BERKLEY CENTER for RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY

Faith-Inspired Organizations | 2011 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and Global Development A Background Review “Mapping” Social and Economic Development Work in South and Central Asia

A project of the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University

Supported by the Henry R. Luce Initiative on Religion and International Affairs Luce/SFS Program on Religion and The Edmund A. Walsh School of International Affairs Foreign Service

Since 2006, the Berkley Center and the Edmund A. Founded in 1919 to educate students and prepare Walsh School of Foreign Service (SFS) have collabo- them for leadership roles in international affairs, the rated in the implementation of a generous grant from School of Foreign Service conducts an undergradu- the Henry Luce Foundation’s Initiative on Religion ate program for over 1,300 students and graduate and International Affairs. The Luce/SFS Program on programs at the Master’s level for more than 700 stu- Religion and International Affairs supports research, dents. Under the leadership of Dean Carol Lancaster, teaching, and outreach in two program areas: Religion the School houses more than a dozen regional and and U.S. Foreign Policy and Religion and Global functional programs that offer courses, conduct Development. A major focus is engagement with research, host events, and contribute to the intellec- public officials in the U.S. government and interna- tual development of the field of international affairs. tional organizations grappling with religion and world In 2007, a survey of faculty published in Foreign affairs. The Luce/SFS program was renewed in 2008 Policy ranked Georgetown University as #1 in Master’s through the 2010–11 academic year. degree programs in international relations.

The World Faiths Development The Berkley Center Dialogue

The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World The World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD) Affairs at Georgetown University, created within the bridges between the worlds of faith and secular Office of the President in 2006, is dedicated to the development. Established by James D. Wolfensohn, interdisciplinary study of religion, ethics, and pub- then President of the World Bank, and Lord Carey lic life. Through research, teaching, and service, the of Clifton, then Archbishop of Canterbury, WFDD Center explores global challenges of democracy and responded to the opportunities and concerns of many human rights; economic and social development; faith leaders who saw untapped potential for partner- international diplomacy; and interreligious under- ships. Based in Washington, D.C., WFDD supports dia- standing. Two premises guide the Center’s work: logue, fosters communities of practice, and promotes that a deep examination of faith and values is criti- understanding religion and development, with for- cal to address these challenges, and that the open mal relationships with the World Bank, Georgetown engagement of religious and cultural traditions with University, and many faith-inspired institutions. one another can promote peace. The rapid growth of the Center has been made possible through the generosity of William R. Berkley, a member of the BRAC Development Institute University Board of Directors, and other members of the Georgetown community. BRAC Development Institute (BDI), founded in July 2008 at BRAC University, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is a resource center dedicated to promote research, provide graduate training and build knowledge to address the challenges of poverty, inequity and social injustice in the global south. BDI takes an inclusive, multidisciplinary approach, across research, teach- ing and communications, to fulfill its mandate – to constantly challenge conventional knowledge and advance a southern voice in the global development discourse.

Copyright 2011, Georgetown University About this Report

This draft background report was prepared as part of the Berkley Center’s global “mapping” of the work of faith-inspired organizations worldwide. The report serves as background for the consultation on faith-inspired organizations and global development policy in South and

Central Asia in Dhaka, Bangladesh on January 10-11, 2011. The South and Central Asia review is part of a comparative project on Religion and Global Development supported by the Henry

R. Luce Foundation. Through a series of meetings with stakeholders and background reports, the Berkley Center and WFDD have worked to ‘“map’” the role of faith-inspired organizations around the world, highlighting best practices and policy issues that arise. Prior events have included: a meeting in Washington, DC in April 2007 focused on the United States; a meeting in Doha, Qatar in December 2007 focused on the Muslim World; a meeting in The Hague, The

Netherlands in June 2008 focused on Europe and Africa; a meeting in Antigua, Guatemala in January 2009, focused on Latin America; and a meeting in Phnom Penh, Cambodia in

December 2009 focused on Southeast Asia.

About the Authors

The report was prepared by a team of researchers at the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the World Faiths Development Dialogue. The principle author is Michael

Bodakowski, working under the supervision of Katherine Marshall. Sara Singha was lead researcher. Hahna Fridirici, Elizabeth Laferriere, Claudia Zambra, and Melody Fox Ahmed all made significant contributions. Esther Breger and Sarah Balistreri provided editorial support and guidance. Table of Contents

Executive Summary...... 6

Introduction ...... 10

South and central asia: religion and development roles...... 12

categorizing faith-inspired organizations (a complex task)...... 16 GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN | development indicators: numbers and comparisons ...... 20

sector focus and emerging policy questions ...... 22

Bangladesh...... 30

Sri Lanka...... 35

BERKLEY CENTER Nepal...... 42

Maldives...... 47

bhutan ...... 50

india...... 54

pakistan...... 66

afghanistan ...... 76

Kyrgyz republic...... 80

Kazakhstan...... 85

4 Tajikistan...... 88 turkmenistan ...... 91 uzbekistan ...... 94 appendix 1: map of south and central asia...... 97 BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY appendix 2: university of birmingham religion and development reports – annotated | bibiliography ...... 98 annotated bibliography ...... 105 endnotes...... 113 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

5 Executive Summary

In keeping with the rich faith traditions of the South and Central involving large international faith-inspired NGOs, can serve as Asia regions, faith-inspired actors play highly diverse and complex useful models (Islamic Relief and ACT Alliance, inter alia). roles in development efforts. These activities are, however, poorly understood and are rarely acknowledged explicitly in Faith-inspired organizations in South and Central Asia are far development and academic literature. Faith-inspired actors from a monolithic group. The wide range of religious beliefs that are seldom part of national and regional policy discussions, characterize the region gives rise to an extraordinary diversity though their contributions are significant. Coordination is of institutional forms and activities. The report makes no problematic at the strategic and programmatic levels, among systematic effort to define religion or faith and does not confine faith-inspired actors, and between faith-inspired and secular its analysis to a tightly-defined set of faith actors. Use of the term GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| development actors. “faith-inspired” reflects an appreciation of the complex links between inspiration and organization, belief and action. Religion This report focuses on the diverse array of development activities and faith are tied to moral, ethical, and practical attributes that involving faith-inspired organizations. Its primary focus is by tend to emphasize human and spiritual contributions to political country, for South and Central Asia respectively; the two regions and economic domains; among many communities, religious are very distinct but interconnected in significant and very relevant piety and development often occupy a common social space. The ways. The aim is to increase awareness of the important and report does not advocate for or contest active development work widespread work being done, and to help catalyze efforts to bridge by faith-inspired actors. Rather, it argues strongly for thoughtful gaps in policy and coordination. The overall goal is to increase and professional efforts to take account of the many facets of development effectiveness, bringing into the picture important faith in reflecting on development challenges and opportunities. areas of unaccounted for and unacknowledged work. The report Frequent assertions that faith-inspired organizations meet the BERKLEY CENTER is based largely on desk reviews of existing material and literature, needs of the poor better than secular organizations should be enriched by interviews with specialists and practitioners, and the assessed case by case, institution by institution. outcomes of the January 2011 Dhaka consultation, for which this background report was written. The review’s fairly limited The report focuses is on the largest faith communities in the range of investigation limits the scope for broad generalizations. region, which tend to have the most active institutions: Bahá’í, It builds on the most comprehensive body of literature on the Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jain, Muslim, and Sikh, but it also intersection of religion and development, produced under notes the other religions and indigenous belief systems that help the recently concluded University of Birmingham Research to weave the social, cultural, and religious fabric of both South Programme on Religions and Development (see appendix 2). and Central Asia. In addition, the report centers its attention on three key sectors: peacebuilding and conflict, gender, and The Millennium Development Goals have particular significance education. Other areas with particular significance highlighted in for this region, since a large share of the world’s poor live here. the study are health, governance, and environmental protection. Faith-inspired organizations are active on every Millennium Development Goal, and many make significant contributions, Within all the large faith traditions, the diversity of institutions, especially in education and health. Learning from this experience in their structure, organization, is striking, membership, and and engaging these actors more systematically offers the promise form. Best known to development policymakers are the larger of improving the quality and reach of development programs. international NGOs, such as World Vision, Islamic Relief, Current avenues to engage faith-inspired actors are, however, Catholic Relief Services, American Jewish World Service, and underdeveloped, and those that are in place are underutilized Muslim Aid. National and local level faith-inspired organizations and poorly understood; some positive examples, particularly number in the thousands and includes registered NGOs and 6 foundations, social movements, and informal community-based community leader in local conflict mediation or resolution organizations; the Edhi Foundation in Pakistan, The National processes. Engagement in practice however, remains complex, Fishworkers’ Forum in India, and the Center on Mental Health with practitioners in Pakistan noting that low levels of education and HIV/AIDS in Tajikistan are active examples. Local religious among religious leaders can hamper effective collaboration. The congregations and leaders, in addition to traditional pastoral character of the ruling regime also influences the extent to which duties, often provide diverse social services (e.g. schooling, faith-inspired actors contribute to peacebuilding work; large healthcare, and humanitarian aid), and charismatic leaders have democracies in South Asia tend to have more engaged actors advocated for improved social and development policies at the than more restrictive Central Asian governments. Particularly national level (whether Hindu leaders fighting corruption in relevant to the South Asia context, diaspora faith communities India, or Catholic fathers mediating between warring parties in can significantly influence and shape conflict and peacebuilding Sri Lanka). A particular characteristic of the South and Central trajectories through financial contributions and political advocacy Asian faith landscape is the dynamic presence of faith-inspired/ (Sri Lanka, Nepal, and India being notable examples); South religious movements, generally drawing inspiration from major Asian diaspora communities in North America and Europe are faith traditions (with Hinduism and Islam the most well known), particularly active. and with followers numbering in the millions. Movements like the Art of Living, Ramakrishna, Aga Kahn Development Recent conflicts such as those in Afghanistan and the Kyrgyz Network, and Brahma Kumaris are among the most active in Republic offer examples of religious leaders working courageously mobilizing members around shared social causes and ideals. across social divides, and collaborating with diverse stakeholders. In Afghanistan, national policy has integrated local conflict Peacebuilding and Conflict resolution mechanisms and national level peace jirgas; in southern Kyrgyz Republic, Christian Aid and ACTED both collaborate, The South and Central Asia regions are noteworthy for a wide through formal and informal arrangements with religious leaders range of complex conflicts, ranging from tensions among states, to build trust across ethnic divides. Localized successes, however, terrorist threats, and communal violence. Religion plays visible, do not necessarily translate into policy-oriented generalizations complex, and often poorly understood roles in sparking or due to political sensitivities surrounding faith engagement in magnifying these conflicts, but faith roles in peacebuilding are conflict zones and the wide range of perspectives among faith also significant. Faith communities tend to be engaged in most actors themselves; local knowledge and nuanced understanding parts of the conflict cycle. Religion is often seen to fuel tensions, of local contexts is key to effective engagement. and some disputes are expressly framed as falling along religious BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY lines; but in most instances, religion is part of a complex mix. One Transnational faith-inspired movements have made particular | reason for gaps in policy attention is a common misunderstanding efforts towards national and regional level peacebuilding as well; of complex religious roles and the tendency for policymakers to examples include the Art of Living, Brahma Kumaris, Sarvodaya, sidestep religious dimensions rather than confront them directly. and Islamic Relief. International interfaith and ecumenical In South and Central Asia, failure to address complex and unique organizations also facilitate mediation, conduct trainings, and religious attributes of individual conflicts can lead analysts to miss support coordination efforts (examples include Religions for significant nuances that drive conflict and post-conflict cycles, Peace, the World Council of Religious Leaders, United Religions while some localized successes can be overshadowed by macro- Initiative, and the World Council of Churches). Results thus level complexities. far have been mixed, with successes more prevalent at the local level than nationally (see Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and Pakistan as The scale and scope of faith-inspired actor contributions to examples). peacebuilding varies depending on the understood definition of peacebuilding; definitions range from the traditionally Gender understood areas of conflict resolution and mediation to a broader range of activities directly related to building sustainable Gender equity is high on the agenda for most international peace that include (inter alia) education, governance, health, development organizations and is seen as central to achieving BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and gender work. Systematic documentation, monitoring, and the Millennium Development Goals. As religion is introduced evaluation of peacebuilding contributions are hampered by into the picture, however, the landscape quickly becomes more differing understandings of what comes under the “peacebuilding complicated. Apart from the complex reality of diverse approaches umbrella,” though faith-inspired actor engagement direct and to gender roles, perceptions of religious and cultural traditions indirect is found across the peacebuilding spectrum. Most faith- impact on women’s social and economic roles influence attitudes linked peacebuilding work, however, is quite decentralized, of national and international actors towards religious institutions with few efforts at coordination. This is in part because many broadly. The influence and presence of faith-inspired actors can activities tend to be ad hoc, springing from local situations and be significant, and engaging faith actors on gender deserves circumstances; current coordination efforts involve primarily large greater attention. international faith-inspired organizations, global interreligious organizations, and international organizations (e.g. UN Cluster Gender preference across much of South Asia infringes on the System groups and ACT Central Asia Forum). basic right to life. A strong preference for sons has grossly distorted the gender balance in some areas, visibly impacting demographic An Asia Foundation survey found that over 70 percent of people profiles. Gender imbalances are worsening the phenomena of in Bangladesh would request the involvement of a religious or child and forced marriages and human trafficking. While the 7 factors contributing to gender preference are varied (including themselves may have limited educational credentials (though economic condition), religious leaders can play important roles this is often the case in secular schools as well). National and in changing attitudes and behaviors, as they themselves often NGO imam training programs are making significant efforts to contribute to gender preference and discrimination (presiding address capacity deficiencies, though gaps remain due to limited over child marriages, for example). mapping and reach (Bangladesh and Tajikistan as two examples).

Increasing educational opportunities for girls has proved to be Madrasa reform is a lively topic in both South and Central Asia. most the effective method in building greater gender equity; faith- Programs and results vary, and are actively disputed; the process inspired schools, particularly madrasas in rural areas, are often the is often marred by politics and misunderstandings. Most reform only educational opportunities available to girls. The Bangladeshi efforts aim to introduce a balanced curriculum that includes madrasa system is the “most-feminized” and largest co-ed system both religious and secular subjects, as well as technical skills in in the world; 87 percent of madrasas are co-educational, and some cases. Some practitioners emphasize a growing societal 46 percent of students are girls (World Bank). While most divide between students and graduates of faith-inspired and faith traditions tend to be patriarchal in structure, some also see secular schools, and note limited professional opportunities from modern religious practice by women, accessed through increased graduates of purely religious schools (other than a limited number literacy and education, as a form of liberation. of positions in mosques or as madrasa instructors).

Faith-inspired organizations sometimes have facilitated access Understanding the vast array of institutions is a first step in to communities in development contexts with complex and identifying gaps in educational access and quality, and to bridge clearly defined gender roles. A Muslim-inspired organization, divides that separate secular and faith-provided schooling. for example, may be more familiar with local customs and readily accepted by community leaders than their secular South Asia counterparts; while many secular organizations are equally sensitive to local contexts, past experiences and taboos can This report defines South Asia to include Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, shape local perceptions. Constructive engagement by faith Nepal, Maldives, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. actors can open the doors of educational facilities, make it South Asia’s faith landscape is among the world’s most diverse possible to approach sensitive social and health related issues, and complex, and institutions and leaders are deeply engaged and achieve empowerment through dialogue. in all virtually all development sectors. Faith has important

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN links to development strategies, notably in shaping social norms Education and in delivering services. Public information is another critical dimension of roles of faith-inspired actors. Faith-inspired institutions account for large segments of the education landscape (in both rural communities and urban It is particularly difficult to separate the faith and secular realms centers) in many countries in the region. Historically, religious in this region, as much development work draws, to varying institutions were key centers of education in most countries, degrees, on faith inspiration. Many well-known social movements including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan. Faith- have strong faith links, including the non-violent movement inspired organizations often provide the only affordable of Mohandas Gandhi, and the Self Employed Women’s education opportunity for poor populations living in areas Movement founded by Ela Bhatt. Complicating the picture, underserved by government or private institutions. Thus, many development organizations that have faith origins or links they contribute significantly to progress towards the second do not explicitly self-identify as faith-inspired (the Aga Khan Millennium Development goal of ‘education for all.’ There is, Development Network is a prime example). This is particularly, however, no systematic mapping of their reach, quality, and though not exclusively true with Hinduism, which in India can impact, and constructive dialogue surrounding faith roles be understood as having nationalist or political ties. In Pakistan,

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS in education can be clouded by controversy; the degree to many development actors are driven by the social teachings which education is seen as linked to proselytization and the of Islam, though the organizational mission statements are content of education are two primary areas of contention. A outwardly secular. In short, distinguishing between faith-inspired constant theme among faith institutions is the role of values and “secular” actors is challenging, and it does not make sense in in educational curricula and approaches. all circumstances to draw, or attempt to draw distinct divisions; understanding of what drives an organization and their programs Faith-inspired education ranges widely, from completely secular however, is important for effective policy interventions. Religion programs, to a hybrid of secular and religious instruction, to is closely linked to much programming for Dalit populations purely religious instruction. Some governments, notably Sri across South Asia, given the strong religious links to their social Lanka and Nepal, have made a push to incorporate traditional status, though it is only one part of a complex social and political faith-inspired education institutions into mainstream systems. structure; in India, development discourse surrounding religion Quality of education is an area of debate and concern; many is often framed within the caste context. schools do not qualify or choose not to conform to government standards of education, but they are still significant, particularly Cooperation and coordination mechanisms and performance, in remote areas, and (probably increasingly) in urban centers. The between the government, non-governmental organizations, quality of what is being taught, and the nature of the content and faith-inspired organizations, varies by country. Bangladesh, also varies widely; an often expressed concern is that the teachers Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and India, engage religious leaders 8 need. mobilize substantialfundstorespond quickly tohumanitarian Thelargestmovements initiatives. on interfaith caneffectively not describedassuch.Some, ofLiving,are liketheArt active range ofcomplexhumndisasters activities,thoughtheyare often both withinSouth Asiaandabroad. Many abroad undertake but alsorepresenting otherfaiths,have millionsoffollowers A widearrayofreligious movements, largelyHindu-inspired, can helpleadtomore effective development interventions. sensitive policyenvironments. Clarifyingmisunderstandings already complicating complexhumanitariandisasters,further dimensionsintothe but injectedpoliticalandmilitary terrorist organizations.They reached vulnerablepopulations the floodsin Pakistan wereas someclassifiedorconsidered organizations thatconductedlarge-scalerelief during efforts however, not without controversy; among the faith-inspired due to the response capacity oflocalfaithactors.Their roles are, and the Pakistan floods are two examples in which lives were saved remote andhard toaccesslocations.The Indian Ocean tsunami respond tonaturaldisasters;theyare oftenontheground in Faith-inspired organizations inmanyinstancesare thefirstto notable example. sides to dialogue; catholic orders Sri in northern Lanka are one can alsobeseenasneutralactorstoconvene oftenbelligerent or government actorscannotorchoosenotto. Religious leaders beliefs andcanentercomplexenvironments where manysecular oflocalcommunitiesbasedoncommonfaith have thetrust religious divides,andwithinsinglefaithtraditions;theyoften Pakistan, Kashmir, Sri Lanka,India, andAfghanistan,across organizations from all major faiths are active, including in examples ofreligion working forpeace.Faith-inspired episodes ofconflictwith religious threads, there are numerous In aregion characterized by religious diversity andwell known which advocatespracticesandfetocide. againstdowry gender-biased traditions,suchasMuslim AidinBangladesh, an increasing numberoffaith-inspired actorsadvocate against dimensions. While manyreligious leaderscondonesuchpractices, abuse,andfeticideallhaveissues. Childmarriage,dowry faith girl ratios. Religious actors are often close to the center of these Asia; inIndia, recent censusfigures show risinggapsinboy to Gender inequalityisamajordevelopment challengeinSouth development policy. known, andincreasingly (thoughnotsystematically)reflected in effective around examples, particularly peacebuilding, are well- extremism, makingwidescalecooperationmore challenging; is more tenuousandoftenpoliticized around topicsofreligious countries, Pakistan, Maldives, andAfghanistan,therelationship the largely marginalized Indian Muslim population.In other policy recommendations toengageandimprove thelotof commissioned Sachar Committeereport provides actionable advocacy, andeducation;inIndia the2006government onissuesconcerninghealth, most imamsinthecountry Bangladesh, forexample, theImam Training Academy, trains development policyandplanningatleasttoadegree. In and faith-inspired organizationsandcommunitiesinofficial for increased aid anddevelopment effectiveness. communities andfaith-inspired organizationsoffers real potential in dailylifeandsocialinteractions, greater engagementoffaith significant work, andgivenroles theimportant religion plays groups. Despite thechallenges,faith-inspired actors are conducting are significantly hampered by blanket polices towards religious inspired organizationsmakepositive contributionstosociety, but operate inCentralAsia,mostfaithcommunitiesandfaith- (both real andperceived). While someIslamic extremist groups linked toconcernsaboutextremist groups withreligious links inspired organizationsandtheCentralAsiangovernments are Much of the tension between religious communities and faith- economic development, andwomen’s empowerment. development, businessdevelopment, among thebest),rural programs includeeducation(forwhichtheschoolsare considered transnational organizationsare active inmost countries; their Network and the Gülen Movement. Both Muslim-inspired programs in CentralAsiaare theAgaKhanDevelopment The twofaith-inspired organizationswithwide-reaching peacebuilding. prevention andsensitization,imamtrainingprograms, and unrest). Significant work hasbeendonesurrounding HIV/AIDS do exist (e.g.in the Kyrgyz Republic duringthe2010civil religious leadersandinternationalfaith-inspired organizations betweenprogram, local though someinformalpartnership development work are ofagovernment-sanctioned usuallypart to non-controversial issues).Localreligious leadersengagedin government guidelines(oftenseverely limitingthescopeofwork toalignprogramming with generally mustactwithprudence for disabledchildren). In thelatter, internationalorganizations exceptions(with a few – World Vision Uzbekistan programs runs international faith-inspired organizationsare almostnon-existent In the former two countries, activities by bothnational and levels of control over thesocialactivitiesoffaith-inspired actors. are slightlymore permissive, althoughtheystillmaintainhigh while regimes inKazakhstan,theKyrgyz Republic, and Tajikistan Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan have themostrestrictive regimes, largely dictatetowhatextentorganizationscanoperate. Top-down degrees) politicalandlegalstructures (tovarying national development plans. the twosystemshasimplicationsfordirection andfocusof in Muslim traditions;theoftentenuousrelationship between institutionally weak, traditionalsocialstructures largelyrooted Soviet stylegovernment institutions, and emerging, thoughstill The resulting socialparadigmisa legacy ofnow weak former strong Muslim roots thatare reemerging indifferent forms. to define national and regional identities. The region has and structures. CentralAsia,asaregion, however, isstruggling traditions that are integral to social relationships, interactions, religion from thepublicsphere, have aheritageofrichfaith nations, recently emergingfrom aSoviet systemthatpurged for faith-inspired actorsengagingindevelopment work. These Turkmenistan, andUzbekistan) isachallengingenvironment Central Asia(Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, C entral Asia

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 9 Introduction

Religion is a pervasive and influential force across South particularly on education, religion/government relations, and Central Asia. Religious beliefs are as diverse as the religion and society, and gender. Literature on Central Asia region’s geography and peoples, and religious practices and is less developed and consists primarily of country specifc institutions both shape and are shaped by social changes that studies. This background report aims to build upon this are transforming the region. Institutions and communities, literature, with a particular focus on the roles and activities influenced and motivated by links to faith, engage in widely of practioners, and the enviornments in which they function. ranging activities, some classically religious in nature (teaching scripture, pastoral care), others covering a wide gamut of With the conclusion of the Millennium Development Goals services and community action (including, but not limited in 2015, country and regional development trajectories and GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| to, education, peacebuilding, health, advocacy, etc.), working progress towards the MDGs are high priority concerns. from the many thousands of temples, churches, mosques, Progress varies by country and sectors. Faith-actors are gurdwaras, and other religious institutions and organizations involved in different sectors, often making significant across the region. contributions in areas such as education, gender equity, and healthcare. Successful examples and challenges are highlighted This report, prepared as background for an exploration of in this report. religion’s role in development in the South and Central Asia, examines the practical, development related roles and work of The country context in which faith-inspired organizations faith-inspired organizations. Specifically, the report looks at work (social, political, cultural, and economic) largely the environments in which they work historically but above determines and influences their roles and activities. The report all in the present-day, the activities in which they engage, and thus focuses on a country-by-country overview that highlights BERKLEY CENTER the complex network of actors working both independently challenges and constraints at national and local levels. The and cooperatively in the two linked but distinct regions of proceeding section takes a regional perspective on specific South and Central Asia. Its central aim is what we term a sectors (namely peacebuilding, gender, and education), “mapping” of the landscape of faith-inspired organizations examining the main issues and challenges, faith dimensions, working in development in order to identify and highlight and the diverse roles of faith-inspired organizations in areas with potential for increased collaboration and their addressing them in South and Central Asia. policy implications. It also sets out to identify areas where further investigation and discussion would be useful. Given The review is challenging. The wide range of religious beliefs the diversity and size of both South and Central Asia, not all that characterize the region give rise to an extraordinary issues and countries are treated in equal detail; the investigation diversity of institutional forms and activities. Their overall is partial and preliminary. nature and form are not documented or analyzed in any systematic way, and they vary by country and region, within The report is based largely on desk reviews of existing material and across faiths. Faith-inspired institutions work in all and literature, enriched by interviews with specialists and sectors of society, ranging from the spiritual realm to social practitioners, and outcomes of the Dhaka consultation in service functions more commonly associated with secular January 2011. The primary body of literature on religion organizations. They are present in education, healthcare, and development in South Asia comes from the University of HIV/AIDS, environmental preservation, humanitarian relief, Birmingham Religion and Development program; the report, peacebuilding and conflict resolution, gender, and emergency whose summaries are included in annex and examines in relief, among many other sectors. They work independently, detail the role of religious actors in specific regions, focusing in collaboration with other faith-inspired groups, and in an 10 Central Asia all profess to address those who are excluded and peacebuilding/conflict. Themajorfaiths present in Southand work inpoorcommunitiesongender, education,and discussions are thepurposeful focusofmuchfaith-inspired The centralthreadsrunning through muchoftheanalysisand character. larger worldreligions hasauniquelySouth orCentralAsian systems are syncretic inmanysituations,andeach ofthe their development activitiesare explored inthereport. Belief Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim, but also from other faiths; the arrayoftransnationalfaith-inspired movements, largely Asia. In manywaysuniquetoSouth andCentral Asia, is cultural, andreligious fabricofbothSouth andCentral indigenous beliefsystemsalsohelptoweave thesocial, Christian, Hindu, Jain, andSikh. But otherreligions and tend tohave themostactive institutions:Buddhist, Muslim, The focuseson the largest faith communities, which report broadly, andwhatroles andfunctionsdotheyfill? how are faith-inspired actorsengagedindevelopment more delivery; questions linkedtopolicyengagementandservice and related behaviors,butonasetofmore pragmatic which faithandbeliefshapeattitudestowards development of thepresent exploration,however, isnotonthewaysin focus clear social,economic,andpoliticalreach. Theprimary Beliefs affect behaviors relevant tomanyendeavors thathave contributions topoliticalandeconomicdomains. ethical attributesthattendtoemphasize humanandspiritual belief and action. Religion and faith are tied to moral and the complexlinksbetween inspirationandorganization, Use oftheterm“faith-inspired” reflects anappreciation of set offaithactors.Its approach iswide-rangingand inclusive. and thushasnotconstraineditsanalysistoatightlydefined todefineThis studymakesnosystematiceffort religionorfaith, findings are farfrom definitive. review thereport’spublic andprivate. Asanexploratory withsecularinstitutions, arrayofpartnerships extraordinary these complex and important world regions. worldregions. these complexandimportant as a usefulenrichmentfordevelopment discussionsin serve effective communitymobilization.The report’s findingscould as specialchallengesonissues rangingfrom governance to insightsandpracticallessons, aswell experience suggestsnew international strategicobjectives. Often thefaith-inspired challenges of coordination andaligningwith national and ofthedevelopment architecture,part presenting attendant institutions. Thedifferent faith-inspired organizations form practitioners andpolicymakersfrom faith-inspired andsecular bothdevelopment The isdesignedtoinformandserve review gender discriminationinconcrete, practicalways. of groups addresses socialinjustice,humanrightsabuses,and imbuedwiththeirreligiousparticularly identity. A widearray engage thepoorest membersofthecommunity, whoare often there are active conflicts,faith-inspired grassroots initiatives development work andhumanitarianaid.In placeswhere epicenter oflocalunderstandingandinfluencesurrounding inspired organizationsthusfindthemselves oftenatthe cooperation, aswell asinter/intrareligious conflict;faith- disasters. The results both lend to instances of constructive population displacementslinkedtoconflictsandnatural trends are accentuatedby urbanization,migration,andthe overlap, andfaithcommunitieslive sideby side.Theseancient In South andCentralAsia,nationalborders andethnicities reachtheir extraordinary intoremote communities. some faith-inspired actors can respond to local needs, and disasters andconflictsituationshighlighthow effectively with localleadersandcommunitymembers.Recent natural established networks, andestablishedrelationships andtrust understanding ofthelocalcontext,significantandoften well communities, faith-inspired organizationscanhave anuanced often have asignificant value-added, atthegrassroots level. In poor. Faith-inspired organizationsare active, and particularly marginalized insociety, thosewhosuffer, andthosewhoare

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 11 South and central asia: religion and development roles

Religious institutions and faith-inspired organizations have a often conflicting beliefs that had no single founder, no clearly strong physical, spiritual, and functional presence across most established beginning, no singular authoritative text, and South and Central Asian communities. Even the most remote millions of variegated local, communal, or individual gods.1 and inaccessible locations are likely to have a vibrant religious Many object that for these reasons it is not a “religion” or even center or centers that often serve as a social and economic a “faith tradition.” However, there are important common hub, in addition to more classic spiritual roles. Faith-inspired threads, a host of leaders, places, and organizations, and institutions are involved in a range of social and public beliefs that fall under the general rubric. services at the community level, including prominently but not exclusively education, peacebuilding, and healthcare, as Hinduism is practiced by hundreds of millions of people in GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| well as influencing complex social relations, including class many countries across South Asia. It is the tradition of the and gender. majority of the population in India and Nepal, and there are significant minorities in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Each context presents a quite different profile, sometimes Prominent Hindu beliefs and practices such as dharma mirrored in wide differences among regions of a single (duty), karma (action), and samsara (rebirth) influence the country. This diversity gives rise to a variety of arrangements formulation and implementation of the development agenda and foci in terms of types of development programs and sector in India and Nepal, and the shape and direction of the wide- concentration, as well as the way organizations relate to public ranging Hindu-inspired development organizations. Temples, services and local authorities. The respective roles of local individuals, faith-inspired political parties, social and spiritual versus regional and international organizations also differs movements, NGOs, and community groups draw inspiration markedly by country. Transnational religious movements have from the basic Hindu principles. In India in particular, many BERKLEY CENTER a special importance and character in South Asia and actively Hindus engage in social welfare activities through membership participate in many facets of development (though not always in secular organizations, though their faith traditions still play explicitly in name). The capacity and disposition of the state a role in development activities.2 Many organizations refer also shape the approach to faith-inspired organizations, as well to Gandhian teachings and practices in their work, linking as to civil society more broadly. Thus, India, for example, with these, on occasion and in some settings, to Hindu spiritual its vibrant and established democracy and rich cultural and traditions. Others reflect the teachings of the many well- religious diversity, has a large and dynamic civil society with known religious leaders. thousands of different organizations working in virtually every imaginable sector, while in Turkmenistan, non-governmental There is a broad spectrum of Hindu diaspora communities in organizations, including those with a faith character, work the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada; more affluent under tight government restrictions. communities in particular, donate to Hindu organizations such as Hindu Aid, and the Hindu American Foundation, as This section briefly introduces the region’s major religious well as to diaspora temples, to support development projects traditions and their social engagement in development. in the subcontinent.3 The Hindu Tamil Diaspora community has been influential in shaping political and development Hinduism agendas in Sri Lanka – both fueling conflict and supporting humanitarian aid. Hindu inspired religious movements, often Hinduism is an oversimplified label coined during the British with an international presence, are also active in development; Raj to represent the very diverse practices of the native religious their faith inspiration is clear but often complex. As an traditions in India. The classification “Hindu” tried to unify example, the Art of Living Foundation, founded and led by 12 in all Central Asian countries. The Aga Khan Development in allCentral Asian countries.TheAgaKhan Development volunteer-based NGOs accredited withtheUnited Nations. with Hindu traditionasone thread. It isoneofthelargest His Holiness Sri Sri RaviShankar, describesitselfasspiritual, refugee camps,andhospitals. ofreligiousconstruction buildings,shelters,orphanages, charity), and waqfs (pious endowments) which engagethe Qur’an, zakat(alms-giving), sadaqah(voluntary particularly concept for“redistributive justice”, orcharity, totenets ofthe across the regions. Muslim organizationstracetheirbase-line of approachesthe importance to social welfare to Muslims number oforganizationsinvolved indevelopment reflect and international Muslim organizations. The diversity and institutions, localandinternationalreligious movements, local Islamic faith-inspired organizations,zakat-focused charitableactivities, individual mosqueandimam-run programs in various waysinSouth andCentralAsia,including Muslim traditionisevidentindevelopment approaches and Islam traditions. witnessed aresurgence of traditionalMuslim beliefsand After thecollapseofSoviet Union in1991,Central Asia specific countries,notably Bangladesh and Tajikistan. of imams engaged in social wefare work are established in revivals and areturn tofaithfulIslamic practices.Networks channels inthesubcontinenttopromote grassroots missionary pietistic group the Tablighi Jam’aat work through apolitical religious movements are alsoactive indevelopment; the development organizations and governments. Muslim leaders, organizationsofotherfaithinspiration, and secular with localMuslim humanitarianorganizations,religious and Muslim Aidwork inSouth and CentralAsiaandpartner inspired development organizationsincludingIslamic Relief the Islamic Conference (OIC). LargeinternationalMuslim- international organizationsincludingtheOrganization of Countries withMuslim majoritiesbelongtoIslamic 6 Today Islam roles life ineveryday playsimportant 5

4

through active compassionand engagementofdharmic the worldwide movement that works to transform society central in providing education. Socially Engaged Buddhism, as dopoliticalethos.Historically, Buddhist templeswere draw strong inspirationfrom Buddhist textsandtraditions, In Bhutan and Sri Lanka,national development policies Buddhism can be a notable force for national cohesion. work. Besides its obvious and influentialspiritual realm, leaders andmonasteriesare engagedinsocialdevelopment networksand well-established ofreligious andtrusted life in countries whereeveryday it is themajorityreligion, Central Asia.The of Buddhist faithformsanintrinsicpart in smallerpocketsmostothercountriesSouth and and hassignificantminoritiesin Nepal; itispracticed Buddhism isthemajorityreligion inSri LankaandBhutan, Buddhism healthcare, andotherwelfare activities. provision forthepoorandoftenexpandtocover education, Sufi shrinesandmausoleumsare sitesforalmsgivingandfood is a central focus for charitable giving. For Sufi populations, the Muslim pillar of zakat, or charity, Central Asia. movement, runs Turkish faith-inspired schoolsthroughout development sectors.The Muslim inspired Fethullah Gülen transparency, andtherebuilding ofsocialbonds,amongother to promote economicdevelopment, education,government Central Asian countries, and in several countries in South Asia, Muslim faith working inCentralAsia. AKDN works in most perhaps thelargestdevelopment organizationinspired by the Network (AKDN),establishedby Prince Abdul Karim,is Hazrat and Ismatullah Sheikh inCentralAsia. Welfare Trust inSouth Asia,andleadersincludingIbrahim Miran Saiyed AliSpiritual Treatment Centre andEducational Dargah Kabrastan and Masjid Committee Trust, and the relief; somenotableexamplesincludetheMiran Saiyed Ali, focus onareas suchaseducation,counseling,anddisaster and charitiesare spread across South andCentralAsia, 7 Sufi- Muslim leaders 8 Traditionally,

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 13 principles, has strong roots in Sri Lanka. Perhaps the best- Jainism known organization inspired by socially engaged Buddhism is the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement; the movement The essence of the Jain tradition is a concern for the welfare works in over 15,000 communities in Sri Lanka and has of all beings, peacebuilding, and non-violence.13 Although projects in other countries in South Asia. small in number, most Jains live in India and emphasize philanthropy.14 Jain developmental organizations are Diaspora Buddhist groups are also influential in informing commonly charitable trusts and foundations that draw on political and development policy. The Buddhist Sinhalese donations to assist Jains and non-Jains in various development Diaspora supports development initiatives in Sri Lanka and projects. The Ratna Nidhi Charitable Trust works with was particualry active following the 2004 tsunami; During volunteer doctors in assisting nearly 25,000 Indians with the civil war, some segments of both the Sinhlaese and physical disabilities.15 Other Jain trusts, such as the Institute Tamil Diaspora however, also participated in fueling the of Jainology in Ahmedabad, India promote interfaith dialogue conflict. International Buddhist inspired NGOs include and encourage coordination between Jain communities and the US-located Buddhist Peace Fellowship which works on development organizations.16 peacebuilding in Bangladesh and India, Buddhist Global Relief, the Buddhist Leadership Initiative, which educates Christianity monks on HIV/AIDS prevention and other health issues, and the Red Lotus humanitarian organization in Sri Lanka. There are small communities of Christians throughout South and Central Asia. Despite their small size, the community Sikhism is active in most development sectors including education, healthcare, and orphanages, as well as campaigning for Sikh communities are found throughout South and Central human rights for marginalized groups and advocating for the Asia, with greatest numbers in India and Pakistan. The Sikh poor.17 Churches and local Christian-inspired organizations tradition employs a strong emphasis on man’s salvation, hard provide varying degrees of assistance to the poor, including honest work, individualism, rationality, and shared earnings. 9 running local schools and engaging in peacebuilding work. Sikhism follows the teachings of a group of gurus from different The role of Christianity as a minority religion involved in faiths, and Sikh communities are particularly inclined to show social outreach has contributed to tensions with other faith compassion to and engage in interfaith initiatives. Since the groups, as difficulties can arise when groups are not open

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 1960s, a wealthy Sikh diaspora has emerged in the U.S., and transparent about their intentions in evangelizing. Canada, and the U.K.; these communities provide substantial Christian development organizations work actively with funds to international and local Sikh-inspired organizations minority groups, particularly Dalit groups in Hindu societies. in their home countries and abroad. Christian, and particularly Catholic, schools are often among the elite schools in South Asia. Private charitable organizations often operate around gurdwaras (temples), providing space for the provision of clothes, food, Several international Christian organizations work in South and first-aid for the destitute, disabled, or orphaned. Some Asia; Caritas, CAFOD, World Vision, and Lutheran World organizations are also engaged in promoting values-based Federation are active in refugee rehabilitation and disaster education. Noteworthy Sikh inspired organizations include: relief. In Central Asia, the ACT Alliance, which includes the Kalgidhar Trust/Society, the Chief Khalsa Diwan (CKD), Christian Aid and DanChurchAid, among others, works the Kali Vein Environment Project, and the Shiromani in most Central Asian countries and engages local religious Gudwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC). leaders on gender rights, health, and education, among other areas of focus. Zoroastrian (Parsi)

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Bahá’í The Parsis in South Asia are originally Zoroastrian migrants from Iran and represent a wealthy and prominent religious Founded in Iran in 1844, the Bahá’í International minority in India and Pakistan; there are also small minority Community (BIC) is the youngest of the world’s independent communities in Central Asia. Since the eighteenth century monotheistic religions and has more than 5 million adherents in Bombay (Mumbai), developmental assistance has been in 236 countries and territories. Bahá’ís come from nearly provided through Parsi “gifting” which matured into today’s every national, ethnic and religious background. The Baháí Parsi trusts and charitable foundations.10 These organizations have active communities in most countries in South and continue to play an important part in development, Cnetral Asia. One of the largest Baháí communities is in particularly in metropolitan areas with Parsi communities. The India, with over two million members. The major principle Bombay Parsi Panchayat, the largest Zoroastrian institution, of the faith is the unity of all religions and of mankind. was founded in the seventeenth century to encourage charity BIC engages in social and economic development work, work in rural areas of Gujarat and to support local hospitals, emphasizing grassroots action. This process begins with schools, temples, and the poor of the Parsi community.11 Well consultation, where all members of a community come known for their emphasis on education, The Parsi Benevolent together to problem-solve about development projects. Institution is a notable school open to all Indians irrespective Projects can be initiated by the Bahá’í administration or by of caste, gender, or religion.12 groups and individuals. In addition to local projects, the Bahá’í 14 mandated guidelines. in practiceinstitutionsoperatelargelyundergovernment madrasas are madeavailable forthegeneralpublic,though way backintomainstream society, andreligious educationand vibrant centersofcommunity, Sufi teachersare makingtheir and inspiration.Mosques are reopening andbecoming heritage, Islam isemergingas majorsourceidentity ofnew As CentralAsiansreclaim theirreligious traditionsand in development inCentralAsia. challenges, faith-inspired actorsare playinganincreasing role towards religion are often shaped through that lens. Despite religious extremism andgovernment insomeparts, policies of Islamic Therepractice (which varies by is a rise of country). in socialspheres andpromote agovernment-approved version governments tendtorestrict religious freedom andengagement with growing painsinmostCentralAsiancountries;secular cultural traditions. The resurgence of religion has been met before Soviet are rule, rediscovering theirreligious and Asian countries,allofwhichhadarichIslamic heritage Islam,particularly hasexperiencedavividresurgence. Central environments, althoughsomeengagementistakingplace. Uzbekistan, andKazakhstanhave more restrictive active faithinvolvement indevelopment; Turkmenistan, The Kyrgyz Republic and Tajikistan have amongthemost training ondevelopment issues. including thegovernment of Tajikistan, engageimamsin on healthcare andHIV/AIDS.Governments andNGOs, information onsocialdevelopment issues,mostnotably Religious leadersare increasing involved inproviding public regularly attendmosqueservices. with practitionerspointtoanincreasingly younger group that people whodesire topracticetheirfaithopenly. Conversations public sphere haselicitedanoverall positive response from a were relegated tothesidelines. ulema lost their positions of influence inthe communityand Under theUSSR,religious leadersandmembersoftheIslamic P European Union. BIC isaregistered NGOwiththeUnited Nations andthe community works withthegovernment oneducationreform. commmenties andregilious movements. In India, theBahá’í work,active andreguraly ininterfaith work withotherfaith many locatedthroughout South andCentralAsia.Theyare Bahá’í nearly 400 schoolsworldwide, with organizationsrun healthcare training,andtheadvancement ofwomen; primary community has initiatedglobalcampaignsfocusedonliteracy, ost Soviet T ransition –C 18 20 The reintegration of religion intothe 19 entral Asia Since 1989,religion, and

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 15 categorizing faith-inspired organizations (a complex task)

Faith-inspired organizations and actors in South and Central To help in seeing and understanding some patterns in this Asia are very diverse. Some organizations explicitly identify diversity (and with many caveats), we suggest six categories with a particular faith tradition or institution, like a Sikh (that both draw and build upon the aforementioned efforts) educational institution or a Catholic hospital. Many others that encompass much of the development work that has some however draw inspiration from a wide range of faith or faith character or links: spiritual traditions and organizations, with the links defined in less explicit or direct ways. A small group sees themselves as 1. International Faith-inspired Organizations: either interfaith or bridging the religious and secular worlds. There are some institutions that downplay their faith/religious 2. National/Local Faith-inspired Organizations GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| links even though their history or their base of support has clear ties to a faith tradition or leader. This is in part because 3. Religious/spiritual movements of sensitivities around faith-secular links and concerns about religious tensions or perceptions of religious approaches to 4. Religious Communities and Congregations/ issues. The picture is complicated by vocabulary; institutions Leaders may highlight respectively their religious, faith, or spiritual links, and the meaning of an “organization” varies quite 5. Diaspora Faith Communities widely, as such entities range from vast in geographic reach and size to tiny, very local, and informal. 6. Faith-inspired political parties or organizations

There have been many efforts to categorize faith-inspired Some organizations may extend across categories. BERKLEY CENTER organizations, though there is no common framework; each country groups or categorizes non-state organizations and/ or religious bodies in different ways. Academic literature on faith-inspired organizations is limited.21 Efforts to International Faith-inspired Organizations create a typology include those that relate to how faith- inspired organizations are structured (J. Sider) 22, and those These development organizations work beyond the borders that address the values that drive NGOs (G. Clarke) 23, of the country where they are headquartered, and many 24, 25 Clarke, identifies five types of organizations: faith- (like Caritas, World Vision, and Islamic Relief) are major based representative or apex bodies, faith based charitable international players on the development scene. Many or development organizations, faith-based socio-political have large operating budgets and a worldwide network organizations, faith-based missionary organizations, and faith- of offices. Several are active across South and Central Asia, based radial, illegal, or terrorist organizations. The University working in many different sectors. Some have their base and of Birmingham Religion and Development Programme headquarters in South and Central Asia; others are based in utilizes and builds upon these typologies, also examining and North America, Asia, and Europe. Such organizations have categorizing faith engagement through specific areas of focus, international mandates and visions. Their funding sources including education, healthcare, emergency relief community are often diverse (including but not limited to government development, marginalized focus groups, and women, among donor agencies, international organizations, foundations, and others. individual contributions), as is the composition of their staff.

