of Bilgames’ Enki reminds his peers about the flood story, and tomb is equivalent. The tomb will guarantee that he concludes that whatever his credentials, the name of Bilgames will not be forgotten. The Bilgames has to die. However, he will be made an hero’s anguish in the face of imminent death, a important person in the (80–86): recurring element in the dream, is thus resolved. In the closing passage, when he enters the under- 80 (Enki:) “Bilgames, among the spirits, dead world, we learn that Bilgames has accepted his fate in the underworld let him be the governor of and is in peace. the underworld, let him be the foremost of This interpretation produces a much more co- its spirits!” He (= Enki) rendered the ver- herent story line, which may be summarized as dict, he made the decision: “When you speak follows: it will be as important as the word of Ningiåzida~ and .” Then the young 1. Introduction: Bilgames on his deathbed lord, lord Bilgames 2. Bilgames’ dream: he learns that he will die 85 (like?) all of humanity, all that has life, was 3. The dream comes true heart-stricken! He was in despair, he was heart-stricken. 4. Urlugal builds Bilgames’ tomb 5. Bilgames enters the underworld in peace Previous translations took the subject of 82 to be Bilgames (“He [= Bilgames] will pass judge- My reading is based on the analysis and inter- ment, he will render verdicts”). Though this makes pretation of several passages. They will be dis- good sense in translation, there are two problems. cussed in detail in §2. First, the verbal forms in 82 are indicatives with mu- and ba-, not precatives as in 81. Second, line 2. Commentary on Some Key Passages 83 suddenly changes to the second person. This was explained as a lapsus by Cavigneaux and Al- M80–86 and 120–125: Bilgames’ Despair Rawi (2000: 43), but it may as well be understood Bilgames’ dream has two clearly distinct parts. as the ipsissima dicta by Enki in his verdict con- The first part (M49–87 // M140–177) refers to the cerning Bilgames. past: Bilgames’ accomplishments and the story of The structure of line 85 is uncertain and remains the Deluge. It takes place in the heavenly council. so in my rendering. Line 86, however, is crucial. REVIEW ARTICLE 135