16 and they participate to varying degrees in local and national degrees inlocal andnational tovarying and theyparticipate South insize andrangeofactivities, andCentralAsiavary National NGOs andcommunity-based organizationsin development. organizations thattendtofocus ongrassroots/locally-focused organizations are asub-set ofnon-profit/non-governmental one ormore religious orspiritualfaiths.Community-based degreesfor theirwork from indifferingformsandto varying NGOs inspecific,definableways,buttheydrawmotivation can betermedfaith-inspired tendnottodifferfrom other specificallyissue-focused.TheNGOsbut someare that very relief andmanagement,mobilehealthclinics,education gender empowerment, conflictandpeacebuilding,disaster work across sectorsinthedevelopment fieldontopicslike widely in size, focus, and mandate. Local NGOs tend to government and independent donoragencies.NGOs vary sources, includingindividualdonations,foundations,and from the government, receiving fundingfrom avariety of NGOs normally have alegalstatusandoperateindependently or community-basedorganizations. Asia. Most are registered asnon-governmental organizations work for welfare and development in South Asia and Central with thewidercommunityatlarge.Many suchorganizations faithgroups, or withtheirparticular the borders ofonecountry National faith-inspired organizationsgenerallywork within National F Khan Development Network. American Jewish World Service, World Vision, andtheAga and HIV/AIDS prevention. Others are Islamic Relief, education, emergencyresponse training,healthcare facilities, CRS works in many sectors, including community-based Bangladesh, Nepal, andSri Lankaandacross CentralAsia. (CRS),whichisactiveServices inAfghanistan,India, Pakistan, One of the largest international NGOs is Catholic Relief aith-Inspired Organizations and vision may be framed in different terms, the development and visionmay beframedindifferent terms, thedevelopment people intheregion, aswell asworldwide. While theimpetus of religious movements. Such movements inspire millionsof South andCentralAsiaare distinctive intheprominent role R faith intheKyrgyz Republic. right toreligious practiceaswell asencouragetherevival of pictures. Thenotionbehindtheappealistoprotect awoman’s wearing the«hijab»–Islamic dress for women–forpassport government tomake itlegalforwomentobephotographed Theorganization lobbiedthe throughout thecountry Republic wasestablishedin1999,andtodayhasoffices Mutakalim, theMuslim women’s rightsNGOintheKyrgyz and caliperstopoorpatientsimprove mobility. limbs 100,000 successfuleye surgeries, and offersartificial provides includingnearly educationandhealthcare services the realm ofcivicresponsibility. In addition,theorganization meditation, andyoga for integrating the spiritual self into or socialprogress. Theorganizationemphasizes prayer, spiritual development of the person, as well as economic Similarly inIndia, Veerayatan focusesonsadhana,orthe ritual practiceinIslam. help tocover thecostforHajj pilgrimage,animportant andfinancial for children from poorfamilies,burialservices, tothecommunity,services includingbuyingschoolsupplies the organization offers diverse welfare and development lavish weddings topoorneighborhoodsinKarachi. Today, principle welfare activitywasdistributingleft-over foodfrom Pakistan. When theorganizationwasfirstfounded,their Trust provides inmanyregions in foodandhealthservices town where theyare located.For example,theAlamgir Welfare multipleregions beyondorganizations andserve thecityor (including theUnited Nations) andnetworks. Some are large coordination bodieswithinternationalorganizations eligious/Spiritual Movements 26

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 17 role of these institutions is often substantial. Examples Other social movements are not specifically religious, though of religious movements include Arya Samaj, the Brahma they draw clear motivation from their faith inspiration. The Kumaris, the Sathya Sai Baba Organization, the Chinmaya Self-Employed Women’s Association (Sewa) is one prominent Mission, the Art of Living, the RamaKrishna Mission, the example. The movement, started by Ela Bhatt, draws on the Tablighi-Jam’aat, and the Gülen Movement. Ghandian principals of non-violence and social activism, which are themselves drawn from core Hindu traditions. It is not uncommon for a religious movement with pietistic goals to engage in welfare work if they witness unmet needs in Other religions in the two focus regions, including the Jain, the community. The international pietistic Islamic movement Muslim, Sufi, Christian, Bahá’í, and Sikh communities, have the Tablighi-Jama’at (TJ) is responding to a particular Islamic national/local level social movements in this area. theological commitment to care for the wellbeing of the ummah, both spiritually and economically. The TJ is active in multiple Indian states, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Kyrgyz Republic, and Kazakhstan. As a religious movement, the Religious Communities and Congregations/ Tabligh infuses Islamic spirituality into the development Leaders services they offer. Ideologically, the religious movement is committed to making people better Muslims, which includes Religious communities and congregations, including empowerment through Islamic education, piety, and social churches, mosques, temples, gurdwaras, and shrines along values. with their local religious leaders, respond to social and development challenges and issues in their local contexts. For Hindus, the theological notion of ahimsa (non-violence), Local religious bodies have both continuing roles, often dharma (duty) and karma (action) is an important driving force with deep historic roots (such as helping the neediest in a in several international religious movements. For example, the community) and case-by-case responses to crises, acting when core beliefs of the Hare Krishna Movement founded by A.C. governments or other development organizations cannot. In Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada are based on traditional South and Central Asia, local religious institutions are active Hindu scriptures including the Śrīmad Bhāgavatam and the in providing welfare services, including food distribution, Bhagavad-gīta. The movement has inspired the international clothing drives, mobile clinics, and orphan care. The support Movement for Krishna Consciousness (ISKON), active of local religious leaders is often a necessary aspect of successful

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN throughout South and Central Asia. ISKCON today is a program implementation in rural areas, given the trust and worldwide confederation of more than 400 centers, including respect that religious leaders hold in their communities. 60 farm communities and 50 schools. In recent decades, the movement’s most rapid expansions in terms of membership Local shrines in the region play a role in providing welfare has taken place in Europe and India. ISKCON has inspired services. Shrines in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh attract a project called Food for Life that is active in over sixty large numbers of pilgrims that engage in petitionary prayer, countries and serves over 700,000 meals every day. ISKCON supplication, and worship. It is a common practice for local Youth Forum (IYF) is designed to raise Krishna consciousness development organizations to collect money and food from and organizes festivals, retreats, dramatic performances, wealthy neighborhoods and then donate the goods to local discussions, and presentations to engage the youth to become shrines for further distribution. more socially and ethically aware. In Muslim countries, the emphasis on zakat or charitable National Religious/Spiritual Movements alms is intertwined with social engagement of local places of worship. Muslims have an obligation to give generously Local religious movements normally operate on a more limited for the well-being of their ummah, and often pay zakat by

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS scale than international religious movements and often, though donating goods and food instead of money. Because the not always, work within specific regions or towns. Many religious shrines are trusted by the community, they are often the most movements have begun as local/national movements and have common recipients of this form of zakat. The shrines have subsequently expanded their reach and following internationally. volunteers to cook and serve the donated food to pilgrims and The Arya Samaj as one example from India, is a Hindu reform other poor people in the vicinity, hence providing a corporeal movement founded in the nineteenth century by Swami service as well as a spiritual one. It is difficult to document Dayanand Saraswati. The swami was a sanyasi (renunciate) who accurately how many people visit these shrines, but it is clear believed in the supreme authority of the Vedas and preached a that they benefit poor families in local communities. purified version of Hinduism without the ritualism and what he considered the excessive role of Brahmin priests. The Arya Similarly in India where the majority religious tradition is Samaj quickly expanded to all parts of India and has branches in Hinduism, local shrines also participate in welfare activities. almost every major metropolitan city, including Delhi, Chennai, Many shrines have food distribution programs and provide and Kolkata. Apart from spreading a theological message, Arya welfare for widows who are homeless. Churches engage in Samaj reaches out to the Dalit community, providing education, similar welfare activites. mobile health clinics, and social welfare services. The movement has since spread and has an international following, though its work is primarily concentrated within India. 18 religious celebrations. such ashelpingpoorfamiliestopayforweddings andother and isengagedinpoverty alleviationthrough various sectors, Foundation inPakistan isassociatedwithJama’at-i-Islami emergency relief, andorphansupport. including healthcare, education, and development services, wings thatare involved inawiderangeofcharitable,welfare, Pakistan andBangladesh, theJama’at-i-Islami haswelfare includingpoverty alleviationandhealthcare. services, In the supports Vidya Bharatiya Schoolsamongstotherwelfare and/or religiously-inspired welfare organizations.TheRSS that blurthelinebetween politicalparty, religious party, Sangh have uniquecharacteristics (RSS).Thesepoliticalparties Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)andtheRashtriyaSwayamsewak engage inmultiplewelfare are the anddevelopment services Inunderserved. India, that thetwolargestpoliticalparties in development work andprovide tothe socialservices because theyoftenhave affiliated welfare wingsthatengage Religiously-inspired inSouth politicalparties Asiaare unique F from Central Asia. and Nepali communities, as well as smaller communities and Sinhala (Sri Lanka), Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, activeOther diasporagroups particularly includethe Tamil morethe communitytoparticipate fullyincivilsociety. where the Sikh communityis small in number to encourage andpromotionpreservation ofSikh culture inIndian states Education (SCORE).Theorganizationiscommittedtothe through the Sikhparticularly CouncilonReligion and United States istheSikh community, whichworks inIndia An exampleofanactive diasporacommunityinthe development efforts. and otherreligious institutionsoftensponsorand/orsupport diaspora temples,churches, gurduwara, shrines,mosques, oforigin; the well-being oftheircommunityincountry diaspora communitiesformdistinctorganizationstopromote direct humanitarianordevelopment assistance.Some conflicts) inthe region. Activities includefundraisingand been influentialinshapingpoliticallandscapes(including South andCentral Asiadevelopment contexts.Theyhave Diaspora communities playsignificant roles inboththe Diaspora F aith-inspired politicalparties andorganizations aith C ommunities 27 The Al-Khidmat TheAl-Khidmat

19 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 development indicators: numbers and comparisons

Poverty and Social Indicators for Central Asia

Poverty and Social Indicators Europe and Central Asia Kyrgyz Republic Kazakhstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Population, mid-year (millions) 404 5.3 15.9 7 5.1 27.8 GNI per capita (Atlas method, US$) 6,793 870 6,920 700 3,420 1,100 GNI (Atlas method, US$ billions) 2,746.0 4.6 110 4.8 17.50 30.6 Average Annual Growth, 2003-09 Population (%) 0.2 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.4 Labor force (%) 0.8 2.9 1.8 3.8 2.7 3.9 Latest Year Available, 2003-09 Poverty (% of population below national poverty line) NA 43 NA 54 NA 27 Urban population (% of total population 64.0 36 58 26 49 37 Life expectancy at birth (years) 69.0 67 66 67 65 68 Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) 19.0 32 26 52 42 32

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 41.0 3 5 15 NA 4 | Access to an improved water source (% of population) NA 90 95 70 NA 87 Literacy (% of population age 15+) 96.0 99 100 100 100 99 Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population) 98.0 95 109 102 NA 93 Male 100.0 95 109 104 NA 94 Female 99.0 94 109 100 NA 92 GDP per Capita (Average Annual Growth) 1989-1999 -6.5 -4.1 -13.8 -8.7 -3 1999-2009 3.6 8.3 7 12.8 5.2 2008 7.5 2 6.2 9 7.2 2009 1.5 -0.2 1.7 6.6 6.3 Source: World Bank

BERKLEY CENTER Poverty and Social Indicators for South Asia Poverty and Social Indicators South Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Population, mid-year (millions) 1,568 27.829.8 162.5 0.7 1,153.3 0.31 29.3 169.7 27.820.3 GNI per capita (Atlas method, US$) 1,082 1,100 580 2,020 1,220 3,970 440 1,000 1,1001,990 GNI (Atlas method, US$ billions) 1,697 30.6 93.5 1.4 1,405.70 1.2 13 169.8 30.640.4 Average Annual Growth, 2003-09 Population (%) 1.5 1.4 2.6 1.5 2.1 1.4 1.4 1.9 2.2 1.4 1 Labor force (%) 2.2 3.9 3.1 1.3 4.5 2 5.2 3.1 3.8 3.9 0.6 Latest Year Available, 2003-09 Poverty (% of population below national poverty line) 27 42 40 31 27 Urban population (% of total population 30 24 28 36 30 39 18 37 37 15 Life expectancy at birth (years) 64 44 66 66 64 72 67 67 68 74 Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births) 55 134 41 52 50 11 39 71 32 13 Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 41 33 41 44 39 4 21 Access to an improved water source (% of population) 87 87 48 80 92 88 91 88 90 87 90 Literacy (% of population age 15+) 61 55 53 63 98 58 54 99 91 Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population) 108 106 92 109 113 112 85 93 101 Male 110 127 89 108 115 115 93 94 101 Female 105 84 94 110 111 109 77 92 102 GDP per Capita (Average Annual Growth) 1989-1999 -3 2.7 5.3 3.8 2.4 1.4 -3 4.3 1999-2009 5.2 7.7 4.1 5.9 6 4.7 1.6 2.7 5.2 4.3 2008 7.2 -0.4 4.7 3.3 3.5 4.8 3.4 -0.6 7.2 5.2 2009 6.3 37.1 4.3 5.8 7.7 -4.4 2.8 1.4 6.3 2.8 Source: World Bank 20 Millenium Development Goals Progress Sheet

MDG PROGRESS BY REGION (2011) GOAL 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

South Asia Central Asia*

Reduce extreme poverty by half very high poverty high poverty

Productive and decent employment very large de cit in decent work large de cit in decent work

Reduce hunger by half high hunger moderate hunger

GOAL 2: Achieve universal primary education Universal primary schooling high enrollment high enrollment

GOAL 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Equal girls’ enrollment in primary school parity parity

Women’s share of paid employment low share high share

Women’s equal representation in national parliament low representation low representation

GOAL 4: Reduce child mortality

Reduce mortality of under ve-year-olds by two thirds moderate mortatlity low mortality GOAL 5: ImproveMDG maternal PROGRESS health BY REGION (2010) Reduce maternal mortality by three quarters high mortalityGOAL 1: Eradicate extreme povertylow mortality and hunger South Asia Central Asia*

Access to reproductive health moderate access moderate access 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY Reduce extreme poverty by half very high poverty high poverty | Productive and decent employment very large decit in decent work GOAL 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases large decit in decent work Reduce hunger by half high hunger moderate hunger Halt and reverse spread of HIV/AIDS low incidenceGOAL 2: Achieve universal primarylow incidence education Universal primary schooling high enrollment high enrollment Halt and reverse spread of tuberculosis moderateGOAL mortality 3: Promote gender equalitymoderate and empower mortality women Equal girls’ enrollment in primary school parity parity GOAL 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Women’s share of paid employment low share high share Reverse loss of forestsWomen’s equal representation mediumin national forest parliament coverage low representationlow forest coverage low representation GOAL 4: Reduce child mortality Halve proportion without improvedReduce drinking mortality water of under ve-year-oldsmoderate by two coverage thirds moderate mortatlitymoderate coverage low mortality GOAL 5: Improve maternal health Halve proportion without sanitation very low coverage high coverage Reduce maternal mortality by three quarters high mortality low mortality Improve the lives of slum-dwellers Access to reproductivehigh proportion health of slum dwellers moderate access moderate access GOAL 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases GOALHalt and 8: Develop reverse spread a global of HIV/AIDS partnership for developmentlow incidence low incidence Halt and reverse spread of tuberculosis moderate mortality moderate mortality Number of Internet users high usage low usageGOAL 7: Ensure environmental sustainability BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS *Data includes the Caucuses. These countries were not examinedReverse lossin this of study,forests but form part of the UNDP regionalmedium grouping. forest coverage low forest cover Source: United Nations Halve proportion without improved drinking water moderate coverage moderate coverage Halve proportion without sanitation very low coverage high coverage Improve the lives of slum-dwellers high proportion of slum dwellers GOAL 8: Develop a global partnership for development Number of Internet users lowChart usage Key: high usage

Target already met or expected to be met by 2015 Progress insu cient to reach the target if prevailing trends persist No progress or deterioration Missing or insu cient data

21 sector focus and emerging policy questions

Conflict and Peacebuilding often intertwined with ethnic and national roles. In situations as different as Sri Lanka and Afghanistan, ethnicity, tribal affiliations, Religion plays visible and complex, yet often poorly understood culture, and religion are intertwined, with many implications for roles in the many and very different conflicts in South and Central politics and economics. Religious justifications for conflicts often Asia. Despite religions’ evident presence and social importance, draw on deep historic roots (witness the protracted dispute centered the close links between building peace and development, and the on India’s Ayodhya Temple and Babri Masjid, which goes back to significance of a range of complex conflicts in the regions, there ancient Hindu legends). There are many examples where religious is little systematic research on the links among religion, conflict, identities have contributed to flaring disputes and violence, but also and peace. Thus, a central focus of this review and consultation is cases in which religion has served a role of constraining tensions GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| the diverse roles played by religious communities, institutions, and and brokering peace. leaders in conflict and peacebuilding. Religious elements in differing forms are highlighted as While every conflict has distinct features, in some fashion religious contributors to several South and Central Asian conflicts. Prime elements can be seen as cross-cutting, in part because religion examples are Afghanistan, Kashmir, Pakistan (inter-sect and has deep roots in communities as well as complex national and border region conflicts), Sri Lanka, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, transnational links. There is some irony in the broad picture that and tensions surrounding the resurgence of religious groups in emerges: in South and Central Asia, where most people take post USSR Central Asia. Religiously-based nationalism is seen by particular pride in their deeply held religious values (in which many (though not all) analysts as a causal factor in the over two- peace is often a core element), and in centuries long traditions of decade civil conflict in Sri Lanka; religion is a communal tag of tolerance and successful plural societies, religion seems to be quite identity in the Kashmiri conflict; and the rise of more fundamental BERKLEY CENTER often today at least the spark for violent conflict. Hindu Buddhist, interpretations within some Muslim communities in Uzbekistan Hindu Muslim, intra-Muslim, Hindu-Sikh, and anti-Christian has fueled social tensions that erupted into violent conflict. Some tensions, among others, have divided communities and led to well known instances of terrorism, notably the 2001 attacks on violence and wars. Concern about the fundamentalist tendencies in the Indian Parliament, and the 2008 attacks in Mumbai, give rise several faiths, some (of course not all) prone to violence, put a new to mounting concern and have regional and global implications. spotlight on religious roles in conflict. Several countries today are Religious identity is often closely tied to ethnic affiliation, along deeply split along religions and/or ethnic lines, and religion divides with economic, social, and political status, in several countries, some countries from others or exacerbates tensions. Whether it notably Sri Lanka, Uzbekistan, Bhutan, the Kyrgyz Republic, and contributes to or is itself a central factor in conflicts, the role of in parts of most countries across the two regions.28 religion is a growing focus of attention. The degree to which religion is consciously part of policy reflections South and Central Asia are two very different but interlinked about conflict and peacebuilding in the region varies (as it does regions. Both face a range of different conflicts, though these across the world). While religious actors and beliefs are commonly conflicts do not fit neatly into any common pattern. They range blamed for fueling conflict, and some disputes are expressly framed from protracted internal armed insurgencies, terrorist threats and as falling along religious lines (like communal violence involving acts, and international border disputes, to inter-sectarian violence Hindus and Muslims in India or inter-sect violence involving and ethnic conflicts with religious threads. The role that religious Ahmadia Muslims in Pakistan), in most instances religion is beliefs and actors play in each conflict is distinct, always complex, clearly part of a complex mix, and policymakers tend to leave it and often contested (some arguing that religion is central, others on the sidelines more often than they confront or engage religious that it is not). The key factor, religious identities and tensions, is bodies directly.29 But there is growing appreciation of potential 22 inspired andsecularpeacebuildinginitiatives today. and Abdul Ghaffar Khan,oftencitedasinspirationforbothfaith- inspired anticolonialnonviolentmovements ofMahatma Gandhi change over thepastcentury. Most notableare thereligiously have been renowned peacemakers and leaders of nonviolent social communities. In South Asia specifically, religious communities facing conflict,andwieldinfluencethatcanquicklymobilize andacceptedbyto bewell communities, includingthose trusted and solidifypeaceinorder toavoid arelapse intoconflict.” structures whichwilltend tostrengthen to identifyandsupport “action as peacebuildingfarmoreview expansively forexample General Boutros-Ghali, academicScottAppleby, andEla Bhatt and postconflict recovery. Others, includingformerUN Secretary- widely. Some restrict theirfocustodirect negotiations,mediation, peacebuilding process.quite Definitions ofpeacebuilding vary is evidentlytiedtotheunderstandingofwhatinvolved inthe The understandingoffaith-inspired roles inworking forpeace Republic inJune 2010. tradition, yet engagedinviolentconflictsouthern Kyrgyz peace between two ethnic groups thatshare acommon faith Kyrgyz Republic andUzbekistan are cooperatingtofoster Asia, Muslim leadersfrom oppositesidesoftheborders inthe communal tensions or serve asmediators. communal tensionsorserve positive roles inpeacebuilding, suchaswhenreligious leaderssooth threat toother faithgroups involved. groups in mediation and reconciliation may create a perceived by religiousin part belief;andtheinvolvement faith ofcertain specific initiatives maypushtraditional boundariesdictated can beperceived asrelated toadvocacy andproselytizing; gender- are related andoverlap canbesensitive andcomplex; education Also, themannerinwhich arrayofpeacebuildingactivities livelihoods, humanitarianassistance,andtraumarelief, interalia. resolution, governance, genderrights,humanadvocacy, not limitedto,education,poverty alleviation, shelter, dispute can include a myriad of development sectors, including, but to buildingsustainablepeace.Thus,peacebuildingactivities the various sectors where faith-inspired actors work to contribute for understandingthecomplexfactorsthatleadtoconflict, and South andCentralAsia,thelatterdefinitionoffersaricherscope 30 Religious leaders tend Religious leaderstend 31 In Central In Central 32 For For religious leaders andfaithcommunities. The programs involve several United Nations agencieshave active programs engaging Asia Foundation, theUnited States Institute forPeace (USIP),and Central Asia.Amonginternational development organizations,the religion inpeacebuilding,often focusingspecificallyon South and Several organizationsare takingaspecialinterest intheroles of arrive. organizations vulnerable populations,well before government andinternational illustrate how effective faithactorscanbein responding to internal displacementinSri Lanka,andpeacejirgasinAfghanistan, in Pakistan, ethnic conflictinthe Kyrgyz Republic, conflict/ Recent events includingtheconflictandinternaldisplacement again, amore explicitfocusontheirreligious dimensions. training ofandnetworks ofthoseworking forpeace,with, peacebuilding. Anotherarea thatmeritsinvestigation isthe environments, andtheir capacity in to engage constructively complex anddiverse roles thatfaithactorsplayinconflict considerable scopeforenrichingourunderstandingofthe and theiractivitiesare notoftenreflected. There is however, the ground” generallyhave limitedexposure totheliterature, conflict, butthethree are notoftenlinked.Thoseworking “on researchscholars undertake aboutreligion, peacebuilding,and other worldregions. In South Asia,inparticular, awidearrayof networks among faith-inspired actorsare lessdeveloped thanin discussions amongpractitionerssuggestthatpeacebuilding work by faith-inspired actors in South or Central Asia. Preliminary We have identifiednocomprehensive ofthepeacebuilding survey roles.numerous important understandings ofwhatpeacebuildingentails,womenplay linked todirect conflict resolution work, asopposedtothebroader institutions. When work forpeaceisdefinedmore narrowly as often invisiblebecauseoftraditionalmaleleadershipreligious Ashima Kaul’s peacework inKashmir. The roles ofwomenare Asia, notablyEla Bhatt’s work withself-employed womenand peacebuilding. Several of the richest examples are from South Center/WFDD study)istherole thatwomenplayinreligious A related andsignificantissue(currently thefocusofa Berkley

23 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 training and sensitizing religious leaders and faith communities Gender to peacebuilding techniques. “ Training of trainer” approaches are common, so as to build an expanded network of faith-inspired Nearly every institution with international development as its focus actors. Fragmentary evidence suggests promise in this work, but a pays tribute to the importance of women and their efforts; most rather decentralized approach. Knowledge gaps are still substantial. faith-inspired organizations also highlight the importance they give to women and gender relations. For faith-linked institutions The major international interfaith and faith-inspired development especially, the nuances of their differing approaches can be and peacebuilding organizations have an active presence in major significant.33 Gender and women’s issues are key components in conflict zones (on local and regional initiatives) in South and achieving sustainable development in virtually all sectors in South Central Asia. These include Religions for Peace (WCRP), the and Central Asia. Most issues cut across all traditional sectors Parliament of the World’s Religions, United Religions Initiative, and present similar challenges throughout the regions; others are Initiatives for Change, and the community of Sant’ Egidio. more distinctive to particular countries, regions, or communities. International faith-inspired development organizations, notably In short, there are some important common themes but also World Vision, Catholic Relief Services, Islamic Relief, Muslim Aid, important differences. As religion is introduced into the picture, the and American Jewish World Service also seek to ensure that their landscape becomes more complicated. Religious and traditional development work is well attuned to conflict issues and contributes understandings of women’s roles in society are widely perceived to building peace; this appears to be a growing trend. Further, and as hindering women’s ability to exercise their basic human rights, in many ways specific to the South and Central Asian context, including basic education, health, and human security. Most transnational religious movements working on peacebuilding agree that faith traditions tend to be patriarchal in structure, with include the Art of Living movement, Arya Samaj, the Brama women largely excluded from discussion and decision-making, Kumaris, and Tablighi Jama’at. Their programs vary widely across decisions that often have profound effects on their lives. Yet some the broad range of activities under the peacebuilding “umbrella”; also argue that modern religious practice by women as a form of examples include short-term relief and rehabilitation courses, and liberation. Exploring the approaches of faith-inspired organizations longer term reconciliation and reconstruction programs. to gender relations offers new insights both for barriers to equality and possible novel approaches to engage women on often sensitive Local/national religious leaders and faith-inspired organizations development topics. Faith-inspired organizations can play often initiate programming drawing on local expertise and particularly important roles in confronting gender inequities that understanding of sensitivities and nuance. Some work independently have religious dimensions.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN and locally, while others engage in national/region wide initiatives with international organizations, both faith-inspired and secular. Gender inequality creates barriers to access jobs, assets, political Most local initiatives are ad hoc in nature, and largely grow out influence, justice, and nutrition and health services for many of local situations, opportunities, and needs. As one example of women in both South and Central Asia. Legally, women have an established organization in Sri Lanka, Sarvodaya works at the equal rights under the law of most countries, and there have been national and local levels on indigenous peacebuilding efforts, female prime ministers in both Pakistan and Bangladesh, and (as of coordinating and collaborating with government and civil society 2010) in the Kyrgyz Republic. However, in practice there is still far leaders, as well as actors from all sides of the conflict. Individual to go to see true gender equality. Cultural practices, for example the religious leaders are often inspired by their immediate surroundings dowry system, which is illegal in India, persist. They contribute to to leverage their influence to promote peace. Examples can be found a harsh reality that girls are often seen as a burden by poor families. in countries including Sri Lanka, the Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, The goal – to shift the paradigm so that girls are seen as an asset - is Pakistan, and India, and from all major faith traditions. Some coming closer in many cases, but data on gender relations from efforts are inspirational and successful, but others fall short. Religious many sources demonstrate clearly that the challenges continue. leaders may lack the necessary skills, education, and knowledge. Outcomes and success are difficult to measure, and the picture on Perhaps the most fundamental evidence of the challenge is

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS faith-inspired roles is further clouded by ambiguities in defining the persistence and even increase in boy preference, leading and pinpointing how faith affects individual and community to a range of practices that are evident in gender imbalances – behavior. The general picture, however, suggests rising interest in more boys are born or survive. Aside from selective abortion the potential for positive action, as well as an urgent need to address of female fetuses, girl children may receive less nutrition and or combat the negative and divisive influences of fundamentalist healthcare, so mortality is higher. Female infanticide still tendencies and movements. occurs. Preliminary 2011 Indian census results show that the sex ratio for girls to boys ages 0-6 has dropped from 976/1000 This review highlights the historical and present importance of in 1961 to 927/1000 in 2001, to 914/1000 in 2011;34 in faith-inspired actors in conflict environments in South and Central parts of India, there are now fewer than 800 girls for every Asia, citing some specific examples and avenues for potential 1,000 boys. Culture and tradition, with religion as part of the engagement. Dialogue on the opportunities and pitfalls of faith mix, help perpetuate boy favoritism. In some areas of India, engagement in peacebuilding offers real promise in helping for example, the prevailing belief is that only sons can perform to dispel misconceptions and create opportunities in sensitive last rites for parents.35 Amartyra Sen in his influential article, environments and contexts. “More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing,” highlighted how traditional practices and roles of women contribute to an aversion to the girl child, with profound effects on demographic balances. These distorted gender ratios have nefarious effects 24 inequalities. of traditional practices has seen a trend towards increasing largely alegacyofSoviet policies.However, theresurgence Asia hasgreater genderequality ineducationthanSouth Asia, remarkable progress hasbeenmadeinrecent years. Central countries reflect thehistoric lag,even when(asin Bangladesh) through university.primary Women’s literacyfigures inseveral and Central Asia there are still widedisparitiesat many levels, from challenge, anddespitesignificantprogress, ofthe inparts South Educating girlsisoftenseenasthemostcriticaldevelopment as awhole,trends show decreasing genderequity. (Sri Lanka,Bhutan, andcountriesinCentralAsia),bothregions countries are makingnotableprogress, oneducation particularly or nearlyattainedby bothSouth andCentralAsia. While some school”enrolment istheonlygoalalready inprimary attained, monitored. According to 2010 data, the MDG for “equal girls’ address gender issues explicitly, and thus progress is quite closely anduniversal accesstoreproductive(maternal mortality health) ofseatsheldbyproportion womeninnationallegislatures) andfive in education;theshare ofwomeninwageemployment; andthe Millennium Development Goals numberthree (genderparity sustainable development. positive results genderequalityandenhancing insupporting healthcare, andempowerment through dialoguehasyielded opening thedoorsofeducationalfacilities,providing adequate from faith. engagement Constructive by faith actors by to overcome gender-basedchallengesderive theirinspiration Yet a number of leading individuals and organizations working or religiously inspired lawsasjustificationforgenderexclusion. that work to advance women’s rightsoftencite religious traditions complex, andoftencontroversial. Individuals andorganizations Religion’s role inthiscomplexarrayofrelationships ismultifaceted, progress issocriticalforsustainabledevelopment. challenges tooverall development intheregion, given thatwomen’s and childhealthchallenges.Alloftheseissuesposesignificant which can include sexual violence,which can evolve into maternal example, earlyorforced marriageoftenleadstodomesticviolence, issues are complexinthemselves, buttheyalsotendtooverlap. For maternal health;anddisparitiesineducationhealthcare. The planning; femalegenitalcutting;sexualanddomesticviolence; insocietyorpolitics;earlyandforced marriage;family participation to to: humantrafficking;domesticviolence;culturalbarriers development inSouth andCentralAsiainclude,but are notlimited Key development issues at the intersection of faith, gender, and tobringthepracticeanend. more ofefforts centrallypart forces, andreligious beliefs.Thehopeisthat religious leaderscanbe once again,encouragedby acombinationoftraditions,economic children) and health risks. Child marriage is, face higher mortality married girlsrarely continuetheireducationandthey(and commonly practiced.Thenegative effects are wellknown: young (especially forgirls),asSouth Asiaisaregion where itismost Another distinctive anddamaginggenderissueisearlymarriage ofgirls. to fillthedearth they contributetohumantraffickingforsexualexploitation, beyond theirobvious humanrightsdimension:forexample, 37 In South Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India 36 example, development coordination bodies have been established example, development coordination bodies have been established women, andare ledby women leaders.In theKyrgyz Republic, for national level faith-inspired organizations are organized by and for focused programs inbothSouth andCentralAsia.Many local/ and CatholicRelief amongmany others,allhave Services, gender organizations, including World Vision, Islamic Relief, Muslim Aid, mainstreamed intheirorganizational strategies.Largeinternational gender programming, aimingatgendersensitive approaches have inspecialized commonlyinvested considerableeffort Faith-inspired organizationsfrom allmajorfaithsandmovements women inconflict. at theinternationallevel, advocating foruniversal policiestoprotect individual womenfrom allsocietalgroups andfaithtraditions, work withwomenvictimsofconflict,bothatthelocallevel with including theAssociationof War Affected Women in Sri Lanka for greater genderperspective inconflictenvironments. NGOs peacebuilders directly UNResolution support 1325,calling on religious teachings. is ofteninspirational,motivating communitiesanddrawing tremendous societaladversities. Women’s peacebuildingwork warwidowshealth, andeconomicdistress, are otherwise facing bombers, whilemanyinIDPcampssufferfrom insecurity, poor conflict. In womenhaveSri Lanka,afew played the role ofsuicide manyifnotmostoftheburdens of commonly victims,carrying environments –theycanbothperpetuateviolence,andare situations. Women roles inconflict andvarying playimportant the phenomenonofinvisibilitywomeninmanyconflict ongoing USIP/Berkley Center/WFDDreview whichhighlights an beliefs andinstitutionsaffectthem.Thisisthesubjectof scantily explored iswomen’s roles inconflictandhow religious One area where thelinksbetween genderandfaithhave beenonly sexually transmitteddiseases. sex tradeputwomenataheightenedriskforHIV/AIDsandother and familyplanning,whilehumantraffickingthecommercial understandings ofsexualhealthaffectsmaternalpractices and girls’ healthcanbeneglectedinfavor ofboys. Traditional overall neglectare perpetuatedby cultural/religious traditions Health raises a host of gender issues. Gender stereotypes and education inover 3,000madrasas. upon. Asanexample,inPakistan, nearly250,000girlsare pursuing approaches. There isconsiderablepositive experiencetobuild and thus,canhelpmappromising strategiesandcommunications inspired organizationstendtobesensitive tolocalfaithcontexts a policychallenge,butitisalsohasgreat practicalsignificance. Faith- religious actorsmore actively andeffectively insuchenvironments is the socialchangethatgenderequalityrepresents. How toengage politically chargedenvironments, asittakescouragetoadvocate for and increasingly doso,thoughthisisdifficultin religiouslyand to sons.Religious leaders cantemperorhelpchangeattitudes parents’ hesitationstosendgirlsschoolor theprioritytheygive opportunity. More commonly, localreligious leadersmayreinforce prevent theirlackof girlsfrom attendingschool,sharplycurtailing groups holdingextreme mayactively fundamentalistviewpoints In countriesincluding Pakistan andAfghanistan,faith-inspired faith playsanoftencomplicatedrole. have thegreatest genderinequalitiesineducation.Again, 38 Many global networks of women Many globalnetworks of women

25 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 with a specific focus on women’s organizations, and include case being for girls), while at the same time often ‘part of the faith-inspired members. Transnational religious movements and solution,’ offering education to the underserved and instilling interfaith organizations (national and international) also have in students morals and ethics for a peaceful society. Many faith- gender focused approaches and programming. inspired institutions specifically target girls with limited alternative educational opportunity. The experience, approach, hesitations, and insights of faith-inspired organizations deserve careful research and purposeful attention and Curricula of study in faith-inspired institutions vary widely. Many dialogue. Religion has both positive and negative dimensions; outstanding schools run by faith communities (for example Jesuit long-standing traditions contribute to the unequal treatment of schools) have largely secular curricula, teaching the full range women, while powerful and moderate voices can initiate change, of subjects. This cannot be said of others, especially those with overcome adversities, and move ideas into practice. Though South few resources. The most widely discussed are the widely ranging and Central Asia face challenges, with them come opportunities for madrasas, some of which offer a limited religious curriculum. constructive engagement by faith-inspired actors. Reform of these Muslim run schools is a widely discussed policy challenge. Madrasa reform is an issue of contention between the madrasas and the state in many countries, notably in Pakistan; madrasa leaders fear increasing trends towards secularization, while concerns over religious extremism and a lack of marketable skills in madrasa graduates drives reform agendas. Education A common topic in discussions about the role of faith-inspired Faith-inspired organizations play a variety of quite different roles education is how values and values-based education are approached. in education in South and Central Asia. Faith run schools are, What are a common set of values applicable to society as a whole? in most countries, an accepted part of the education systems Sikh and Hindu inspired schools in India and Nepal have notable (with different levels of integration into formal structures), but examples of consciously framed values-based institutions. there is no overall, systematic mapping, and far less an analysis of quality which, from partial evidence, varies from superb to poor. Quality of instruction and teacher training are common issues. Thus reach and impact are hard to assess. Constructive dialogue Religious leaders teaching in faith-inspired schools may lack a about how faith and faith schools fit within overall approaches to high level of education, religious or secular. In Central Asia, years

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN education can be clouded by controversy. of suppression of religion during the Soviet Union era created a dearth in general religious knowledge. Lack of education among Millennium Development Goal two grew out of a global consensus instructors can contribute to misinformed interpretations of to assure ‘Education for all,’ and it has particular relevance in religious texts, which are then passed along to students. this region, with significant parts of the population underserved by education. Some elements of faith-inspired systems focus Another topic of discussion is the practical, job preparedness particularly on poor and marginalized communities; thus, the effectiveness of faith-inspired institutions. Some faith-inspired role of faith institutions deserves more systematic attention institutions do not provide students with practical knowledge and than they have received.39 skills directly applicable to the job market, only preparing them for narrowly focused, and a limited amount of theological jobs. Faith institutions are significant in at least five dimensions of Many practitioners argue that madrasa students are becoming education and development, including as advocates to achieve marginalized from “mainstream society,” having very different social justice, as providers of a large share of education options, life experiences from their counterparts at secular education contributing to or defining what is taught about religion, shaping institutions. perspectives and affecting knowledge levels on issues of social change

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and development (i.e. health and peacebuilding/reconciliation), The specific country context largely determines both the roles and and informing and educating today’s youth. the debates surrounding faith-inspired schools. In Sri Lanka and Nepal, traditional religious schools are seeing increased support Faith-inspired actors contribute to education through a variety of from the government, and in some cases being further integrated institutions. Historically, religious institutions were key centers into the official education system (though with specific mandates of education in most countries including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, on curricula and instruction). Elsewhere, especially in Central Asia, and Bhutan. Institutions including madrasas, missionary schools, many types of faith-inspired schools are highly restricted, and may Buddhist privena, faith-inspired universities, and unofficial be banned or shut down if discovered. In Tajikistan for example, community gatherings, inter alia, are all widespread in South only government-approved madrasas can operate, though many and Central Asia. Students at these institutions range from “unofficial” madrasas operate in secret. the elite (as is often the case with Catholic missionary schools in India and Pakistan), to poor and marginalized girls (in In countries including India and Pakistan, among others, the Afghanistan and also Pakistan), for whom rural madrasas are relationship between faith and education are seen by some to have often the only option for an education. political dimensions. In India, the concept of Hindutva combines nationalism and what many say are Hindu inspired philosophies to There are situations in which faith-inspired actors are ‘part of the promote a homogenous nation. Many minority groups fear it may problem,’ stalling the push for universal education (a notable threaten diverse ethnic, religious, and cultural identities. Vidya 26 recalled studentsoutoffeartheywillcontributetosocialdiscord. may be considered subversive or extreme ideas. Turkmenistan has in Pakistan, Egypt, and the Middle East who return with what but notall. There are much-discussed examplesof studentstrained specifically religious training.Again,someisofoutstandingquality, students whoseekeducationabroad andinsomeinstancesseek based curricula.Anotherdimensionofthiseducationpicture is Gülen Movement have expanded across CentralAsiawithbroad facilitiestostudentbodiesofallfaiths.Theschoolsthe of theart inspired schoolsanduniversities offersqualityeducationinstate of theregion. TheAgaKhan Development Network of Islamic- excellence andare majorplayers intheeducationsectorsmuch Two Muslim-inspired organizationsaspire toeducational communities. among and betweenconcerns and contribute to trust faith practitioners agree thatbeingclearandtransparent candispel permanently shutdown underchargesofproselytizing. Most Muslim-inspired some Christianandcertain schoolshave been been thetargetofviolence,andinAfghanistanUzbekistan, about religion andeducation.In Pakistan, Christianschoolshave Concerns aboutproselytization oftenenterintodiscussions with stateandpoliticalideologies. approved curriculum,inmanycasesblendingreligious instruction Central Asiaaswell, registered Islamic schoolsteachagovernment- obvious issue. Conversely, faith-inspired of the actors can be part andan and cooperation, asitisacommonchallengefor everyone inspired actorstoenterinto broader social development work and understanding.Health pointforfaith- canbeanentry often sensitive healthmessagescouched in traditionallanguage their positionincommunities gives them acapacitytoconvey including a faith motivation to help those in need, and because inspired actors are drawnto health work for many reasons, malaria prevention, maternalcare, andcare fortheelderly. Faith- hospitals, HIV awareness and prevention, tuberculosis prevention, the healthsector. Work includesinter aliamobilehealthclinics, One ofthelargestconcentrationsfaith-inspired work isin and climatechange,governance. not limitedto:health,migration,humantrafficking,environment sectors where faith-inspired actorsplayactive roles include,butare overlaps withamyriad development issuesandsectors.Other (peacebuilding, gender, andeducation),each isrelated toand Though this hasaspecificfocusonthreereport sectors Cro dialogue. informed morefaith andsecularactors;itisanarea research thatdeserves and contributes tomisunderstandingandtensionsbetween andamong actors ofdiverse style,form,andquality. ofpoordata Adearth In sum,thefaithandeducationlandscapeiscomplex,withmyriad example, are seenby manyaspromoting aHindutva agenda. Bharati schools,(one of thelargestschoolsystemsinIndia), asone ss-cutting sectors 40 In In 41 training and education to trafficking victims. In some cases, training andeducation totraffickingvictims. Insomecases, have programs incountriessuchasNepal thatprovide livelihood Catholic Relief aswell Services, asarangeoflocalorganizations, prostitution. attention to and rescue women and children victims of forced in India andusesitsglobalfaithlinkagesnetworks tobring Christian-inspired International Justice Mission hasfouroffices poverty drawingontheirfaithinspirationtohelp thevictims.The of of traffickingandimplement programs toaddress rootissues labor. Faith-inspired organizationsbothwork withthevictims for manyreasons, includingsexualexploitationandbonded/forced issue, linkingcountriesinSouth andCentralAsia,happens diseases and women’s health. Human trafficking is a transnational consequences forhealth,largelyintheformofcommunicative has astrong gendercomponent,isrelated topoverty, andhas A distinctyet related issueishumantrafficking. Humantrafficking forced migrationtohigherland. that causedwidespread floodinginlow-lying delta regions and Muslim Aid,forexample,responded tocyclones inBangladesh migration, oftenfocusingonimmediatehumanitarianassistance. Muslim Aidrespond tonaturaldisastersandconflict-induced large internationalorganizationsincludingIslamic Relief and inspired actorsare oftenthefirsttocomeaidofmigrants; In casesofforcedhealth andsanitationservices. migration,faith- economic migrants,providing education,livelihoods training,and and localfaithactorswork inthesprawlingslumswithprimarily assistance, andpoverty alleviation.In urbanareas, international migrants, includingeducation,livelihoods, health,humanitarian Faith-inspired actors respond tothemanychallengesfacing vulnerable andatrisk. can contributetoconflict;womenandchildren are particularly change. Migration oftenexacerbatessituationsofpoverty and forced migration becauseofconflict,naturaldisasters,orclimate of reasons, notablyeconomicmigrationtourbancenters,and of Economic andSocial Affairs. million migrant,according totheUnited Nations Department Asia. In 2005,Asiahosted53millionoutoftheworld’s 191 across societyinSouth borders, andCentral shapescontemporary Migration, tourbansettings,and bothwithin countriesfrom rural a widerangeofotherhealthrelated issues. array ofotherorganizationsisactive inSouth andCentralAsiaon with theGlobal Fund tofightAids,tuberculosis, andmalaria.An to strengthen Sri Lanka’s tuberculosis control program, partnering to engagecommunitiesindialogue.SarvodayaSri Lankaworks they have proved effective incrossing culturaland religious barriers Central Asia,localimamsare active inHIVeducationandadvocacy; care tothepoor, attendingtobothspiritualandphysicalneeds.In Brahma Kumaris hospitalsthatofferfree operatestate-of-the-art assist inhumanitarianresponses indisasterprone areas. In India, the clinics inPakistan thatreach populationsand remote, underserved Organizations liketheEdhi Foundation andCaritasoperatemobile another caseoffaith-inspired actorscontributingtotheproblem. not takingintoaccounttheexceptions setoutintheQur’an, is height of Pakistan’s recent floods to fast during disaster conditions, somereligiousor instructions leadersgave tofollowers duringthe problem; stigmatizingHIV/AIDSistheclassicexample.Advice 43 Other organizations,including World Vision and 42 Migrants relocate for a host Migrants relocate forahost

27 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Concerns About Corruption in Bangladesh

Transparency International’s 2010 Corruption USAID support). The Asia Foundation\USAID Leaders Perceptions Index ranks Bangladesh as 134th on of Influence (LOI) program includes training on public its annual review of corruption, suggesting that it advocacy and corruption. The program has provided is one of world’s most corrupt countries. Citizens communities with training to establish enterprises of Bangladesh point to corruption as a common that transparently fund mosque-based activities phenomenon and a social evil; a recent survey by the to raise awareness of critical development issues, Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad found that 95 percent including anti-corruption. Imams discuss these issues of people polled believed that the police were the of corruption and governance during Friday sermons most corrupt department in the country, followed by and other discussions and religious meetings. customs, taxation, the bureaucracy, and the judiciary. Government leaders recognize the influential Scholars tend to agree that corruption penetrates roles imams have in their communities and their almost every part of the government and public potential influence in addressing development issues, service providers and is a serious obstacle to particularly corruption. Speaking to the National Bangladesh’s socio-economic development. The Anti- Convention of Imams in 2009, Prime Minister Sheikh Corruption Commission (ACC) in Bangladesh was Hasina urged imams, ulema, mashaikhs and other formed to counteract various forms of institutional religious leaders to wage a social movement against corruption, including bribery in business, education, corruption in order to build a prosperous and peaceful and branches of government; it campaigns to create society. Chief Advisor Fakhruddin Ahmed also called a social stigma around corrupt behavior. on imams to be vigilant on crime and corruption. He urged imams to use Friday sermons to preach Faith-inspired actors are increasingly active in against social evils and corruption and encouraged combating corruption, and often invoke faith them to teach moral duties such as honesty, sincerity, perspectives and teachings as their motivation. More and integrity. The government of Bangladesh has a than 80 percent of Bangladeshi citizens say that religious national imam training program as well that touches GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| leaders should play a role in national development on issues of governance and corruption. goals (survey conducted by the Asia Foundation with

The Corruption Index: South and Central Asia 2010 Perceptions Rank Country Rating

36 Bhutan 5.7 91 Sri Lanka 3.2

BERKLEY CENTER 87 India 3.3

105 Kazakhstan 2.9 134 Bangladesh 2.4

143 Maldives 2.3

143 Pakistan 2.3 146 Nepal 2.2

154 Tajikistan 2.1 164 Kyrgyz Republic 2 172 Turkmenistan 1.6 172 Uzbekistan 1.6

176 Afghanistan 1.4

Ranking is out of 178 countries worldwide (1 being the least corrupt). Rating is on a scale from 10 (highly clean) to 0 (highly corrupt).

28 Source: http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results extremist faith-inspired groups have themselves engaged in human population is estimated at nine percent; it has declined since trafficking, with the Taliban kidnapping and trafficking girls for its independence in 1971. Buddhism is common among sexual exploitation as an example, though these cases are not the non-Bengali populations of the Chittagong Hill. There representative of faith-inspired actors as a whole. are small communities of Christians, Sikhs, Bahá’ís, and animists.44 The effects of climate change have particular significance for South Asia. In Maldives and Bangladesh, highly populated low-lying coastlines are at heightened risk of flooding. In both South and Central Asia, changing weather patterns affect farming seasons and Following its bitter independence struggle with Pakistan, water supplies, decreasing food security and increasing the potential Bangladesh established a secular state; however, the important for resource conflicts. Globally, faith-inspired actors have been role of religion and specifically Islam lay behind subsequent quite marginally engaged in the climate change debate, but that changes in how religion and state relate. Several constitutional situation is changing. The Maldives is an example of a government amendments established Islam as the national religion, that is seeking actively to bring faith-inspired actors into dialogue, though with freedom to practice any religion. In February sending a high-level government representative to participate in 2010, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court ruled that the October 2009 ARC Windsor Castle meeting with over 100 the amendments establishing Islam as the national religion religious leaders. Muslim Aid is working in Bangladesh on disaster were unconstitutional; since then, a nominal ban was placed preparedness. on Islamic political parties, though government officials have stated that the ban will not be strictly enforced.45 Some South and Central Asian countries are among the world’s most corrupt. Only two countries in the world are more corrupt than Afghanistan (ranked 176/178, with 1 being the least corrupt) on the 2010 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index. Bhutan is the “cleanest” country in the region, ranked 36/178. Faith-inspired actors play diverse roles on this sensitive issue. They can promote positive values through both advocacy and education. In Bangladesh, government officials, including the Prime Minister, have called on religious leaders to wage a social movement against corruption. The Asia Foundation has for many BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY years worked with imams to that end. |

Bangladesh stands out for the large number and wide variety of faith-inspired organizations and actors involved in development and offers good examples of constructive engagement between faith and secular organizations and between them and the government. The vibrant civil society (Bangladesh has some of the world’s best known development organizations, notably BRAC and the Grameen Bank), includes many faith-linked groups, reflecting both the diverse religious demography (predominantly Muslim with significant Hindu, Buddhist, and Christian minorities) and religion’s important role in people’s lives. There are, however, significant tensions surrounding religion, reflecting Bangladesh’s complex history and contemporary politics that shape state-religion relationships and, to a lesser extent, BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS interfaith relations. At present no organization or network can provide an overall picture of the work of faith-inspired organizations, nor has there been systematic research on their impact and reach into the poorest communities.

Culture and Religion

Bangladesh’s often tumultuous history has produced a society with a rich array of cultural, ethnic, and religious traditions. Some 98 percent of the population are ethnic Bengali and speak Bangla; other ethnic groups are Urdu-speaking, non-Bengali Muslims of Indian origin, and several smaller indigenous and ethnic communities. An, estimated 90 percent of the population is Muslim; mostly Sunni Muslims with a smaller Shi’a community, as well as Ahmadis. Bangladesh’s Hindu 29 Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely populated secondary school.51 UNICEF estimates that nearly 7.5 million countries; the population is estimated at 164 million (2010).46 children work to help support their families. In government It remains heavily rural, and 80 percent of the population lives schools, 10 percent of primary school teaching posts are outside the main urban centers; rural-urban migration trends vacant and one third of them are uncertified.52 Certain are strong, however, and the country’s urban population is groups, particularly disabled children, indigenous children, increasing. 47 Rohingya refugee children, and those in remote areas, have much poorer access to education. Bangladesh has made significant progress in poverty alleviation over the past decade, despite frequent natural disaster and Maternal mortality is high in Bangladesh; an estimated GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| shocks. Recent economic performance has been quite robust, 12,000 women die each year from pregnancy or childbirth with economic growth in the 6 percent range; Bangladesh has related complications, or 300 deaths per 100,000 live births. high aspirations, including attaining middle-income status by Some 85 percent of women give birth at home with no formal 2021. Poverty levels declined from 57 percent in 1990, to 40 healthcare; only 18 percent are assisted by skilled health percent in 2005. Bangladesh is currently on track to reach personnel. Malnutrition is also high, especially in rural areas the MDG of halving poverty by 2015. Despite progress, 56 and for children; about 20 percent of infants have low birth million people still live below the poverty line, and 84 percent weights and approximately 45 percent of children under five of the population survives on less than $2 a day.48 are underweight. Acute respiratory infections (ARIs) are the leading cause of child illness and death.53. Bangladesh is one of the world’s countries that are most vulnerable to climate change; 60 percent of deaths worldwide Bangladesh has among the highest rates of child marriages BERKLEY CENTER caused by cyclones over the past 20 years have been in in the world; 74 per cent of girls are married before they Bangladesh. The growing urban populations lives in poor are 18 and over a third of girls are married before they turn conditions and are subject to the risks of climate change- 15. Although it is illegal, the practice of dowry – requiring related natural disasters (35 percent of the population in a bride’s family to pay significant sums to the family of the the six largest cities live in slums); a substantial portion of groom – encourages marriage of young girls because younger the roughly one billion dollars of Official Development brides typically require smaller dowries. Young brides are often Assistance (ODA) that Bangladesh receives annually is pregnant within the first year of marriage; a third of teenage focused on sectors potentially affected by climatic risks and girls aged 15 to 19 are mothers or are already pregnant. Only changes.49 Infrastructure is still quite poorly developed, and 16 percent of adolescent girls in Bangladesh understand how electrical power coverage is less than 50 percent. HIV is transmitted and prevented. 54

Bangladesh has made great strides on education but still faces There is a complex and long-standing refugee crisis with significant challenges. Primary-school enrollment rates have the Rohingya community in the south along the border increased impressively - 87 percent of boys and 91 percent with Burma (Myanmar). In 1992, some 250,000 people of girls attend primary school (though the completion rate is fled Burma into Bangladesh because of persecution. Since still only 47 percent). Girls’ enrollment in secondary school 1993, the Bangladeshi government has denied over 200,000 in Bangladesh has risen to nearly six million in 2008, from subsequent Rohingya arrivals official refugee status, so they just over one million in 1991, with a rising number of girls are ineligible for UN assistance.55 Roughly, 18,000 Rohingya from disadvantaged or remote areas.50 Secondary school rates refugee children now live in two official government refugee are lower; 36 percent of boys and 41 percent of girls attend camps in Bangladesh. UNICEF estimates that barely three 30 percent ofthoseenrolled are girls. the first years thatthey were livingin Bangladesh; almost50 percent ofRohingya refugee children attendedschoolduring from Bangladesh to fund programming promoting social from Bangladesh tofundprogramming promoting social BRAC University, Dhaka, isopen tocivilsocietyorganizations SAR), locatedattheInstitute ofGovernance Studies (IGS), at Affiliated Network for SouthAsia(ANSA The World Bank arrangements are highlighted below. Bangladesh, around mostdevelopment sectors.Some existing and focusedresearch aboutfaithanddevelopment in mechanisms between secularandfaith-inspired organizations, There are andcoordination numerous instancesofpartnership Development P with faith-inspired actors. suggest increasing toengage andcoordinate efforts interviews complex bureaucratic structures, thoughbothliterature and inspired organizationscanfacechallengesvis-a-visofficial or failure. Some thatfaith- development practitionersobserve engage religious leaderscanbeadeterminantofitssuccess agree thattheabilityofadevelopment program toeffectively and culture todevelopment andpeacebuildingwork. Many knowledgeparticular andunderstandingofcommunity values among women. Faith-inspired actors are seen as bringing a increasingly publicspaceinBangladeshi society, particularly secular institutionssuggestthatreligion isoccupyingan Development practitionersfrom bothfaith-inspired and empowerment, interalia. disaster relief, sanitation, microfinance, and women’s which includeeducation,peacebuilding,environment, are greatly diverse, dependingonregion, andactivitiescanvary their exactreach andinfluence. Faith groups in Bangladesh coordinated to efforts andmeaningful “map” andunderstand ofNGOs. However,under thebroad category there are few organizations andfaith-inspired organizationsbroadly fall andsignificant by bothnationalandinternational important Civil societyinvolvement is increasingly seen asboth engagement. are involved in different levels of community outreach and more than250,000mosquesinBangladesh, mostofwhich as well asmanyseculardevelopment NGOs. There are also organizations, andfaith-inspired development organizations, posted ontheAgencywebsite includeschurches, missionary Bureau. TheNGOAffairsNGOs Bureau officiallistof reports some26,000NGOs registered withtheNGOAffairs often complexroles. AnAsianDevelopment Bank report within thissociety, faith-inspired actorsplaysignificantand diverse segmentsengagedindifferent development sectors; Bangladesh hasan established androbust civilsociety, with F aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment artners andC 56

oordination inspired education consists of the madrasa systems, as well as inspired education consistsofthemadrasa systems,aswell as its totalbudget, or2.3percent oftotalGDP, on education.Faith- The government of Bangladesh currently spends14percent of F have aspecificprogram focusedon Bangladesh. Muslims” tohelpthepoorthrough zakatcontributions;they one internationalorganizationthatencourages“privileged with clothes and food. The Zakat Foundation of America is Eid andRamadancelebrations,providing poorfamilies within Bangladesh collectzakatspecificallysurrounding zakat indifferent regions in Bangladesh. Other organizations working toinstitutionalize thecollectionanddisbursementof by Rahimafroozsocial enterprisesupported Bangladesh Ltd,is them, theCentre For Zakat Management (CZM),apro-poor and secular, bothcollectanddistributezakatfunds.Among Non-government affiliatedorganizations,bothfaith-inspired and financialassistancetowidows. educational materialstopoorstudents;employment training; trainingcentersfortheunemployed;sewing distributionof a free hospitalinthe Tongi region focusedonchildren; 25 for organized socialwelfare programs. Programs include Zakat Fund Ordinance of5January 1982tocollectzakat Fund wasestablishedby theIslamic Foundation underthe Among government-sponsored institutions,theZakat ofSouth parts AsiaandtheMiddle East. is voluntary, systemsfoundinother unlikethecompulsory poverty alleviationtoolisunderutilized. studies, however, highlight thatthepotentialforzakatasa around the collectionanddisseminationofzakat;some Several institutionsinBangladesh are organized specifically Zakat andSocialWelfare on integratinginfluenzamessagesintotheirsermons. prayer. More than2500imamsattendedanationalconference The keymessagepromotes handwashingwithsoapbefore including fourFriday sermonsonavianandpandemicflu. faith-inspired organizationstodevelop sermonbooklets Also targetinghealthinitiatives, UNICEFhasworked with activities. health-related withfaith-inspiredand partners organizationsengagedin the Global Fund andtheGovernment ofBangladesh funds between and malaria;withintheorganization,apartnership foraddressing.private partnership HIV/AIDS,tuberculosis CoordinatingThe Bangladesh Country Mechanism isapublic- faith-inspired andgovernment/secular development actors. engages inpolicyresearch aimedatbridgingthedividebetween BRAC University, theBRAC Development Institute (BDI) faith-inspired and community-based organizations. Also within accountability inSouth Asia;thenetwork specificallytargets aith Institutions andEducation 57 Zakat in Bangladesh Zakat inBangladesh

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 31

Working with Imams to Combat HiV/AIDS in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, a local Muslim-inspired Among government institutions, the Imam organization, the Masjid Council for Training Academy, established by the Islamic Community Advancement, works through Foundation of Bangladesh, has introduced religious networks on HIV/AIDS prevention. reproductive health and HIV/AIDS-related The goal is to reach 50 percent of the adult topics in its training curriculum for imams. population over a three-year period with Through a Training of Trainers (TOT) approach, messages about abstinence, faithfulness and the Academy has trained over 40,000 imams partner reduction. The program is supported to deliver HIV/AIDS messages emphasizing HIV/ by PEPFAR (the U.S. President’s Emergency AIDS prevention. Training also includes human Program for HIV/AIDS). rights, legal rights of women, dowry, and child marriage issues. The Islamic Research Cell (IRC), The Masjid Council worked with the US based a section of the Family Planning Association of NGO Family Health International (FHI) to Bangladesh (FPAB), an NGO affiliated to the develop a training curriculum aimed at about International Planned Parenthood Federation, 600 imams in 2010. The long-term goal is to is also engaged in imam training. With the reach approximately 550,000 people through support of more than 750 professionals and Friday sermons., utilizing the influence, respect, 3,000 volunteers, the IRC has since 1993 and reach of imams in their communities. trained imams in reproductive health. The The Masjid Council also works with religious training includes equal rights for wives and the leaders to produce satellite television talk importance of condom use. shows, and has aired 40 episodes of Islamic- based television programs discussing HIV/ World Vision, Caritas, and Salvation Army AIDS and related issues. Some two million support similar programs in Bangladesh. people were expected to be exposed to HIV/ World Vision has reached more than 10,000 AIDS messages through Islamic television adolescents and delivers HIV/AIDS prevention GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| programs in the period of a year, thus reducing education to deep sea fishermen and their the spread of the disease. spouses, spouses of migrant workers, and youth.

Christian and other faith-inspired schools. Madrasas make and have successfully integrated secular subjects into their up one branch of the Bangladeshi national education system, curriculum. The Qomi madrasas remain more traditional the other two branches being general education and technical and provide only a Qur’anic-based education and other vocational education.58 Official mosques function under forms of Islamic instruction. There are some tensions between the Bangladesh Madrasa Education Board, an independent the two groups; while graduates from the Aliyah madrasas government funded agency charged with establishing compete for jobs in the open market, graduates from the BERKLEY CENTER madrasas, assigning teachers, and creating curricula. Madrasas Qomi madrasas are usually competitive only for religious fall into three different categories: recognized and state positions in mosques. Despite some limitations in madrasa sanctioned school religious private schools, known as Aliyah curricula, many rural families prefer this mode of education madrasas; religious private unregistered madrasas, known to government schools. The understanding is that while as Qomi madrasas; and unregistered unofficial madrasas, secular subjects may allow children to find jobs, madrasas estimated to number between 4,000-16,000. All madrasas teach children about Islamic values that enable them to be represent 8 percent of primary schools (nearly 7,000), and 32 morally and ethically committed. Moreover, in rural areas, percent (approximately 8500) of secondary schools, and 15 madrasas are often the only option for an education for many percent of total post-primary school enrollment; 92 percent families. 60 of madrasas are in rural areas. World Bank studies note that the Bangladeshi madrasa system is the “most-feminized” and Discussion with practitioners highlights concerns around largest co-ed such system in the world; 87 percent of madrasas quality of instruction. A World Bank report noted that 82 are co-educational, and 46 percent of students are girls.59 percent of math teachers in the madrasa system are untrained, and 80 percent of English teachers in Qomi madrasas are Bangladesh has a history of practical madrasa reform programs, untrained (compared to 44 percent in Aliyah madrasas). beginning with large-scale reforms in the late 1980s. Reforms Resulting test scores in madrasas averaged 35 percent in math have included fiscal incentives both to modernize curriculum and 33 percent for English; students did, however, answer (i.e. include secular subjects, alongside religious curriculum), correctly 75 percent of questions related to Islam. The study and increase female enrollment. The Aliyah madrasas were found that Qomi madrasas account for only 2.2 percent of encouraged by the government to engage in a reform program the total secondary school enrolment, with Aliyah madrasas 32 have mainstreamed agender lensintheirprogramming. health, andmostinternational faith-inspired organizations programming ineducation,economic livelihoods, and organizations work onissuesofgender equalitythrough degrees ofgender-focused programming. Faith-inspired Most faith-inspired organizations inBangladesh have varying Gender ofthecountry.eastern parts organized around communitytemplesinthesouthernand Both Hindu andBuddhist schools,largely groups run of Dhaka. education policy, includingwithUNCEFandtheUniversity coordinate withinternationalandnationalorganizationson focus on“values-integrated” curricula.The Bahá’í regularly at thevillage,regional, andnationallevels, withastrong The Bahá’í communityhasschoolsandeducationprograms in thecountry. independence; someare amongthehighest-achievingschools schoolsinthecountry,missionary manyestablishedbefore training course.There are numerous CatholicandChristian throughBirth Attendantsaneleven-day (TBA) basic The CCDBhasalsotrained30,000practicing Traditional imams on disaster preparedness education and training. Bangladesh (CCDB),foundedin1973,works withlocal in Dhaka. TheChristianCommission for Development in offering aliteracyprogram formore than400street children school curriculum. Holy Cross over serves 1,500 students, in programs thatintegratevalue-based educationintosecular Buddhist, Islamic, Christian and indigenous tribal traditions, Holy Cross works withchildren andadultsfrom Hindu, primarily Christian. of Madhupur Jungle inthe Tangail District thatare now The CTBhasafocusonthe Aboriginal tribalgroups (Garo) their homecommunitiesthrough socialwelfare programs. to serve men and women in theologyandChristian ministry Bangladesh (CCTB) locatedinSavar Dhaka, whichtrains focused institutionsare the Collegeof Christian Theology and Bahá’ícommunities. AmongChristianschools/education including Christianand,toalesserextent,Buddhist, Hindu, Other faithcommunitiesare alsoactive ineducation, imams onissuesofeducation. national and international organizations, and regularly engage Community Advancement have collaboratedwithboth including theAsiaFoundation andtheMasjid Councilfor role inreaching outtoimamsthisend;organizations education. Muslim religious leaderscanplayanimportant and accountabilitysurrounding curriculumandqualityof however, agree ontheneedforimproved transparency pay forprivate schools;mostdevelopment practitioners, to educationforchildren from poorfamilieswhocannot accounting forover 18percent. 61 Madrasas improve access committed to promoting a peacebuilding agenda. As part a peacebuildingagenda. Aspart promoting to committed founded in 1983 by agroup ofMuslims andChristians Justice (BICPAJ), a religious non-profit NGO,was The Bangladesh Inter-Religious Councilfor Peace and an unofficial refugeecamp, as wellaswith hostcommunities. the border with Burma (Myanmar) toimprove security within development mandate, works with Rohingya refugees along peacebuilding approach. Muslim ofitsbroader Aid,aspart sustainable peaceinthecommunitythrough afamily-centered of the 1997 peace accord.support Their work aims to build in the Chittagong Hill Tracts with indigenous groups in Catholic-inspired organizationthatworks inpeacebuilding initiatives. Anando,asoneexample,isa including interfaith Peacebuilding organizationsrepresent majorfaithtraditions, process. resolution mechanisms)conflictmediationor resolution or communityleaderatashalish(localvillagecouncils/dispute specifically request theinvolvement oropinionofa religious have a role in national development; over 70 percent would Bangladesh believe thatreligious leadersofallfaithsshould Foundation foundthatover survey 80percent ofpeoplein to familyandgenderviolence,peaceeducation.AnAsia Tracts region and along the border with Burma (Myanmar)) programming (largelyconcentratedintheChittagongHill sectors, from traditionalconflict resolution andmitigation peacebuilding in Bangladesh; such work covers a range of rolesReligious in important leadersplayparticularly P andChristianLifeBangladesh(FW), (CLB). in Bangladesh, Believers ofChrist(BC),Friends of Word organizations includetheAgaKhanDevelopment Network for women,working withsmalllocalorganizations.Other Bangladesh (CCDB), focuses on management skills training oftheChristianCommissionforDevelopmentpart in The Women’s Small Local Organization (WSLO), Program affluent segmentsofthesociety,” women. andparticularly inspired organization,haswelfare “less activitiesthatserve Bahá’ífaiths. The Islamic Bank Foundation, a Muslim- of organizationsinspired by theHindu, Buddhist, and and Christianorganizations,alongwithasmallernumber National faith-inspired organizationsincludebothMuslim rural trafficking, andchildlaborpracticesin areas. isalsoactive Services intheprevention ofchildmarriage, Gambhira in1000villagesacross theregion. CatholicRelief The Caritas Regional Cultural Team (RCT) hasperformed system,andsexuallytransmitteddiseases. marriage, thedowry who are illiteratetoeducatewomenonissuesofchild the popularformofGambhira folkmusictoteachvillagers gives specialfocustochildmarriage.CaritasBangladesh uses DanChurchAidinterventions. isactive inseveral areas but communities notreached by mostmainstream development microloans to women, focusing on women from the poorest Among internationalorganizations,Muslim Aidprovides eacebuilding

33 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Leaders of Influence

An Asia Foundation survey (supported practical exposure in development practice by USAID) highlighted the development and values supporting democracy, human significance of Bangladesh’s religiosity: over rights, economic development, and human/ 80 percent of Bangladeshi citizens agreed social development; 2) facilitate dialogue and that religious leaders should have a role in sharing of experience between Bangladeshi advancing national development goals and religious leaders and their counterparts in other democratic principles in Bangladesh. Over countries within South and Southeast Asia; 3) 64 percent of citizens agreed that religious promote understanding of key development leaders have a major role to play in guiding practices and the role of religious leaders in community thought on social issues, and over advancing them; and 4) better understand, 70 percent would ask for the involvement or monitor, and analyze the perspectives of opinion of a religious or community leader at religious leaders and their communities a shalish, or local mediation forum. on issues of national development and the societal values that underlie development. With this in mind, the Asia Foundation, with support from USAID/Bangladesh, initiated To date, the program has reached more than the Leaders of Influence program in 2004. 20,000 leaders, addressing a range of issues In partnership with the Ministry of Religious that include anti-corruption, health concerns Affairs (MORA), the program supplements the (including HIV/AIDS – Box x), anti-trafficking, 45-day imam training program that the Islamic social forestry, and early childhood education. Foundation/MORA has run since 1981 to train The leaders take what they have learned back imams on theological and social issues. It has to their home communities; imams in particular, reached over 60,000 imams since it began. during Friday sermons and in other religious meetings at mosques, pass on the ideas to

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Now in its second cycle (2007-2011), Leaders community members. Program outreach of Influence works specifically to strengthen also includes exchanges with other religious the capacity of religious leaders to engage leaders from South and Southeast Asia, print more actively in development efforts. The and broadcast media, and monitoring and core objectives are to: 1) engage imams evaluation of program impact and reach. and other religious leaders in dialogue and

of its programming, it implements “violence resolution” International development organizations, including the programming in the Chittagong Hill Tracts on issues of United Nations, collaborate with faith-inspired actors on peace and justice; focus groups include youth, women, and peacebuilding related programming. The United Nations indigenous groups. Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), as one example,

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS has collaborated with religious leaders to reduce vulnerability Other faith-inspired organizations engaged in peacebuilding of women and children to human trafficking and violence. include: SUFI (Spiritual Union for Institution), which has a focus on dowry practices; Hotline (Human Rights) Bangladesh, associated with the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Bangladesh, which works to promote awareness of human rights violations; and the Commission for Justice and Peace (CJP), also a commission of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of Bangladesh (CBCB), working in rural areas to promote peace between multi-ethnic and multi-religious communities.

International interfaith organizations involved in peacebuilding in Bangladesh through trainings, workshops, and networks include the World Council of Religious Leaders, United Religions Initiative, and the World Council of Churches. 34 Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka, one of South Asia’s most highly developed Sri Lanka’s social development indicators are among South countries, has important achievements in education and Asia’s best. Literacy is near universal, with equality between gender equality and shows consistent economic growth. It also both girls and boys in a part of the world where girls often faces development challenges, the remnants of decades of civil lag behind in development indicators. Overall enrollment of conflict. The government declared a military victory in May school-aged children in primary school is near 100 percent 2009 after years of internal conflict, but there has yet to be a (that number drops for secondary school, at 87 percent), formal reconciliation process; scars of war are an obstacle to though government expenditure on education is just under 3 building sustainable peace. Internally displaced numbers are percent of GDP- relatively low compared to other countries decreasing, but thousands remain in camps. Faith-inspired of similar economic status. BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY organizations and religious leaders play prominent roles | in Sri Lanka, and interfaith initiatives are part of the effort Sri Lanka has maintained GDP growth averaging 5 percent to build confidence and trust among diverse communities. annually for the past ten years. With the end to conflict, Sri Faith actors (both within Sri Lanka, and among the Diaspora Lanka’s projected economic growth is expected to rise.63 The communities) hold a particularly important place in Sri structure of the economy differs from other South Asian Lankan society, and are widely viewed as crucial components countries; the agricultural sector is small (13 percent of GDP), of the peace and development equation. and industry (30 percent) and the services sector (60 percent) larger; rubber processing, Ceylon tea, textiles, and petroleum Socio-Economic Background and Development refining are three of the largest sectors. Sri Lanka benefits Challenges from remittances, with about 1.5 million citizens working abroad (90 percent of them in the Middle East). Recent Sri Lanka’s population now totals about 20.5 million (2009). cases of abuse highlight dangers that women in particular An island just south of India, it is ethnically and religiously face in going abroad to work, particularly in domestic service diverse: approximately 74 percent Sinhalese, 13 percent Sri positions in the Middle East. 64 Lankan Tamils, five percent Indian Tamils, seven percent Sri Lankan Moor, and some one percent other ethnic minorities, Peace has largely been restored after a fierce campaign and including Malay and Burghers (1989 Census). government military victory in May 2009; displacement BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS is decreasing but remains a challenge. With internal Sri Lanka has made notable progress in long-standing efforts displacement numbers near 320,000 immediately following to address poverty and ensure equitable development; it is a the conflict, the UNHCR estimated that 232,400 people middle income country with a per capita income of US$4700 had returned to their homes as of January 2011, with an in 2009 (World Bank). The poverty rate is the lowest reported additional 75,300 expected to return by December 2011. in South Asia. Poverty is largely concentrated outside the An estimated 202,500 IDPs remain, expected to decrease capital city of Colombo; geographical isolation, especially to 127,200 by December 2011.65 Prolonged displacement distance to the nearest market or city, is highly correlated with has had implications for health, education, and economic poverty incidence.62 A central focus today is the aftermath development for both displaced and home communities.66 of nearly three decades of civil war; peace has opened new Conflict-affected regions generally lag behind other provinces opportunities for reconciliation and development, but the in terms of development, as is evident in both in social scars and unaddressed tensions of past conflict run deep. development indicators and physical infrastructure. Only 46 percent of the population had access to safe drinking water in the north and east before the conflict ended, compared to 62 35

Insights from the Sarvodaya Movement

The Sarvodaya Movement is widely known and admired Sarvodaya headquarters, the Vishva Niketan Peace Center, as a bold and far-ranging institution and approach to and the Sarvodaya Shanthi Sena north-south youth peace development that has a long record of accomplishment dialogue, among other initiatives. The Sarvodaya Shanthi in Sri Lanka and abroad. Its distinctive Buddhist-inspired Sena North-South peace dialogue was held in June and July, philosophy underpins its commitment to community 2010 in Mannar and Jafna with Sri Lankan youth from the development and empowerment as well as its focus on Northern and Southern parts of the country to begin the peace and conflict resolution. recovery and reconciliation process after 30 years of bitter and violent conflict. Young people met peers from formerly The Lanka Jathika Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya warring regions for the first time; youth from both groups Movement, or Sarvodaya (which in Sanskrit means came together in sharmadana work camps to repair and “awakening of all”) began in 1958, when a group of teachers in beautify the Maradamadu Church, and the Tellipalei hospital Colombo, Sri Lanka, including the founder Dr. A.T. Ariyaratne, in Jaffna, both of which had been neglected through created shramadana (meaning “sharing work, knowledge, years of war. The groups earned the admiration of their talents, and time”) work camps to encourage their students communities. to mobilize poor communities around basic development projects. Sarvodaya has since grown to be the largest and Sarvodaya was an instrumental actor following the 2004 one of the most active grassroots civil society movements tsunami, recognized internationally for its capacity to in Sri Lanka (described by some scholars as the world’s mobilize relief swiftly through extensive local networks. largest peoples’ participatory development movement), It built upon on-the-ground experience with qualitative with a staff of 3,000 in its network of organizations, invited assessments in settlements camps, and distributed practical to work in over 1,500, or roughly one-third of the villages in information to relief organizations, including the UN, the Sri Lanka (it has grown from 100 villages in 1967), on issues World Bank, and local and international NGOs; the Sarvodaya related to: peacebuilding, gender, education, capacity website became a central information source during the building, health, emergency relief and rehabilitation, village post-tsunami relief efforts. It had conducted disaster infrastructure, environment and biodiversity, communication management briefings with local disaster coordinators and participation, and youth. With its large experience and weeks before the tsunami, so Sarvodaya was prepared to GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| reach into so many villages, the Sarvodaya movement has respond with immediate disaster relief within hours of the achieved a “critical mass” in Sri Lankan society that allows tsumani, receiving donations from international private it to influence social change through social and political sector donors, Sarvodaya branches in the US, Belgium, the participation. Its goal is a society in which there is neither Netherlands, and Germany, and the Arigato Foundation in poverty nor excessive affluence. The movement’s website Japan. claims that it has influenced national policy strategy in health and education; Sarvodaya has been a resonant and Savodaya also shares its development model abroad. The influential voice urging reconciliation throughout the long founder often speaks at international conferences, and Sri Lankan conflict and into the present post-conflict period. the movement is well-connected to international interfaith and development networks. Savodaya USA, with its Sarvodaya’s holistic approach is based on Buddhist headquarters in Wisconsin, aims to promote Sarvodaya BERKLEY CENTER principles (including goodness, sympathy, and tranquility) worldwide, and furthers its view of holistic development in and Gandhian values of truthfulness, nonviolence, and communities in the United States. A Japanese -Sarvodaya self-sacrifice. The movement’s 2005-2010 Strategic chapter was established in 2009. Plan translates these principles in programmatic terms, highlighting the goal of empowerment through what it Information from: describes as three spheres of transformation: Consciousness, Economics, and Power. Dr. A.T. Ariyaratne explains his Herath, Anuradha K., “A.T. Ariyaratne: Leading Sri Lanka’s philosophy that “economic development is a fragment of life Largest Civil Society Movement for 50 Years” from and living” that “cannot be separated from his total life and the Huffington Post, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ living” (drawn from 1999 Shumacher lectures on Buddhist anuradha-herath/at-ariyaratne-leading-sri_b_254537.html Economics). The Sarvodaya interpretation of Buddhism and (accessed15 November 2010). Buddhist thought adheres strictly to a view that Buddhist principles should be applied to social problems for all Marshall, Katherine. “Grassroots Matter: Sarvodaya, the people, regardless of faith or ethnicity. Tsunami, and Development in Sri Lanka” in Development and Faith: Where Mind, Heart, and Soul Work Together. So what does the movement do? Its peace and community World Bank Publications, 2007. building activities include work in internal displacement camps, meditations for peace, the Sarvodaya Shanthi Sena http://www.sarvodaya.org (Peace Brigade) youth group, a Child Education Center at