The Meturan version has urfi nam-ba-ugfi-ga åag› literature, often in a context where death or the nam-ba-sag‹-ga. In the Nippur version the line ap- dead plays a prominent role. To bolster our argu- pears as urfi nam-ba-e-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba-e-sag‹- ment, therefore, we will study those attestations ge (N v16).3 In both versions the expression is to see whether a positive interpretation is possible interpreted by the editors as a second person nega- in those contexts, too. tive modal form: “Ne te meurtris pas le sein, ne The Incantation to was recently re-edited t’afflige pas le coeur!” Or, in George’s version: by Alster (1991).4 The structure and interpreta- “Be not in despair, be not heart-stricken.” In none tion of the text was elucidated by Geller (1995: of the attestations of this expression, however, is 107): “The central theme of this incantation is quite the second person expressed. It seems more natu- clear: the man is falsely accused by ghosts before ral, therefore, to translate a third person, and to Utu, although he is innocent, and as a result the understand /na/ as the positive modal prefix. dead have caused him problems. The incantation A very similar passage appears at the end of the is a plea to Utu to make a correct judgement re- second part of the dream. Bilgames is told that all garding the human victim.” I follow Geller in his his relatives will come to his funeral, but this fails general interpretation of the text, although in de- to ease his mind (lines M120–125 //M211–216): tail my understanding occasionally differs from his. 120 He was in despair, he was heart-stricken! The structure of the incantion is as follows: Now the Anuna counted him in their midst. 1) praise to Utu; 2) description of different types They counted him only second to the great of ghosts; and 3) plea to benevolent gods to act in gods! He (Enki) made him governor of the favor of the patient. The middle part, the list of underworld. He rendered the verdict, he made ghosts, begins with two rather lengthy sections, the decision: both introduced with tukum-bi: if it is a ghost of 125 “When you speak it will be as important as such-and-such a type. The first of these sections the word of Ningiåzida~ and Dumuzid.” begins (127): “if it is a hostile ghost who has not been released from the pit” (see Geller 1995: 105). This is the end of the dream after which This ghost receives a most negative treatment: as Bilgames wakes up. The significance of the he- long as he does not leave the victim’s body, he roes’ anguish in the lines translated above becomes will be cut off all supplies, and the Anuna are asked clear in the final passage of the story (see below to erase his name (128–33). The next section be- M296–305). gins: “if it is a benevolent family spirit”5 (134). The expression urfi nam-ba-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba- Funeral offerings are to be prepared, he is to be sig‹-e appears in a few other places in Sumerian supplied with bread, water, honey, beer and but- ter, and his name is to be invoked (135–41). This is the case of a benevolent ghost who is causing 3. Meturan: 86 (M¤) urfi nam-ba-ugfi-ga åag› n[am-…]; trouble because of negligence on the part of the 120 (M ) ur nam-[ba-ugfi-g]a? åag› nam-ba-sag -g[e?]; (Mfl) 1 5 3 survivors, and all that is needed is to restore the urfi [na]m-u¤-ga åag› nam-ba-sag‹?(U2)-ge; 176 almost com- pletely lost; 211 (M¤) urfi nam-ba-ug5-ga åag4 nam-ba-sig- proper supplies. The section, however, does not [ga/ge]. Nippur: N v16 (N⁄) [urfi] nam-ba-e-ug‡-e åag› nam- end here. It continues until line 170, where we find ba-e-sag‹-ge; (N¤) urfi nam-[…]-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba-e-sag‹- ge. The preverbal -e- in the Nippur version (discussed by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 2000: 20) may be a form of the 4. See also Alster (1993, photographs), and a partial par- locative-terminative infix: “he was in despair because of this.” allel in Wasserman (1997). The realizations of this infix in writing are studied systemati- 5. Reading u‹ tukum-bi gidim im-ri-a dug‹ dim¤, with cally in Karahashi (in press). Geller (1995: 104). 136 NIEK VELDHUIS the next tukum-bi. In between are three subcatego- man. Our line appears in 61: ~garza nig¤~ kur-ra zu ries, all belonging to the section “benevolent fam- urfi nam-ba-ug‡-e åag›!() sig‹-ge. Here the ily spirit.” Each of the subcategories is introduced negative-modal translation is impossible, because by lu¤ ug‡-e: the dead man. The first is 145: lu¤ the nominal form of the second verb does not al- ug‡-e nam-ba-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba-sig‹-e. This is our low such an interpretation.7 “The one who expression, for which see below. For him the text knows(?) the rules, the ways(?) of the underworld, prays that Utu will release his angry heart (åag› he is in despair, he is heart-stricken!” The text con- zu¤ keå¤-da-ni). The next (149) reads: lu¤ ug‡-e tinues: “Being that your intention is not to take ibila-ni-ra nig¤-gig-ga~ in-ak-e: “the dead man trouble (nig¤-gig)~ away to the Netherworld, as for causes trouble for his heir.” For this dead man the that man, may he not have anything causing him text prays that Utu may release his angry heart, trouble (nig¤-hul-dim‹(sic!)-ma).~ You (Utu)— and that he may have his food, drink, and rest. Fi- your gaze is on that man” (translation Geller 1995: nally, in 156, there is “the dead man who […] for 109). This interpretation again provides a nice op- his heir.” This may regard a family spirit who has position between the initial condition of the dead turned into an evil ghost. The language has turned man (he is in despair) and the plea to Utu. The to a negative tone: “By perjury [the ghost] caused context of our line in TRS 37 (line 20) does not evil to the man being present at (his) trial. He (the allow any conclusion, since the preceding passage ghost) crossed over the boundary of the gods, and is entirely broken away. causes evil and trouble” (161–63; translation The same expression is found in different con- Geller 1995: 107). The reaction is equally nega- text in the Eridu Lament (Green 1978: 140). tive: the ghost is to be cut off from his supplies, Kirugu 7,5–9 read: his name is to be erased (166–68), all in the same wording as the treatment for the hostile ghost that ∂en- lugal -ke› was not released from a pit. åag› ba-an-sig3 u[rfi-r]a-ni ba-ug‡ inim We may now look again at the expression that nitalam-na-åe‹ interests us here. Line145: lu¤ ug‡-e urfi nam-ba- ni¤-te-a-ni i-si-iå mi-ni-ib-la¤ åag› ka-tab-ba ug‡-e åag› nam-ba-sig‹-e does not mean “The dead ba-an-na¤ man should not be discouraged, should not lose lugal-gu⁄‚~ urfi nam-ba-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba- heart” (Alster 1991: 76), but rather: “this dead sig‹-ge man, he is in despair, he is heart-stricken!” The a-a ∂en-ki urfi nam-ba-ug‡-e åag› nam-ba- following prayer, that Utu may release his angry sig‹-ge heart makes good sense in context. The other attestations of our formula will be Enki, king of the Abzu dealt with in a briefer fashion. Two texts similar was heart-stricken, he was in despair. At to the Incantation to Utu both contain the expres- the word of his beloved sion: YBC 9875 (Cohen 1977),6 and TRS 37 he wailed over himself. He lay down and (Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 2000: 66–67). In the fasted. first the context is unclear. In particular the iden- My king is in despair, he is heart-stricken! tity of the second person (-zu and za-e) through- Father Enki is in despair, he is heart-stricken! out the text remains elusive, and may in fact refer at places to Utu and at other places to the dead 7. The grammatical problem was ignored by Cavigneaux 6. See Geller (1995: 107–9) and Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi and Al-Rawi (2000: 73). Cohen: “Your netherworld rites are (2000: 71–73). not distressing; [they are not(?)] depressing.” REVIEW ARTICLE 137