36 ethnic lines tends to vary by region.ethnic linestendstovary reconciliation. Societal fragmentationalongreligious and conflictandworking towardsboth supporting relief and social activism,religious leadershave wornmultiplehats, to protecting it,whilenotrecognizing it asthestatereligion. grants Buddhism a“foremost place” andcommitsthegovernment The Sri Lankanconstitutionguaranteesfreedom of religion; it descent). the Burghers (anethnicgroup ofmainlyEuropean colonist population, consistingofSinhalese and Tamils, aswell as Tamils. Christianityrepresents about7.5percent ofthe identify asHindu, especially ethnic Sri Lankan and Indian number ofMalays. About 15percent ofthe population of thepopulation),Muslim Indian Tamils, andasmaller the Sri LankanMoor ethnicgroup (approximately 7percent practiced by about7.5percent ofthepopulation,largelyfrom Buddhist. Most Sinhalese identifyasBuddhist. Islam is Sri Lanka’s populationisabout70percent Theravada R discrimination. face greater inequalities due to socialmarginalizationand and ethnic Tamil populationsanddisplaced populations, Women from minority groups, includingtheMuslim health, education,andemployment. political participation, across different sectors,including domesticand familylaw, women are significant. Specific genderchallenges are found notes unequal rights and widespread discrimination against achieve full genderequalityorempowerment. Thestudyalso women are generallyrelatively well-situated, buthave yet to Assessment in2008.The foundthat report Sri Lankan The Asian Development Gender Bank completedaCountry to analready complexenvironment. involvement inpost-conflict issues,attimesaddingtensions internationaldevelopmentview organizationsandtheir sympathies during the war also shade how some groups slowly. Differing perceptions ofdevelopment organization working towards reconciliation, buttheprocess is moving conflict. National andlocalNGOs and religious leadersare among different social groups and the bitter aftermath of Lanka’s government hasyet toaddress thelegacyofdistrust Many international institutionsare concernedthatSri directly attributedtotheconflictitself. of conflictalsocompoundlong-termpoverty challengesnot to address thenation’s largeregional inequities.Direct effects launched infrastructure andsanitationdevelopment projects to 18 percent and 29 percent respectively. The government has from 3monthsto5years ofagewere compared underweight, percent fortherest ofthecountry, while46percent ofchildren at multiplelevels ofsociety. offered guidanceonsocialandpoliticalissues,withinfluence leaders inhighregard, andreligious leaders have historically evangelical following Christiangroups, particularly the tsunami. often tiedtoeconomic incentives, by foreign andindigenous Anti-Conversion Bill, indirect response tocasesofproselytizing, recent years, someparliamentarianshave pushedfor passageofan rofile eligious Profile 6869 Sri Lankansofallfaithstendtoholdreligious 67 70 As a result of this tradition of Asaresult ofthistradition 71 In In 72

43 Christian). percent had faith links (1 Jewish, 1 Buddhist, 4 Muslim and and development professionals) working inthecountry, 49 listed onReliefWeb (awebsite devoted tohumanitarianrelief found thatoutof165NGOS(largelyinternationalNGOS) of theirwork. A2005studyonthetsunamirelief response conversion efforts. Practitioners increasedreport scrutiny inspired have increased, linkedtoallegationsofaggressive suspicions inpublicdialogueaboutthework offaith- reporting oncivilsociety;sincethetsunami,however, specifically monitorfaith-inspired organizationsinits work. Sri Lanka’s government doesnotdistinguishor traditions are engagedindevelopment andpeacebuilding Today, faith-inspired organizationsfrom allthemajor Sarvodaya (1958),andDharmavijaya Foundation (1977). Vivekananda Society (1902),RamakrishnaMission (1929), Society (1891), Young Men’s Buddhist Association(1897), Associations (1882),Salvation Army(1883),Mahabodhi Christian Associations(1882), Young Women’s Christian (1857), Buddhist Theosophical Society (1880), Young Men’s are stillactive includetheOblatesImmaculate ofMary Baptist Mission. Other well-established organizationsthat (then Ceylon) date to 1802, with the establishment of the inspired development organizations,). operation ingeneral,thisdoes notnecessarilyextendtofaith- work (althoughreligious groups have greater freedom of some NGOs must register of Defense with the Ministry to communities. religious leadersoftentakingleadershippositionsintheir representing boththeeconomicandspiritualrealms, with was measured by thevillagewatersupplyandtemple, of compassionandequality. Traditionally, development drawing onBuddhistcommunity welfare doctrines services, Religious institutions were historicallyatthecenterofmany Faith-inspired actorshave well-established historicalroots. sustainable development, governance, anddisasterrelief. displaced personassistanceandrepatriation, livelihoods, rights, infrastructure development, poverty reduction, gender, childsoldierreintegration, demining,health,human and development work addressing, inter alia, education, activities includeawiderangeofpost-conflict/peacebuilding many have links to faith institutions and communities. Their local organizationswork fordevelopment inSri Lanka,and A largeanddiverse group ofinternational,national,and Diverse A F considerable experience in engaging faith leaders and considerable experience inengagingfaith leadersand universities, andinternational organizations, have Secular includingthinktanks, development partners, NGOs. government registration requirements andoversight for Some development practitionersdescribeconcernsfornew peacebuilding, gender, andeducation-focused programming. faith-inspired organizationscitedinthischapterhave specific cited inthestudyhadprograms ineducation;similarly, most aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment: 75 In the northern parts ofthecountry, In parts thenorthern forexample, ctors andC 73 74 International groups working inSri Lanka Some 40 percent of faith-inspired NGOs oordination 76

37 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 communities in peacebuilding, development training, and Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian programming. Sri Lanka’s multi-faith character has inspired Affairs (OCHA), United Nations Development Program interfaith cooperation, at the grassroots and national levels. (UNDP), UNICEF, UNHCR, UNFPA, and UNAIDS. Diaspora temples and communities have played an influential Large development partners, including the World Bank and role in Sri Lankan affairs, especially linked to the conflict and USAID, convene coordination meetings which include faith- tsunami relief efforts; they continue to play active roles today. inspired organizations. The Donor Peace Support Group78 consults with other development partners, including faith- inspired organizations, on conflict-sensitive approaches to Development Coordination Bodies development assistance.79

Sri Lanka takes development coordination seriously and the several coordination bodies, both general and thematic, International Faith-Inspired Organizations and include members coming from both secular and faith-inspired Religious Movements institutions. The National Secretariat for Non-Governmental Organizations, the government agency responsible for International NGOs coordinating and regulating the NGO sector, works to ensure that NGOs operate within the national policy framework. As International faith-inspired organizations have a large and of September 2010, 1,324 NGOs were registered, including long-term presence in Sri Lanka. Many have focused on both secular and faith-inspired organizations (international, addressing the civil conflict and were particularly active after national, and local). The government Department of Muslim the tsunami. Since 2009, their main focus has been post- Religious and Cultural Affairs maintains comprehensive lists conflict relief, reconstruction, and peacebuilding. Christian of mosques, Arabic colleges, Koranic madrasas (for which organizations comprise the largest group, but organizations there are specific registration guidelines), Islamic Associations, from all major faith traditions have a presence. International and Muslim orphanages (nine are officially registered, though faith-inspired organizations tend to implement a variety the actual number is much higher).77 of programs that cover the work of different development sectors. The examples below illustrate international faith- There are also independent voluntary member-based and inspired NGOs.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN United Nations coordination bodies. The Consortium for Humanitarian Agencies consists of 89 local and international Catholic Relief Services, along with Caritas Sri Lanka, the humanitarian development organizations, and works to Catholic National Commission for Migrants, and local streamline often-overlapping development programs; a Catholic organizations, run a protection program working particular focus is post-conflict development. Members with poor women who because of lack of education and include many faith-inspired organizations, including: ADRA opportunity are forced to go abroad, primarily to the Middle Sri Lanka, All Ceylon Hindu Congress (ACHC), American East, for work. The partnership works in rural villages to Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), Caritas Sri educate local women on the dangers of such work (including Lanka, Christian Aid, Christian Children’s Fund of Canada, domestic and sexual violence, involuntary servitude, and Cordaid, Habitat for Humanity Sri Lanka, Islamic Relief, abuse), collaborating with local Buddhist temples, mosques, Lanka Evangelical Alliance Development Service, Lutheran and local government offices. An estimated 200,000 women World Relief, Malteser International, Methodist Church, annually seek domestic work abroad. Muslim Aid Sri Lanka, National Christian Council of Sri Lanka, United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR Muslim Aid works with all faith and ethnic communities, - Sri Lanka), World Vision Lanka, and the Islamic Relief focusing on emergency relief, infrastructure, livelihoods and

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Committee. No Buddhist-inspired organizations are microfinance, food security, orphan care, and women’s and registered as members. community empowerment. In 2008, Muslim Aid created the Women’s Resource Centre, along with a local partner, Smaller local coordination bodies focus on region-specific issues; the Young Muslim Women’s League, focused on economic they too include both faith-inspired and secular organizations. opportunity, education, and maternal health and nutrition Local coordinating bodies and NGO consortiums include: caused by conflict. In 2006, it collaborated with the Ampara District NGO Consortium; Consortium of NGO United Methodist Committee on Relief (UMCOR), in the - Trincomalee District; Consortium of Non-Governmental northeastern town of Muttur in response to violent conflict Organizations – Mannar District; NGO Consortium between the government and the LTTE. The partnership Vavuniya (Vavuniya Consortium); and Puttalam District provided humanitarian relief to hard-to-reach displaced NGO Consortium (PDNGOC), among other local groups. populations and resulted in a worldwide strategic agreement between the two organizations, which was expanded to 80 Aid Partners Indonesia. Eleven United Nations agencies have offices in Sri Lanka Other international faith-inspired organizations include and all work with and/or coordinate with faith-inspired members of the Consortium for Humanitarian Agencies and organizations in different ways. They include the United Catholic Relief Services, American Jewish World Service, 38 provincial councilelectionsin1999. STMRWN wasamongthefirstwomen’s groups tocontest education, environment, andpeacebuildingprograms. rights through poverty alleviation,micro credit, healthcare, political involvement, women’s empowerment, andhuman from different ethnic and religious communities, promoting (STMRWN) basedin Trincomalee works withwomen The Sinhala-Tamil-Muslim Rural Women’s Network become active politically, advocating forwomen’s rights. Suriya haspartnered withinternationalorganizationsand economic development, advocacy, andlegalprotection. in the early 1990s that works with displaced womenon Organization isa Tamil civilsocietyorganizationestablished Sarvodaya’s programming. The Suriya Women’s Development responds totheneedforgreater genderfocusthroughout The Sarvodaya Women’s Movement, foundedin1982, family care. women asheadofhousehold,responsible foreconomicand women. Families were oftendisplaced and split, leaving atrocities affected and violencethatoftendisproportionately when manyinstitutionssoughttorespond towidespread from alegacyofthecivilconflict gender focus,stemminginpart There are numerous nationalorganizationswithastrong and perhapsmostwell-known organization. (See Box #4) faith-inspired organizations.Sarvodayaisawell-established Sri Lankahasalargeandwell developed network ofnational Non-Governmental Organizations National andL Brahma Kumaris, andSoka Gakkai in Sri Lankainclude: Sri Sathya Sai Seva Organisation, the trauma relief workshops. Other religious movements working since 2005inassistingdisplacedcommunitiesandfacilitating of the government or of NGOs.Living has been active Art visitsattherequest slums around Colombo,andmakesrural Camp, whichprovides free care toover 2000patientsinthe to free healthclinics.One suchclinicistheColomboMedical Sri Lankasince1930, withprograms rangingfrom education religious movement, originallyfrom India, has beenactive in activities. Ramakrishna,aworldwideHindu-inspired South Asianregion andabroad engageinsocialdevelopment Several religious orspiritualmovements from thegreater Religious Movements DanChurchAid,. and Buddhist Global Relief, Diakonia, SEWA International UK, disabled due tothewar)achieve socio-economic or (with theirsons and/orhusbandsmissing, killed, and Buddhist communitiesdirectly affected by thewar faith links.It works withwomenofMuslim, Hindu, The Associationof War-Affected Women hasno direct ocal F aith-Inspired Organizations 81

source of information onconflictanditssocietaleffects. and guidance.Localreligious leadershave beenanimportant rather, theytendtoturnlocalreligious leadersforsupport international organizationsorlocalgovernment officials; arises atthevillagelevel, peoplegenerallydonotcallupon levels inpeacebuildingandconflict resolution. Whenconflict Christian) play active roles atthe local, regional, and national Local religious leaders(Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Religious Leaders and regional NGOcoordination bodies. are membersof, orlinkedinformallyby thenumerous local Foundation. Thislistisnotexhaustive; otherorganizations Young Muslim Women’s League, and the Dharmavijaya Peacebuilding andReconciliation Foundation, Sewalanka, Widaloka Cultural Foundation, Sithumina, theCentre for Research andAction Forum, Neelan Tiruchelvam Trust, education and peacebuilding, include: the Muslim Women’s communities onbothgender, andothersectors,including organizations, andorganizationsworking withreligious Other examplesoflocalandnationallevel faith-inspired participation. development through equitableandinclusive respective religious traditions.. train inpeacebuildingprincipleslinewithteachingsofthe Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim andChristiancommunitiesto launched aprogram towork totrainover 100clergyfrom initiatives. In May 2009,theUnited States Institute ofPeace leaders’ involvement inpeacebuildinganddevelopment character,often withaninterfaith localreligious tosupport Sri Lankahostsconferences, trainings,andworkshops, as involved withproselytizing orforeign agendas. not wishtowork withNGOs, astheyare sometimesperceived ethnic/religiousparticular groups. Some religious leaders, do historical involvement andperceived sympathiestowards of religious leaders in development work given their varied There are, however, sensitivitiesaround theinvolvement Leaders alsowork withreligious leaders. for National Unity, andtheEuropean CouncilofReligious building. TheAsia Foundation, the Inter-Religious Alliance roles ofreligious leadersinconflict transformationandpeace and Thailandtoexchange experiencesandopinions onthe 150religious leadersfrom Sri Lanka religious conference of along withaparallelgroup from Thailand,organized aninter- In October 2009, the Inter-religious Council of Sri Lanka, continuing network ofreligious leadersworking forpeace. campaign againsttheLTTE; theinitiative hasresulted ina in themidstofgovernment’s then-intensifyingmilitary Rajapaksa tocallforgoodgovernance andhumanrights In June 2008,thecouncil metwithPresident Mahinda leaders, from both the Sinhalese and Tamil sides of the conflict. Buddhist monks,alongwithHindu, Muslim, andChristian an interreligious councilof20members,includingprominent The World Conference of Religions for Peace hasestablished 83

82

39 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Education in tsunami relief, as well as in sponsoring orphans in Sri Lanka. In New Zealand, the United Sri Lanka Association Traditionally, Buddhist monks educate village members at the made a donation in November of 2009 of prosthetic limbs to pirivena (temple school). In Tamil communities, village schools soldiers who had been disabled as a result of conflict. Many were located near temples and run by Brahman educated other diaspora community groups are active, particularly in Vellalas. In colonial Sri Lanka, English medium missionary North America, Europe, and Canada. schools flourished. Pirivena are a formal component of the government-recognized education system; according to 2006 Sri Lankan temples and churches organize development government statistics, there were 659 pirivena in the country. support initiatives independently and collaborating with diaspora community organizations. In January 2010, Hindu In October 2010, Sri Lanka President Mahinda Rajapaksa Temples and Tamil churches in London with the Tamil announced that Buddhist temple school education should Health Organization in the U.K. organized a clothing drive be enhanced with information technology infrastructure, for those in displaced person camps in Sri Lanka. In the United promising that pirivenas in Sri Lanka would be provided States, Hindu and Buddhist temples and Sri Lankan religious with computer laboratories and internet facilities. Several organizations mobilize communities to provide material and international educational exchange organizations offer financial assistance to those affected by conflict and natural volunteer opportunities to teach English in rural village disasters. Dharma Vijaya Buddhist Vihara in Los Angeles pirivenas. for example, raised $2,000 for the internally displaced in Sri Lanka, and the Dharmapala Institute in Milpitas, California During the colonial period, the Buddhist Theosophical collected donations for tsunami victims. Society established Buddhist schools in provincial capitals; the language of education was English. Apart from the Musaeus Sri Lankan faith-inspired organizations advocate for an College for girls, which is private, all schools that remain increased role of diaspora communities in development. On active have been run by the government since 1963. Examples April 24th, 2010, Dr. A.T. Ariyaratne, founder of Sarvodaya, are: Ananda College in Colombo; Dharmaraja College in gave a presentation at American University in Washington, Kandy, Maliyadeva College in Kurunegala; Mahinda College DC, on the “Role of the Sri Lankan Diaspora in Rural in Galle; Visakha Balika Maha Vidyalaya, a Buddhist college Development & Reconciliation,” urging the Sri Lankan for girls in Colombo; Nalanda Maha Vidyalaya in Colombo; diaspora to support rural development and reconciliation.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN and Mahamaya Vidyalaya in Kandy. There are some sensitivities around diaspora engagement, Sri Lanka’s Catholic schools include St. Joseph’s College, St as some diaspora communities funded and supported Bridget’s Convent, St. Peter’s College, St. Benedict’s College various groups involved in the conflict, but more positive in Colombo, and St. Anthony’s College in Kandy. One contributions today are working to change perceptions. practitioner noted some complaints of students having converted to Catholicism to gain admittance. Islamic madrasas are required to register with the Department of Muslim Religious and Cultural Affairs; there are 104 madrasas registered in 17 districts.

Diaspora Communities

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS During the civil war, the Sri Lankan diaspora played active and varied roles in both supporting the conflict, and aiding in peace and relief initiatives. Tamil and Sinhalese diaspora communities continue to shape the peace, conflict, and development dynamics (with the Tamil diaspora population numbering near 1 million). Diaspora temples, often at the center of the diaspora communities, support development initiatives, particularly raising financial resources and collecting contributions.84

Sri Lankan diaspora organizations and networks organize relief and development programs, including tsunami relief, assistance to internally displaced people, and post-conflict peacebuilding and development assistance. One such organization is the Federation of Tamil Sangams of North America, an umbrella organization of local Tamil organizations in the U.S.; the New Jersey branch has been active especially 40

Jansila Majeed of the Community Trust Fund in Puttalam, Sri Lanka

In March 2010, United States Secretary of community. Muslim tradition requires that State Hillary Clinton presented the Women of widows mourn for four months and ten days in Courage Award to Jansila Majeed, Managing private following the loss of their husband. The Trustee of the Community Trust Fund in the Community Trust fund worked to ensure that Puttalam province of Sri Lanka. She was one those mourning received emergency relief and of ten recipients to receive the United States educational materials, while respecting their government award to “women who have religious customs and traditions. shown exceptional courage and leadership in advocating for human rights and women’s As part of its peacebuilding efforts and equality.” advocacy, in January 2010, along with 35 Muslim civil society and religious organizations, Ms. Majeed, herself displaced for nearly twenty the Community Trust Fund was a signatory to years, worked actively within her community, a motion to make 2010 the year of return for particularly with Muslim and Tamil populations, expelled northern Muslims. In addition, the on grassroots programs promoting livelihoods, organization has a separate women’s group healthcare, peacebuilding, and women’s to address issues of particular concern to empowerment. She has overcome hardships local displaced women, including healthcare, and marginalization, being both displaced women’s rights, violence and abuse, and and from the minority Muslim community, peacebuilding. often working against established community structures and within a highly politicized As of 2008, the Community Trust Fund has environment. been supported by 59 separate donors; among the donors are multiple faith-inspired The Community Trust Fund was established in organizations, most notably: Cordaid, Neelan 1993 with a group of five people, and today has Thrichelvam Trust, Asian Muslim Action BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY

160 full-time team members and 350 volunteers Network, Global Peace Mission, and Muslim | working with the poor, war affected, and tsunami- Aid. The organization is a member of multiple affected communities. NGO coordinating bodies, including the Consortium for Humanitarian Agencies, the Following the 2004 tsunami, the Community District NGO Consortium, and National NGO Trust Fund helped to protect women’s Council of Sri Lanka. rights. The tsunami widowed thousands of women, particularly acute among the Muslim BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

41 Nepal

Nepal stands out in South Asia for its high level of religious into consideration the voices of minority groups and all harmony. Faith-inspired organizations of many kinds work in geographic areas, in governance and access to resources; as this Nepal across various sectors on sustainable development and report was finalized, a deadline of May 2011 had been set for peace. Nepal transitioned into a secular democratic state in completion of a draft constitution. 2007, but religious communities play important roles related to the development agenda; education, health, and conflict With a GDP of $470 per capita, Nepal is the poorest country resolution mechanisms all have significant involvement of in South Asia. Nepal’s population of 28 million is growing at faith actors. Nepal’s future development hinges on whether 2 percent a year, while the ratio of population to arable land or not peace can be built and sustained and faith-inspired is one of the highest in the world. Low growth is expected GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| actors have significant potential to contribute to that process. in both agricultural manufacturing output; inadequate power The government and international organizations increasingly infrastructure, social dissatisfaction, and low government recognize and engage faith-inspired actors in policymaking expenditure are cited as causes by the World Bank. Despite and planning. Nepal also stands out in South Asia for the array challenges, there are relative improvements in development of locally developed interfaith organizations and initiatives. since the cessation of conflict.86

Progress towards the Millennium Development Goals is Societal and Development Overview mixed. Nepal is on track to achieve most MDGs (action on climate change and full employment are problem areas) Nepal is at a moment of extraordinary opportuntity in its by 2015, though structural inequalities inhibit broad-based history. After nearly 240 years of monastic rule, it elected and sustainable growth and development. Major challenges BERKLEY CENTER its first president in 2008. Nepal’s decade-long civil conflict lie in indentifying and accessing vulnerable populations fueled by Maoist groups formally ended in 2006. The currently living below the poverty line. Achievements to date government of Nepal has made poverty alleviation and include: equal access of girls and boys to primary school and peacebuilding a priority; its 2010 capital budget allocates secondary education access will likely be achieved as well; approximately 46 percent to projects directly related under-five mortality (51 per 1000) and maternal mortality to poverty. International NGOs and local NGOs, including rates (380/100,000) have decreased significantly; poverty has faith-inspired organizations, spend an average of almost $1.5 fallen by about five percentage points in the past five years; billion USD a year on poverty reduction and peacebuilding food security has improved.87 programs. ‘Feminisation’ is a striking phenomenon of poverty in Nepal; Years of conflict have exacerbated development challenges; Nepal is one of the few countries in the world where women have poor infrastructure, poor social services, insecurity, a lower life expectancy than men,.88 Women face discrimination and continuing social tensions are barriers to sustained in many sectors, including their rights to nationality and development. High risk groups include former combatants, citizenship, property, and face serious problems trafficking and war widows and the orphans, elderly, youth, and the sexual abuse, education, employment, health and reproductive disabled.85 The World Bank highlights that the key challenges rights, and legal and court proceedings.89 Forced marriage is still facing the new government are “to rebuild the legitimacy of a problem, as are early marriage, dowry violations, and lack of the state, maintain law and order, and deliver benefits to those autonomy over their body and health. Women rarely participate excluded and to society at large.” A constituent assembly is in public life, barred by caste, language, and religion.90 The new working to reach a consensus on a new constitution, taking constituent assembly is aiming to ensure fair representation for 42 with wideregional disparities; 1000live births, rateis41 deathsforevery infant mortality treatment, andallopathicmedicine.The (shaman), Ayurvedic include popularfolkmedicalcare thatrelies onjhankri Nepal, asisaccesstofamily-planning;Healthcare practices of safe andaffordable healthcareparts isdifficultinmany increase from underfourpercent tenyears earlier. Access to is approximately 2006),an six percent ofitsGDP(WHO needs ofthecountry. Government spendingonhealthcare networks inNepal, thoughtheyare largelyinadequateforthe There is increased investment inthehealth-care delivery 88/100 students. educationwitharatioof the numberincreases forsecondary schoolin1990,to86per1002002(Worldprimary Bank); significantly from 60girlsperhundred boys enrolled in school enrollment, thoughlower thanboys, hasincreased are almost90deathsper1000live births. Buddhism. Muslims are divided into bothSunni andShia into thosethat practiceHinayana, Mahayana, and Tantric divisions of Hinduism. Nepalese Buddhists are grouped Hindus are traditionallydividedintoShaivite and Vaishnavite There isdiversity ofpracticewithin individual faithtraditions. with 87percent from therichestincome-quintile. the lowestschool,compared income-quintileattendprimary between therichandpoor;only51percent ofchildren from and 33 percent of women). Access to education is unequal percent ofboys are literate(compared with62percent ofmen though ratesforyouth are higher;77percent ofgirls,and87 Approximately 60percent ofthetotalpopulationisliterate; women inNepal’s politicalandpolicymakingprocess. communities ofJains, Sikhs, andBahá’ ís. and Christianity(lessthanonepercent). There are small Mundhum (anindigenousbelief–3.5percent), Kirant identify asBuddhist, othersasMuslim (fourpercent), organizations. these distinctionsare notwidelyunderstoodby development the factthatcaste-baseddiscriminationwasabolishedin1963; Dalit groups development face particular challenges, despite population isHindu. of the Buddha.birthplace Today, more than 80 percent of the Buddhist cultures andiscommonlybelieved tobethe spiritual landscape.Thelandissacred forboth Hindu and Nepal hasanancientculture withavibrant religious and R the camps. withUNHCRin providing to partners humanitarianservices DanChurchAid, Habitat forHumanity, and World Vision are Faith-inspired NGOs includingARDA,CaritasNepal, camps inJhapaandMorang districtsineasternNepal. according toUNCHRover 107,000refugees live inseven Nepal hasasignificant refugee populationfrom Bhutan; eligious Landscape 94

95 Some 10 percent of the population Some 10percent ofthepopulation 92 intheDalit community, there 93 96

91 Girls’ organizations are not differentiated from secular development registered with the government in Nepal; faith-inspired As ofMay 2011,there were 158international NGOs International F United States Institute forPeace, and CARE. Bank, UNHCR,UNICEF, WFP, the AsiaFoundation, the with various faith-inspired actorsinNepal includethe World International development organizations that collaborate The ACT AllianceofChristianNGOs isalsoactive in Nepal. member organizations. Council. It hasfive 210 regional committeesto support Administration Officeandaffiliatedwiththe Social Welfare Dalit NGOs inNepal. DNFisregistered withtheDistrict (DNF), establishedin1996,isanumbrella organisationofall Focused specificallyonthe Dalit issues, Dalit NGO Federation Nepal, and World Vision International Nepal Nepal, Mennonite CentralCommittee,United Mission to International, Heifer International, Lutheran World Relief Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission, Habitat forHumanity organizations include:ADRANepal, DanChurchAid, broad range ofdevelopment sectors.Faith-inspired member collaboration. Member organizationstypicallywork across a NGOs; it aims toincrease informationsharingandeffective is acoordination bodyof98internationaldevelopment The Associationof International NGOs in Nepal (AIN) based, coordination bodiesinNepal. There are bothinternationalandnational,manythematically Coordination andDevelopment Bodies Partners organizations are registered andlistedinthesame directory. organizations. Bothsecularandfaith-inspired development the registration andcoordination ofnon-governmental Welfare Councilisthegovernment agencychargedwith and notfirstthrough government channels. can foreign aidflow directly todevelopment organizations, compared toothercountriesinSouth Asia;onlysince1991 NGOs ofengagementinNepal have arelatively history short F participation. protect Dalits from discriminationandencouragetheircivic government establishedaNational Dalit Commissionto Dalit women(Seeparticularly Text Box 6).In 2002,the there are reports ofcaste-baseddiscriminationtowards Dalits, of religious communities are well integratedintosociety, strife between religious groups exists.Althoughthemajority Nepal enjoys relative religious harmonyinaregion where sects while Christians includeboth Catholics andProtestants. aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment 97

aith-Inspired Organizations 98 The Social The Social

43 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 organizations. The majority of international faith-inspired records, local temples, mosques, and churches are all engaged organizations are Christian, though organizations from most in both official and unofficial development activities. major faith-traditions have a presence in Nepal. The following are some examples of faith-inspired organizations. Peacebuilding

Caritas has a large presence in Nepal, focusing particularly As development in Nepal is strongly linked to successful post- on gender equality for Nepalese women. Caritas Nepal conflict transition, it is not surprising that many organizations partners with local and international NGOs, including the are involved in peacebuilding work. Networks and individual Asia Partnership for Human Development (APHD) and organizations approach peacebuilding from diverse angles, other Caritas/Catholic agencies including Missio, Secours including civil society building, education, dispute resolution, Catholique (Caritas France), Catholic Relief Services, Caritas and interfaith engagement, inter alia. Austria, Caritas Australia and Caritas Japan. Projects include foci on gender, human trafficking, and peacebuilding. The National Council on Churches in Nepal (NCCN), a network/forum for Christian-inspired organizations in Nepal, Other international Christian faith-inspired organizations works to develop the capacity of civil-society organizations include World Vision, Lutheran Services, Jesuit Service, and and raise cooperation and understanding among various members of the ACT Alliance - Finnish Evangelical Lutheran religious communities. It has established a program, Mission, the Lutheran World Federation, and United Christian Efforts for Peace, Justice, and Reconciliation Evangelical Lutheran Churches in India. These organizations (CEPJAR), to encourage interfaith dialogue, and supports focus on several issues, including rehabilitation of Bhutanese the Inter-Religious Council Nepal to facilitate peacebuilding refugees, anti-trafficking projects, healthcare, disaster relief, between religious communities. Promot-Nepal, a Christian education, and peacebuilding. Lutheran World Relief, for organization, trains people in conflict management and offers example, partners with local and regional organizations, courses related to conflict transformation, peacebuilding, and including the South Asia Gender Alliance (SAGA), the Dalit governance. Programs focus on building management skills Support Coordination Forum, and the International Dalit suitable for church communities. Solidarity Network (IDSN). Chintamani Yogi, the founder of Hindu Vidyapeeth-Nepal The Tevel b’Tzede, an international Israeli Jewish (HVP) schools and a Hindu spiritual leader, is committed

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN organization, (The Earth-In Justice), works within Nepal to peacebuilding; he chairs or serves several organizations in rural villages and urban slums on health, sustainable that focus on peacebuilding and conflict resolution. agriculture, education, environmental issues, and women’s The Youth Society for Peace (YSP) engages youth from empowerment. The organization partners with the Nepali indigenous communities in regional conflict prevention. organizations Chandra-Jyoti Integrated Rural Development One YSP program, Arms Down, coordinates with different Society and the Dhulikel Hospital Community Health communities to construct a participatory youth peacebuilding Program on gender empowerment and healthcare. The agenda. The national Inter-faith Coordination Movement approach of Tevel b’Tzedek is unique in that it relies on youth (NICM) focuses on interfaith harmony among different volunteers to implement projects (largely Israeli youth taking communities; the organization engages Hindu, Buddhist an academic gap year, or those that have recently completed Muslim, Christian, Bahá’í, Jain, and Sikh communities. mandatory military service). Many organizations focus specifically on Dalit communities There are fewer international Buddhist, Muslim, and Hindu- and victims of conflict. Examples include the Dalit inspired organizations; they include Tzu Chi (Buddhist), Art Development Society, the Dalit Welfare Organization, of Living (Hindu), and the Muslim-inspired organizations Sindhuli, and Siddhartha Social Development Centre. (See

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) and Muslim Hands. Box # 6 for further information)

The Bahá’í Education, Curriculum, and Training Associates (ECTA), founded in 1997, promotes rural development National and Local Faith-Inspired organizations strategies and educational programs focused on peacebuilding.

There are thousands of national and local level development organizations working in Nepal, and numerous organizations Gender draw inspiration from different faith traditions. There are 34 organizations from the government list of registered NGOs Numerous Nepalese community/civil society organizations that are explicitly Hindu in name, with others inexplicitly focus on issues of gender, some with stated faith-inspiration drawing inspiration from the Hindu faith; 61 organizations for their work. The Fatima Foundation, as one example, have an explicit Muslim inspiration. Christian organizations is a Muslim-inspired organization that works to build are registered under diverse names, and there are no participation of oppressed Muslim women in civil society. comprehensive compiled lists of organizations; their presence, It seeks to empower women by teaching Islamic values and is however, widespread. Apart from the official government viable skills to encourage financial independence.

44 Day ofPrayer andthe21 beganwithaninterreligious prayerobservance event onthe collaborate inadvocating forbetterlives forchildren. The by askingrepresentatives ofdifferent religious faithsto marked the World Day ofPrayer andAction forChildren in approaching genderissues.In November 2010,UNICEF increasingly recognize thepotentialroles offaithcommunities International organizations, notably within the UN system, different groups of Nepali Christiansand organizes training Christian Society (NCS),asan example, iscomprisedof on HIV/AIDSawareness and prevention issues.The Nepal Faith-inspired organizationsinNepal are active particularly HIV/AIDS Awareness scholarships. areas, includingprovision ofschooluniforms,supplies,and provide inrural particularly equaleducation opportunities, improving education. The Faith Foundation Nepal works to Some national/locallevel NGOs focusspecificallyon region. organization thatoversees manymonasteriesintheHimalaya system; the Monasteries Management Committee is one active in gainingrecognition inthegovernment education andareschools are particularly foundthroughout thecountry begin thedaywithaHindu prayer. Buddhist monastery Hindu goddessoflearning,on theirgrounds; someschools not teachreligious beliefs,mosthave astatueofSaraswati, the are foundthroughout Nepal, andalthoughpublicschoolsdo by theAl-Hira Educational Society ofNepal. Hindu schools in particularly Tarai andremote mountaindistricts,asnoted gaps ineducationwhere government schoolsare notpresent, high schools.There are atleast3,500madrasas,whichfill many government andbusinesselitegraduatedfrom Jesuit Some schools are Christian Ministry well-respected, and government’s Education Board. and curriculauseseculartextbooksrecommended by the religious schoolsmustmeetnationalstandards ofinstruction within theformaleducationsystem;toberecognized however, aremadarasas, and gurukuls, recognized as a schooling option (also calledtraditionalschools),includinggumbas/vihars, School Sector reform plan–2009-2015,religious schools schools, andreligious schools.In theNepal Government educational system:government schools,private non-religious There are three generalcategoriesofschoolsin the Nepali Education faith. language oftheirparticular children, inthetheological andcouchedtheirinstruction respective communities,encouragingwomentobreastfeed Religious leadersfrom different faithtraditionsspoketotheir the benefitsofbreastfeeding forinfantsand young children. and focused onpromoting maternalhealth,childsurvival, of Religions forChildren (GNRC). One aspectoftheevent the RightsofChild,organized by theGlobal Network st anniversary of the Convention on oftheConvention on anniversary 99

HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS. in reducing thesocietal stigma commonlyassociatedwith and policymakerstodiscusstherole ofreligious organizations organized aprogram thatbrought togetherreligious leaders and Om Shanti (Hindu) traditions, and the World Bank different religious leaders from Muslim, Christian, Buddhist day trainingsessiononHIVandAIDSawareness for14 on topicsofHIV/AIDS. World Vision Nepal heldathree- Various internationalorganizationsengagereligious leaders with Maoist leadership Inter-religious CouncilofNepal, through whichithasmet Muslims. The Nepalese Bahá’ícommunity isamemberofthe operates clinicsinKathmanduforbothMuslims andnon- HIV/AIDS. The Millat-e-Islamiya, a Muslim organization, seminars, camps,andconventions toraiseawareness about

to consultonHIV/AIDSissues.

45 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Nepal’s Dalit Women

Although the caste system was officially Federation Nepal (LWF) partners with abolished by the government and caste the Dalit Support Coordination Forum, an discrimination is prohibited under the alliance of donor communities supporting constitution, caste dynamics still wield a Dalit rights in Nepal, as well as with the strong influence in Nepalese society. Dalits, International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN), or “untouchables,” are the lowest group an international network of Dalit-focused in the Hindu caste system. “Dalit” means civil society organizations (headquartered oppressed, downtrodden, and exploited, and in Denmark), to implement programs that Dalits claim that their caste position has led support marginalized voices to fight social to the denial of social, political, religious, and exclusion created by the caste system. LWF economic rights. Some 22 percent of Nepal’s established the Dalit Empowerment Program population is Dalit and 80 percent of the Dalit to encourage Dalit participation in the political population lives below the poverty line. The process. Caritas International works with local literacy rate amongst Dalits is reported as 34 Dalit empowerment groups on education percent, with an even lower rate of barely 24 programs for Dalit women. percent for women (Bishwakarma, Hunt, and Zajicek), compared to the national average of Several local organizations work for Dalit 54 percent. rights with a focus on women. Empower Dalit Women of Nepal (EDWON) for Dalit women face particular discrimination, example, addresses domestic violence, caste and comprise the majority of manual and and gender discrimination, and poverty in agricultural labor in rural and remote parts rural Dalit communities. The Feminist Dalit of the country. The Jagaran Media Center, a Organizations (FEDO) advocates for Dalit Nepali organization working for Dalit rights, women’s rights and works to uplift their

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN reports that Dalit women in rural villages must economic status through small micro-finance wait for hours before they can have access to loans and improving maternal health. The water wells, or until high-caste women grant Dalit Welfare Organization (DWO) partners them permission to drink. Dalit women are also with LWF, advocates for Dalit women through the victims of dowry and bride price systems local and international media, and promotes practiced in some parts of the country. education.