In the next lines Enki is invoked to return his The ritual(?) alluded to here remains opaque attention to his city, Eridu. This seems to be a more (see the discussion by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi appropriate sequence than the somewhat 2000: 19), but perhaps the text may be understood paternalizing: “O! My master! You must not be as saying that the task of light making is to be car- distressed. You must not be anxious. O! Father ried out now by Sisig, the ghost, rather than by the Enki! You must not be distressed.You must not young men. be anxious.” The expressions urfi—ug‡ and åag›—sig‹ occur M[116]–119 (//M207–210): Bilgames’ Relatives in other grammatical constructions, not relevant Come to Visit Him for the discussion here (see Tinney 1996: 138). The second half of Bilgames’ dream details the burial and mourning rituals that will be held for M88-91//178–181: The Role of Sisig him. It relates how relatives, friends, and the el- Sisig, the son of Utu, is a dream god. ders of the city will come to visit him. These lines Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (2000: 44–45) under- contain the verb -åi-du-un (variant mu-åi-du- stand the Meturan text as saying that Sisig reveals un). For instance, line [116]//207: e¤ nin·-a-ta nin or explains something to Bilgames in his dream. me-åi-du-un was translated in Cavigneaux and Al- It should be noted, however, that Sisig’s role in Rawi (2000) as, “De la maison de la soeur, la dreaming and dream explanation is very restricted, soeur ira vers toi.” This translation is problem- and may be a consequence of his primary charac- atic, since the verbal form contains an explicit sec- ter as an underworld god with ghostly characteris- ond person suffix. tics (see Butler 1998: 77–83).8 His role in the nar- The expression is elucidated by VS 17, 49 (+) rative is not entirely clear, and may even differ in 46, edited by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (2000: 67– the versions from Nippur and Meturan. The 71). This very difficult text has our expression in Meturan version seems to construct an opposition a bilingual fashion (section b 23''–27''): between the “young men” who do not make light, and Sisig who does (M88–[91]//178–81): [e¤ ni-na-ta] ni-in me-åe-du-u¤-ul [iå-tu bi-t]i a-ha-ti-åa a-ha-tu 88 åul guruå~ igi-du°-a u›-sakar-ra […] [i]-li-ka-ku e-ne-da nu igi-bi u› n[am-ba-ga¤-ga¤]~ ~ [e¤ s]i-sa-ta [( )] si-eå‹ me-åe-d[u-u¤-ul] 90 si-si-ig dumu ∂[utu-ke›] [iå]-tu bi-ti a-he¤-åu a-hu i-li-ka-k[u] [k]i-bi ku‹-ku‹-ga u›-åe‹ mi-ni-in-ga[r]~ The editors argue that -du-u¤-ul corresponds to 88 The youths and the strong men, on seeing the -du-un, and give other examples of the n/l alterna- lunar crescent, without him they should not tion. The Sumerian, therefore, expresses the sec- make light! ond person by a pronominal suffix associated with 90 Sisig the son of Utu makes light in its dark the ergative, thus producing a causative: “you places! make the sister come to you from the house of the sister.” In the Akkadian, however, the second per- son is expressed in the ventive plus dative suffix: “the sister came to you from the house of her sis-

8. Sisig appears in the Old Babylonian version of BÏt ter.” This phenomenon may tentatively be ex- Rimki (Geller 1995: 117: 13) and in Bilgames, , and plained by a difference in the two languages in the the Netherworld (Shaffer 1963: 86: 243). treatment of semantic roles. It has been argued that 138 NIEK VELDHUIS in Sumerian grammar the concept of “control” 130 The dream […] plays an important part (see Michalowski in press). ? In many languages different causative construc- Counsel […] tions are related to the degree of control exercised ? by the causee (see Comrie 1989: 180–83). Pre- On [this?] day […] as if the mother who sumably, the Akkadian does not use the Å-stem bore me here, because that would imply too much control 135 the goddess held me in her lap, by the causee (the dead person), as if he actually should I become like that again? made or ordered his relatives to come. On the other hand, the level of control may be higher than what The broken lines 129–133 may contain the is expressed in Sumerian by the directive infix hero’s reflection on the dream, perhaps seeking -åi-. They come “because of him” rather than sim- counsel. It is not quite sure whether Bilgames ply “for him.” There may have been some kind of speaks to somebody or is rather talking to him- confusion about the interpretation of the verbal self. It is therefore equally unclear whether the form already in ancient times. In Nfl reverse 8–14 following lines (136–139), again badly broken, (Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 2000: 22) the -un in are in the voice of the narrator or constitute the mu-e-åi-du-un is erased in several lines. This is answer of Bilgames’ unknown discussion partner: probably a hypercorrection, due to interference with the Akkadian. Line 118//209 is paralleled in 136 […] the great mountain …(?) Home of the Fish 14–15, where we find similar N[amtar who has no hands] and no feet, variation in the verbal forms (he¤-em-du; hu-mu- who [cannot be] escaped. un-åi-du-un). ? The [contents] of this dream were revealed M126–139: Bilgames Awakes by lord Nudimmud!

The reconstruction of the Meturan version is The preserved parts of the lines 136 and 138 only slightly helped here by a parallel in the Nippur are incomprehensible to me. Line 139 I read ≠ma- sources (N› and Nfl). Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi mu-da± [åag›]-bi en nu-dim¤-mud˛ igi-bi ba-ni-ib- recognised the well-known narrative formula that tu.9 The introduction of Nudimmud (Enki) here I follows dream reports (126–28). The contents of understand as saying: the contents of the dream 129–33 cannot be restored. The lines 134–35 were are inescapable. Immediately following this line again identified by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi as the dream comes true and the section 49–125 is being formulaic (note that the Nippur recension repeated word by word. has a slightly variant text). This is similar to Bilgames and Huwawa A90 and may express the M235–239: Urlugal Undoes the Dream hero’s feeling of vulnerability and weakness (thus Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 2000: 47). The fulfilment of the dream occupies the lines 140–216. The section immediately following 126 Then the young lord, lord Bilgames (217–229) is entirely lost, and where the text is woke up. [It was a dream! He shuddered. extant again it is fragmentary and difficult to un- He had been asleep!] derstand. Line 235 may perhaps be understood as: He [rubbed] his eyes with his hands. [There was a desolate silence.] 9. MUD is written muHI, instead of the usual muåenHI; tu is The dream […] for du°, as elsewhere in this text. REVIEW ARTICLE 139

235 X-a-ni [åu]-tag-ga-a-gin‡ ki-≠mah±-a-ni i‹- lems. First, Bilgames’ dream is rather straightfor- hur? ward. Unlike Dumuzid’s dream, the message of His […] designed his tomb as an his death is not delivered in symbolic images. The [adorn]ment. need for an interpreter, and the narrative function of such an interpretation are obscure. But the reconstruction is uncertain. What fol- The verb bur¤ was discussed by Oppenheim lows, however, is crucial for the understanding of (1956: 217–20). He argued that where used in con- the passage (236–238): nection with dreams it has three closely related meanings: 1) to tell a symbolic dream, in order to 236 digir-bi~~~~ ∂en-ki sag-[d]u nig¤ nigin¤-na-a-ba obtain an interpretation; 2) to interpret a symbolic 237 ma-mu-da ki-bur¤-[n]i igi-bi ba-ni-ib-du° dream; 3) to remove (ritually) the evil conse- 238 maå-gifl-bi~ ur-lugal-la bi-in-bur¤ lu¤ na-me quences of a dream. The latter meaning, accord- nu-bur¤-bur¤ ing to Oppenheim, is the more basic one and is implied in the others. In the meaning “to undo,” 236 Their god Enki, while they were dizzy(?) or “to make harmless,” the verb is also used in 237 revealed to them his10 solution of the dream. connection with , or with charms. The passage 238 Urlugal solved this nightmare while no man quoted above is followed by preparations for build- was able to solve it. ing Bilgames’ tomb. The end of the composition demonstrates that this tomb is the solution of the Line 236 is frustratingly unclear. Nig¤-nigin¤~~ main problem that the narrative addresses: that (œÏdΩnu) is “vertigo.” This makes good sense with Bilgames’ name will not be forgotten. The “solu- sag-du,~ but its function in the larger context re- tion” of the dream in 238, therefore, does not refer mains opaque. Perhaps one may read sag-[u]s¤~ in- to a (lost) preceding section that contained an in- stead of sag-[d]u~ and relate nig-nigin¤~ ~ to nigin~ = terpretation of Bilgames’ dream, but rather to what pahΩru/napharu: “Their god, Enki, the attendant follows: the building of a monument. of everything”(?). Admittedly, sag-us¤~ is not a A further problem with the interpretation of the likely epithet of Enki. passage in question is the identity of ur-lugal-la. I The interpretation of the function of this pas- propose to read this as a (common) abbreviation sage in its larger context hinges on the understand- of ur-lugal-la-(am‹), with the copula functioning ing of the verb bur¤ in line 238. Cavigneaux and as an emphasizing device. Ur-lugal is not “the Al-Rawi translate, “Ce rêve, (seul) le chien du roi king’s dog” but rather Bilgames’ son. Urlugal the l’avait interprété, nul autre n’avait su son of Bilgames appears in at least one version of l’interpréter.” the Sumerian King List (Jacobsen 1939: 90: 21)11 This translation naturally leads to the conclu- and in the Tummal Inscription (12–16): “Bilgames sion that the verbatim repetition of Bilgames’ built the Numunbura in Enlil’s temple. Ur-lugal, dream that precedes this passage is part of his con- son of Bilgames, made the Tummal flourish and sultation with a dream expert. In that case the lost brought into the Tummal. Then the Tummal lines 217–30 might contain the answer of the dream fell into ruins for a third time.”12 In line 239 (“The expert. This interpretation raises a number of prob-