A group of organizations, both international and Nepali, are working together to empower Nepal’s Dalit communities, with a particular focus on women. The Lutheran World BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

46 Maldives

The Maldives has seen rapid social and political change in country (World Bank classification), with a per capita income recent years. The new constitution, ratified on August 7, 2008 of around $3,970 USD, its recent annual economic growth reflects moves towards international norms and compacts and rate has been quite robust (6 percent in 2008). Tourism is set a legal framework for democratic institutions, including the country’s economic mainstay; tourists numbering nearly NGOs, to grow and develop. It also reflects the central role twice the country’s population visit each year. Fishing is the that Islamic tradition plays in the everyday lives of Maldivians. second largest industry. Human development levels are high, Civil society engagement is increasing, especially following the and literacy is estimated at 98 percent, with near equality 2008 democratic reforms. Progress towards the Millennium between men and women (over 99 percent of both male and Development Goals has also been quite marked, especially female age15-24 are literate). Life expectancy is 72 years, and BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY on health indicators. Life expectancy, now estimated at 72 the below 5 mortality rate is low, at 12.7/1,000. (World Bank) | years, exemplifies a broad narrative of progress and openness to change. Yet significant challenges remain. Notably, the While UN estimates indicate that extreme poverty and hunger Maldives has come to prominence recently in international have been widely eliminated, about 16 percent of Maldivians debates on climate change, as the prospect of rising sea levels live below the national poverty level, concentrated in the is an imminent threat to the 80 percent of islands that are less more remote atolls, and among the rural population. In 2004 than one meter above sea level. the Maldives reported a Gini index (that measures income disparities) ranking of 37.31, showing relative equality by Religion is an important and often sensitive subject, with international standards.100 significant links to the Maldives development agenda. The engagement of faith-inspired organizations is almost Three decades of single-party rule under President Maumoon exclusively within a Muslim context. Notable is evidence Abdul Gayoom gave way in 2004 to a relatively peaceful of rising fundamentalism and its impact on the tourist transition to a liberal multiparty democracy. The president industry. Concern about fundamentalism also colors broader announced political and legal reforms, including an initiative engagement among religious communities in the civic arena, to modernize the criminal system, within a framework of as civil engagement for the public good can be misconstrued Islamic law.101 The August 2008 constitution legalized multi- BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS as pointing towards extremism. As a result, faith-actors are less party presidential competition, separation of powers, and a engaged on social development than elsewhere. Coordination bill of rights. Former political activist Mohamed Nasheed within the NGO sector (as is the case elsewhere in the region) defeated President Gayoom in a run-off poll in August 2010. presents significant challenges, and despite the democratic opening tensions between public and private institutions are not insignificant. Some argue that the Maldives is at a critical point in moving towards an established democratic society. Religion, Law, and Society

Islam plays important and public roles in Maldivian society. Though Sri Lankan Buddhism came to the Maldives in the Society, Economy, and Politics first few centuries BC and was widely practiced for many years, in 1153 the Maldivian sultan converted to a Moroccan- The Maldives, an archipelago of 1,200 islands, has a influenced Islam. Most Maldivians are Sunni Muslims, population of about 400,000 people, primarily of South with some influence of local cultural adaptations.102 Most Indian, Sinhalese, and Arab descent. A lower-middle income islands have one or more mosques that serve as a place for 47 community meetings and worship. Business and government Progress towards the MDGs has been noteworthy, with the offices close on Fridays at 11 am for weekend sermons. One Maldives reporting that the nation has fully achieved five result of the Islamic role is that foreign visitors are allowed of the eight MDGs, including eradication of poverty and only brief visits outside of the capital city of Malé, to limit extreme hunger, reduction of infant mortality, attainment of foreign influence on local Maldivian traditions. Non-Muslim universal primary education, improvement of maternal health, worship is permitted only in private, which applies to tourists and substantially decreasing the incidence of malaria, HIV/ and labor migrants.103 AIDS, and other diseases.111 Remaining challenges focus on quality of education and achieving gender equality.112 Two- The Maldives’ legal code is based primarily on Islamic law, thirds of the population lack access to modern sanitation. with strong influences from English civil law and common The Maldives’ size and location pose special and continuing law.104 The constitution refers explicitly to Islam. Chapter one challenges, as the population is dispersed over about 200 declares Islam as the state religion and establishes the faith as inhabited islands, over half with less than 1,000 people. the basis of all Maldivian laws.105 Qualifications for president Difficult access to many islands results in relatively high per – as well as vice president and cabinet members - require that unit service costs.113 a candidate be a Sunni Muslim, while legislative authority, vested in the People’s Majlis, requires that the body pass laws Despite progress on gender issues, particularly in education, consistent with Islamic tenets. The constitution guarantees encouraging women’s participation in the workforce, non-discrimination based on a number of factors – including education, and politics and the elimination of gender-based race, sex, color, national origin – but not religion. The law violence are still challenges. The percent of women in the requires that citizens of the Maldives must be Muslim. labor force decreased by 17 percent over two decades, and men still dominate in most decision-making and executive positions.114 The World Economic Forum (WEF) Global Gender Gap Index for 2010 ranked the Maldives 99th out of Development Challenges and Progress 134 countries.115 The Index highlights wage differentiation by gender, with men earning twice as much for the same work, Despite significant progress on important development and a 20 percent separation in labor force participation. indicators, the Maldives faces challenges in sustaining a peaceful Only five of the 77 members of parliament are women, democratic transition. Capacity development, strengthening characteristic of substantial under-representation of women

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN the newly-formed institutions, decentralizing authority, in political institutions.116 Men often leave their island establishing a culture of human rights, professionalizing the in search of employment, and 47 percent of homes have civil service, ensuring equity, and establishing and promoting women-headed households.117 A 2007 ministry report found good governance are recognized as areas that need action.106 that one in three women between 15 and 45 had experienced physical or sexual violence at least once, one and five of those In 2008, the ruling Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP), at the hands of a partner; one in six girls under 15 years issued a national development plan, the Aneh Dhivehi Raajje of age had suffered from some form of sexual violence.118 (Strategic Action Plan). The plan defines five pledges, to be The government has extended broader legal protection to achieved between 2009 and 2013, including: quality healthcare women, and criminalized gender-based discrimination; it for all, prevention of narcotics trafficking, affordable housing, now allows women to run for all elected positions including affordable living costs, and the establishment of a nationwide head of state in the new constitution and acknowledges all transportation system.107 rights set out in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).119 The Overcoming challenges associated with climate change have Maldivian Red Cross is currently the only society in South been a top priority for the government, as 80 percent of the Asia to be led by a female secretary general.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS 1,200 islands are no more than 1 meter above sea level. Since government scientists predict a 0.9cm increase in water levels Although the Maldives has traditionally been known for a each year, global warming threatens the physical survival of the moderate interpretation of Islam, the presence of religious country.108 While the government and Maldivian NGOs are extremist groups is having a detrimental effect on the largely working to alleviate the local symptoms of global warming, they tourist-based economy.120 A terrorist attack occurred in challenge global leaders to adopt long-term solutions to man- September 2007 when a bomb detonated in Malé’s Sultan made climate change, highlighting the special urgency for their Park, wounding 12 foreigners. The terrorists announced that nation. The Maldives was the first country to sign the Kyoto their aim was to disrupt the “outside influences” brought into Protocol. In 2009, after a highly-publicized underwater cabinet the country by the tourist industry.121 meeting, the President signed a declaration to cut global carbon emissions to be presented at the climate summit in Copenhagen that year.109 The Maldives High Commissioner attended the October 2009 Alliance of Religions for Conservation (ARC) Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development conference on faith and climate change at Windsor Castle, UK, sharing the experience of being at the front-line of the struggle NGO involvement in the Maldives by international against climate change with over 100 faith leaders from around and national groups is limited. The 2010 Directory of the world.110 Development Organizations in the Maldives includes no 48 fund targetedat$500million, establish Asia’s first major multi-country Islamicinfrastructure (ADB) andIDBannouncedajointinitiative inJune 2009to Islamic bankingservices. of the Islamicpart Development Bank (IDB), to provide Cooperation forDevelopment ofthePrivate Sector (ICD), 2009, theMaldives entered intocooperationwiththeIslamic Islamic financeisexpandinginthe Maldives. In October continuing programs. to immediaterelief work, althoughMuslim Aidhassome by society.” “often callingfor womenandchildren tobetreated correctly sermons atmosquesoffering advicetopeopleonsocialissues, of mosquesascenterspublic information,withFriday recognition from theICRC andIFRC. August 2009andhassince worked towards international inspired organization but withfaith links) was formed in The Maldivian Red Crescent (MRC) (notstrictlyafaith- in infrastructure anddevelopment ofremote atolls. policy-making process. leaders are notexplicitlyinvolved intheenvironmental indailylifetheMaldives,major part mosquesorreligious however,The observes, report a thatwhile religion plays learning andtheirsenseofrelationship withtheenvironment.” environmental educationby linkingittopeople’s spiritual communal watersitesincreases theirpotentialinsupporting for communalwells andthat“the role ofmosquesas notes thatmosqueshave historicallybeenalocation Development Bank report onenvironmental management community gatheringandpublicspace.A2006Asian Individual mosqueshave traditionallybeencentersof response plans. Maldivians over theyear andtodevelop effective community preparedness; itsaimistoreach approximately 40,000 The 2011 program focuses ondisaster managementand foryouth andstrengthenopportunities institutionalcapacity. change programs. MRC’s five-year strategyaimstoopen empowerment projects, disasterriskreduction, andclimate community healthandfirstaidprograms, women’s toestablish had sixbranchesworking withlocalpartners in addressing andgovernance corruption issues. Nations organizations. Transparency International is active agencies that engage in development work, as well as United faith-inspired organizations. It does list many government Islamic faith-inspired groups andindividuals. several reports indicatethatthegovernment turnsawaynon- inspired NGOs are notspecificallyexcluded by law, but World Relief. Aid, Church World Muslim Service, Aid,andLutheran Jewish World WorldService, Baptist WorldCaritas, Vision, person care. TheorganizationsincludedtheAmerican disaster relief work suchaswaterandsanitationdisplaced when somefaith-inspired organizationswere permittedtodo There wasachangeafterthe2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, 130 125 Theirwork however, waslargelyconfined 129 A UN report highlighted the roles AUNreport highlightedtheroles 126 TheAsian Development Bank 127 aimed to support investment investment aimedtosupport 128 In 2010,MRC 123 , 124

122 Faith- risk reduction andclimatechangeinitiatives. International Red Cross have assistedtheMRC indisaster NGOs, including CARE. with bilateraldevelopment organizationsandinternational NGOs and the government benefit from partnerships Committees, andIsland Development Committees. Local Development Committees,Island Women’s Development of communitygroups, including Ward Committees,Atoll stressesNGOs. The effort mobilizationandorganization to strengthen theimageandcoordination ofnational civicengagement,particularly works with UNDPtofurther programming. The Maldives’ of Ministry Home Affairs Program”Country tocooperateonnationaldevelopment actors intheirinternationalprograms, initiatedthe “Third UNICEF, both of which actively engage faith-inspired The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and sector incivilsocietyandfairgovernment treatment. NGOs whoorganize topromote thegrowth oftheNGO existent. The Maldives NGO Federation isacollectionof44 of faith-inspired organizationsrangesfrom limitedto non- several coordination bodiesandnetworks, butparticipation coordination bodyforministries,agencies,andNGOs. partner, asa providing andserving technicalsupport Maldivian Health Department’s largestdevelopmental UNDP. The World (WHO) isthe Health Organization with faith-inspired organizations,notablyUNICEFand primarily from theUNsystem,thathave partnerships The government cooperateswithinternationalorganizations, agencies. competitionandavoiding duplicationacross unnecessary development activities,withthegoalofeliminating UN Inter-Agency Group meetings also help coordinate C most donothave officespaceorapaidstaff. approximately 1100 clubs and NGOs are registered, though Affairs undertheClubs,AssociationsandNGOs law; NGOs are required toregister ofHome withtheMinistry oordination andDevelopment P 134 136 The Canadian, Australian, and The Canadian, Australian, and artners 137

131 There are 132,133 135

49 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 bhutan

“Bhutan’s economy of agriculture and monastic life remained with government leadership, and education and health are a self-sufficient, poor, and isolated until recent decades, when focus. Bhutan’s GDP per capita is one of the highest in South a series of remarkable monarchs began to guide the country Asia (about US$1900 in 2008), but its challenges include toward technological modernization (roads, power, modern rural poverty, significant income inequality, and youth healthcare, and education), international trade (notably unemployment. The 10th Five Year Plan (2008-2013) aims with neighboring India), and political democracy. What to reduce poverty (now about 23 percent)138 and strengthen is incredible is the thoughtfulness with which Bhutan is democratic institutions. It supports women’s empowerment approaching this process of change, and how Buddhist in the economy and decision-making; women in 2006

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN thinking guides that thoughtfulness. Bhutan is asking itself accounted for only 3 percent of National Assembly members the question that everyone must ask: how can economic and 4 percent of people’s representatives in the National modernization be combined with cultural robustness and Assembly139. social well-being?” Jeffrey Sachs, August 2010. Gross National Happiness (GNH), a uniquely Bhutanese measure that attracts considerable international attention, is enshrined in the constitution. The aim is to measure and Summary guide national progress focusing on four pillars: equitable and sustainable economic development, cultural preservation, Bhutan, a remote, isolated, and landlocked nation of some environmental conservation, and good governance. GNH 700,000 people lying between China and India, approaches is measured through surveys conducted twice a year which modernization challenges in distinctive ways that reflect a quantify 31 sets of indicators.140 Buddhist ideals underpin conscious focus on religion, especially Bhutan’s Buddhist the GNH approach, though it is articulated as Bhutanese heritage. An absolute monarchy that isolated itself deliberately more than Buddhist, in respect to the significant Hindu from the outside world until the 1950s, Bhutan is looked minority. A distinctive aspect is the effort to measure spiritual

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS to today as an interesting model as it traces its own paths welfare as part of GNH: thus the practice of meditation, to development and democracy. NGOs (faith-inspired prayer, commitment to nonviolence, and belief in a broader or secular) play limited roles, but the Buddhist religious life purpose. 141 The 10th Five Year Plan reflects both GNH establishment is particularly significant in the education parameters and the UN MDGs. sector.

Religion and Government Socio-Political Setting Buddhism is highly visible and influential in Bhutan; perhaps Bhutan’s opening to the outside world has involved political, ten percent of Bhutan’s population belongs to the monastic social, and economic change. All have entailed extensive system.142 Bhutan was ruled from the 17th century under consultation with the people and walking a fine line between a dual system of governance (Chhoe-sid-nyi) with two preserving traditions, protecting Bhutan’s unique ecology branches representing the administrative and religious needs and cultural heritage, and taking advantage of the benefits of of the country.143 Heading the religious branch and Central modernization. In politics, absolute monarchy has given way Monastic Body was the Supreme Abbot, or Je Khenpo, equal to a constitutional monarchy, economic growth is promoted in status to the King, who led the administrative apparatus. 50 Under today’s constitution, the Prime Minister comes under is on track to achieve most of its MDG targets by 2015, and the King, but she or he has power over the cabinet and other progress towards controlling malaria, ensuring environmental administrative issues. Bhutan’s Monastic Body, consisting sustainability, halving the proportion of people without access of both Central and District bodies, still has considerable to safe drinking water, and promoting universal education is influence, and it is still at times difficult today to distinguish excellent.145 However, substantial challenges lie ahead. Most between the social and religious.144 The government finances urgent is addressing the needs and desires of Bhutan’s large, the Monastic Body through an annual grant. Ten of the 150 increasingly educated young population. There is much to do seats in the National Assembly and two of the 11 on the Royal to encourage private sector expansion and create jobs. Pockets Advisory Council are reserved for Buddhists monks. Greater of poverty and malnutrition and low female participation in BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY separation between religion and politics, however, is part tertiary level education also need attention. | of Bhutan’s modernization process. As of September 2010, both Hindu and Buddhist clergy are banned from voting in Bhutan’s development path has been largely government-led, elections. with limited grassroots participation. Resource constraints and the inaccessibility of much of the country provide part Two-thirds to three-quarters of Bhutan’s population of the explanation. Constitutional restrictions on groups practices Drukpa Kagyupa or Ningmapa Buddhism, both deemed “harmful to Bhutan’s unity and peace” are another. disciplines of Mahayana Buddhism (closely linked to the 146 Local NGOs are few and far between, and civil society is Buddhism practiced in Tibet). Between a quarter and a third generally weak, with its activities constrained. A higher and of Bhutanese are ethnic Nepalese, most of them practicing growing number of gender, education, and environmental Hindus. Christians, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, NGOs operate today than in the past, but there are very few and nonreligious groups comprise less than 1 percent of political or human rights based organizations.147 Even the the population. Mahayana Buddhism is described in the Bhutan Foundation, established to support Bhutan’s NGO constitution as Bhutan’s “spiritual heritage”. Article 7(4) and government-led development activities, was founded guarantees freedom of religion. Bhutan’s King, the Druk from the United States.148 International NGOs, including Gyalpo, is the “protector of all religions”. The primary several faith-inspired NGOs, have a limited but significant practical issue today around religious freedom and Bhutan’s presence, both in Bhutan itself and working with Bhutanese BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS distinctively Buddhist culture is integration of Bhutan’s refugees in Nepal. significant ethnically-Nepalese Hindu population. This involves a history of conflict and a refugee crisis that has Bhutan’s well-established and trusted network of religious remained virtually unchanged since the 1980s. leaders has always been active in community work and charity. Monks, nuns, and religious communities play visible roles across the development spectrum, from HIV prevention and care to ensuring that poor children receive food, shelter, Development and Faith: an Intertwined Response and an education.149

Bhutan’s development initiatives have yielded many positive political and social results. Multi-party parliamentary elections in 2008 were orderly and were deemed a fair manifestation of the new democracy. The royal family continues to respect its new role and constraints. UN analyses indicate that Bhutan 51 Education Health

Bhutan is on track to achieve the MDG target for universal Bhutan has also made significant strides in health. Once education by 2015. Development of progressive education is widespread, malaria and tuberculosis have declined considered one of the most dramatic changes as Bhutan has significantly, with only two malaria-related deaths reported modernized. 150,151 Western-style education was introduced in 2007, versus 63 in 1993; tuberculosis cases declined from only in the 1950s, but student numbers, schools, and teachers 720 to 127 per 100,000 over a similar period.166 Under-five have since expanded rapidly. Before 1961, Bhutan’s modern mortality rates have declined sharply (halved between 1990 education sector consisted of 400 students, 45 teachers, and and 2007), and the government is committed to further 11 schools152; today there are nearly 150,000 students, 5,000 reductions. Maternal mortality still needs attention, with 255 trained teachers, and 800 schools.153 Some students are also deaths per 100,000 live births in 2000, though according to educated in monastic institutions. In 2009, the net gross UNDP, Bhutan is on track to achieve the MDG for maternal primary enrollment ratio was 92 percent.154 The government mortality by 2015. Increasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS is a has pledged to make basic education - the first 11 years in concern, given high infection levels among Bhutan’s neighbors. Bhutan - free and available for all children. Ratios of girls to Less than 0.01 percent of the population is currently infected, boys are almost even for lower education especially; more girls but recent reports suggest rising incidence, with 38 reported than boys attend school in some areas. Continuing challenges cases in 2000 rising to 144 in 2008.167 The government has include students living in remote areas and increasing girls’ acted quickly; the national HIV/AIDS and STI Control enrollment in tertiary institutions (they were only 54 percent Program (NAP) was founded in 1988 by the Ministry of in 2007).155 Community Primary Schools, with villages Health, but manpower shortages and difficult terrain have expected to help construct and support them in return for delayed broad public understanding of the disease. Key areas their children’s education, are part of the solution. of focus (which the World Bank supports) include prevention services to and empowering those most at-risk, generating Buddhist monasteries have long played important roles political and social support, reducing stigma, and improving in shaping Bhutan’s culture and society and today offer an HIV/AIDS education and policy decisions.168 alternative path to education. Buddhist monks run a system of monastic education whose administration remains under the Bhutan’s religious bodies and youth groups have provided Central Monastic Body. Despite concerns that non-religious some support for health programs. In 1989 for example,

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN job prospects for monastic graduates are limited, parents still the Department of Health and the National Council for send their children to Lobdra (schools for novices) and then Religious Affairs formally endorsed the potential benefits in to Drubdeys (meditation centers), Dratshangs, Rabdeys, health education as promoted by religious practitioners.169 Aney Dratshangs (nunneries), or Shedras (colleges).156,157 Many children who attend monastic schools come from Expanding into Bhutan from Southeast Asia, the Regional economically disadvantaged homes, especially in rural, Buddhist Leadership Initiative has worked on HIV/AIDS inaccessible areas.158 Monasteries, however, have difficulties prevention and care. Working with UNICEF, its aim is to in meeting students’ basic needs, including clothing and build isolated groups of advocate Buddhist monks and nuns sustenance, with the government funding they receive. In into a nationally connected network of well-rooted and locally some schools, less than half of students receive benefits, so trusted health educators.170 The program approaches HIV/ that all have half-rations in food, clothing, and sometimes AIDS through educating youth about prevention, caring for shelter.159 those infected, destigmatizing the disease through discourse, and teaching by example. The Initiative began work in Education is a national project, undertaken by government Bhutan in 2001, with its first participatory workshop focused and non-government actors, to deliver universal education on religious community roles in health and development.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS that is consistent with the country’s values. It has widespread Bhutanese monks travelled to Thailand to see development support from the people and the government,160,161 and activities of Thai monks and the impact that HIV/AIDS has the aim is to “integrate the best of our cherished cultural on communities.171 A promising feature of the Initiative is its and national values with the best modern knowledge and reliance on education; in the Mekong subregion in Southeast, technological developments”.162 Dr. Karma Ura, leader of the several temple schools have incorporated prevention education center responsible for measuring GNH, observed in 2009 that into their curricula. The potential for positive impact in “for the education system to pay attention to values is central Bhutan is substantial. to our cultural perspective that is influenced by Buddhism.”163 The 1999 Planning Commission’s Bhutan 2020 report highlighted that “quality education ensures awareness of cultural heritage.”164 Bhutan’s distinctive education system is Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal capturing regional attention; a March 2010 Center for Bhutan Studies (CBS) and Seminar Foundation (India) dialogue in Skilled laborers of Nepali origin settled southern Bhutan in Thimpu included discussions on GNH and education.165 the 19th century, becoming quite powerful politically and economically over the years. At the peak, Bhutanese of Nepali origin, or Lhotsampas, made up about 40-50 percent of the population. Around 1985, tensions emerged between the 52 five mortality, andmalnutritionfrequency. health programs have ledareduction rates,under- inbirth waterdelivery.infrastructure andsupervises Such cooperative the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) maintainscamp through the Bhutanese Refugee Education Program, and Society (NRCS), CaritasNepal helpstoprovide education Medical Doctors forAsia(AMDA)andtheNepal Red Cross 2000. Amongthese,working alongsidetheAssociationfor International NGOs have worked withtheCMCs since mechanisms fordisputeswithinthecommunity. and health initiatives to developing conflict negotiation coordinating anddeathregistration, fooddistribution,birth CMCs address thevarious needsoftheirconstituency, from administrative campmanagementcommittee(CMC).The Refugee communities electcommunitymembersasan profound self-reliance andadaptabilityintheirsituation. than forbothNepal andBhutan. enrollment (nearly100percent) are bothsignificantlyhigher provided inthecamps,andliteracy(75percent) andschool Services, andtheJesuitServices, Conference forSouth Asia. related issuesincludetheJesuit Refugee CatholicRelief Service, Other faith-inspired organizationsworking onfundingrefugee- Buddhists. Lhotsampas toadopttheattire andlanguageoftheDrupka King’s “One Nation, One People” command,whichobliged citizenship rightsandfreedom ofexpression, allunderthe Hindu minority;various measures thelatter’s curtailed dominant Drupka Buddhist populationandthissubstantial land. work inNepal outsidethecamps,norcantheyvote orown Government and UNHCR. Refugees are not permitted to lived inseven refugee campsadministratedby theNepalese followed. Over 100,000Bhutanese refugees have sincethen 90,000 Bhutanese across India into Nepal; more expulsions Lhotsampa communitiesand1991sawtheexpulsionofsome into India, andsuicide alcoholism, childmarriage,prostitution, traffickingofwomen 173 Worrying reports highlightgrowing incidencesof 172 Thegovernment revoked thecitizenship of 174 . Yet therefugees have demonstrated 177 176 Education is Education is 175

53 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 india

Some call India the world’s most religious nation. They are second highest economic growth rate among all the major pointing above all to history: several of the world’s most economies. India’s diverse economy encompasses traditional significant faith traditions (Buddhism and Hinduism most sectors including agriculture, handicrafts, textiles, industry, notably) emerged in India. They also allude to the vibrancy and a growing service sector, with over half of total economic in India’s contemporary faiths. An extraordinary diversity of output and almost one-third of the labor force. Agriculture religion marks many domains of Indian life. India also stands contributes about 30 percent of the GDP, the largest products out for both religious harmony and significant communal being rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, lentils, tensions. Over many centuries, different faith communities onions, potatoes, dairy products, sheep, goats, poultry, and

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN lived harmoniously side by side in India, and there is a pride fish; industry constitutes 26 percent of the GDP.178 in this heritage. India’s constitution establishes a secular nation that also accommodates religious dimensions of life. Notwithstanding the economic growth of recent decades, Yet India also faces major interreligious challenges. Most poverty remains a significant challenge. The World Bank significant is the Muslim/Hindu rift that dominated much of estimates that 37 percent of the population is poor; given the politics around independence and still fuels conflicts over India’s large population, almost one-third of the world’s Kashmir and outbreaks of tension and violence. However, poorest people are in India.179 India has made marked progress a broader picture should be kept in mind: India is a nation in increasing literacy, but only 61 percent of Indians are with extraordinary religious diversity and both pride and literate. Women rank lower on most development indicators; experience in interfaith harmony. 73 percent of adults males are literate, compared to 48 percent of adult females.180 Broad health coverage remains a challenge; Against this backdrop, India’s religious leaders, institutions, 46 percent of children under five are underweight. Infant and ideas play active roles in most facets of development mortality rates are higher for females. Some cultural practices – that is, social change and approaches to social welfare. traditionally favor boys over girls; demographic imbalances Religious leaders are influential in both spiritual and social have increased in some regions, though this varies by region.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS realms, and many are also involved in politics. Faith often motivates social and welfare work in different parts of India, albeit in different ways. The organizations vary widely, and there is no coherent umbrella which groups them. Knowledge Religious Demography and Society about their work is patchy at best, with some organizations thoroughly researched and others far less well known. India is one of the world’s most religiously diverse nations. Four of the world’s major religious traditions: Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, originated in India, and Islam has long been a major social and cultural force. Hinduism is the Socio-Economic Background largest religious tradition; some 80 percent of the population identifies as Hindu. Muslims represent more than 13 percent India, a federal republic with a secular government, is the of the population, and India has the world’s second largest world’s largest democracy, the second largest nation (with Muslim population. Christians comprise slightly over two its population numbering over 1 billion), and the fourth percent and Sikhs slightly under two percent of the population. largest economy. Following economic reforms in the 1990s, Other religious groups, totaling just under two percent of the economic growth has averaged around 7 percent per year. population, include Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians, Baha’i’s, Even tempered by the global financial crisis, India had the and Jews. Ethnic cultural groups include Indo-Aryan tribes, 54

Child Marriages in India

In some parts of rural India, arranged child marriages Many faith-inspired organizations are working in India is a common practice, affecting the welfare, security, to reduce child marriages. International NGOs such and development potential of young girls. Despite as World Vision operate children’s clubs and self-help legal efforts (the Indian Parliament adopted the Child groups throughout India that educate youth and women Marriage Restraint Act in 1978, setting 18 as the minimum on the dangers of child marriage. World Vision also runs age for women to get married, and 21 for men), the programs to educate children and women about their practice continues and in some areas is widespread. legal rights and has been successful in stopping several According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) child marriages in Rajasthan. Caritas India has education there has been an overall decline in the percentage of programs on gender justice and equality in rural areas women aged 20-24 married before 18, from 54 percent that target women and young girls. in 1992-93 to 45 percent in 2005-06. Rates however, vary by region; A recent UNICEF report notes that 82 Indian faith-inspired organizations, including the Hindu percent of girls in Rajasthan, where child marriage is a Women’s Welfare Society Shraddhanand Mahilashram common practice, are married by 18; 15 percent of girls in work in rural areas to provide education and counseling rural areas across the country are married before 13; and for women and young girls. The Deep Griha Society 52 percent of girls have their first pregnancy between 15 in Pune operates programs and seminars to raise and 19. In Madhya Pradesh, almost 73 percent of girls are awareness and combat child marriage. forced into a child marriage, as are 64 percent in Uttar Pradesh, and 67 percent in Bihar. International religious movements as well have programs to eliminate child marriage. The Brahma Kumaris Religion plays a role in influencing norms and behaviors organization is active in raising awareness about child that contribute to child marriage. Combined with local marriage on a local and international level. The Art of customs and ethnic and tribal norms, in some regions Living runs a youth program students are educated of the country women are seen as property and some about the social problems of child marriage and work to fathers and husbands sell their wives and unmarried find sustainable methods to end the practice. daughters to gain wealth. The annual festival of Akhai BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY

Teej is considered an auspicious day for marriage and Religious leaders often can perpetuate child marriage | local police raid child marriage ceremonies and arrest by condoning the practice. The 1995 United Nations families trying to force children to marry. Child marriage conference in Beijing focused on rights of the girl child, places young girls at a high risk for domestic violence including ways to combat child marriage. Conference and sexual abuse and in some instances is supported by outcomes noted that dialogue with traditional and superstitions including the belief that having sex with a religious leaders to identify practical ways to reduce early virgin can cure syphilis, gonorrhea, and AIDS. marriage was an important component to combating the practice. comprising 72 percent of the population, Dravidian tribes “untouchables,” still face employment and social barriers, (25 percent), and Mongoloid tribes and other indigenous including limited access to temples; affirmative action cultures (three percent).181 provisions and social activism aim to address inequalities. The untouchables have renamed themselves Dalit, a self-conscious Among minority religions, Zoroastrianism has a strong title that means, “Downtrodden and Crushed.” Forms of presence; the religion originally emerged in Persia, but the intra-caste violence, social exclusion, and discrimination largest Zoroastrian community today is in India.182 The toward Dalits still challenge contemporary India.184 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Cochin Jews, the oldest Jewish community outside of the Middle East, is in the southern state of Kerala. The Mar Toma sect of Eastern Orthodox Christianity also traces its roots to 52 C.E.183 Roman Catholicism came to the island of Goa Development Challenges with Portuguese explorers, and Protestantism was introduced through missionaries in the 18th century. Large global spiritual A large part of India’s population is still very poor, seeing movements originating in India, mainly Hindu-inspired, few gains from rapid growth. The poorest segments of the include the Hare Krishnas, the Brahma Kumaris, Sathya Sai population include scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other Baba movement, and the Art of Living. backward classes, minorities and women; they lack access to the resources and opportunities they need to benefit from The Hindu caste system was officially abolished after economic growth. The seven states in India have the lowest independence, but caste identities are still a part of cultural incomes: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, societal relations to varying degrees and contribute to Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh; they account for many forms of discrimination. The lowest caste group, the over half of India’s population. International development 55 organizations focus their poverty reduction programs in these of children attend secondary school. Dalits, scheduled tribes, states. 185 The 2006 Sachar Committee report on the social, and other backward classes face particularly acute challenges - economic, and education status of India’s Muslim population statistics released by the International Dalit Conference state found that Indian Muslims are among the most marginalized that 90 percent of the poor and 95 percent of illiterate Indians societal groups. Though the report made specific suggestions are Dalits.189 According to the World Bank, the two issues that to address inequities, an August 2011 parliamentary panel remain in achieving universal basic education are: reaching has found that implementation has not addressed the root the eight million children still not enrolled in schools (down problems of inequity. The panel recommended that legal from 25 million in 2003) and ensuring quality of education. structures be tasked to ensure timely implementation of recommendations.

Gender bias in India has contributed to the worst form of discrimination - sex selective abortions, female foeticide Ethnic and religious diversity has contributed to communal, (though the practice was outlawed by the Pre-natal Diagnostic religious, ethnic, and caste-related conflict. The conflict with Tech Act in 1994, it continues in practice), and infanticide. Pakistan over the disputed territory of Kashmir is frozen, with Indian economist and Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen a fragile ceasefire generally holding since 2004. Though highlighted in his influential article in the New York Review largely a territorial dispute, the populations on each side are of Books, “More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing,” the split between primarily Muslims and Hindus respectively. gross levels of gender inequality and discrimination in India, The 2008 Mumbai bombings that attacked luxury hotels, a leading to an increasing demographic gap between boys and hospital and a Jewish center were traced to Islamic militant girls. The girl child, he emphasizes, is seen as a burden to group from the Pakistani controlled region of Kashmir. In many poor families; the financial strain of traditional practices December 1992, violence linked to the destruction of the like dowry (also prohibited by law) leads some poor families Babri Mosque at Ayodhya (Hindus claim the mosque was to see a girl as an unwanted liability. Preliminary 2011 built atop a temple believed to be the birthplace of Lord Indian census results show that despite widespread awareness, Rama) resulted in the death of 2000 people.190 Residual sex selective births continue. The sex ratio for girls to boys animosities culminated with the 2002 massacre in Gujarat, age 0-6 has dropped dramatically from 927/1000 in 2001, where 2000 people died and hundreds of women were to 914/1000 in 2011.186 Sen’s article notes that the lowest assaulted and raped.191 The event polarized Muslim and

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN ratios of women to men are in Haryana and Punjab, while Hindu communities, compounding an environment of Kerela (which also has among India’s highest development distrust and fear. indicators) has a ratio of 1.03 girls to boys. Women lag behind men in most development indicators and often face a general India is also challenged by caste-based conflict. Although neglect in basic nutrition, health, and educational, though untouchability is banned (article 17 of the constitution – improvements are being made in some areas, including in 1950), discrimination against Dalits is widespread. In 1989, health, education, and civic participation. Child marriages the Indian government passed the Prevention of Atrocities (See Text Box #8) and forced marriages are still common, Act to address escalating violence between Dalits and upper especially in rural areas. Discrimination against widows is caste Hindu.192 Despite the legislation, India’s National also common, (See Text Box # 16) and is often connected to Crime Records Bureau indicated that the most recent data religious, ethnic, and tribal customs. (2009) reports that 33,594 crimes targeted Dalits, including sexual assault, rape, murder, and destruction of farm lands Healthcare presents serious challenges, especially in rural and property, with only a 30 percent conviction rate.193 Even and remote areas, and is exacerbated by poor transportation with education and urban jobs, some Dalits suggest that the infrastructure. Deaths from tuberculosis and polio have stigma of Dalit identity perpetuates societal exclusion.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS decreased, but child malnutrition levels are among the highest in the world. India is on track to reach the MDG for access to The continuing Maoist/Naxalite insurgency that began drinking water, but less than a third of the population is using in 1967 was in 2006 cited by Prime Minister Singh as the improved sanitation facilities.187 According to UNICEF, the biggest security threat to the country. Swami Agnivesh of the maternal mortality ratio is 254 deaths per 100,000 live births. Arya Samaj movement is a prominent faith-inspired leader Over half of married women are anaemic, and one-third of pursuing mediation efforts between the Maoists and the them are malnourished.188 government.

The newest education figures show that while significant effort and resources mobilized for education have shown results, considerable progress must be made if India is to reach the Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development MDG for universal education, particularly ensuring gender equity in access to education. According to 2011 census Faith is an integral part of India’s culture and traditions. figures, the overall literacy rate rose to 74 percent, up from For most Indians, religion permeates most aspects of life- 65 percent in 2001 (male 82 percent/female 65 percent [a 12 from family to education to politics. Post-independence percent increase for females from 2001]). While more than India emphasized a secular state, and religious community 95 percent of children attend primary school, just 40 percent organizations were not expected to play active roles in 56 9718 (2011): 1925. girls inIndia:analysis ofnationally representative birthhistories from 1990to 2005andcensus data from 1991to 2011.” Faujdar Ram, UshaRam, Lukasz Aleksandrowicz, Diego GBassani, Shailaja Chandra, Jayant KBanthia.“Trends inselective abortionsof consistently lower childsex ratios at ages0–6years inthelast three censuses. Chartfrom Prabhat Jha, Maya AKesler, Rajesh Kumar, census and588inthe2011 census. The bluehighlighted states are Gujarat, Haryana, HimachalPradesh, andPunjab, whichhave shown Figure 1–Sex ratio ofgirlsto boys at ages0-6in2001 and2011, by district. Ofthe623districts, data were available for 596 inthe2001 faith-inspired development organizations; at the time of this faith-inspired development organizations; atthe time ofthis ministries; the list includeslocal,national, and international of registered organizations andcoordinating government of India NGOPartnership System maintains adatabase include manyfaith-inspired movements. The government Cooperatives andtradeunionsare separate legalentities,and three categoriesare: societies; sec.25 companies. trusts; for not-for-profit development/charity organizations.The organizations. There are three categoriesof registration categories are inclusive ofbothsecularandfaith-inspired coordination ofdevelopment organizations.Legalregistration India hasacomprehensive framework fortheregistration and C Development Organization R and international),withgender-specificprogramming. numerous examplesoffaith-inspired organizations(national research cites,isamore recent trend; thisreview hasfound and growing civilsociety. development capacitybegantobeidentifiedwithanactive religious movements andcommunitiesworking inasocial social andeconomicdevelopment. From the1980s, community development. been inthefieldsofeducation,health,emergency relief and work of themostmeaningful by faith-inspired actorshas research andconversations withpractitionerscitesthatsome andmarginalized populations.Limitedavailable underserved different levels ofsociety, oftenproviding to welfare services organizations working indifferent development capacitiesat landscape isbothcomplexandvibrant,withthousandsof oordination 194 195 Today, thefaithanddevelopment Gender-focused work, present egistration and nationalist worldview, asisevoked by somepoliticalparties. the term,itiswidely acceptedthatitconveys animplicit Hindu practitioners argueaboutthe direct religious connotations of and theirholyland(punyabhumi). While scholars,theorists, and as theirmotherland(matrabhumi), theirfatherland,(pitrubhumi) “Hindu.” “Hindu,” inthiscontext,impliesthatallconsiderIndia as derived from aculturalandcivilizationalunderstanding of religious identitiesare boundtogetherby aunique“Hinduness,” Bharat (Mother India) regardless of their ethnic, tribal, and introduced in1923,andsuggeststhatallpeoplebornMa expounding aHindutva ideology. Theterm Hindutva was Outwardly Hindu-inspired organizationsare oftenseenas in theIndian context. derive inspirationfrom Hindu beliefsself-identifyassecular to Hindu-inspired organizations. Many organizations that cannot always be equally applied in India, related particularly organization” inthecommonlyunderstoodwestern definition organizations isoftennuancedinmeaning;“faith-based Religious affiliationandfaith-inspirationamongdevelopment government thatdoesnotprivilegeonereligion over another. citizens to uphold a secular, of India whiletrying democratic Indian constitutionguaranteesfreedom ofreligion toall different connotationsinthemodern Indian context.The Religion in India is complex; the word “religion” has Hindu-Inspired Organizations C by area ofoperationandsectorwork. report, there were 36,657registered organizationssearchable omplexities ofT ndia – erminology inModernIndia– Lancet 377 No. 196

57 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Gandhi’s Wheel of Satyagraha

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the great political almost every part of India, Gandhi’s teachings about and Hindu inspired spiritual leader, spearheaded the simplicity and self-sufficiency found resonance with Indian independence movement. Known as “Bapu the Indian people, seen as contrasting with British ji” or “Father of the Nation,” and the Mahatma or tendencies towards materialism and excess. “Great Soul” of India, left Ghandi a body of ideas and principles that continue to influence world leaders, In his widely read autobiography, “My Experiments social activists, scientists, and writers. Among those with Truth”, Gandhi says that “God is Truth” and inspired by Gandhi are Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson “Truth (satya) is God.” Today in modern India despite Mandela, Albert Einstein, Henry David Thoreau, and the effects of globalization and trade, Gandhian Leo Tolstoy. The essence of Gandhian principles is principles and ideology are a significant part of his commitment to “satya” or truth, which he draws the landscape. In development and welfare work, from the Hindu sacred text, The Bhagavad-Gita, the many faith-inspired organizations and actors draw search of which led him to his unfaltering faith in inspiration from Gandhian philosophy and ideals. ahimsa (non-violence) as well as equality and justice. Gandhi’s commitment to ahimsa (non-violence), his adherence to simplicity, and his promotion of As a young lawyer, Gandhi moved to South Africa nai talim (basic education) are lasting and relevant in pursuit of a legal career. Living under apartheid, ideals for Indian society. Many faith actors working Gandhi experienced racism and discrimination in India highlight these terms as their inspiration and personally and became a leader in the fight against their path for peacebuilding work in communities. the apartheid regime. After Gandhi returned to India, Gandhi’s teachings show a way to interreligious he radically changed his life. Seeing the colonial and intra-caste politics, gender equality, and Dalit powers in a new light, he focused on regaining empowerment, to education that focuses on the pride in his native culture and language. He stopped moral development of the person, and to the wearing western clothes, opting instead to wear upholding of the principles of satya economically, clothes made with khadi, a traditional homespun politically, and theologically. cloth that he spun himself on his spinning wheel. He envisioned an India where people would be self- Gandhi’s wheel of satyagraha (truth force) continues GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| sufficient, eating only what they grew on their own to spin, affecting communities far beyond India’s lands and wearing what they spun with their own borders, encouraging individuals engaged in hands. Many of his ideas (like spinning khadi) became development work to draw their inspiration from the forms of political protest against the British. In forces of Truth and the Mahatma who taught them.