11. Another version has his name as ur-∂nun-gal. The form 10. Grammar requires ki-bur¤-[b]i. Inspection of the pho- of this name in the new fragment BT 14 (Klein 1991) is un- tograph reveals that the transliteration is correct. There may known to me. be some confusion of gender in the text in question (tablet 12. Translation by Black et al. (1998: no. 2.1.3, with bib- M‡). liography). 140 NIEK VELDHUIS lord levied a workforce in his city”) en-e refers to 3. Translation Urlugal, rather than to Bilgames. This removes the The Death of Bilgames is attested in several problem that Bilgames seems to organize his own tablets and fragments from Nippur and Meturan. funeral: his son “undertakes” the job. None of the sources is complete. Moreover, they do not always duplicate each other, so that we are M 296–305: Bilgames’ Relief left with several incomplete versions. The follow- After the completion of the funerary monument ing translation is a hybrid. It follows as far as pos- the text reads (M296–305): sible the Meturan text, which offers the most com- plete version. Where Nippur tablets are available, 296 Now lord Bilgames, they are used to improve the understanding of ob- his mood was full of joy, his heart was happy. scure passages. Occasionally, Nippur fragments Men, as many as are given names, are inserted to cover a gap in the Meturan version. their statues have been fashioned since days The order of the narrative passages was established of old, in the edition by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 13 300 and stationed in chapels in the temples of the (2000) to which the reader is referred for the gods, Sumerian text in copy, transliteration and photo- so that their names, being read aloud, cannot graphs. Where I agree with George’s recent trans- be forgotten. lation I have freely borrowed from his native En- Aruru, the older sister of Enlil glish. Note that the division in sections has no made his offspring as numerous as saplings. physical basis on the original tablets but follows Because of these statues built from days of from my understanding of the text. Plain philo- old, and read aloud in the land, logical matters—in particular syllabic spell- 14 305 Ereåkigal, mother of , your praise is ings —are discussed in footnotes. sweet! 1: Bilgames on his Death Bed Bilgames’ anguish is resolved once he realises 1 O, the great wild bull lays down, he will never that his name will be remembered from the stat- be able to rise. ues erected for him. The Sumerian of 297 is am- 2Lord Bilgames lays down, he will never be biguous: able to rise. 3 He who brought the perfect tree15 lays down, M¤: [urfi-ra-a-ni ba]-hul åag›-ga-a-ni ba-sag· he will never be able to rise. M⁄: ≠ur¤-ra-a-ni± ba-hul åag›-ga-a-ni ba-sag‹ 4 The hero, girt with a shoulder-belt,16 lays

This may as well be translated: “his mood dark- ened, he was heart-stricken.” In the context of the 13. Followed in the translation by George (1999). narrative, however, this seems to make little sense. 14. Those matters that are discussed in the commentary The writing conventions of the Meturan texts al- by Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (2000) are not resumed here. 15. Reading ~giå åa‹-aå-åa› defl. In structure this parallels low for the substitution of standard Sumerian hul¤ nig¤-erim¤~ du‡-du‡: “the one who knocks down the wicked” for hul. The second verb equally causes confusion. (Bilgames and the Bull of Heaven, Meturan version, line 6, I have chosen sag· as the correct reading. This pro- Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi 1993b: 105). “The perfect tree” may refer to the Haluppu tree in the opening section of Bilgames, vides a nice opposition to the expression åag› nam- Enkidu, and the Netherworld. Note that this latter tree is called ba-sig‹-e so that the confusion here may well be “unique” (Shaffer 1963: 50: 27: giå~ diå-am‹). intentional. 16. Da-ra: syllabic for dara¤. REVIEW ARTICLE 141

down, he will never be able to rise. 48 In that dream [ 5He who was perfect in strength lays down, 49 In the assembly, the place of the gods’ cer- he will never be able to rise. emonial 6 He who belittled evil lays down, he will never 50 when lord Bilgames had drawn nigh be able to rise. 51 they said to him, while lord Bilgames sat 7He who spoke wisdom lays down, he will down: never be able to rise. 52 “In this case: having traveled each and every 8 The thief of the land lays down, he will never road, be able to rise. 53 having fetched that cedar, that unique tree 9He who knew how to climb a mountain lays down from its mountain, down, he will never be able to rise. 54 after you smote Huwawa in his forest, 10 The lord of Kulab lays down, he will never 55 having erected stelae for future days, for be able to rise. ever(?), 11 On the bed of Namtar he lays down, he will 56 having founded temples of the gods, never be able to rise. 57 you reached in his abode. 12 On the bedding of mourning he lays down, 58 You brought to the land the mes of Sumer he will never be able to rise. that were forgotten forever, 13 He cannot stand, he cannot sit, he is mourn- 59 the commandments and the rites ing. 60 Hand washing and mouth washing you put 14 He cannot eat, he cannot drink, he is mourn- in good order. ing. 61 […] the flood that [destroyed] the inhabited 15 Namtar’s bolt has caught him, he cannot rise. regions17 as well as all the foreign lands […] 16 Like a … fish that is … in a well … he is 62–65 […] hoisted. 66 now, Bilgames should not be taken away just 17 Like a gazelle caught in a trap he … the bed- like that.” ding. 67 That was Enlil’s advice that they gave to 18 [Namtar], who has no hands, has no feet, who Enki. [snatches] a man at night, 68 Enki answered An and Enlil: 69 “In yonder days, in far-off days, N¤ fragment (N 6856) 70 in yonder nights, in far-off nights, 2'' The Sage […] 71 in yonder years, in far-off years, 3'' In the sky the pure first fruit offerings […] 72 after the assembly had made the Deluge 4'' for six days he lay sick […] sweep over 5'' something like sweat [spread over his body] 73 so that we could destroy the seed of man- 6'' Lord Bilgames is ill .. kind (we said): 7'' Uruk and Kulab […] 74 “in our midst, you are the only man living, 8'' the spoken word of the land […] 75 Ziusudra is the name of humanity living.” 76 From that day I swore by the life of heaven 2: Bilgames’ Dream and earth, 77 from that day I swore that mankind will not Meturan-version 45 Then, the young lord, lord Bilgames 46 [lying] on the bed of Namtar, 17. For gu¤-kin (dadm„) see Civil (1987: 237), with dis- 47 ? cussion of variant writings. 142 NIEK VELDHUIS

have eternal life. 101 Before Utu it should say: “he will solve for 78 Now they (= An and Enlil) have set their me. eyes on Bilgames, 102 Like a palm-fibre cord it may be loosened, 79 but I cannot save him because of his mother! like an onion it may be peeled.” 80 Bilgames, among the spirits, dead in the un- 103 Ahead to the funeral offerings in the pres- derworld ence of the Anuna, the great gods! 81 let him be the governor of the underworld, 104 To the place where the en-priest lies, where let him be the foremost of its spirits!” the lagar-priest lies, 82 He (= Enki) rendered the verdict, he made 105 where the lumah and the ereådigir~ lie, the decision: 106 where the ereådigir~ lies, where the “true-one” 83 “When you speak it will be as important as lies, the word of Ningiåzida~ and Dumuzid.” 107 where the guda lies, where the gada lies, 84 Then the young lord, lord Bilgames 108 the place where your father lies, your grand- 85 (like?) all of humanity, all that has life, was father, heart-stricken! 109 your mother, your sisters, your siblings, 86 He was in despair, he was heart-stricken! 110 your precious friend, your buddy,19 87 that what lives, death […] 111 your friend Enkidu, the young man, your 88 The youths and the strong men, on seeing companion, the lunar crescent, 112 to the governor that the king has appointed 89 without him they should not make light! in the Great City, 90 Sisig the son of Utu 113 to the place where the foreman of the army 91 makes light in its dark18 places! lies 92 “What my evil magic of humanity brings will 114 where the commander of the troops lies, now be brought for you. 115 to the great city, the Arali, where a man is 93 What my cutting of the umbilical cord brings sought […] will now be brought for you. 115a those who enter20 it […], 94 The darkest day of humankind arrived for 116 (to that place) you will make the sister come you. to you from the house of the sister, 95 The loneliest place of humankind has arrived 117 you will make the sibling come to you from for you. the house of the sibling, 96 The flood-wave that cannot be breasted has 118 you will make your own come to you, you arrived for you. will make your precious ones come to you, 97 The fight that has no equal has arrived for 119 you will make the elders of your city come you. to you.” 98 The battle from which there is no fleeing has 120 He was in despair, he was heart-stricken! arrived for you. 121 Now the Anuna counted him in their midst. 99 The evil from which there is no escape has 122 They counted him only second to the great arrived for you. gods! 100 Your angry heart should not go down to the 123 He (Enki) made him governor of the under- Great City. world.

19. Tu-us¤-sa: syllabic for du⁄‚-us¤-sa 18. Ku‹-ku‹: syllabic for ku⁄‚-ku⁄‚; see Nippur version 20. Su-na: syllabic for sunfi-na. Sunfi = erebu¢ may be spe- (N v5). cialized for the plural (Civil 1976: 150 with n. 44). REVIEW ARTICLE 143

124 He rendered the verdict, he made the deci- 149 You brought to the land the mes of Sumer sion: that were forgotten forever, 125 “When you speak it will be as important as 150 the commandments and the rites. the word of Ningiåzida~ and Dumuzid.” 151 Hand washing and mouth washing you put 126 Then the young lord, lord Bilgames in good order. 127 arose. [It was a dream! He shuddered. He had 152 […] the flood that [destroyed] the inhabited been asleep!] regions as well as all the foreign lands […] 128 He [rubbed] his eyes with his hands. [There 153–155 […]22 was a desolate silence ] 156 now, Bilgames should not be taken away just 129 The dream […] like that.” 130 The dream […] 157 That was Enlil’s advice that they gave to 131 ? Enki. 132 Counsel […] 158 Enki answered An and Enlil: 133 ? 159 “In yonder days, in far-off days, 134 On [this?] day […] as if the mother who bore 160 in yonder nights, in far-off nights, me 161 in yonder years, in far-off years, 135 the goddess Ninsun held21 me in her lap, 162 after the assembly had made the Deluge should I become like that again? sweep over 136 […] the great mountain …(?) 163 so that we could destroy the seed of man- 137 N[amtar who has no hands] and no feet, who kind (we said): [cannot be] escaped 164 “in our midst, you are the only man living, 138 ? 165 Ziusudra is the name of humanity living.” 139 The [contents] of this dream were revealed 166 From that day I swore by the life of heaven by lord Nudimmud! and earth, 167 from that day I swore that mankind will not 3: The Dream Comes True have eternal life. 168 Now they (= An and Enlil) have set their 140 In the assembly, the place of the gods’ cer- eyes on Bilgames, emonial 169 but I cannot save him because of his mother! 141 when lord Bilgames had drawn nigh 170 Bilgames, among the spirits, dead in the un- 142 they talked to him, while lord Bilgames sat derworld down: 171 let him be the governor of the underworld, 143 “In this case: having traveled each and every let him be the foremost of its spirits!” road, 172 He (= Enki) rendered the verdict, he made 144 having fetched that cedar, that unique tree the decision: down from its mountain, 173 “When you speak it will be as important as 145 after you smote Huwawa in his forest, the word of Ningiåzida~ and Dumuzid.” 146 having erected stelae for future days, for 174 Then the young lord, lord Bilgames ever(?), 175 (like?) all of humanity, all that has life was 147 having founded the temples of the the gods, heart-stricken! 148 you reached Ziusudra in his abode. 22. Note that the line count in Cavigneaux and Al-Rawi (2000) has one line less for this gap than for the parallel pas- 21. Di-ip-pa: syllabic for dib-ba. sage 62–65. 144 NIEK VELDHUIS