The Hindutva ideology has created some tensions vis-à-vis the An important category of development organizations trace idea of a secular democratic India, contributing to episodes of their inspiration to the social teachings and actions of Gandhi, interreligious conflict and intra-caste politics. Hindu-inspired who was in many ways inspired by Hindu traditions (See Text organizations may be hesitant to identity as “Hindu” for Box 9); most such organizations, however, identify themselves fear that their organization be interpreted as “right-wing” or as secular. There are perhaps thousands of organizations BERKLEY CENTER nationalist in their ideology. One of the most contentious with a broad Hindu faith inspiration. The University aspects of the faith-inspired organizations and their civic of Birmingham study on faith-inspired organizations in involvement is the value orientation and political ideology of Maharashtra identified 30 Hindu-inspired organizations in some faith-inspired organizations.197 Unlike in some western the state, noting that they were more difficult to identify than contexts, where the term secular implies a lack of religious were their Christian counterparts.198 This section focuses only conviction, in the Indian context, it is often understood on those where the faith link is clear and explicit. and used differently, complicating the landscape in terms of categorization. Many Hindu-inspired organizations work in education and basic poverty alleviation programming, particularly in rural areas often within their respective states. Mobile clinics and gender empowerment programs are particularly Hindu Organizations common among Hindu inspired organizations. The All India Movement (AIM) for Seva, as one example, established by A wide variety of Hindu-inspired organizations work in many Swami Dayananda Saraswati, was formed as an initiative of sectors and different states. Some organizations state explicitly the Hindu Dharma Acharya Sabha. An apex body of Hindu that their inspiration is linked to Hindu heritage and beliefs, religious heads of various “sampradayas” or traditions, it but others do not. Large, Hindu-inspired organizations support focuses heavily on education.199 The organization works in civil society, civic rights, education, health, gender equality, Dalit rural areas to reach underserved populations, seeing education rights, and poverty alleviation, among other development sectors. as one of the best paths to empowerment. Anoopam Mission, Some have connections with diaspora communities abroad. established through the vision of Brahmaswarup Param Puija 58 the Art of Living, and the RamaKrishna Mission. ofLiving, andtheRamaKrishnaMission. the Art Sathya Sai Baba Samaj, Organization, theChinmaya Mission, Arya include, interalia,theBrahma Kumaris (see Text Box 11),the Large internationalreligious movements (largely Hindu-inspired) ortheleadingdimensionoftheiragendas. is oftenanintegralpart socialdevelopment andwelfareon andsupport work. Spirituality of the world. Manymembers in many parts inspire members to focus array ofsuchmovements, somelocalandsmall,otherswith feature ofSouth Asia’s landscape.India ishometoanextraordinary The prominent role of religious/spiritual movements isadistinctive R componentoftheIndianimportant educationsystem. beliefs, andare present throughout India, formingan Bharati Schoolsare inspired by Hindu philosophiesand inspiration from Hindu teachingsandideologies. Vidhya A largearrayofHindu-inspired schoolsdrawvarying (See Text Box 10). represents fishers’ rightsinthecoastalcommunitiesof Kerala inspiration from bothHindu andChristianfaiths, organization, theNational Fishworkers’ Forum, draws draw onHindu inthe principlesset forth Vedas. Another with 3-4millionfollowers worldwide. ArayaSamaj teachings 1858, represents theinterest ofthepooranddowntrodden, Samaj, aHinduArya inspired reform movement foundedin values and thoseofGandhi. organization, ithighlightsinspirationdrawnfrom Hindu Though benefits andlittlesupport. SEWA isasecular protect the rightsofself-employed womenwhohave few is atradeunionwithover 1.2millionmemberscreated to Ela Bhatt (2010recipient oftheNiwano Peace Prize). SEWA Employed Women’s Association, or SEWA, was founded by rights. Amongthelargestsocialmovements inIndia, theSelf around specific causes,forinstancearound workers andcivic many Hindu inspired socialmovements are organized Apart from registered NGOs andcommunityorganizations, those sufferingfrom trauma. welfare activities to promote general well being, especially for Swami Sivananda Saraswati, thatintegratesyoga intosocial Divine LifeSociety, areligious organizationfoundedby disabilities andspecialneeds.One suchorganizationisthe infectious diseaseprevention, andadultschildren with oforganizationsfocusesonhealthcare, A different category Grant-in-Aid program. medical unitsat64locationsundertheGovernment ofIndia’s Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, andGujarat, withfourmobile Kolkata. It alsooperates Tribal Welfare projects in West Srimat Pranavananda jiMaharj, focusesoneducationin Sangha, aHindu charitableorganizationfoundedby Acharya awareness programsareas. in rural The Bharat Sevashram institutions andoperatesblooddonationcampscancer of bhakti(devotion) toGod. It several educational runs Yogiji as a Maharaj,form engages in humanitarian service eligious/Spiritual Movements development activities in which they engage. development activitiesinwhichtheyengage. of of Christianorganizationsislarge,asthespectrum are active indevelopment particularly work. Thenumber Christian organizations,local,national,andinternational, Although Christianityisaminorityreligious traditioninIndia, Christian Organizations remote areas. in centers andmaternityclinicsforwomen,particularly genderempowerment supports andoperatesseveral training dispensaries and30mobileinBihar. It also The organizationoperates14hospitalswith93out-patient work, but theformeremphasizes spiritualdevelopment. and theRamakrishnaMission -bothengageinphilanthropic internationally. Two distinctwings-theRamakrishnaMath Sritheology of his guru, RamaKrishna, has 160 branches and Hindu philosopherSri Vivekananda basedonthe RamaKrishna Mission, established by the eminent scholar ofthe and isapartner Women’s Global Peace Initiative. The World Congress for the Preservation of Religious Diversity the AllIndia Movement (AIM)forSeva, convened thefirst knowledge of Vedic The instruction. Swami isalsoactive in It operatesseveral centersaround theworldtoexpand of Swami Dayananda Saraswati (Natarajan) in Tamil Nadu. The Chinmaya Mission wasestablishedundertheguidance selflessness. consciousness andselfishnessto God consciousnessand Human Values Program, focusingonmoving from body for children) thatcombineacademiceducationwithits issues, including education. It has several “Bal Vikas” (schools Centers operatingin114countriesthatwork ondevelopment is an international phenomenon, with 1,200 Sathya Sai Baba messages ofencompassinglove Themovement andservice. by thecharismaticleader, Sathya Sai Baba, topromote the Asia. The Sathya Sai Baba Organization wasestablished development cooperation;theyare present across South development, HIV/AIDSawareness, andinterfaith many development sectorsincludingeducation,spiritual ofLiving,ledby SriArt Sri RaviShankar, isactive in Church Service Association, and the Leprosy Mission (LM). Church Association,andtheLeprosy Service Mission (LM). Action and Water Management (ECoDAWM), theInter- Christian Endeavor inIndia, Ecumenical Councilfor Drought of Serampore College,theChristianUnion ofIndia (CUI), India (ATTWI), theBoard ofTheological Education of Senate (AIACHE), theAssociationofTheologically Trained Women of include theAllIndia AssociationofChristianHigher Education and theBible Society ofIndia (BSI).Associatedorganizations (CASA), theStudent ChristianMovement ofIndia (SCMI), and Reconciliation, theChurches AuxiliaryforSocial Action the International Centre forResearch, Interfaith Relations of YMCAs, the YWCA ofIndia, theHenryMartyn Institute, Organizations linkedwithNCCIincludetheNational Council forIndia’sdevelopment services populations. underserved Churches. NCCI advocates for and coordinates welfare and both Protestant(NCCI), as one example, serves and Orthodox bodies/forums. The National Council ofChurches inIndia Several ascoordination Christianumbrella organizations serve

59 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Kerala Independent Fishworkers Federation: Coastal Activists of Southern India

Many labor-focused social movements have end, in 1991, the Federation organized a rally emerged in India, often with faith links or to support families that lost their livelihood inspiration. A prominent example is the Kerala when a fish disease called Episeutic Ulsurative Swathanthra Malsya Thozhilali Federation, Syndrome swept through the inlands of Kerala. or the Kerala Independent Fishworkers After a series of rallies and hunger strikes, Federation, a non-party trade union and the government relented and offered the community-based grassroots organization. affected families monetary compensation. The Christians, Muslims, and Hindus work together fishworkers organized a march to protest the in a community of nearly 800,000 strong, death of Asha Niyogi, the wife of Sankar Guha helping to build the fishermen into an intimate Niyogi, an activist from Madhya Pradesh who and close knit community. Kerala State, in was shot dead while advocating for tribal and Southern India, has 222 coastal villages, 113 indigenous people. inland fishery villages and almost 1 million fishermen and families. Kerala produces 24 The Federation cooperates to solve gender percent of India’s export earnings from their inequality issues in the community. The marine fisheries. Some 35 percent of the fishworkers addressed the safety of fish fisherfolk are Christian, 25 percent are Muslim, working women who had to travel large and 40 percent are Hindu; each group draws distances to market, along with the pressure of on their faith as a source of inspiration for their child-caring and domestic responsibilities. The work with the Fishworkers Union. Over the past Federation demanded transportation for these several years, the organization has engaged women and launched a series of protests until difficult environmental issues such as resource the government sanctioned a special bus for conservation, protection of water bodies and women fishworkers to facilitate their travel and coastal protection. They also tackle challenges ensure their safety. These efforts have increased

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN like gender inequality, seeking creative security for women from robbery and sexual GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| solutions through women’s empowerment. assault and have served to raise their social status in their communities. The fisherwomen The Federation’s objectives include working for have their own movement, Theeradesa Mahila the socio-economic and political welfare of all Vedi. It focuses on economic security for fish workers; providing legal aid to each working fisherwomen as well as ecological protection family; conservation of marine resources; and of Kerala’s marine resources. prevention of pollution in water bodies. To this

Other umbrella organizations such as the Church of Religious Coordinating Bodies and Religious Umbrella North India (CNI), the Church of South India (CSI), and Associations referenced in the report include: Christian AIDS/ BERKLEY CENTER international organizations including the World Council of HIV National Alliance (CANA); CORINTH (Christian Churches (WWC) and United Religions Initiative (URI). Organisational Response and Networking in HIV); Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI); Catholic Health

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Christian organizations are particularly active in the area Association of India; Emmanuel Health Association (EHA); of health and HIV/AIDS response. A 2008 study by Salvation Army; and the National Lutheran Health and the Oxford University Department of Public Health, in Medical Board (NLHMB). 200 The Catholic Mission Medical collaboration with the CDC Global AIDS Program (India) Board also has a large and active presence and works across and the HIV Department of the World Health Organization India on diverse health issues, as does Caritas India. in Geneva, focused specifically on the role of Christian faith-based organizations in HIV prevention and response. Another group of organizations focus particularly on disability The study found that many Indian Christian FBOs could issues. Examples of organizations in this category include make valuable partners for governments, the World Health India Partners, a U.S. Christian development and relief Organization, and donors in responding to HIV in India organization committed to supporting self-help ministry and should be assisted to increase the scale of their activities. projects in India,201 and the Christian Foundation for the The report highlighted a need for greater networking and Blind in Chennai that preaches the gospel and provides coordination between organizations and the government support through outreach activities to the blind members and for a strengthening of the administrative and managerial of the community.202Asian Aid USA, associated with the capacity of faith-inspired organizations. The report noted that Seventh Day, Adventist Church, supports a deaf school in international organizations do not have adequate structures Kollegal in Karnakata and the Australian Catholic Mission in place to effectively engage faith-inspired organizations. operates a school for the deaf and blind in Chennai.203 The 6060 organizations and institutions; the network includess the organizations and institutions; the network includess the e-Mushawarat ofMuslim (AIMMM) isanapexforum Muslim organizationsinIndia. TheAll India Muslim Majlis- charitable projects andformsanetwork ofmore than100 Charities (IMRC) isanumbrella organizationthatfunds on the Muslim community. Indian Muslim Relief and There are several coordinating bodiesfocusedspecifically both nationalandinternational. large arrayofMuslim-inspired organizationsoperateinIndia, As India hastheworld’s secondlargestMuslim population,a Muslim Organizations conversions. Nadu have passedlawsrestricting orprohibiting religious Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Tamil conversion amongDalit and Tribal groups. Four states, Hindu-Christian rural areas conflictin linkedtoChristian issue ofreligious conversion. Recent years have seenrising challengefacingChristianorganizationsisthe One particular with shelteranddailymeals. specifically for street children, in addition to providing them New LifeChildren’s schoolin Vijayawada provides education inIndia. have The along andestablishedhistory Salesian India schools have astrong Christiantradition;missionary upper classandelite.Many ofthebestandeliteschoolsin boththemostneedyaswell asthe and education,serving Christian-inspired organizationsare especiallyactive inyouth Service. Luteran World Relief, Samaritan’s Purse, andJesuit Refugee Catholic Relief Christian Aid, Caritas, ADRA, Services, Examples of prominent organizationsinclude: World Vision, including gender, education, and peacebuilding, inter alia. have broad programming covering awiderangeofsectors, International Christian NGOs work across India andtendto between thegovernment tothelocalinsurgency. andparties state ofNagaland active inbuildingpeace hasbeenparticularly Father CedricPrakash. The Baptist Church communitythe communities, operatingunderthedirection ofJesuit priest, between Hindus andMuslims, andtowards Christian Gujarat thatworks toalleviatediscriminationandviolence organization, PRASHANT, isahumanrightsorganizationin Christian peacebuildingorganizationsinIndia. One such of India bothconduct research andmaintainnetworks of Peacebuilding Network andCatholicBishops Conference have diverse roles in peacebuilding. The Catholic Christian-inspired organizationsandchurch communities is active inAurangabad, Bombay, Nagpu, Nasik, andPune. Kerala andtheMaharashtra Deaf Fellowship ofIndia, which and blindincludetheEbenezer Fellowship oftheDeaf in forthedeaf Local Christianorganizationsinvolved inservices in India theEphphatha supporting Lutheran Deaf School. International Lutheran Deaf Associationhasamissionproject poverty reduction. natural disasters)aswell ashumandisplacement, health,and floodsand other humanitarian crises(including earthquakes, Bihar andAssam.UKIslamic Mission (UKIM) responds to flood distributions; theyhave alsosupported relief in Gujarat, livelihoods, andseasonalRamadhan andQurbani food on various projects includingorphansponsorship, enhancing Islamic Relief hasworked withlocalorganizationssince1994 shelter, emergencyrelief, feedingthepoor, andskillstraining. working toprovide healthcare, education,waterandsanitation, with26differentin partnership charitableorganizations, education anddisasterrelief. Muslim Aidoperates53projects the organizationsare Muslim Hands focusesespeciallyon peacebuilding, education,andempowerment. Among International Muslim inspired organizationsare active in report. Sachar address inequitiesintheMuslim populationcitedinthe implementing scholarship schemes and financial aid to ofMinoritythe Ministry Affairs,itisacentralorganization amongminority groups. Fundedopportunity whollyby The Azad Moulana Foundation works topromote educational government andpublicjobs. with afocusontrainingMuslim youth forentranceinto Foundation successfuleducationprogramming, alsoruns youth, and shelterprograms, interalia.The Rehmani which fundmadrasasandothereducationprograms, health, Research Foundation. Zakat isalsogiven directly tomosques, Educational, theSocial &Cultural Organisation, and Islamic the Rehmani Foundation, Rahat Welfare Trust, Modern projects; examples includetheUnited Islamic AidinMumbai, around the collection of zakat to fund local development Other Muslim-inspired organizationscentertheiroperations in Malayalam, andPrabodhanam, andaweekly magazine. Jamaat publishesMadhyamam, aprominent dailynewspaper Organization, andtheSolidarity Youth Movement. The including the Students Islamic Organisation, Girls Islamic The Jamaat-e-IslamiHind runs several in organizations, Kerala first Muslim organizationstoencouragewomen’s education. several madrasasandArabiccolleges; itwasoneofthe runs in thestate.The Kerala Nadwathul Mujahideen movement ulema thatoppose‘Wahabi ideology’ andoperatesmadrasas Kerala Muslim AikyaSangham. It represents thetraditional the largestMuslim organization,wasestablishedin1924 by Samastha Kerala Jam’eyyat ul-Ulama known asSamastha, has several active Muslim development organizations.The The stateof Kerala, withitsvibrant Muslim community, and AlHuda Children’s Welfare Trust. Education Society, theStudents Islamic Trust, Al-Khidmat, Rural Muslim Welfare Organization, theCitizen Welfare cultural, economicandotherendeavors. Partners include: NGOs invarious areas ofsocial,educational,scientific, Muslim NGOs thataimstocoordinate of theefforts Muslim Community Coordination Initiative (CCI)isafederationof National League,andtheUPRabitaCommittee.The All India Shia Conference, the Muslim Indians, the Indian

61 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011

Brahma Kumaris: Teachers for the Mind, Body, and Spirit

The Brahma Kumaris are a rare spiritual movement led deformities and conducted more than 900 surgeries by women. Based in India, Hindu-inspired, and dating through 2007. They also offer free medicine and back to the colonial period, the Brahma Kumaris run free medical camps providing services to poorer today are active in 100 countries. The movement’s communities. The hospital responds to emergencies, founder, Dada Lekhraj, established the World providing care for victims of natural disasters. In fact, Spiritual University under the name “Om Mandali” in they assisted those injured in the Mumbai metro Hyderabad, Sindh. After partition, he witnessed the bomb blast of 2006. suffering of the population as the country split into two and decided to address it through education. The Brahma Kumaris have many sister organizations Taking the name Brahma Baba, he integrated spiritual and partnerships that work on faith and development contemplation into a new model of education that issues, including the Janki Foundation for Global would be accessible to everyone, regardless of faith or Healthcare, a U.K.–based charity that promotes ethnicity. He sent female missionaries to Bombay and healthcare based on nurturing positive thoughts Delhi “on service” to establish centers to teach Raja and attitudes; the Values in Healthcare program, Yoga. Today, almost every town in India has a Brahma which integrates a spiritual approach to disease for Kumari (BK) study center. The Brahma Kumari healthcare practitioners; and the Images and Voices Academy for a Better World has three campuses of Hope, a global initiative to connect journalists, including Gyan Sarovar (Lake of Knowledge) and artists, and media professionals with a focus on hope Shantivan (Forest of Peace) and has welcomed over and peace for the future. In 1992, the Brahma Kumaris, 2.5 million students and visitors of different faiths and through the World Renewal Spiritual Trust (WRST), cultures, teaching topics of peace and non-violence. established a Department of Renewable Energy that promotes solar architecture, steam cooking Since its beginnings, the Brama Kumaris have systems, and hybrid energy. Since 1998, Dadi Janki, focused on social service, with an emphasis on health. the administrative Head of the Brahma Kumaris, has

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN In Mumbai, opposite the Andheri Railway Station, the organized a retreat attended by some 1000 people Brahma Kumar run a modern hospital called the BSES that focuses on incorporating spiritual growth into M G Hospital. It combines spirituality and modern everyday work. medicine, as the Brahma Kumaris believe that a healthy body is not possible without a sound mind or The Brahma Kumaris are active in interfaith work spirit; the hospital’s vision is “Healing with a Spiritual and work closely with several international interfaith Touch.” It has 120 beds, 22 intensive in its intensive movements, including the World Congress of Faiths, care facilities, and provides most modern hospital Council for a Parliament of the World’s Religions, services. It offers free care for those who qualify – United Religions Initiative, the Global Peace Initiative over 38 percent of all patients. In partnership with of Women Religious and Spiritual Leaders, and the Cleft-Children International (CCI), the hospital offers a World Conference of Religions for Peace. free clinic to those suffering from Cleft Lip and Palate

Muslim educational institutions are organized around the madrasa strong interfaith traditions and a long history of inclusivity, system. The exact number of madrasas in India is not known, welcoming the saints, prophets, and gurus of all world faiths.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS though government figures estimate that there are around 32,000 Its pluralistic vision is an integral part of Sikh development throughout the country.204 Approximately 7000 are registered with approaches. The Jain community has a deep dedication to the government of India.205 Madrasa reform programs include the principle of ahimsa or non-violence, centerpiece of the those implemented by the government of India and USAID. Ghandian movement.

Bahá’í, Zoroastrian, Sikh, and Jain Organizations Perhaps the most well-known Bahá’í inspired organization is the Barli Vocational Institute for Rural Women, established India has the world’s largest Bahá’í’, Zoroastrian, Sikh, and in 1985 with funding from local members, the Indian Jain communities and, though they represent small minorities, government, and the Council for Advancement of People’s they have significant cultural and social influence. Each of Action in Rural Technology (CAPART), an agency of the these traditions has a special spiritual focus that translates Ministry of Rural Development to provide vocational training into active development and social welfare work. The Bahá’í’ and empower rural and tribal women. 206 The Institute was community focuses particularly on interfaith activities, listed by UNICEF as one of 81 successful basic education values-integrated education, and gender issues, inter alia. The programs in developing countries. ancient Zoroastrian tradition has strong commitment to truth and spirituality, and has had particular success in promoting The Zoroastrian community, concentrated in Mumbai, has values-based education. The Sikh community also has several development initiatives. The Zoroastrian College 62 in the city of Sanjan is a spiritual and academic center that trains local Dalit leaders to fight for the constitutional rights of collaborates with the United Nations Peace University. India’s their community, having over over 300 member organizations Zoroastrian community works with diaspora organizations in BIMARU (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, including the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal) and the non-BIMARU states America (FEZANA), a non-profit religious and charitable of Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, trust, and the World Zoroastrian Organization (WZO). Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Pondicherry. NFDLRM is a nationwide mass The Sikh community in India (largely concentrated in movement initiated in 2006 by more than 250 Dalit land Punjab, but with communities throughout India) often rights movements from 16 states, primarily focused on issues collaborates with Sikh diaspora organizations, particularly in of land and livelihood of Dalit communities in India. It is the U.S. and U.K. The World Sikh Organization (WSO), a part of four national movements: All India Dalit Mahila non-profit international umbrella organization founded in Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM), Dalit Aarthik Adhikar Abhijan 1984 to promote and protect Sikh culture, campaigns for (DAAA), National Dalit Movement for Justice (NDMJ) disaster relief, assists with adoption of orphaned children, and and National Federation of Dalit Land Rights Movements collaborates with the Red Cross. SCORE, a faith-inspired (NFDLRM) promoted by National Campaign on Dalit non-profit organization dedicated to creating awareness of Human Rights (NCDHR).209 It has a nationwide network of the Sikh religion and culture and promoting justice, equality committed volunteers.210 and brotherhood, supports various development projects. Local Sikh organizations like the Kalgidhar Society building Other groups work internationally to raise awareness of education institutions for the poor in underprivileged rural Dalit concerns. The International Dalit Solidarity Network areas of North India, teaching a values-based education; the (IDSN) (founded in 2000) is a network of national solidarity Society runs drug and alcohol rehabilitation and healthcare networks, groups from affected countries, and international centers. The Nishkam Sikh Welfare Council, another organizations concerned about caste discrimination and Sikh organization, works to protect the disadvantaged, similar forms of discrimination. The National Campaign on including victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, violence, Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR), founded in 1998 by a group exploitation and those with disabilities. of activists, academics, human rights organizations, works to advance the rights of India’s scheduled castes211 and presents The Jain community runs development organizations in cases of human rights violations against Dalits to the National various states within India. The Jain Group of Institutions Human Rights Commission, the National Commission for BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY

(JGI) was established through the collaborative efforts of the Scheduled Castes, and the National Commission for Women, | Mahaveer Jain Group and has 21 institutes in Bangalore, and National Commission for Safai Karamcharis (night soil including vocational and technological centers. The Seva carriers).212 Mandir works for rural and tribal development in Udaipur and Rajsamand in 626 villages and 56 urban settlements; it Numerous Christian inspired organizations work on Dalit reaches approximately 70,000 households.207 Shri Jayantibhai related issues. The All India Christian Council (AICC) Patel is a Jain trust for the well-being of the blind and disabled; works to secure the rights of Christian Dalits and demands 58 blind and disabled inmates live at their home. According the restoration of Scheduled Caste status to Dalits who to the 2001 census, the Jain community has the highest converted to any religion other than Hinduism, Sikhism, literacy rate (approximately 94 percent) out of all the major and Buddhism.213 The AICC is a coalition of thousands of religious groups in India. Indian denominations, organizations, and lay leaders and collaborates with Confederation of SC/ST Organizations Dalit Organizations (India), the Dalit Freedom Network (USA), the Christian Solidarity Worldwide (UK) and Release International (UK).214 In India, discourse on religion and development is often Other organizations include the Nazareth Association for framed within the context of caste. The extent to which Social Awareness (NASA), Navsarjan, and the Society for religious organizations challenge class and caste issues varies the Reorganization and Enlightenment of the Village Ends BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS both within and between faith traditions; authority structures (SERVE), which operates two primary/secondary schools and and interpretations of religious principles concerning caste a nursing school for rural girls in the slums on the outskirts are not uniform. (see Jodhka, S. Surinder, 2011) A wide of Hyderabad. range of Dalit-run/focused organizations however, work across different development sectors, with a focus on Dalit communities.

Significant efforts have been made towards collaboration and networks of Dalit focused organizations. Networks include the Dalit Freedom Network (DFN), the All-India Confederation of Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribe Organizations (SC-ST Confederation), the National Conference of Dalit Organizations (NCDOR), and the National Federation of Dalit Land Rights Movements (NFDLRM).208 NACDO 63

Kashimir – Faith Dimensions of Peacebuilding

Kashmir, a mountainous region located between In early 1990, terrorist attacks in Kashmir led Hindu India and Pakistan, has been an area of contention Pandits to leave the Kashmir Valley. These families and conflict since 1947. India views Kashmir as an planned to return to Kashmir when the conflict integral part of India, while for Pakistan, Kashmir subsided, but the political situation in Kashmir is is a disputed territory whose final status must be still volatile and Kashmiri Pandits are still displaced. determined by the people of Kashmir. Some groups Currently, 300,000 Kashmir Pandits from the Indian- within Kashmir desire an independent state. India administered Kashmir Valley are in the Jammu area presently administers some 43 percent of Kashmir in refugee camps at Udhampur and Jammu. Another (Jammu, Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and the Saichen 100,000 are displaced, in refugee camps in Delhi, Glacier); Pakistan controls Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and established by the Indian government. Baltistan (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract are controlled by China). Hinduism and Islam are the Peacebuilding predominant religions. The main religions of Jammu Within Kashmir, several organizations engage faith are Hinduism in the east and Islam in the west; Islam communities in peacebuilding efforts. Given the deep is the main religion in the Kashmir valley and the cultural connections of Sufi and Hindu traditions, Pakistan-controlled regions. Since India and Pakistan these efforts often focus on using the resources that signed a peace agreement at Tashkent (Uzbekistan) community leaders can offer. Sufi religious leaders in 1966, occasional military confrontations and violent have large networks and followings. As scholars Daniel demonstrations have sustained insecurity. Kashmir Philpot and Brian Cox note, faith-based diplomacy is is a point of geopolitical contention between India underutilized in national and international conflict and Pakistan and for the entire region. A succession and has the potential to transform “the hearts of of peace efforts have sought to resolve the Kashmir grassroots and civil society leaders.” Kashmir is a question. In 2000, Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee case in point. declared a ceasefire in observance of Ramadan and in 2004, peace talks allowed a bus service connecting Since 2001, Brian Cox with the International Center GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| two of Sikhism’s holiest sites on the Indo-Pakistani for Religion and Diplomacy (ICRD) has conducted border to reopen in 2005. After Indian Prime Minister eight seminars with more than 400 members of Manmohan Singh was elected, he met several times Kashmiri civil society on both sides of the LOC (Line with then Pakistani President Musharraf to discuss the of Control) to encourage dialogue and peacebuilding Kashmir dispute. However, strained bilateral relations efforts; to facilitate a spirit of reconciliation among since terrorist attacks on Mumbai in November 2008 young leaders in the Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist have slowed peace negotiations. parts of Kashmir.

Religion and Conflict The focus is to “break the cycle of revenge that Kashmir has a vibrant religious landscape. Muslims typically accompanies identity-based conflicts.” and Hindus have lived in relative harmony since the In 2003, ICRD, in collaboration with the Kashmir BERKLEY CENTER 13th century, when Islam first became the majority Institute of International Relations initiated a faith- religion in Kashmir. The Sufi and Kashmiri Pandits based reconciliation project, bringing together imams (Hindus) traditions coexisted, leading to a syncretic and pandits (Hindu Brahmins) to discuss issues and culture where Hindus and Muslims often worshipped challenges facing their communities. the same saints and at the same shrines. During this time in Kashmir’s history, there was a vibrant pluralism Individual faith-inspired leaders and activists, notably in practice among the community. Men and women Swami Agnivesh, are active in seeking to resolve visited tombs of Muslim saints and Muslim and Hindu conflicts; his immediate focus is on legal avenues at neighbors sought blessings from them. There was a the Supreme Court level to assure accountability for system of local religious leaders that had the respect human rights abuses. of the community. This was a shared culture between different religious communities shaped by the Some organizations have a particular focus on the lot spiritual traditions of the land, primarily Sufi Islam and of women and their roles in building peace in Kashmir. the Hindu bhakti tradition. In recent years, however, The Global Peace Initiative of Women (GPIW) Kashmir has seen a rise in tensions and conflict with gathered Muslim Sufis, Hindu Yogis, Buddhist Monks, clear religious dimensions. Kashmiri militant groups Humanitarians, and Peace practitioners at a Sufi –Yogi have targeted Kashmiri Hindus, and Muslim extremists Dialogue in Kathmandu. Attendees recited the sholaks have persecuted the Hindu minority. Almost 50,000 (verses) of Nund Rishi, Kashmir’s patron saint, and Muslims have fled the region to seek safety in India. other verses to reflect how all religions could work

64

...Kashimir continued. together to work for peace. This event brought together 30 Sufis and Vedantic practitioners from Kashmir Valley, Pakistan, India, Cambodia, Qatar, the United States, and Nepal to share their faith traditions and experiences. Women in Security, Conflict Management, and Peace (WISCOMP) has engaged with civil society in Kashmir, Jammu and Ladakh to build constituencies of peace. WISCOMP held a two-day dialogue called ‘Symbol and Substance: Exploring Inter-community Relations in Ladakh’ which brought together community leaders, religious leaders, and women groups. The dialogue was centered on the dynamics of Buddhist–Muslim relations and work on establishing a cooperative ethos between the two communities.

Athwaas, an affiliate organization of WICSOMP, is an alliance of women in Kashmir, Jammu, and Ladakh. Athwaas has established Samanbals (centers for women from all communities) and operates projects for Hindu and Muslim women widowed by conflict. The program encourages women to work together spinning raw cotton in the hope that working together will enable them to overcome hostility. The workshops also included training for capacity building and psycho-social healing for the attendees. The program focuses on the role of women BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY

as peacebuilders because they can have transformative | effects in their communities by teaching their children and family members respect and interreligious cooperation on a micro-level.

Athwaas also founded the Yakjah Reconciliation and Development Network. “Yakjah” means “Togetherness” and represents a network that works with youth, women, and spiritual leaders from Muslim or Hindu backgrounds. The organization uses visual media and multi-media to create activities that transform attitudes, change perceptions, and help to rebuild relationships in communities that are torn by conflict. In addition, the organization trains Sufi religious leaders and women to participate more fully in the civil society and political spheres. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

Press for Peace (PFP), a humanitarian organization established in 1999 in Muzaffarabad, the capital of Pakistan-administered Kashmir (Azad Jammu), partners with the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, ASR Women Resource Centre, Action Aid, and the United Religions Initiative. PFP works on human rights, addressing issues of interreligious violence and engaging faith leaders in the peace process. The Institute of Peace and Development (INSPAD), a think tank and peacebuilding organization in Azad Kashmir and Pakistan, also works with religious communities.

65 pakistan

Pakistan has faced many challenges since it became an percent in 2006/07 to just over one percent in 2008/09; independent nation and a federal republic in 1947. Complex inflation grew to over 20 percent.215 The 2010 floods (See relations with its neighbors and turbulent domestic politics Text Box 14) affected most of Pakistan’s crop land; almost have hindered development progress; conflicts with India in 22 percent of the economy is directly or indirectly related Kashmir, violence along the border with Afghanistan, and a to agriculture.216 According to the World Bank, the floods bloody war with Bangladesh displaced millions and sustained cost the economy over $10 billion USD and may have partly peace has been elusive. Pakistan’s external relations have reversed gains in poverty reduction made over the past 7-8 been shaped by regional geopolitical dynamics, brokered years. The north-west region of Pakistan faces longstanding by a succession of political transitions between military and and significant human displacement and security problems. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| civilian regimes. Successive earthquakes and devastating 2010 The government is undertaking a post-crisis needs assessment floods highlight Pakistan’s vulnerability to natural disasters. exercise, supported by the World Bank, the UN, the Asian Development Bank and the European Commission.217 Pakistan’s development indicators are low by international standards. Pakistan ranks 125 out of 169 countries on the Indicators for both education and health are lower than other UNDP Human Development Index. Women lag behind countries in South and Central Asia. UNICEF reports an men on most indicators. An important feature is wide overall literacy rate of 54 percent, with a ratio of 60 females variations by region. per 100 males able to read; in 2007, almost 50 percent of the poorest children aged 7 to 16 were out of school, compared Founded as an Islamic nation, religion plays a large role in shaping with five per cent of children from the upper class. About 28 societal norms and relations, as its role is intertwined with percent of females are enrolled in secondary school, compared BERKLEY CENTER tribal and traditional cultural relationships. Interpretations to 37 percent of males.218 Looking towards the deadline for of Islam as a factor in governance and social and personal the MDGs in 2015, the number of children out of school will behaviors vary by region; access to education for girls is an continue to increase if progress is not accelerated.219 example. Faith-inspired actors are active across most sectors of development, their roles diverse and at times controversial. Low education levels contribute to child marriage, forced Political realities and perceptions shape interactions between marriages, and high fertility. About 23 percent of females faith actors, the government, and international donors. between the ages of 15 and 19 are married, compared with 5 percent of the male population in the same age group.220 One estimate highlights the pattern of marriage within families and communities, indicating that only 37 percent of married Socio-Economic Background and Politics women are not related to their spouses and 63 percent have arranged marriages to a family member, such as a second Pakistan, with a total population of approximately 170 cousin. This increases the difficulty of divorce because of the million (growing at 2.2 percent a year), is one of the world’s close family ties and social stigma.221 largest Muslim nations. Development has been disappointing, with a turbulent political history resulting in low tourism and Class and socio-economic divisions, as well as tribal and foreign investment. About a third of the population lives feudal customs impede gender equality and empowerment. below the poverty line, and almost 60 percent live on less Tribal or feudal domestic traditions often discriminate than $2 USD per day. Recorded unemployment is estimated against females even in eating patterns, contributing to at 15 percent. Economic growth slowed from near seven nutritional deficiencies for women and female children.222 66

*USAID - OFDA Pakistan - Complex Emergency and Floods Fact Sheet #1, Fiscal Year (FY) 2011, April 5, 2011

568,740 Households Estimated Total Number of Households (More than 3.4 Million People) U.N. and GoP - January 2011 Displaced by Conict to Date

394,100 Households Estimated Number of Households that (More than 2.3 Million People) U.N. and GoP - January 2011 have Returned to Areas of Origin

Estimated Number of Households that 174,640 Households Remain Displaced in KPk and FATA (Up to 1.1 Million People) U.N. and GoP - January 2011

Total Number of People A ected by Floods National Disaster Management 18.1 Million Authority (NDMA) - March 20, 2011

1,985 Estimated Number of Deaths from Floods NDMA - March 20, 2011

1.7 Million Estimated Number of Houses Damaged NDMA - March 20, 2011 or Destroyed by Floods BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

67

Pakistan Floods

In July 2010, heavy monsoon rain caused flooding Tablighis, and village based organizations. An August in Pakistan, affecting Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, 2010 session of the Upper House of Parliament Sind, and Baluchistan. With almost one-fifth of the reported that 1102 local NGOs received funding from country underwater, many bridges collapsed leaving the government for floods relief work in rural areas victims stranded and difficult to reach. Though the that lacked government infrastructure. flood waters have receded, many still need continued assistance; faith-inspired organizations are now A large component of the international NGO response engaged in long-term efforts of rehabilitation; UN comprised faith-inspired organizations. Islamic cluster groups are organized around coordination Relief, World Vision, Tearfund, Caritas, Catholic Relief efforts. Services, Cordaid, International Catholic Migration Commission, Norwegian Church Aid, Church World Almost 2,000 people are reported to have died and Service, Muslim Aid, Muslim Hands, American Jewish another 12 million were internally displaced. Flood World Service, American Jewish Joint Distribution victims lost homes and family members, and in some Committee, Malteser International, and Diakonie areas, entire villages were washed away. The U.N. Katastrophenhilfe were among the first on the ground. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) warns that Many of the above organizations are members of Pakistan could face major food shortages because the Pakistan Humanitarian Forum, one of the largest farmers will miss a planting season and because of the NGO coordination bodies that mobilized around the loss of 1.2 million livestock. The Pakistani government disaster. Other organizations from Asia, including estimates that the country has suffered close to Jamiyah Singapore, the Buddhist Lodge, and Taoist $43 billion in damage. Infectious diseases including Federation, have joined the relief efforts as well, cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis, lack of hygiene, providing financial assistance through government sanitation and access to clean water are serious health channels. . concerns. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| Islamic Relief worked with internally displaced According to an April 2011 U.K. government evaluation persons (IDPs) providing rehabilitation support for of the humanitarian response to the floods, actors almost 2 million people in the district of Mardan on the ground confirmed that the international aid (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province), where the majority response was slow, with local organizations and of displaced persons were relocated. It provided religious groups being the first providers of the primary psychological support services and access to safe response before international aid arrived. After play areas for children suffering trauma. Caritas international aid arrived, however, the report noted International responded with medical treatment and that international assistance became intertwined vaccinations, and World Vision provided emergency with politics, being used as an arm of “soft power” items such as tents, hygiene kits, and mosquito nets diplomacy to win the “hearts and minds” of the local and distributed more than 6000 metric tons of food BERKLEY CENTER population. Religious groups were subsequently in the three flood affected provinces. excluded from aid coordination efforts, in large part because they were “framed as the competition for There, however, were some challenges; American winning hearts and minds.” Jewish World Services, for example does not publish the list of local Pakistan grantees to ensure the safety Despite coordination challenges, one representative of their community-based partners. Some groups, from Islamic Relief noted that some groups have reportedly with Taliban links, accused Christian groups collaborated with UN agencies, providing accurate and of proselytizing, affecting the overall security of all up-to-date information that the government cannot. Christian-inspired organizations. Local faith-inspired actors can cross into isolated villages and provide medicine and clean water, and transport people out of disaster areas because they know the terrain and the people trust them. The political aspect of all this is in a different arena and another dimension from what these groups are doing to help the community from a humanitarian standpoint. Among the organizations he witnessed were Ismailis,

68 smaller Protestant communities in the Punjab. numbers of Roman Catholics in the Sind Province and population isthelargestreligious minority, withsignificant around 5percent oftheoverall population. Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, andZoroastrians, comprise and Ahmadiyatraditions.Religious minorities,including Ithna Ashariabranch,withsomemembersfrom theIsmaili from 10-20percent). Pakistanis are Muslim (largelySunni, withShias estimated as theofficialstateof religion. Between 95and97percent Pakistan federalrepublic, withIslam is a parliamentary-based R the mostneed. roles within theaidcommunitytoreach andassistthosein disaster hasbeenimmense;faithactorshave played critical into theinteriorofcountry. The resulting humanitarian Baluchistan, althoughtheconflictisincreasingly penetrating Pakhtunkhwa, Khyber the Swat Valley and Waziristan, and Afghanistan, primarilyinthefrontier areas, including Pakistan isakeyactorintheNATO-led conflictin the populationare alsoafactorindeepandpersistentpoverty. Barriers for themajorityof topoliticalandcivicparticipation in South Asia). (compared100,000 live births to320per100,000live births ratioisestimatedat280deathsper maternal mortality rates. Pakistan’s rates,andhighmaternalmortality mortality Health challengesincludeinfectiousdisease,highinfant ul-Haq, includingtheHudood Ordinances. lawswere introducedseries ofdiscriminatory by General Zia- guardianship ofchildren. In addition,duringthelate1970s, a reference toinheritance,divorce, ageofmarriage,andnatural isofteninterpreted unequallyforwomenwith the country Muslim Family Law, of whichisoperative inmanyparts total population. and Sikh communitiescompriselessthan1percent of the ethnic, tribal,andlinguisticcleavages are factors. important in establishing solid systems of democratic governance; (PPP) came into power. However, Pakistan still faces challenges stepped down and the democratic Pakistan People’s Party In tocivilianrule. 2007,General Pervezmilitary Musharraf Turbulent politicshave involved successive transitionsfrom on foreign financialassistance,andpoorinfrastructure. limited efficiencyofelectricity production, highdependence are rudimentary. percent have improved drinkingwatersystems,butthese of thepopulationuseanimproved systemofsanitation;87 areas.limited, especially inrural In areas, rural only 40 percent areas. Proper sanitationandaccesstocleandrinkingwaterare lack safewaterandhouseholdsanitation,especiallyinrural 30 percent ofchildren are chronically malnourishedand diarrhea, pneumonia,orvaccine-preventable diseases.Some themajorityofchilddeathsareto theirfifthbirthday; dueto eligious Demography andSociety 224 231 225 Almost one in ten children does not survive Almostoneintenchildren doesnotsurvive Other development challenges include Other development challengesinclude 227,228 Most Shia Muslims belongtothe 229 223 The Christian TheChristian 230 Zoroastrian Zoroastrian 226

the Companies Ordinance of1984. Voluntary Social Welfare Agencies Ordinance of1961;and acts ofpubliccharity;the Cooperative Society Act; the cultural, andeducationalbodies; the Trust Act forprivate the Societies Registration Act, toprofessional, which pertains social welfare.” It isdifficulttountanglethetwo.” withnotionsofcharityand development andis“intertwined the Pakistani context. Religion, however, plays large roles in in Pakistan; thetermfaith-basedisnotcommonlyusedin the problematic nature oftheterm‘faith-based organization’ conducted attheUniversity ofBirmingham, however, notes a clearlinebetween the“faith” and“secular” realms. Research integrated withinPakistani culture thatitisdifficulttodraw development practitionersuggestedthatfaithissodeeply Faith playsaprominent role inPakistani lifeandsociety. One F country. instances, exacerbatedreligious regions violenceinrural ofthe has inreality increased interreligious tensionsand,insome toidentifyandprotect an effort religious minorities,butit Identification cards in firstbeganprinting religiousaffiliation identification cards thatinclude religious membership. Religious minorities have cited concern over national consumption ofwineforthereligious ritualofCommunion. Christian communityby permittingtheproduction, saleand in Islam, thegovernment offersanaccommodationtothe of thereligious landscape.Althoughalcoholisprohibited in1947;churches and Sikhthe partition gurdwaras are part and Christianswere encouragedtomigratePakistan during Religious minorities in India including Sikhs, Zoroastrians, foradjudicationinlegalmatters. appeal tocivillawcourts official sharia courts, are not bound bysharia law, and may in parliament;non-Muslims are in restricted from serving non-Muslims and have heldhighpositionsinthemilitary and onlyaMuslim aspresident orprimeminister, canserve constitution recognizes Islam astheofficialstate religion Pakistan’s iscomplex. religiousWhile Pakistan’s history updating andreporting isnotsystematic; that NGOs register underfive different ordinances, and exact numbers.AnAsianDevelopment Bank studynoted Pakistan, though there isnow comprehensive mappingof 8,000 and16,000non-profit organizationsoperatein Development Programme (UNDP)concludedthatbetween conductedby1947; arecent theUnited survey Nations NGOs have existedinPakistan sinceitsindependencein term development andcommunityempowerment. that are fundedby institutionaldonorsandprioritize long- on immediaterelief, orprofessional development organizations sources coming from either individual donations with a focus organization’s funding is adifferentiating factor, withdonor organizations, theBirmingham studynoted,thenature ofan Rather thanacleardistinctionbetween faithandsecular aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment 235

234 the five laws are: thefive lawsare: 232 233

69 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Coordination and oversight of NGOs by government Army, Habitat for Humanity, Food for the Hungry, ADRA, ministries, particularly for disaster relief, is problematic, and Catholic Social Services. and registration procedure is often marked by red tape and bureaucratic procedure; the ADB study concluded that NGOs The American Jewish World Service has supported emergency in Pakistan lack adequate governance and transparency.236 relief projects following the 2005 earthquake, and the Joint Jewish Distribution Center was active in the flood relief efforts in 2010. International Faith-Inspired Organizations

Many international faith-inspired organizations, from all National and Local Faith-Inspired Organizations major faith traditions, work in Pakistan in most development sectors, including gender, education, peacebuilding, health, National and local level faith-inspired organizations work in emergency relief, and other welfare-related issues. Their most social sectors, including emergency relief, healthcare, activities have stepped up following flood and humanitarian education, microfinance, poverty reduction, food security, and efforts following the 2010 floods. maternal and child health. They have been particularly active recently in floods and humanitarian relief efforts. Reports International Muslim-inspired organizations have diverse about their roles tended to center on complex motivations, programming across many sectors. Islamic Relief works but the situation is complex. Many organizations have with gender issues, education, economic empowerment, and provided effective relief assistance. disaster relief; they were an important responder following the 2005 earthquake and the 2010 floods. Muslim Aid, a U.K. A large group of national/local faith-inspired organizations based relief and development agency, is runs educational focus on healthcare. Edhi Foundation, one of the most well- programming, and initiated the Economic Empowerment known, is a large development organization with over 250 Programme in 2007 to encourage development projects and centers throughout the country, that provides medical care, financial investments in rural areas. 237 Muslim Hands United emergency relief, ambulances, offers burial services, and for the Needy is involved in flood relief and has distributed operates mental safe houses and shelters for abused women.241 over 33,000 food parcels with flour, sugar, rice, tea and pulse; It also operates orphanages and offers rehabilitation for drug its current focus is long-term shelter for flood victims.238 The addicts in rural areas. The Pakistani Red Crescent Society Aga Kahn Development Network is active in Pakistan, with partners with national and international bodies including GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| particular focus on education and rural development, among UNICEF for Polio Eradication and HIV/AIDS Education other programs in a range of development sectors. Other Drives.242 It has developed 161 health facilities throughout international Islamic-inspired organizations working in the country, 61 of which are specifically dedicated to maternal Pakistan include: Helping Hand for Relief and Development, health and childcare.243 A local Christian organization, Dar-ul- Qatar Charity, Islamic Help, and the IHH Humanitarian Sukun, runs a home for mentally challenged or handicapped Relief Foundation. children and adults.244 The Alamgir Welfare Trust is a local organization that supports poor patients and provides free Christian international NGOs have a significant presence and burial costs for poor families. It also enables economically are active in all sectors, particularly on relief efforts. Christian disadvantaged people to travel for the Hajj pilgrimage.245 A organizations face specific challenges; some have been accused similar organization, Al-Mustafa Welfare Society is active of proselytization or conversion efforts. Conversations with throughout Pakistan and offers healthcare services. The BERKLEY CENTER practitioners note, however, that if organizations are clear in organization provides ambulances and cardiac emergency communicating their humanitarian purposes, they can gain vans in the service of the poor.246 the trust of local communities and are able to work effectively with the local people. Organizations working more generally on poverty alleviation include Islamic microfinance institutions, food distribution As an example, Caritas Pakistan, an affiliate of Caritas programs, and vocational training. Akhuwat, as one example, Internationalis, raised $8 million to provide emergency is an Islamic micro-finance organization based in Lahore response, temporary winter shelters and basic items such that utilizes mosques and churches for community outreach as hygiene kits and healthcare assistance for relief efforts projects and social empowerment; Akhuwat has opened for the Pakistan flood.239 Caritas Switzerland staff worked branches in other cities including Bahawalpur, Multan, closely with Caritas Pakistan on earthquake response, and Gujrat, Dera Ghazi Khan and Karachi, and has collaborated 18,000 people received earthquake-proof shelters through with USAID, among other donors. 247 The Center for Islamic a partnership including a CAFOD (Catholic aid agency Economics has as a main objective to spread an Islamic-based for England and Wales), Catholic Relief Services – United economic system without usury to promote financial equity in States, and Caritas France, Secours Catholique.240 Other society.248 The Al-Khidmat Foundation is engaged in poverty International Christian organizations working in Pakistan alleviation through various sectors, including helping poor include: Church World Service Pakistan, Shelter for Life, families cover the cost for weddings and religious celebrations. World Vision, United Methodist Committee on Relief, The Christian Development Organization operates a food Christian Aid, DanChurchAid, Norwegian Church Aid, program for poor people in rural villages, providing two meals Diakonie Katastrophenhilfe, Global Peace Pioneers, Salvation a day for poor families.249 70 Zakat Administration (CZA). and ushrsystemisorganized inPakistan through theCentral Quran andone’s personalcommitment to faith.Thezakat welfare system.Themoralimperative ofzakatisbasedonthe of Islamic welfare andintegratedthemwithamodernpublic groups. The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance combinedelements the Holy Prophet sensitive tothesevulnerable wasparticularly population,especiallywidowsunderserved andorphans,as alms-giving, the aimwas to forge a national system tohelp the Ushr Ordinance. Based ontheIslamic obligationofzakat,or ul-Haq introduced a welfare system,known astheZakat and In oftheIslamization 1980,asapart program, President Zia- safety net. Islamic charity, ofPakistan’s have becomeacentralpart social Religiously motivated organizations,through centraltenetsof healthcare ofPakistan’s andeducationtolargeparts poor. source offunding.Zakat fundsare usedtoprovide basic depend onIslamic sources ofcharity, suchaszakat, asamain Thousands oforganizations,as well asgovernment agencies, Zakat andSocialWelfare grantee, lessee,lease-holderorland-holder. at therateof5percent oftheproduceland-owner, from every Ordinance of1980.Ushr basis iscollectedonacompulsory contained intheFirst ScheduleoftheZakat andUshr Zakat iscollected attherateof2.5percent oneleven assets locality. sub-division), andaLocalZakat Committee(LZC) ineach in eachdistrict,a Tehsil Zakat Committeeineachtehsil(or Zakat Council ineachprovince, aDistrict Zakat Committee Zakat Administration atthe federallevel, oneProvincial contributing zakat funds for major crises, including the 2010 contributing zakat fundsformajorcrises,including the2010 concerns. Some diaspora communities were uneasy about Post-9/11, collectionofzakatfundshave raisedsome distribution. usually donatedtolargerorganizations thatcanoversee the and distributedtothepoor; clothesandrawmaterialsare The foodisusuallytakentolocalshrineswhere itiscooked donations intheformoffood,clothes,andrawmaterials. of in-kinddonations,andlocalorganizationscollectthese funeral costs.Some Pakistanis choose topayzakatintheform marriages, travel fortheHajj pilgrimage,aswell asburialand which usezakatdonationstoassistpoorfamilieswith Alamgir Welfare Trust andtheAl-Mustafa Welfare Society, Edhi Foundation. Other smaller organizationsincludethe governmental organizations involved inzakatcharityisthe Apart from thegovernment system,amongthemyriadnon- to cover expenses. women. AonetimepaymentofRs.10,000ispaidtothebride The third program covers marriageassistancetounmarried inpatient procedures andRs.2000foroutpatientprocedures. medical treatment forindividualpatientsuptoRs.3000 local zakatcommitteeishealthcare; thezakatfundwillcover and universities. Thesecondprogram determined by the studentsatschools,colleges, educational stipendstodeserving funds are usedforzakatprograms includingproviding 250 251 There iscurrently aCentral 252 The collected Thecollected public, asare 69percent ofdegree colleges. the private sector. Just under50percent ofhighschoolsare schoolsare inthe publicsectorand11percent areprimary in sector and29percent inprivate sector. Some 89percent of 71 percent ofeducationalinstitutionsare inthepublic total enrollment of37,500,000students. educational institutionsofallcategoriesinPakistan, witha 2007-2008 government statistics,there are some257,000 and madrasas,whichare explicitlyreligious. According to byschools run faith communities), government schools, three typesofschools:private schools(whichincludesome education system.Thissystemin Pakistan iscomprisedof Faith-inspired institutions are significantplayers in Pakistan’s Education does benefitlargesegmentsofthepopulation. institution grounded indeepreligious principlesandpractice, need help. Despite theseissues,thezakatsystem,arevered and antagonism among communities that to distrust that zakatfundsare misusedby thegovernment, contributing hence paylesszakatthantheyshould.Anothercontentionis payments. It isreported thatpeoplemisreport theirassetsand accounts just before the government officiallychargeszakat for peopletowithdrawlargesumsofmoneyfrom personal One practitionernotedthat itiscommonpractice corrupt. Pakistan’s zakatsystemisalsocritiquedasdisorganized and Church. Kinnard Collegefor Women inLahore and Karachi College inRawalpindi are operatedby thePresbyterian education. Forman ChristianCollege inLahore andGordon fullest well-being ofstudentsandintegrate thisethosintotheir believes theBible andChristianexperienceare essentialfor the Prayer League,undertheChurch ofPakistan; the school Murree Christian School is operated by the World Mission students. Catholic board ofeducationoversees 62schools,with52,000 presence intheeducationsystemsinceindependence.The societal fragmentation.Religious minoritieshave hadastrong and cannoteasilymove from onetoanother, contributingto integration among thesesystems. Students rarely interact limited stress thatacriticalissueisthevery Interviews children andanorphanagewithover 40children. organization inPakistan andoperatesaschoolwith300 The Christian Fellowship of Pakistan isthelargestChristian Other Christianschoolsare by Protestant run communities. by thechurchfunded andsupported diocese. accommodate low-income familiesby providing scholarships often thepreferred choicefortheelite,butthere are to efforts the intellectualtrainingofindividual.Catholicschools are into theircoursecurriculum,engagingthespiritualaswell as Anthony’s School for boys integrate theological instruction and their ability to carry outeffective development work.and theirabilitytocarry funds; thedecrease infundshasaffectedthoseorganizations floods, becauseoffearsthatextremist groups mayusethe 256 TheConvent of forgirlsand Jesus and Mary St. 254 255 Approximately

257 The The 253

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 71

Madrasa Reform in Pakistan

In recent years, especially post-9/11, engaged a number of madrasas, including international concern about potential more than 2,200 madrasa leaders and senior links between madrasa education and faculty from 1,450 madrasas. Douglas M. Islamic radicalism has grown. The Pakistani Johnston, the president and founder of government has had a madrasa reform ICRD, notes that reform is a significant step agenda since the 1960s and has engaged in reducing the potential for radicalism. He in a tug-of-war with the Isalmic ulema to suggests that when religious scripture is introduce secular subjects into the curriculum selectively interpreted, it becomes a tool “for and to modernize madrasas. There are two justifying the unjustifiable.” Madrasa leaders main reasons why madrasas are able to resist command respect from their students and reform. First, as Islam is the official state their community, and ICRD believes that religion, to “secularize” madrasa curriculum improving their education will counter is a sensitive issue, as some see it as going extremism; promote authentic religious against the religious foundations of the state. values; contribute to the stability of their Second, there is a strong support base for the country; and integrate the madrasa leaders senior ulema from conservative members of and students more fully into civil society. society. Many development practitioners and Madrasa teachers and the ulema feel it is policymakers note that madrasas overall do their duty, and in some cases their right, to not prepare students to enter the workforce determine the religious vision of the country. and find viable employment post-graduation. As an Islamic country, the government also has Students attending madrasas that do not the responsibility of providing citizens with incorporate “secular” or vocational training Islamic education. Therefore, a key element have fewer economic and livelihood in the madrasa reform process is securing opportunities than their counterparts in secular GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| the trust of the senior ulema. The ulema institutions, and are often marginalized from are suspicious of any “top-down” approach “mainstream society.” However, practitioners to madrasa reform; some fear that foreign have noted that madrasa education is often governments and development organizations the only option for an education in rural areas; exercise undue influence on government the issue of quality of education received thus efforts to secularize curricula. For the ulema, becomes an issue of central importance. changing traditional madrasa education can be interpreted as a method to “secularize” the As a leader of a Muslim-inspired organization Islamic way of life. in Bangladesh noted, the word madrasa has become equivalent to a four letter word in The Washington-based International some policy circles; nevertheless, it is generally BERKLEY CENTER Center for Religion and Diplomacy (ICRD) agreed that open conversation and dialogue is has worked over several years to support needed to dispel myths and support inclusive madrasa reform in Pakistan. The ICRD has and sensitive reform.

Grammar School are both operated by the Church of Pakistan attacked by gunmen who killed a small group of people from and accommodate children from poor families. There are also the school, including the principal.258 Other schools in rural Christian theological seminaries including the Northwestern areas have also been threatened. Theological Seminary of Pakistan, and the Open Theological Seminary in Lahore. Both seminaries enable students from Local Zoroastrian schools such as the Mama Parsi School for poor families to enroll in their institution. girls and the Bai Azerbaijan Soparivala Parsi High School aim to bridge the gap between their faith tradition and Pakistani Christian schools are a well-established part of Pakistani culture. These schools incorporate religious instruction in society, though there have been instances of violence during their curriculum and are open to children from all religious periods of interreligious conflict. Christian schools are communities, offering scholarships to poor families. These sometimes associated with the “west” and perceived as “anti- religious minority schools are accessible to lower income Muslim,” and have become the target of some violence. families and often appeal as an option that integrates The Murree Christian School was shut down after attacks spirituality with secular education. by religious militants in 2008. It reopened but was recently 72 The Aga Khan Development Network operates 192 schools level. Roles of religious leaders in peacebuilding are complex; (primary, secondary, and university levels) that educate over practitioner interviews suggests that the role of local religious 36,000 students and employ over 1,600 teachers. Within leaders, particularly imams, is still fairly limited, hopefully at the Aga Khan University, the Institute for Educational a nascent stage; low education levels among some religious Development focuses on research and training to improve leaders can hamper effective collaboration. However, there developing nation educational systems, including that of are examples of successful engagement, and religious leaders Pakistan. are often the most influential voices within communities, working for peace (or, on occasion, exacerbating tensions). Traditional Islamic education is primarily concentrated around madrasa education. Madrasas are present throughout The United States Institute for Peace supports dialogue Pakistan and appeal to rural families because they are between communities along the Pakistan and Afghanistan inexpensive and provide religious instruction; madrasas often border where the majority of the conflict between the Pakistan provide two meals a day, which is of particular importance to army and the Taliban is unfolding.264 Dialogue participants poor families that cannot afford to provide regualar nutritious receive conflict-resolution and mediation training in Kabul meals. Estimates of the numbers of Pakistani madrasas vary and Islamabad to encourage engagement between different widely. One estimate puts the total at approximately 28,000 ethnic and religious communities.265 The programs particularly 259, of which only 6,700 are registered with the government. address intra-religious conflict between the Sunni and Shi’a The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) 2002 communities. USIP’s Religion and Peacemaking Program is report noted about 600,000 students in 6,000 registered collaborating with Al-Noor, a local partner, and with Sunni madrasas, with more than 250,000 students in Punjab and Shi’a scholars to produce an Islamic textbook in Urdu for Province alone.260 Some 1,900 registered female madrasas use in madrasas that promotes peace and understanding.266 in Pakistan are growing more popular among young girls in The program hopes to use the textbook to teach courses rural communities (See Text Box 13). on Islamic peacemaking at local seminaries and encourage dialogue between the Sunni and Shi’a communities. Madrasa educational reform is a serious challenge. It often contributes to contentious relationships between the In November 2007, Actionaid, an international NGO Islamic ulema and the local government; the government active in 42 countries, partnered with the Citizen’s Peace is working to incorporate greater “secular education” into Committee to organize the “Karwaan-e-Aman,” a rally for the predominantly religious curricula of madrasas, while peace to promote religious tolerance and interfaith harmony

267 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY “reform” is often perceived as “western” education by the in the community. The rally brought together human rights | madrasas. Nonetheless, madrasas remain an affordable and activists and religious leaders from different faith traditions. accessible means of education to many Pakistanis in rural areas with few or no alternative choices. The director of Subcontinent-wide religious movements are active in Islamic Relief in Pakistan noted that madrasas, though often Pakistan, particularly in interfaith initiatives. The Hindu controversial in policy circles, are a permanent fixture of the inspired religious movement, the Art of Living, implements Pakistani educational landscape, and should be engaged, not programs to promote peace between India and Pakistan. marginalized261 (see Text Box 15 on madrasa reform). The World Alliance for Youth Empowerment (WAYE), the youth component of the Art of Living, works in Pakistan An alternative to madrasas for Islamic education are the Turkish under the label of “Indo-Pakistan Youth Peace Initiatives.” Fethullah Gülen schools. There are now Gülen Schools in seven The program attracted Muslims, Christians, and Hindus to cities in Pakistan that offer Islamic inspired education that is youth empowerment seminars to encourage interreligious more integrated than traditional madrasa education.262 understanding between these communities.268

There are NGOs that support faith-inspired education as Alongside international actors, Pakistan’s vibrant civil society well: the Isra Islamic Foundation, an organization of Muslim actors (faith-inspired organizations and those that engage professionals, serves the underprivileged population in Sindh faith actors) are implementing peacebuilding projects. Local BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and opened the Usra University, the Isra Blind Control faith-inspired organizations have the advantage of being Program, and the Isra Qur’an Academy, where students can both culturally and religiously connected to the community, pursue both a secular and religious education.263 having particular knowledge of religious, sectarian, ethnic, and tribal conflict and violence. They are instrumental at the policy level around issues of access and security; faith-inspired Peacebuilding communities have presence on the ground, even in the most insecure regions where international and government actors Different categories of organizations do peacebuilding work. are not present. Several international development organizations partner with faith groups, or collaborate with religious leaders in Some examples of include the Centre for Peace and peacebuilding efforts. These initiatives include projects Development Initiatives (CPDI-Pakistan), which works to build interfaith harmony and peace between religious exclusively on peace and development in Pakistan.269 CPDI- communities, along with efforts to partner with local religious Pakistan’s projects focus on peace and tolerance; religious and leaders to enhace conflict resolution capacity at the community sectarian violence; inter-provincial conflicts; and improved 73

The Plight of South Asia’s Many Widows

Widows, are sadly a common reality in South than 11 percent actually receive payments. Asia; the share of widows in the female With no access to a family or means of population is among the highest in the world. economic support, many widows are forced Estimates put the number of widows in India at into begging and prostitution. While the almost 40 million, or ten percent of the female practice of sati, or a widow’s self-immolation, population. The Indian city of Vrindavan was banned in 1829, occasional instances are is nicknamed the City of Widows because still reported; the murder of widows by in-laws nearly 15,000 women have migrated there to is a more common occurrence. escape the marginalization and stigmatism they face in their homes and villages. Many Especially in Hindu communities of India, widows live on the streets or in group shelters Nepal, and the Sri Lankan Tamils, development and most survive by singing in Hindu bhajan agencies focus on widows as an especially ashrams, where they receive a little rice and vulnerable group. Faith-inspired organizations, pay in exchange for hymns. In Nepal and Sri Hindu and otherwise, as well as individual Lanka, internal conflict has produced many activists play especially important roles in war widows who face social ostracism, though protecting and sheltering South Asian widows. generally not to the same degree as non-war Beginning in the nineteenth-century, Hindu widows. One Sri Lankan minister told an activists, like Ram Mohan Roy and his mission audience recently that the civil war had left to end suati, and Kamala Ghosh, principal of 89,000 widows in the Tamil concentrated Vrindavan’s Vivekananda School, have worked regions of the north and east - 30,000 of actively to end widow abuse. Hindu temples them under 30 years old. Data for Nepal is frequently house and employ widows, while poor, but ten years of armed conflict has temple societies, like the Vrindavan Shri

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN produced similarly high numbers, particularly Bhagwan Bhajan Ashram society, provide food among young women (Nepal has one of the and shelter. Socio-spiritual guilds are active highest rates of child marriage in the world); in Hindu centers, two examples being the 67 percent of Nepalese widows are under 35 Swaminarayan Anoopam Mission in Gujarat, years old. which helps with widow rehabilitation, and the Christian Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission, The region’s widows face a wide range of which provides a home and vocational obstacles, with the result that many are training for widows. Organizations including deprived of even the most basic human Caritas, World Vision, and the Kuwait Red security and dignity. Because widows are Crescent Society have recognized the need to commonly thought to bring bad luck, custom single out widows in disaster relief distribution forbids them from attending weddings and and development schemes. In Sri Lanka, the social functions. They may be blamed for the Association of War Affected Women, though death of their husbands. Social pressures not faith-inspired in its mission, works closely discourage remarriage and dictates that they with faith communities to empower women forgo traditional colorful clothing and jewelry, widowed by conflict. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS wearing simple white saris and sometimes shaven heads. Some leave their husband’s family’s home voluntarily due to maltreatment by in-laws, but many are thrown out because they are considered both a bad omen and a financial drain. Though perhaps 28 percent of Indian widows are eligible for pensions, less

74 understanding across cultures, sects, and religions.270 Helping Hand for Relief and Development, Islamic Relief, The Cavish Development Foundation (CDF) works on Muslim Hands International, Qatar Charity, Shelter for Life, peacebuilding initiatives promoting interfaith harmony and World Vision. between the Muslim majority and religious minorities in Pakistan.271 In 2010, CDF trained two groups of 15 students A coordination body for health active in all four provinces each in Islamabad, Pakistan and presented a puppet show is the Pakistan Health Cluster, working to decrease acute employing dramatic performances to focus in issues of malnutrition, cholera, malaria, and other infectious disease. religious tension and ways to create interfaith harmony. CDF Faith-inspired members include Church World Service, also created District Peace Committees (DPCs) comprising Helping Hand for Relief and Development, Islamic Help BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY of social activists, academics, and religious leaders from all Pakistan, and World Vision. The Pakistan Food Security | major religions to promote interfaith dialogue in districts Cluster (particularly active during the 2010 floods) includes with religious tension.272 Amn Tehrik comprises individuals the following faith-inspired organizations: Global Peace and organizations from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that are Pioneers, Food for the Hungry, IHH Humanitarian Relief collaborating to promote peace by opposing pro-terrorism Foundation, Islamic Relief, Khubaib Foundation, Muslim clerics and their influence in mosques and in madrasas.273 Hands UK and Qatar Charity.

Aware Girls, a women-led organization, works to alleviate The ACT Alliance, a coordinating body of Christian what they consider to be the exploitation of Islamic militant development organizations, runs relief and development work, groups to incite the youth to commit religiously inspired and members working in Pakistan include Norwegian Church violence.274 They initiated the “Seeds of Peace” program with Aid, Church World Service, and Diakonie Katastrophenhilfe. 20 women and men to promote tolerance, non-violence, and peace against religious extremism.275 Another example, Other national coordination bodies that include local and BARGAD, established in 1997 by a group of students community-based and/or faith-inspired NGOS are: All from Lahore, focuses on students in secular colleges and Pakistan Women’s Association and Pakistan Voluntary Health religious seminaries to promote peacebuilding. In 2003, the & Nutrition Association (PAVHNA). organization launched a “youth track” peacebuilding initiative BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS in South Asia; so far, 35 universities in Pakistan, three in India, Several international organizations active in Pakistan and two in Afghanistan have collaborated with BARGAD’s coordinate with local faith-inspired organizations or agencies peacebuilding program.276 that run faith-related programs. United Nations agencies support programs that focus on education, health, water, nutrition, safe motherhood, and reproductive health and children’s health education.277 Canada, Germany, Japan, and Coordination Bodies and Partners the United Kingdom all support faith-inspired organization work.278 Some embassy-based programs support NGO Several coordination bodies work on flood relief, disaster and work with faith-inspired actors, including Australia, the emergency response, and humanitarian aid. The Pakistan Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.279 Humanitarian Forum, as an example, is comprised of 39 international NGOs working in conflict/disaster-affected regions of the country. Faith-inspired members include Catholic Relief Services, Church World Service Pakistan, 75 afghanistan

Located at the crossroads of South and Central Asia, Afghanistan women die each year from pregnancy-related causes.285 In has endured successive conflicts that have involved significant Save the Children’s 2011 State of the World’s Mothers report, yet complex religious dimensions. Faith-inspired actors play Afghanistan was rated the worst place to be a mother. Only influential, yet complicated and diverse roles in development 23 percent of the population has access to safe water, and only and peacebuilding. Conflict has held Afghanistan’s development 12 percent have access to adequate sanitation, increasing the hostage and casts a shadow on peace, stability, and prospects for incidence of infectious disease. Almost 15,000 Afghans die the region and beyond. The future is uncertain: some observers of tuberculosis every year, 64 percent of which are women. point to progress while others are less optimistic. An important Almost 4 percent of the population is disabled; landmine question is how religious leaders and institutions, very much accidents account for a significant part of the problem.286 GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| part of the “problem,” can be more effectively engaged in efforts to build peace. Despite laws prohibiting gender violence and discrimination, domestic abuse and sexual violence are pervasive. The Taliban regime excluded women from most parts of social and political life. Poor health conditions and malnutrition make pregnancy Religious and Social Demography and childbirth exceptionally dangerous.287 Women and girls still face severe restrictions in their access to education, healthcare Of Afghanistan’s population of about 30 million, almost facilities, and employment. Child marriage, forced marriage, 80 percent are Sunni Muslim, and 19 percent Shi’as; other and female trafficking are common in the region. Almost 54 religious groups comprise less than 1 percent (about 4900 percent of girls under the age of 18 are married, most marriages Sikhs, 1000 Hindus, almost 400 Bahá’ís, and a small arranged by parents without the girl’s consent; during the BERKLEY CENTER Christian community).280 Sunni Muslim Pashtuns dominate Taliban regime, families were forced to marry their daughters to the southern and eastern regions, while most of the Shi’a the Taliban or to buy their freedom with large sums of money, community is in the Hazarajat in the central highlands. Ethnic which was not a viable option for most.288 Precise numbers are communities include the Pashtuns (42 percent), Tajiks (27 unknown, as families are hesitant to report cases for fear of the percent), Hazara (9 percent), Uzbeks (9 percent), Aimak (4 social stigma attached to a daughter or sister kidnapped or sold percent), Turkmen (3 percent), and the Baloch (2 percent).281 for sex. Conflict has also increased levels of abductions of young Afghan Persian or Dari is the official language. girls and women by Taliban fighters.

The UNDP Human Poverty Index ranks Afghanistan at the Improvements in education have been made; since 2001, bottom of 135 countries in terms of human deprivation. enrollment in grades 1-12 increased from 3.9 million in 2004 Short life (44-year life expectancy) and weak education are to 6.2 million in 2008. Girls’ enrollment has increased from marked characteristics.282 GDP per capita is $1,321 USD, 839,000 to more than 2.2 million.289 Literacy rates are low; and 42 percent of the population lives below the poverty line. in urban settings 26 percent (36 percent male; 15 percent Regional and seasonal differences are important aspects of female) of the population is literate, but in rural areas, the poverty.283 literate population is only some nine percent (of that, less than one percent are women). The ratio of girls to boys enrolled There are large health challenges. Infant and under five in primary and secondary school in 2007 was .58. In 2005, mortality rates are high.284 Trained health workers attend only 21 percent of girls enrolled in primary school completed only about 15 percent of births; over 90 percent of births their studies.290 occur at home, and UNICEF reports that about 15,000 76 Afghanistan’s ability to achieve MDGs is closely tied to International Faith-Inspired Organizations building effective governance structures and enhancing security (UNDP). Afghanistan has added a goal to “enhance Muslim organizations often face fewer barriers than other faith- security,” in addition to the other MDGs. 291 Years of conflict inspired and secular organizations in entering communities have destroyed critical infrastructure, including roads and because of their cultural and spiritual affinity. Organizations electricity (the percentage of the population with access to include Muslim Peace Fellowship/Ansâr as-Salâm, Ummah electricity is among the lowest in the world292); partnerships Welfare Trust, Women Living Under Muslim Laws, Helping with international development organizations support Hands, Muslim Aid, Islamic Relief, and the Aga Khan widespread reconstruction efforts. Foundation. Ummah Welfare Trust (UK), as one example, works in Afghanistan on a variety of development projects, including sponsoring widows and orphans and providing Eid gifts for the poor. Women Living Under Muslim Laws, Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development an international solidarity network, provides information, support, and a collective space for women whose lives are In Afghanistan, relations between the government and shaped, conditioned, or governed by laws and customs said faith-inspired actors with other civil society actors, are to derive from Islam. complex.293 Faith plays an omnipresent role in daily life, translating into motivations to conduct development work The numbers of Christian-inspired organizations working in for many development organizations. Religion has also played Afghanistan is significant. USAID finances several Christian complicated roles in the decade-long conflict, with religious groups; from 2001-2005 it spent US$57 million (out of a misinterpretations often responsible for igniting tensions and total of US$390 million to nongovernmental agencies) to fund creating divides. One development practitioner noted that projects run by faith-based organizations in Pakistan, Indonesia, while faith motivates the work of many organizations, many and Afghanistan.295 Christian groups operate healthcare, do not openly publicize their faith motivations, particularly education, and disaster relief projects under the grants. Christian organizations. Proselytizing is illegal in Afghanistan, and the government has suspended or expelled organizations International Assistance Mission is one of the longest accused of proselytizing. In May 2010 both Church World continuously operating organizations in Afghanistan, Service and Norwegian Church Aid were suspending from operational since 1966. Catholic Relief Services helps to operating in the country; they have since been cleared of rebuild homes, farms, and war-damaged streets and buildings.

294 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY wrongdoing and allowed to resume aid work. Key areas include agriculture, water and sanitation, education | and emergency response. The Christian Children’s Fund Security remains a concern, highlighted in 2007, when 23 operates several Well Being Committees, designed to involve South Korean missionaries were kidnapped, and in August the community in the protection of children from sexual abuse, 2010, six members of the International Assistance Mission child labor, and child marriage. Other organizations with a where killed, both incidents claimed by the Taliban. The presence in Afghanistan include: Adventist Development and Aid Worker Security Database suggests that Afghanistan has Relief Agency International, Christian Aid, Cordaid, Catholic the world’s highest amount of attacks on aid workers (123 Relief Services, Christian Reformed World Relief Committee, between 2006-2010). The data is not disaggregated by faith- Church World Service, Norwegian Church Aid, Tearfund, inspired or secular identification, but many of the attacks United Methodist Committee on Relief, World Vision were specifically directed towards faith-inspired actors. There International/Afghanistan, and Zoa Refugee Care. is a trend for military actors to become increasingly involved in development activities, blurring the lines between aid and Some international non-governmental organizations have military intervention. As a result, the aid community, both specific programs to collect and distribute Islamic alms, or faith-inspired and secular actors, are viewed as synonymous zakat. The Zakat Foundation of America, as one example, uses with military forces by some segments of Afghan society. zakat donations to improve education in Afghanistan. Other BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS organizations involved in zakat collection and disbursement Though there are inherent risks, faith-inspired organizations include Helping Hands, Muslim Aid, and Islamic Relief. and religious communities are often present in the most insecure areas where neither international secular development organizations nor the government has much presence. In short, faith leaders have significant influence and shape National/Local Organizations opinions and perceptions in many communities. Religious leaders, communities, and other faith-inspired actors Registration of development organizations is becoming play important, albeit complex civil society roles. A Peace Research increasingly stringent in a government effort to fight corruption Institute report observed that the mosque is a traditional center and fraud. In November 2010, almost 150 local NGOs were of public and social life in Afghanistan, particularly in rural banned from operating in the country. In May 2010, 172 areas, both for religious functions and a space for education, NGOs were banned, including the World Islamic Call Society meetings and entertaining visitors.296 Afghan organizations and Samaritan’s Purse International Relief. Over 1,400 NGOs focus their activities around most sectors, notably education, (over 300 international) are registered with the government. poverty alleviation, gender empowerment, and peacebuilding. 77 Zakat links, particularly to Pakistan, as well as to the Gulf countries; links include students, teachers, finances, and thought.304 Zakat traditionally forms a central part of revenue and Links tend to be informal, posing challenges to government social charity in Muslim communities. In Afghanistan, the madrasa reform initiatives. government currently has been unable to impose or enforce collection.297 Under the Taliban regime, there was forced Education is a priority among many faith-inspired NGOs, collection of zakat; following the Taliban government, zakat particularly for girls. Fewer girls are enrolled in religious has decreased significantly. According to a 2007 report schools than in regular schools. In 2007, girls comprised 36 focused on the town of Sayedabad (south of Kabul), 35 percent of the total student population, while they made up percent of mullahs surveyed said that zakat was collected in only some eight percent of the students in Islamic education their area; 15 percent unofficially and 20 percent formally institutions. Traditionally, many girls are taught religious through a mosque system. Zakat that is given tends to first education in the home. be given to family and neighbors, with remaining funds going to local religious leaders and students. The results, however, can vary by region, the report noted, correlated to levels of economic security.298 Gender

During the conflict and civil war in the 1980s and 1990s, women were a target of armed violence, rape, and sexual Education assault. Violence against women was both commonplace and employed as a method of dishonoring families and Over twenty years of war have destroyed Afghanistan’s communities.305 Violence was exacerbated by the Taliban education infrastructure. The Ministry of Education reports regime’s rules regarding the visibility of women in the public that 673 schools have been closed because of violence; sphere. Women were to stay at home under the observation however, 220 have recently reopened, providing access to over and control of husbands and male members of the family. 180,000 students and 3,000 teachers.299 After the fall of the Taliban government, the Ministry of In response to the education crisis, the Afghan Ministry Women’s Affairs (MoWA) was established following the

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN of Education proposes to develop the Islamic education Bonn Agreement as the government ministry in charge of system by raising standards and training teachers.300 To do women’s issues and tasked by the transitional government this, as stated in the National Education Strategic Plan for of Afghanistan to advance the role of women.306 MoWA Afghanistan, the Ministry plans to build a madrasa in each of collaborates with religious leaders in its mandate. the 364 districts in Afghanistan. The Ministry also plans to establish a National Islamic Education Council to update and A faith-inspired education initiative launched by the Afghan review the Islamic education system, and to establish district Ministry of Women’s Affairs, the UN Population Fund level Islamic schools with a combined Islamic and technical/ (UNFPA), and the Asia Foundation focuses on lowering vocational education curriculum. They will implement a maternal and infant mortality. Involving religious leaders was Technical Working Group, which will include members of a key project component, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs the National Ulema Council and Islamic Education staff to was involved in the campaign.307 Following the education of develop the religious education curriculum.301 Approximately religious leaders, some mullahs began distributing condoms 340 official government madrasas were registered with the while others used the Quran to support a method of birth government in 2007. The majority of Afghanistan’s madrasas, control through prolonged breaks between births.308 UNDP however, are private and independent; in most cases they organized a meeting in 2009 with 300 Islamic scholars on the

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS are unregistered. Accurate data on the number of madrasas role of women in Islam. countrywide is not available.302 Two networks of the Revolutionary Association of the The Department of Islamic Education plans to begin Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) work to help women who registering private madrasas. These madrasas will be are denied rights because of fundamentalist religious practices. encouraged to adopt the national curriculum for Islamic The Taliban issued an edict that RAWA members would education. These schools will accommodate up to 50,000 be executed if caught; today RAWA works underground to children and offer a curriculum consisting of 40 percent combat the women’s oppression. RAWA runs orphanages religious education, 40 percent general education, and 20 and has established schools, income-generating projects, percent computer science and foreign languages.303 The and medical treatment facilities for women.309 The Afghan new curriculum aims to enable students to have an Islamic Women’s Network (AWN) is engaged in advocacy with the education and also study secular subjects, preparing them to government, parliament, foreign missions, and the UN to enter the workforce upon graduation. work for gender empowerment and reinstate women’s rights that were restricted with the strict Islamic interpretations of Most Sunni madrasa curricula in Afghanistan are based on the the Taliban government.310 dars-e nizami curriculum commonly used in madrasas across South Asia. Many madrasas have significant transnational 78 peacebuilding. propagate Islamic moralvalues incommunitiestoencourage and physicalrehabilitation ofAfghanistan.Its aimisto is aMuslim-inspired organization thatworks forthespiritual Social Reforms andDevelopment (ASSRD),asoneexample, resolution andreconciliation TheAfghan efforts. Societyfor Some nationalfaith-inspired NGOs work onconflict shared withseniorUNofficialsinKabul. resolutions ofviolentconflict.The resultsofthemeeting were toadvance between fightingparties in mediationsefforts noted thatathird party, suchastheUnited Nations, canhelp ofReligiousthe Department Affairsin Nangarhar province violence andstrategiestoendit.At themeeting,headof scholars from Nangarhar province todiscusscausesof recently asApril 2011, convened ameetingwith25religious The United Nations Assistance Mission inAfghanistan,as mediation by USIPexperts. weregroup participants trainedinconflict resolution and andacommon agendaforpeace.Thedialogue generate trust initiated aseriesofdialoguesfrom bothsidesoftheborder to to buildadialoguebetween AfghanistanandPakistan. USIP Peacebuilding Across Borders, thesecond USIP project, aims and theresponsibilities ofreligious leadersintheprocess. Pakistan worked onpeacebuildinginthe Muslim tradition with religious scholarsfrom Afghanistan,Egypt, Jordan, and An internationalsummitonreconciliation inKabul2010 methods tohelpcommunitiesconfront historiesofviolence. skills using Islamic principles of nonviolence, along with conflict resolution. Religious leaders were taughtmediation 50 Afghanulemaandreligious scholarsfortwoworkshops on religious leadersinthepeaceprocess. The Institute convened Religious twoprograms Leadershave toinvolve supported The USIP Mediation and Peacebuilding Training for Afghan institutions. are dealtwithatthelocallevel through localmediation religious leaders,andover halfoftheconflictsinAfghanistan peacebuilding istraditionally led by localelders, including ofthecountry.unable tooperateinmanyparts Local-level peacebuilding context.Given thesecurityrealities, NGOs are Faith-inspired actorsare intheAfghan important P conflict resolution andpeacebuildingprograms. an organizationthathasbeenableengagejirgasandshurasin Cooperation forPeace andUnity (CPAU) isoneexampleof large scalebutthere are engagement. examplesofconstructive shuras are notengagedby development organizationsona or otheragreeable terms for mediating the conflict. Jirgas and which mayinvolve a paymentofaloan,anallocationland, leaders, hearthedetailsofaconflictandarrive ata verdict, community representatives, including the elders and religious called jirgaorshura,meaning‘council.’ In thecouncils, communities. Theselocalconflictmediators are generally Informal justicemechanisms already existinalmostall eacebuilding 311

312 313

principals intolocaldisputemechanisms. religious leadersonissuessuchasintegrationofhumanrights C Coordination (SWABAC). the South West AfghanistanandBalochistan Associationfor faith-actors are theIslamic Coordination Council(ICC)and Two othercoordinating bodiesthathave asmembersorengage members are alsomembersofANCB. International/Afghanistan, andZoa Refugee Care. Some United Methodist CommitteeonRelief, World Vision Hands International, Norwegian Church Aid, Tearfund, Church World Islamic Service, Relief Worldwide, Muslim Afghanistan, ChristianAid,Cordaid, CatholicRelief Service, and Relief AgencyInternational, AgaKhanFoundation- member organizationsinclude:Adventist Development international bodiesandgovernments. Some faith-inspired effective aidbetween andamongmemberorganizations Relief (ACBAR), provides topromote efficientand aforum A secondbody, theAgencyCoordinating BodyforAfghan government ofAfghanistan,andinternationalcommunity.” and tobuildlinkswithintheAfghanNGOcommunity, the best practicesinNGOmanagementamongANCBmembers National Endowment forDemocracy (NED),“to promote receive grantsfrom internationalorganizations,includingthe ANCB has350AfghanmemberNGOs. Theorganizations international organizations,andotherdonoragencies. the activitiesamongits members, with the Government, network ofnationalNGOs inAfghanistancoordinating Coordination Bureau (ANCB)wasfoundedin1991as a coordination ofaidandrelief TheAfghanNGO efforts. toimprovecommunity have madesignificantefforts Both thegovernment ofAfghanistanandtheInternational conflict management. focused onfamilyplanning,gender-basedviolence,and Religious Affairs,andtheAsia Foundation. Thepartnership through of the Ministry Women’s of Affairs,the Ministry UNFPA hascollaboratedindirectly withreligious leaders religious andculturaltraditiongenderequality. Afghan Women’s Network, bothofwhichwork onissuesof Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) and gender, twowomenfocusednetworks are theRevolutionary oordination andDevelopment P 315 UNDP and partner NGOs engage NGOs UNDP and partner engage 314 Discussed in the section on Discussed inthesectionon 316

artners

79 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Kyrgyz republic

The Kyrgyz Republic, a predominantly Muslim country has been reduced to 6.6 percent (2007 UNDP data). A with significant Christian minorities, stands out in Central recent survey showed the unemployment rate to be about Asia for the significant level of involvement of faith-inspired 18 percent; as in other Central Asian countries, a significant actors in development activities. The Kyrgyz Republic has part of the Kyrgyz Republic’s educated workforce migrates in perhaps the most liberal environment within the Central Asia search of employment, largely to Russia. Between 2004 and context for engagement of religious actors and faith-inspired 2008, 800,000 Kyrgyz migrated to Russia. development organizations, and leaders are involved in many sectors, including health, humanitarian relief, education, and Before last year’s political and social unrest, the Kyrgyz advocacy, involving local, national, and international partners. economy was on a path to recovery following the global GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| The Kyrgyz Republic struggles nonetheless to balance the economic crisis, with GDP growth of nearly 8 percent in secular and religious spheres and consolidate Central Asia’s 2008, led largely by investments in private sector growth and first parliamentary democracy. The government seeks to energy. With the government transition and episodes of ethnic combat religious extremist groups, some with transnational violence, economic growth prospects have dimmed. The links, while creating an enabling environment allowing the economic downturn generated demands for humanitarian majority of moderate religious communities to contribute assistance, social services, and shelter. to a peaceful society that embraces the nation’s rich religious heritage. To date, government policies have sent mixed In terms of social indicators, the Kyrgyz Republic’s record messages, on paper calling for freedoms and participation, but is varied; resource limitations today put in question their in practice restricting activities through bureaucratic barriers. sustainability. The Kyrgyz Republic has a 99 percent literacy After the June 2010 ethnic violence between ethnic Kyrgyz rate, with near equality between boys and girls; secondary BERKLEY CENTER and Uzbek populations, religion is looked to as a common school enrollment is at 85 percent, with a slightly higher thread to help heal and reconcile past wounds and sustain enrollment rate for girls than boys. However, challenges development. include insufficient resources to ensure adequate teacher training, to retain qualified staff, and to modernize management of educational institutions (UNDP).