176 He was in despair, he was heart-stricken! 199 your mother, your sisters, your siblings, 177 that what lives, death […] 200 your precious friend, your buddy, 178 The youths and the strong men, on seeing 201 your friend Enkidu, the young man, your the lunar crescent, companion, 179 without him they should not make light! 202 to the governor that the king has appointed 180 Sisig the son of Utu in the Great City, 181 makes light in its dark places! 203 to the place where the foreman of the army 182 “What my evil magic of humanity brings will lies now be brought for you. 204 where the commander of the troops lies, 183 What my cutting of the umbilical cord brings 205 to the great city, the Arali, where a man is will now be brought for you. sought […] 184 The darkest day of humankind has arrived 206 those who enter it […], for you. 207 (to that place) you will make the sister come 185 The loneliest place of humankind has arrived to you from the house of the sister, for you. 208 you will make the sibling come to you from 186 The flood-wave that cannot be breasted has the house of the sibling, arrived for you. 209 you will make your own come to you, you 187 The fight that has no equal has arrived for will make your precious ones come to you, you. 210 you will make the elders of your city come 188 The battle from which there is no fleeing has to you.” arrived for you. 211 He was in despair, he was heart-stricken! 189 The evil from which there is no escape has 212 Now the Anuna counted him in their midst. arrived for you. 213 They counted him only second to the great 190 Your angry heart should not go down to the gods! Great City. 214 He (Enki) made him governor of the under- 191 Before Utu it should say: “he will solve for world. me. 215 He rendered the verdict, he made the deci- 192 Like a palm-fibre cord it may be loosened, sion: like an onion it may be peeled.” 216 “When you speak it will be as important as 193 Ahead to the funeral offerings in the pres- the word of Ningiåzida~ and Dumuzid.” ence of the Anuna, the great gods! 217–230 lost 194 To the place where the en-priest lies, where 231 ? the lagar-priest lies, 232 ? 195 where the lumah and the ereådigir~ lie, 233 ? 196 where the guda lies, where the gada lies, 234 ? 197 where the ereådigir~ lies, where the “true-one” 23 lies, 4: Bilgames’ Son Builds his Tomb 198 the place where your father lies, your grand- father, 235 His […] designed his tomb as an [adorn]ment. 236 Their god Enki, while they were dizzy(?) 237 revealed to them his solution of the dream. 23. The line order in 196–197 is reversed compared to the parallel passage in 106–107. Note that M⁄¤ has a variant 238 Urlugal solved this nightmare while no man order in 104–107. was able to solve it! REVIEW ARTICLE 145

239 The lord (= Urlugal) raised a levy in his city, N‹ 240 the herold sounded the horn in all the land. 1 his beloved wife, his beloved children, 241 Levied Uruk opened the Euphrates. 2 his beloved first wife, second wife, 242 Levied Kulab emptied the Euphrates of wa- 3 his beloved singer, steward, […], ter. 4 his beloved barber […], 243 The levy of Uruk was a deluge! 5 his beloved attendants, standing ready in the 244 The levy of Kulab was a heavy cloud. palace, 245 Half a month passed by, 6 his beloved creations(?),25 246 not even five not even ten days it was. 7 they were laying at their place, as in his pal- 247 They opened the Euphrates, they emptied it ace, in the sheepfold26 in Uruk. of water, 8Bilgames the son of Ninsun 248 so that its shells could admire the sun. 9 set out these audience-gifts for Ereåkigal. 249 Then, in the middle of the Euphrates, its 10 He set out these presents for Namtar. water was gone! 11 He set out these surprises for Dimpikug. 250 He built this tomb of stone, 12 He set out these gifts for Bitti. 251 he built its walls of stone, 13 He set out these gifts for Ningiåzida~ and 252 he made the door wings of the gate of stone. Dumuzid, 253 The bolt and the threshold were strong dior- 14 for Enki and Ninki, Enmul and Ninmul, ite, 15 Endukuga and Nindukuga, 254 its pivot24 was diorite. 16 Endaåurima and Nindaåurimma, 255 They made its crossbar of gold. 17 Enmu-utula and Enmeåarra, 256 … he moved a heavy block of stone, 18 the female and male ancestors of Enlil. 257 … black earth of all kinds was spread out(?), 19 Åulpae, the lord of the Table,27 258 [so that the tomb] in far-off days 20 Sumukan and Ninhursaga~ 259 [nobody would] discover. 260 [So that] the one who searches its façade will 25. For åu-dug› and nig¤-åu-dug›-ga~ see Attinger (1993: not discover it. 696–703). The equation nig¤-åu-dug›-ga~ = å„bultu “(diplo- matic) present” (Hh I 39; MSL 5, 12) would make good sense, but is rather suspect. The Sumerian appears only in a 5: Bilgames Enters the Underworld in Peace unilingual version from Ugarit. First millennium sources, Emar, and the Old Babylonian AO 7796 (probably Sippar; 261 Now that a strong house in Uruk had been used in MSL 5 as V›) have nig¤-åu-tak›-a~ and variants thereof. established 26. For rig‡ as sheepfold(?) see Krecher (1966: 153–54), 262 his beloved wife, his beloved children, and Sjöberg (1993: 9). 263 his beloved first wife, second wife, 27. In previous studies lines 19–25 were translated as if all the god names were in the dative case, continuing the list of gods receiving presents in 9–18. Lines 19 and 20, how- Lines 264–94 are absent or fragmentary in the ever, are explicitly in the ergative (∂Åul-pa-e‹ en ~giåban[åur]- Meturan version. The Nippur text N‹ includes this ke› / ∂su-mu-gan¤(! DAG) ∂nin-hur-sa[g-g]a¤-ke›~~ (case mark- section and continues to the end of the composi- ers in 21/22 lost). The dative NPs of this sentence are found in 23–25 (the dead priests), the verb in 26. The character of tion. Where the Meturan text is legible again it the list of gods changes (no longer typical underworld gods), appears that the versions differ. and so does their role in this passage. Note that the verbal form changes, too (ba-an-la¤ in 9–13; mu-un-[...] in 26), in- dicating that this is not simply the continuation of an enu- meration. The passage 19–26 perhaps describes an introduc- 24. ~giåNu-uk-ku!(TUG¤)-iå-bi: syllabic for ~giånu-kuå¤-u‹- tion scene, well-known from glyptic, in which one god intro- bi. duces a king to another god. 146 NIEK VELDHUIS

21 the Anuna of the Holy Mound 296 Now lord Bilgames, 22 the Nungals (= ) of the Holy Mound 297 his mood was full of joy, his heart was happy. 23 for the dead en-priests and the dead lagar- 298 Men, as many as are given names, priests, 299 their statues have been fashioned since days 24 for the [dead] lumah-priests and ereådigir~ - of old, priests, 300 and stationed in chapels in the temples of the 25 for the [dead] guda-priests and gada-priests, gods, 26 [set out] audience gifts. 301 so that their names, being read aloud, cannot 27 ? be forgotten. 28 For(?) En-[…] he set out these presents. 302 Aruru, the older sister of Enlil 29 […] he lay down. 303 made his offspring as numerous as saplings.29 30 Bilgames, the son of Ninsun 304 Because of these statues built from days of 31 […] poured out water? old, and read aloud in the land, 32 ? 305 Ereåkigal, mother of Ninazu, your praise is 33 […] blow their noses for him. sweet! 34 Humankind […] of [his] city 35 do not place […] Appendix: STVC 87 B 36 they spread out […] in the dust. 37 Then, the young lord, lord Bilgames STVC 87 (CBS 14109) consists of three frag- 38 […], ceaseless in the [care] of Enlil, ments, two of which (A and C) have been joined 39 Bilgames, the son of Ninsun to several other pieces to form one of the main 40 […] offshoot, a king who matched him […] sources of the Ninegalla Hymn (Behrens 1998: 30 was never born 42). Fragment B does not belong to the same 31 41 […] cannot be found, does not exist, tablet. It has a few lines of Bilgames’ Death. It 42 Bilgames, [lord] of Kulab, sweet is your joins the obverse of the main Nippur source CBS praise! 6966 (SEM 24) + CBS 7900 (SEM 25) + N 3189 + N 3190.32 The new fragment is to be located in Meturan version the fourth column below CBS 6966 = SEM 24 (see M› fragment (with parallel N⁄ viii) the reconstruction of the tablet in Cavigneaux and [1–4 very fragmentary] Al-Rawi 2000: fig. 1). It is the passage where 5[…] they enter, in its gate … Enki starts to recount the story of the flood 6 the Euphrates was opened, its water sweeped (M157–162): over 7 its water was overflowing. 8Then, the young lord, lord Bilgames 9 for him they blow the nose 29. “Gave him saplings for the sake of offspring.” [ for him they pull out their hair (N⁄ viii 8)] 30. The description of text A is somewhat confusing. “CBS 14109” equals the obverse of CBS 14109C (= STVC End of M⁄ and M¤:28 87C), but is listed as a separate join because this obverse is 295 and smear … with dirt. not copied in STVC. See Behrens’ explanation (1998: 43 n. 57) and the diagram on pp. 44–45. 31. With due reservation the fragment was considered as perhaps belonging to the Sumerian Flood Story by Civil 28. The line count of this final section is based on the (1969: 138). colophon in M⁄: “total: 305 lines.” 32. The join was kindly confirmed by Philip Jones. REVIEW ARTICLE 147

1'' […] ÅAG› […] 4'' gifl-ri-ta~ ~gifl [sud-ra¤-ri-ta] 2'' an ∂en-lil¤-bi-da ∂e[n-ki im-ma-ni-ib-gi›-gi›] 5'' mu-ri-ta mu [sud-ra¤-ri-ta] 3'' ud-ri-ta ud [sud-ra¤-ri-ta] 6'' ud a-ma-ru x […]

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