Socio-Economic Background and Development The Kyrgyz Republic is making slow improvements in health, Challenges though long-term challenges remain. The country seems unlikely to meet health related MDGs. Child mortality is The Kyrgyz Republic, with a population of approximately relatively high; 41/1000 children die before the age of 5, 5.5 million and a former Soviet republic, borders Kazakhstan, and the number of newborn deaths is increasing due to low Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and China. The population is 65 quality of care and lack of adequate facilities. Though women percent Kyrgyz, 14 percent Uzbek, and13 percent Russian, have a significantly greater life expectancy than men (70 and along with other ethnic minorities, including Dungan, 63 years respectively), maternal mortality is quite high and Ukranian, Polish, and Uighur. has slightly increased since 2005, from 78 to 81/100,000 births in 2008. HIV/AIDs and communicative disease rates The Kyrgyz Republic is classified as a low income country, have increased since 2000, particularly in the south; increased with a GNI per capita of $870 (World Bank); 43 percent migration has been cited as one cause. Reported cases of HIV of the population lives below the national poverty line, and have increased from under 500 in 2003 to more than 2,300 poverty is most acute in rural areas. Extreme poverty however, in 2009, and tuberculosis is at epidemic level, with over 100 80 evangelical ChristiansintheKyrgyz Republic. numbers are notwell known, there maybeupto 50,000 and between Christianchurches andthegovernment. While contributed totensionsboth inlocalMuslim communities Muslim communities. Proselytizating by Christian groups has contributing totenserelations between thegovernment and mosquesand madrasas, and barrierstoestablishingnew it categorizes as“extremist,” andcommunities facerestrictions The government restricts thesocialactivitiesof Muslim groups activities onanunofficialandneedsbasis. activities. Many religious leadersengageinsocialwelfare other faith-inspired actors from engagingin social welfare permission foractivitiesprevent manyreligious leadersand government requirements forregistration andobtaining however, many activities remain restricted, and complicated of religion andseparationofreligion andstate.In practice constitutionratifiedin new June 2010guarantees freedom religious actorsoutoftheCentralAsianrepublics, andthe The Kyrgyz Republic hasamongthemostliberalspheres for it created was filled inby part religion. philosophy oftheSoviet Union andtheideologicalvacuum dissolution oftheSoviet Union; thecollapseofatheist Religion hasplayed agrowing role inKyrgyz societysincethe R (UNDP). 4 percent femalerepresentation inlocalgovernment bodies of the parliament, though thereabout onequarter is only of an updated Election Code in 2007, women constitute is the firstfemale head ofstate in Central Asia, and as a result remain.many obstaclestofullparticipation Rosa Otunbayeva are increasingly active inpoliticalandpublicspaces,though roles lieprimarilyinthedomestic/familialspheres. Women traditionalunderstandingsthatwomen’swomen; thisfortifies shifted responsibility for the care of children and families to have child-care facilities andthe worsening medical services, infrastructure including the closure and of kindergartens Republic inthepost-Soviet period.Deteriorating social Increasing genderinequalityhascharacterized theKyrgyz cases per100,000(UNDP). traditional anddevout thaninotherregions. Churches. Overall, religious practiceinthesouthismore of Kyrgyz are toChristianity, converting largelytoProtestant Russian Orthodox orProtestant, thoughagrowing number Uzbeks tendtoindentifyasMuslim, andethnicRussians as is largelycorrelated withreligious belief;ethnicKyrgyz and groups of Jewish, Jehovah Witness, andBahá’í. Ethnicity percent, including Protestants, Roman Catholics,andsmaller Russian Orthodox. Other religious groups accountforfive mosques). Some 20percent ofthepopulationidentifyas as Sunni Muslim (there are 1,619officially registered widely practicedfaith;75percent ofthepopulationidentifies eligion andtheState 317 Islam is the most 318 319

also aconcern. clergy andMuftiyat andmisuseoffundsis staff;corruption as traditionalsources offundingonlycover salariesofSBM limitedfundsavailablemosques haveforsocialcharity, very including for public charitable assistance. In practice,, distribution, 40-50 percent tomosquesfordiscretionary Muftiyat, 10 percent to regional kazyyats, and the remaining disbursed inthefollowing percentages: 40-50percent tothe the endoffasting)anddistributingittopoor;fundsare religious dutyofbelievers todonatemoneythepoorat The SBMis responsible forcollecting Sadaqa Al-Fitr, (a unemployed parents. social groups includingpensioners,orphans,andyoung income citizens, distributingmoney, clothesandfoodto The SBM regularly provides charitableassistancetolow- ininternational symposiumsandconferences. participated programs related toeducation,HIV/AIDSprevention; ithas Central Asia,amongotherinternationalorganizations,on agencies, includingUSAIDandEurasia Foundation of The Muftiyat itselfcooperateswithinternationaldevelopment regional oftheSBM,operateatregional department level. Mufti ofallMuslims inKyrgyz Republic). Seven kazyyats,or (spiritual board ofbelievers headedby thesupreme clergyman, Muslims oftheKyrgyz Republic (SBM)andtheMuftiyat to oversee theMuslim communityistheSpiritual Board of of religious activityinthecountry. Specifically designated responsible forthegeneraloversightministry andregistration The State Agencyfor Religious Affairsisthe government and humanitarianwork. informal communitymovements engaginginsocialwelfare public associations,localreligious leaders/congregations, and include internationalNGOs, localfaith-inspired NGOS, Faith-inspired organizationsengagedindevelopment outsocialprograms onitsbehalf. contract NGOs tocarry peacebuilding. A2008lawallows thegovernment to for theelderly, andincreasingly, sincetheevents of2010, health andHIV/AIDS,gender, humantrafficking, programs and development activitiesinseveral sectors,including: faith-inspired actors,are increasingly active insocialwelfare the Kyrgyz Republic. CivilsocietyandNGOs, including Faith-inspired actorshave alimited thoughgrowing role in F study ofthesocial activitiesofMuslim communities inthe Social Activity atthePresent Stage, provides a comprehensive A 2010 study, Muslim Community in Kyrgyz Republic: Some organizationshave anexplicitfaithinspiration. Organizations, are growing innumbersKyrgyz Republic. NGOs andcivilsocietygroups, alsoreferred toasPublic National/L aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment ocal F 320

aith-Inspired Organizations

81 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Kyrgyz Republic. The community, the report underscores, is in the southern region of the Kyrgyz Republic noted that not homogeneous. “The level and forms of their social activity government bureaucracy limits the official charity work local depend primarily on the ideological orientation and values religious mosques and leaders can do, and waiting for official of the jamaat (group).” The report notes four categories of authorization significantly delays projects. As a result, work organizations: formal clergy from regional kazyyats (regional that mosques and local religious leaders do is mostly unofficial, government religious ministry offices) and mosques; particularly in peacebuilding and humanitarian work. Secular educational institutions (madrasas, institutes, departments NGOs are increasingly looking to local religious leaders, as they of theology at public universities and other religious schools hold the trust of local communities and can quickly mobilize and centers); public associations, foreign and local charitable local support. and humanitarian organizations (including registered NGOs whose activities are based on the values of Islam; and informal The French development NGO, ACTED (active in Kyrgyz community movements. Republic since 1999), engages local religious leaders in border areas in Kyrgyz Republic and Uzbekistan to implement Some of the most active organizations are Adep Bashaty, peacebuilding projects, to collect and distribute humanitarian Mutakallim, Sumayya, Dil myurok, Waqf al Islami, Sunnot, aid following the 2010 violence, and to organize communities Assalyam, and Muassasah Shabab aalyami al Islami (World around ACTED shelter programs. Islamic Youth Foundation). Orthodox Christian communities face similar difficulties, Adep Bashaty was established by graduates of the University since Muslim leaders and are difficult to partner with on an of Cairo and Al Azhar University and is working on official basis, as they have to obtain permission from the central projects including: academic scholarships for poor families, authorities in Moscow. Other primarily Protestant churches humanitarian assistance for the elderly, charity concerts, fund- do work on an ad hoc basis. The Morman Church in Bishkek raising for secular schools, and for rural water supply systems. has implemented small scale aid programs, and some Korean Baptist Churches provided humanitarian assistance on an Some organizations focus specifically on issues related to unofficial basis following the ethnic violence in Osh. women and girls. UN OCHA noted in its June 2010 – 2011 flash appeal for support that faith-inspired organizations can be important partners in combating gender based violence,

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN though they need support to build capacity and knowledge.321 International Faith-Inspired NGOs

Mutakallim, a UN implementing partner, was established in Following the ethnic violence of 2010, organizations in Central 1999 by 12 female activists, and implements programs on Asia that did not have Kyrgyz Republic-specific programs issues including women’s rights and family issues; it collaborates offered humanitarian assistance through partnerships with with UN agencies on domestic violence, family issues, and local and international NGOs. HIV/AIDS. Mutakallim has branches in Toktogul, Balykchy, Karakol, Osh and Aravan. It has cooperated with the Red The ACT Alliance (an umbrella organization of Christian Crescent Society and is funded by international donors, NGOs withover 100 members worldwide), has three including UNFPA. Another organization, the Women’s organizations with a permanent presence in the Kyrgyz Community Foundation “Sumayya,” established in 2004, Republic: DanChurchAid, ICCO, and Kerk in Actie. focuses on girls’ education and is working to open an elementary Three organizations fund programs in the Kyrgyz school in Bishkek’s twelfth district. The Public Foundation for Republic : Christian Aid, Church of Sweden, and Diakonie Women “Ak Jooluk Ajary” was established in Bishkek in 2008 Katastrophenhilfe (DKH). As of December 2010, ACT and is comprised mostly of young girls; it works with orphans, Alliance members are continuing reconstruction and

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS large families, the sick, and local schools. Yyman Bakyt (80 rehabilitation efforts in southern Kyrgyz Republic. Long- percent of its members are women), established in 2000, has term programming aims specifically at easing tensions and programs to collect and distribute clothes to the poor and promoting reconciliation between the Kyrgyz and Uzbek organizes subbotniks (voluntary cleaning of common spaces populations, focusing in part on their common Muslim on Saturdays); they are financed in part by the UNFPA and heritage and culture. The member organizations are also coordinate with government ministries and universities. involved in shelter reconstruction and education, among other activities. ACT Alliance was an important source of Other Muslim organizations include Hadisi, which works humanitarian information during the June 2010 violence; its on HIV prevention and other health issues in Bishkek, and situation reports were circulated throughout humanitarian Arysh, which focuses on internal migrants in Bishkek. Both community. DanChurchAid and ICCO collaborated with organizations partner with the international Christian NGO, World Vision in Uzbekistan on cross border/refugee response. DanChurchAid. Other Christian international NGOs include: Catholic Relief Local religious leaders contribute to development initiatives, Services/Caritas, Christian Aid, ADRA, DCCA, and Habitat though involvement is very much localized and ad hoc; for Humanity. some leaders, however, partner with international NGOs on specific projects. International NGO representatives operating 82

The Gülen Movement in Central Asia

Fethullah Gülen, founder of the Gülen Movement administrators. The curriculum incorporates is influenced by his Sufi heritage, especially scientific subjects with the social sciences; by the teachings of Said Nursi. Beginning in Russian is the primary language of instruction. Turkey in the 1970s, the Gülen Movement places These modern day Gülen lighthouses present particular emphasis on education. Its learning themselves as a safe haven from “drug and centers, called “lighthouses” (isik evler), alcohol use, premarital sex and violence.” synthesize secular and scientific subjects with Through the schools, the Gülen movement the religious values of the Qur’an. The goal is aims to reach vulnerable youth populations to encourage students to “internalize values that lack other educational options. Gülen of responsibility and self-sacrifice through schools focus on the tenet of hizmet insani or collective prayers” and thus promote an “being in service to others.” With an emphasis economic and moral transformation of society. on character development, the schools seek Today, the Gülen Movement has schools to mold students into respectful citizens that worldwide, with educational facilities from engage in moral and ethical behavior. Central Asia to Europe and North America. Over the past 30 years, Gülen has opened over Through his educational project in Central 1,000 educational institutions in more than 100 Asia, Fethullah Gülen claims that he building countries. “cultural bridges” between Turkey and Central Asia and between the Muslim world and the After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the West. The Gülen movement has wide support movement began to work in Central Asia. from the Turkish diaspora community and The first Gülen schools appeared in 1992– promotes “dialogue with religious and secular 93, and there are now schools in Tajikistan, leaders about democracy, human rights, and Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and the Kyrgyz pluralism.” Some controversy surrounds Republic. Kazakhstan has 30 high schools the Gülen schools, and some governments, BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY

with over 5,600 students, and there are 11 including that of Uzbekistan, see the schools as | high schools and one university in the Kyrgyz disproportionally promoting a Turkish identity. Republic with more than 3,100 students. The The schools are, however, often viewed as schools are managed by both local and Turkish providing a quality and modern education.

Some International Islamic-inspired NGOs are active in the Education Kyrgyz Republic. The Aga Khan Development Network has both long-term development and short \-term relief projects Government-regulated Muslim-inspired education centers in areas including health, economic development, rural around: hujra (traditional religious teaching, tending to be development, civil society technical assistance, microcredit, conservative and narrow in scope), madrasas, an Islamic financial services, and cultural development. AKDN works university, and Islamic centers, foundations, and associations. with its local partner, the Mountain Societies Development The SBM officially includes 45 madrasas and Qur’an study Support Programme (MSDSP KG), to implement socio- classes (for which the curricula are mandated by the Ministry of economic development programs in rural mountainous Education), six institutes, one university, and 26 Islamic centers, communities in Osh and Naryn. AKDN also partners with foundations and associations.322 There are also many non- government authorities, community organizations, and local official mosques throughout the country that offer unofficial BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS civil society groups. education; in December 2008, there were 1,325 mosques and madrasas in the Osh, Batken, Jalalabad oblasts, according to Muslim aid organizations without a permanent presence in the Central Asian News Service. Some unregistered madrasas the Kyrgyz Republic provided humanitarian relief following operate in secret; their activity is restricted by the government, the 2010 ethnic violence through local partner organizations. and they can be closed down if discovered. Muslim Aid launched an appeal for food, medicine, and emergency supply donations to assist displaced populations, The AKDN operates several schools in the Kyrgyz Republic. working through local partners to distribute aid. Islamic In 2002, AKDN opened a school in Osh, including an Relief France launched an appeal, operating through local academic center with 22 classrooms and seminar rooms, partner organizations Mehr Shavkat and the Resource Center a Learning Resource Center, a multipurpose gymnasium for Elderly People, to distribute food, hygiene kits, and plastic and a 200-seat cafeteria. The Aga Khan Early Childhood sheeting for temporary shelter. Development Program works in rural communities in the Osh and Naryn oblasts to build capacity in existing kindergartens and improve academic curricula. The program 83 supports 48 kindergartens and trained 80 kindergarten staff. The ACT Alliance coordinates with local NGOS (secular AKDN is establishing a branch of the University of Central and faith-inspired), other international NGOS, the UN, and Asia (an internationally chartered university with branches in government bodies. Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic) in Naryn, the Kyrgyz Republic, focusing on education to support Faith-inspired organizations are part of several coordination economic and social development in the region. groups; the Forum of Women’s NGOs of Kyrgyz Republic unites more than 85 NGOs that focus on women’s The Gülen Movement also has schools, under the Sebat participation in regional, local, and national political International Education Institute (Sebat), officially registered as structures. The AgeNetnetwork in Osh consists of civil GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| an NGO in the Kyrgyz Republic. Since 1992, Sebat has opened society members and authorities working with older people 4 high schools, 4 university dormitories, the International in Central Asia, the Caucusus, and Russia. DanChurchAid Ataturk Alatoo University, the International Silk Road School, coordinates with AgeNetnetwork members. The Harm and the Secom Center for language and computer studies. The Reduction Network Kyrgyz Republic (HRNK) is a network schools enroll more than 4,600 students. of five NGOs that works on issues including HIV/AIDS, human trafficking, GLBT issues, and advocacy, and has been Several Christian schools in the Kyrgyz Republic are operated active since January 2004. by foreign registered NGOs. The Association of Christian Schools of Central Asia, as an example, operates five schools In direct response to the humanitarian need in 2010, in northern Kyrgysztan for nearly 550 students, and provides approximately 10 local NGOs, under the leadership of secular education, as well as education on Christian morals Resource Center for Elderly (based in Bishkek) established BERKLEY CENTER and ethics. The Central Asia Sharing Aid (CASA), a USA- the Mobile Group (MG) to engage relief efforts in Osh registered NGO, operates and supports schools and and Jalalabad. The group’s focus is to receive requests and orphanages in the Kyrgyz Republic and is seeking to establish complaints on aid distribution and humanitarian efforts, a university. CASA partners with the Mercy Charitable check information, compile and deliver lists of those in Christian Foundation (MCCF), a Kyrgyz national faith- need to the government aid organizations, and monitor and inspired organization operating schools in Tokmok, Ivanovka, document cases. The MG is organized into four clusters: 1) Kemin, Belovodsk, and Kara-Balta. documentation cluster; 2) distribution cluster; 3) information cluster; 4) human resource/coordination of volunteers cluster.

Partners and Coordinating Bodies

An increasing number of coordination bodies exist in the Kyrgyz Republic, particularly following the international aid response to the 2010 ethnic violence.

United Nations coordination and cluster groups meet regularly. In Osh, ACTED, Catholic Relief Services, and Christian Aid are regular members of weekly coordination meetings. 84 be limited,andaccurateinformationisscarce. engagement offaith-inspired actorsindevelopment seemsto governmentintrusive oversight oftheiractivities;asaresult, legal restrictions, uneven enforcement ofregulations, and and child mortality are quite high. The fertility rate is 1.87 are rateis1.87 and childmortality quitehigh.The fertility poverty line,withaverage lifeexpectancy 68years. Maternal the 1999census,12percent ofKazakhstanis lived below the due tomajordepositsofpetroleum, natural gas,andcoal.At a GDPpercapitaof$11,800 andenjoys increasing wealth Boasting thelargesteconomy ofcentralAsia,Kazakhstanhas to aslightethnicKazakhmajority. led toawave ofemigration,andtheethnicbalancereadjusted Kazakhs in the minority for decades. Independence in 1991 – bothSlavs nationalities–leftethnic andotherdeported Kazhakland,andtheresultingnorthern influxofimmigrants 1960’s, Soviet citizens were encouragedtofarmuncultivated During theSoviet Virgin LandsProgram ofthe1950’s and of Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Germans, Tatars, and Uighurs. ethnic Kazakh and 30 percent Russian, with tiny minorities At thetimeof1999census,populationwas53percent intheworld,buthas apopulationofonly15million. country With 2.7 million sq. km, Kazakhstan is the ninthlargest Challenges Socio-Economic “quiet repression.” ethnic cooperation,criticsqualifythepeaceasaveneer for and inter- sees itself as abeaconofharmoniousinterfaith been relatively peacefulduringthepasttwodecadesand a predominantly Muslim while Kazakhstan has country; medical systemisamore recent problem. Kazakhstanis tight mediacontrols andlow Astruggling civic participation. faces development challenges,someremnants ofSoviet era impressive achievements ineducationandfoodsecurity, it countries inCentralAsia,withrichoil-basedresources and While Kazakhstanisoneofthemosthighlydeveloped K azakhstan 323 Religious communities report strict Religious communities report strict Background and Development in large part because its educational accomplishments; in large part it was ranked as highin human development by UNDP, both menandwomenaverage 15years ofeducation.In 2009, results. Kazakhstan reports a 99.5 percent literacy rate, and Education isonesectorwhere Kazakhstanhasseenimpressive deficiencies inwomenofproductive ageandchildren. hunger andfoodsecurityto“hiddenhunger” ormicronutrient in 2007.For example,Kazakhstanhasmoved onfrom general of women’s rights;the government adoptedanMDG+agenda poverty educationandpromotion reduction, accesstoprimary Kazakhstan hasalready achieved several MDGtargets,suchas resistant healthissue,as ismulti-drug important TB. users,itisan incidence ismainlylimitedtointravenous drug Education forAllDevelopment Index (EDI). it achieved thenumberonerankingonInternational to promote domesticindustry. strategic development outlook shifted the corporatetaxcode aims todevelop the industrial sector further, and the new risks ofanundiversified oil-basedeconomy, the government the Gini CoefficientinKazakhstanis29. Recognizingthe oil-based economy, itsinequalitylevels are not notablysevere; While thesefigures levels ofinequalityforan suggest certain sectortouches 50percent ofthelaborforce. in theservice percent ofthelaborforce; the51percent oftheGDPearned makesup43percent ofthe GDP,industry employing just18 the totalGDPand31.5percent ofthelaborforce, while oil-based economy. Agriculture makesupjust6percent of growing socio-economicstratificationandanundiversified, areascenters, rural andKazakhstanisseeing are under-served, theexpansionanddevelopmentwealth ofurban hassupported deep market reforms andcreated oil-basedwealth. While the Since independencein1991,Kazakhstanhasundertaken education, 2007, thegovernment spendsthree percent ofitsGDPon NGOs work ineducation. almost 25deathsper1,000live births. children rateis bornperwoman,andtheinfantmortality 327 and12.5percent ofregistered Kazakhstani 328 324 Though HIV/AIDS ThoughHIV/AIDS 326 As of Asof 325

85 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Religion In 2008, the legislature approved a draft law that would create a two-tier system, differentiating religious “groups” from Though Kazakhstan has long been predominantly Muslim, religious “associations.” Association status would require a between the 1999 and the 2009 census the percentage of the minimum of 50 members to register in a region and thereby population self-identifying as Muslim increased sharply, from earn the right to meet in public spaces and rent buildings 47 to 70 percent.329 Kazakh Muslims belong to a Sunni branch for worship – activities which would be forbidden to smaller of Islam, the Hanafi school, infused with Sufi elements. religious “groups.” The law would have further complicated the process by which religious communities could achieve In 2010 there were 2,369 registered mosques, all but 70 of recognition as a national group and have outlawed most which operate under the auspices of the Spiritual Association public religious activity, effectively reducing religious practice of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK), which oversees imam- to a private, government-sanctioned act. The law was ruled education and placement. Muslim communities that do not unconstitutional just before Kazakhstan assumed the chair of meet registration requirements at the level of a mosque may the Organization for Security and Change in Europe (OSCE), qualify as a house of prayer. They have permission to meet but human rights advocates worry that the legislation could be and teach but cannot build structures with minarets or hold re-proposed as Kazakhstan’s term as OSCE chair has ended.334 prayer meetings on Fridays.

The largest non-Muslim religious group in Kazakhstan is the Russian Orthodox community, comprising one-third of the Civil Society and Law total population and served by 299 registered churches. There are 83 registered Roman Catholic churches and affiliated In the early years of transition from communist rule, organizations; the Roman Catholic archdioceses account hundreds of NGOs were established, primarily focused on for just one percent of the population. While Protestant human rights and democracy issues.335 Today, the number of churches outnumber Russian Orthodox or Roman Catholic NGOs is wholly debated: there may be as many as 31,201 congregations, their individual congregation size appears to NGOs registered in the country; however as few as 1,000 be quite small: 1,267 registered Protestant organizations with of those are active.336 In recent years, NGOs’ missions have 543 places of worship.330 Registered synagogues serve Jewish branched out from human rights and democracy to address populations in Almaty, Astana, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kostanai, service delivery gaps and a broad array of human development

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN and Pavlodar. challenges. These NGOs are based in and primarily serve urban areas fueled by a new middle class; rural NGOs are As Kazakhstan has made efforts to establish an independent rare, compounding rural development challenges. identity in the post-Soviet years, many citizens have reinvested in religion as a means of self-definition. Some say that folk Law governing NGOs does not differentiate institutions, public Islam, or Islamic doctrine enmeshed with traditional folk associations, joint stock companies, consumer cooperatives, practices, defines what it means to be Kazakh.331 In SAMK foundations, religious associations, or types of unions: all mosques, prayers are conducted in Arabic and Kazakh; qualify as “noncommercial organizations” under Kazakhstani minority ethnic groups have struggled in the past to register law. Any public association must have at least 10 members, the or secure imams who speak their native language.332 majority of whom must be Kazakhstani; this includes religious entities, which may be founded by foreigners if the majority of members are citizens. Unregistered associations are subject to administrative and criminal liability. Courts have defended Religion and the State registered NGOs’ right to exist when brought to trial but law enforcement has enforced legislation unevenly.337

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Religious organizations are subject to the same strict registration rules as any other public association or NGO. Registration must Recent legislation from May 2007 allows the Kazakhstani take place both at the national level and in any province where government to fund NGOs directly through government the group carries out activities. Most religious communities do service provision tenders. Prior to this legislation, select choose to register and are approved, though sometimes after long NGOs enjoyed close relationships with the government delays.333 Once approved, the government reserves the right to through the patronage of high-ranking officials. It is unclear suspend activities by court order if the group undertakes work if the new legislation has opened opportunities for smaller, outside the original, approved charter or operates outside the local, unconnected, service-providing NGOs. approved jurisdiction.

Religious instruction is not permitted in schools. Local and foreign missionaries must register annually with the Ministry Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development of Justice. As with registration as a religious NGO, missionaries must provide all literature and other material for official review: Knowledge of faith actors in Kazakhstan is quite limited, unapproved material is illegal for distribution in the country. and it is difficult to determine to what extent faith-inspired Any foreigner entering the country and participating in religious organizations are working in the country. Faith-inspired activity may be subject to observation, questioning and expulsion. organizations and communities are subject to the same 86 Kazakhstan: similar resource networks are fundedby groups International. NGOs Thisinitiative in isoneofseveral serving of theCivilSociety Support Initiative ledby Counterpart are part The CSSCs,whichprovide services, legaladvisory websites make nomentionoftheiractivitythere. groups active inKazakhstan;however, thegroups’ respective and Northwest Medical Teams International asfaith-inspired the ACT Alliance.The World Bank lists Food forthe Hungry undertheauspicesof in Kazakhstanthrough localpartners DanChurchAid, ICCO,andKerk inActie projects allsupport emergencies anddisasters. It hasalsoprovided humanitarianassistanceinthewakeof of Medical Help forthoseunabletoafford fullhealthcare. twelve years of its operation,it has helped set up 28 Centers projects focusonimproving Kazakhhealthsystems;inthe the effectsandcausesofpoverty. Many ofCaritasKazakhstan’s and astaffof10,wasfoundedin1998tohelpalleviateboth Kazakhstan, whichhasanoperatingbudgetofUS$100,000 the three campusesoftheUniversity ofCentralAsia.Caritas AKDN iscurrently buildingin Tekeli, Kazhakstan oneof Network (AKDN),Caritas,andtheGülen Movement. active in Kazakhstanare the Aga Khan Development Among themajorinternationalfaith-inspired organizations P high demand. Time reported thataGülen article educationisinincredibly The Gülen Movement now operates 28 schools;a recent being barred from visitingprisonsandpsychiatric homes. center. There are also ofminority reports religious leaders including theclosingofaProtestant-run drug-rehabilitation placed pressure onreligiously-inspired charitableactivity, however, some concern that authorities have restricted or regulations asNGOs andreligious associations.There is, Centers (CSSC)inninedifferent provincial locations. and unites Civil Society supports Counterpart, Support The Associationof Non-Commercial Legal Entities, Jalgas- regions more support localNGOnetworks. Organizations ofKazkahstan(CNOK).Several oblastsand the Astana-basedConfederationofNon-Governmental Governmental Organizations ofKazakhstan (ANOK),and Kazakhstan: theAlmaty-basedAssociationofNon- bodies. There are twonationalNGOassociations in Kazakhstan also has a number of broad NGO coordinating livelihoods andaccesstobasicservices. works with The forum toensureover 40localpartners secure are ChristianAid,DanChurchAid, ICCOandKerk inActie. Consortium for CentralAsia).Current membersoftheforum in CentralAsia2007,(itselfasuccessortotheEcumenical evolved from apilot‘ACT Development Forum’ established inspired organizations is the ACT Central Asia Forum, which The onlycoordinating bodywithaspecificfocusonfaith- artners andC 340 oordinating Bodies 339 338 341

monitoring to better meet the needs of local constituencies. monitoring tobettermeettheneedsoflocalconstituencies. engagement intheprocess ofbudgetdevelopment and Kazakhstan Open Budget Initiative works toincrease civic building trainingprograms. The Eurasia Foundation’s (INTRAC) is alsoactive in Kazakhstan, providing capacity The International NGO Training and Research Centre (CASDIN), andtheInstitute forDevelopment Cooperation. Asian Sustainable Development Information Network Association in Pavlodar, the Almaty-based NGOs Central Other networking resources includetheDecenta Public and theUNDP. like theSoros Foundation, theNational Democratic Institute,

87 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Tajikistan

Islam plays a growing and influential role in social, political, Statistics Agency reports that 11.5 percent of the working and development spheres in Tajikistan. The Tajik context is age population is unemployed, and a substantial 40 percent unique within Central Asia. Faith-inspired organizations and remain underemployed.344 religious leaders are important and active participants in social development, working independently and in partnership with The government reports a literacy rate of near 100 percent, national and international development organizations; at the though Tajikistan’s education system has suffered greatly same time, the government is increasing efforts to monitor since independence, largely due to large-scale emigration and direct all activities. Overall, the religious environment is of professors and the educated population, and insufficient restrictive; only those actors in line with government priorities government funding, International development organizations, GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| are able to operate freely and engage socially. Government including the World Bank and Asian Development Bank, are policies to combat religious extremism help shape the supporting the modernization of education and improvements environment in which religious actors operate, creating many in quality. School attendance, especially for girls, has declined; barriers. Religious persecution and bureaucratic red tape are gross school enrollment is near 96 percent for primary school, significant. Long-term development challenges include but levels drop to 84 percent for secondary school; the ratio rebuilding education and health systems where institutional of girls to boys in school is lower than other Central Asia capacity and financial resources are limited. Tajik religious countries at .96 and .87 respectively. Demographically, nearly leaders are influential in their communities, and many half of Tajikistan’s population is under 14 years of age.345 development practitioners argue that their involvement is crucial for sustainable development. Life expectancy in Tajikistan is the second lowest in the WHO European Region, at 61 years, and decreasing (WHO BERKLEY CENTER estimate); the official national figure is 72 years. Several factors explain the decline, including poor nutrition, polluted water, Socio-Economic Background and increased incidence of diseases (malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/ AIDS and sexually transmitted infections, typhoid and cholera, Tajikistan is the poorest of the former Soviet republics, with and cardiovascular diseases).346 Infant mortality is high, at 60 over 47 percent of the population of seven million living per 1,000 live births, as is child mortality; under five mortality below the national poverty line (GDP 2009 per capita (PPP) rates are approximately 61/1000, significantly higher than the $1900). Though there are improvements in some areas average of 21/100 for Europe and Central Asia.347 (Tajikistan’s 2010 Human Development Ranking is 112/182, up from 127 in 2009), Tajikistan is not on track to meet Gender inequity has increased significantly since the breakup MDG targets for health, education, and poverty alleviation.342 of the Soviet Union and the end of Tajikistan’s civil war (1992-1997). Women have had to assume most household Tajikistan’s economy was particularly hard-hit by the global responsibilities, as the state does not have the resources to economic crisis; rapid GDP growth averaging nice percent sustain Soviet era social services; traditional cultural patriarchal per year from 2000-2008 declined to 3.4 percent in 2009. attitudes reinforce traditional gender roles. Women also face Economic recovery is largely dependent on the external discrimination in the workplace and are rarely promoted to economic environment, particularly Russia, to which it management positions. Women are vulnerable to trafficking is tightly connected through remittances and trade.343 (largely to Russia and the Middle East), and to gender-based GDP growth is expected to pick up in 2010 as exports violence.348 are increasing and remittances have rebounded. The State 88 development organizationsengage religious leaders. time, theydoplayactive andgrowing roles, andseveral governed by strict government controls, while at the same On theonehand,faith-inspired andreligoius actorsare The role offaith-inspired actorsindevelopment iscomplex. F sectors. sectors. health, peacebuilding, and humanitarian relief, among other local imamkhatibsare active inareas includingHIV/AIDS, International faith-inspired organizations,local NGOs, and foreign investment. in areas includinghealthandeducation,discourages serious problem, inhibitingeconomicandsocialdevelopment resources to sustain equitable development. is a Corruption contributing tobureaucratic inefficiencies,andhasinsufficient The government retains many Soviet governance structures, Tajik dress whileattendingschool. of November 2010. Female students must follow traditional fatwa against women attending mosque remained in effect as women’s rightsandfreedoms. A2006CouncilofUlema Religious interpretations in Tajikistan ofteninfringeupon approved by thegovernment ministry. Institute of Tajikistan, where allfacultyandcurriculamustbe The onlyhighereducation Islamic institutionisthe Islamic which teachessecularandreligious educationare registered. regulates religious education;19religious madrasas andone shut down by government authorities.Thegovernment within agiven population,andmanymosqueshave been Laws restrict thenumberofmosquesthatcanberegistered institutions. religious the SCRAcanresult inbothfinesandforced closure of (SCRA) andwithlocalauthorities. to register with the State Committee on Religious Affairs in theRasht Valley. Allreligious communitiesare required campaigns to combat extremist groups,military concentrated of Islam are currently illegal, and the government conducts Islam, andRussian Orthodox. The Salafi and Wahabischools religions; Sunni Islam, Shia/Ahmediyya/Ismaili branchesof Tajikistan’s government currently onlyrecognizes three endorse areligion. 2009; Tajikistan istheonlyformerSoviet republic toofficially government recognized the“special status” ofHanafi Islam in (Muslim) communities.There isnostate religion, thoughthe and Jewish faiths.There are alsosmall Parsi and Ismaili two percent includeRussian Orthodox, Catholic,Buddhist, Sunni Muslim, withasmallShia minority. The remaining the breakup oftheSoviet Union. Tajikistan is98percent Islam hastakenonaprominent role in Tajik societysince R aith-Inspired Organizations andDevelopment eligion andSociety 349

351 350

Failure toregister with 352

Caritas, CatholicRelief andHabitat Services, for Humanity. Other Christian-inspired organizationsin Tajikistan include local authoritiestosolve communityproblems. communities toengageNGOs, religious organizations,and including thecreation ofSelf Help Groups tomobilize World Relief. different supports Theconsortium programs, World, DanChurchAid, ICCO,Kerk In Actie, andLutheran programs in Tajikistan Bread through localpartners: forthe programming. Five ACT memberorganizationsimplement focusing onwomenandyouth, health,anddisasterrelief organizations, ChristianAidhasapermanentoffice, presence. Fromcountry the ACT Coalition of Christian Several internationalChristian organizationshave anin- Muslim holidays. for orphans,disasterrelief, andassistancetofamiliesduring Relief Foundation, alsoworks in Tajikistan onprograms The Turkish-Muslim-inspired NGO, IHH Humanitarian offices inthecountry, withplanstoestablishtwomore. female headsofhousehold.Asspring2007,IKRFhadfive tenetsofIslamic important charity;theyalsowork withpoor IKRF’s work focusesprimarilyonwidows andorphans,both began working in Tajikistan duringthecivilwarin1995. humanitarian andrelief NGObasedonIslamic values, The Imam Khomeini Relief Foundation (IKRF),an Iranian existinggovernmentto support schools. scholarship programs. It alsocollaborateswiththe government grades 1-11),andtheUniversity ofCentralAsia,aswell as – KhanLycée institutions, includingaprivate school(Aga develop thetouristindustry.further educational AKDNruns Dushanbe (AKDN already theSerena runs Inn inKhorog) to in Tajikistan), the five and is constructing star Serena Hotel in by subscriber, and largest by revenue mobile phone company electric infrastructure), Indigo Tajikistan (thesecondlargest collaboration with the IFC following the civilwar to rebuild companies, including the Pamir Energy Company (created in coordinates anetwork ofdevelopment organizationsand tourism,andeducation.AKDN financial services, focus includeinstitutionalstrengthening, development, rural since 1992andemploys almost3000people.Sectors of Development Network (AKDN)hasbeenin Tajikistan organizations have officesin Tajikistan.TheAga Khan Some international Muslim-inspired development May 2010. the nearly five thousandpeople affected in by severe floods Crescent Society, provided baby foodandsuppliestosupport withtheRegional IDB, inpartnership CommitteeoftheRed of the Murgab-Kulmaconstruction Pass Highway, and the Islamic Development Bank (IDB). IDBfinancingsupported Tajikistan receives Islamic law-compliant loans from the 353

89 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Peacebuilding and Education Partners and Coordinating Bodies

Religious leaders play important roles in peacebuilding, UNDP is the principal coordinating body for NGOs and particularly at the local level. Communities often approach development organizations and works with over 80 partner religious leaders to resolve disputes before exploring other organizations; faith-inspired partner organizations include: avenues of resolution.354 Past initiatives, such as the Tajik AKDN, Christian Aid, and Caritas.361 Dialogue Program (2003 – 2009) of the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, The World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the Tajik focused on confidence building between secular and religious Aid Coordination Unit within the government also organize actors to find peaceful solutions to conflicts with religious coordination meetings among donors and development dimensions.355 organizations.

In education, in addition to the AKDN schools, the Gülen movement operates six Turkish-Muslim-inspired schools. Unofficial private schools/madrasas and hujras are widespread; as they are illegal, they to tend to operate in secret, and exact numbers and range of curricula are not known.356 Development practitioners in Tajikistan have expressed concern that a general lack of education on Islam among many imam khatibs is a barrier to quality education, especially in unofficial schools. Caritas and some Baptist organizations also support education.

HIV/AIDS

Faith-inspired organizations and religious leaders have made

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN particularly progress in HIV prevention. In May/June 2009, DanChurchAid, ICCO, and Christian Aid conducted a study in the border regions between Tajikistan and Kyrgyz Republic. The study surveyed attitudes of religious leaders towards HIV/AIDS, with an aim to increase cooperation between development and local religious institutions in Central Asia. The study reported that some 80 percent of imams in Tajikistan thought that mosques should be concerned about the spread of HIV epidemic in Central Asia.357

The local Muslim-inspired Tajik NGO, Center on Mental Health and HIV/AIDS runs a training program for imams on HIV prevention. The seminars are taught by other influential imams and train participants to teach HIV prevention during weekly sermons. Imams also hold community groups in the 358

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS mosques to discuss social issues, including HIV prevention. As of January 2011, the government must approve all sermons; it is yet to be determined what, if any, effects this will have on program implementation and effectiveness.359

The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria, along with CAPP (Central Asia Prevention Program), actively seek to engage religious leaders in their programming. The UNDP Program on HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria Control (the principal recipient of the Global Fund in Tajikistan) signed an agreement with Islamic Institute of Tajikistan for a project entitled “Islam and Healthy Life Style/Prevention of the HIV/AIDS from Islam’s Point of View;” the first training was held in September 2010. 360

90 turkmenistan

Turkmenistan’s transition from Soviet Republic to Socio-Economic Background independent nation in 1991 has been marked by many challenges, especially for human development and Turkmenistan’s population of almost 5 million is about 89 governance. Under Saparmurat Niyazov, president from percent ethnic Turkmen, with minorities of Uzbeks (five 1990 until his death in 2006, Turkmenistan followed percent) and Russians (four percent). The GDP per capita isolationist, authoritarian, and deeply centralized economic in 2009 was estimated at $6700. After an uncertain period and social policies, in addition to imposing what many have following independence, Turkmenistan saw rapid economic termed a cult of personality, whereby months of the year, growth (official figures put annual growth at 12 percent), common vocabulary words, and even cities were re-named fueled by large oil and gas exports to Russia and Ukraine. As BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY after himself or his family members. Notwithstanding a result of a gas pricing dispute with Russia, growth declined | substantial income from oil and gas exports (Turkmenistan in 2007, which halted all exports for nine months.364 This has the fifth-largest gas reserves in the world), human partly explains recent efforts (namely, new pipelines) to development indicators suffered greatly during the Niyazov diversify hydrocarbon exports to include China and Iran.365 period, and freedoms of expression and association (including religious) were highly restricted. The majority of Turkmenistan’s population has benefited little from this rapid growth, and their welfare is stymied Since he took office in 2007, President Gurbanguly by endemic corruption, a poor educational system, and a Berdymukhamedov has pledged to build “a harmonious, highly centralized economy.366 Some 30 percent of the inspired, humane, and developed society” in Turkmenistan.362 population lives below the national poverty line (2004), In the social sectors, especially health and education, the and unemployment stood at 60 percent. Close to half of government has pledged reforms to bring Turkmenistan to Turkmenistan’s workforce is engaged in the agriculture par with international standards.363 Turkmenistan is also a sector, but productivity is limited due to poor growing signatory to the Millennium Declaration and is working conditions (Turkmenistan has a desert/arid climate), poor to achieve the MDGs. Progress, however, is elusive and irrigation techniques, and a quota system that offers limited data on development indicators is especially poor. Rural incentives for increased productivity. infrastructure projects are a top priority for the government, BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS as is improvement of agricultural production, which Turkmenistan defines itself as a secular democracy and the accounts for 22 percent of GDP. However, still higher first elections were held in 2007, after the death of President priority goes to expanding oil and gas markets outside of Niyazov. However, opposition political parties are banned Russia, its main trading partner to date, and improving its from the public sphere, and many continue to regard the foreign relations. government as strictly authoritarian. The government is currently transitioning to a civil law system with influences Activities of faith actors, in both the religious and from Islamic law tradition.367 development contexts, are severely restricted; apart from officially approved religious institutions and officials, faith actors play negligible roles in civil society and social development.

91 Religion, Law, and Society Government sources claim that 100 percent of Turkmen citizens are literate, but that reforms are needed. These include Turkmenistan’s contemporary religious history, like many of extending the mandatory years of schooling (reduced under its Central Asian neighbors, was heavily influenced by the Niyazov) from 9 to 10, reducing teacher workloads, and Soviet Union. Islam is the predominant religion; about 89 increasing salaries, and teaching Russian and English, previously percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. Nine percent of banned.374 The government has reinstated the standard 5-6 year the population identify as Eastern Orthodox (Christian). Under period for obtaining a university degree (it had been reduced Soviet rule (1924 to 1991), religious practice was banned and to two years, even for medical school). University enrollment criminally prosecuted, and many mosques were shut down or declined from 40,000 in the 1990s to 3,000 in 2004.375 The used for other purposes. After independence, President Niyazov government plans to invest further to modernize infrastructure declared Turkmen cultural (including religious) revival one of in the education and health sectors.376 his key priorities and ordered public schools to teach basic Islamic principles.368 The revival, however, was very much along Poor data in the health sector makes it difficult to the lines of his personal ideology, which was later published in assess quality, access to healthcare, and priority areas for the Ruhnama, a collection of his writings that was mandatory intervention. By 2006, it is believed that all rural healthcare reading material for all Turkmen citizens. Prayers were followed facilities had been closed, while access to facilities in the by an obligatory oath to Turkmenbashi, or leader of Turkmens, capital, Ashgabat, was extremely limited.377 The government as Niyazov frequently referred to himself. has begun to report some data to the WHO, but only for some indicators; mortality rates for different age groups, Although President Berdymukhammedov has dismantled his for example, are not reported. Much data that is reported is predecessor’s personality cult, religious organizations remain believed to be unreliable, especially data on HIV/AIDS and tightly controlled by the state authorities. In 1994, Niyasov maternal mortality, which is probably severely under-reported created the Council on Religious Activities (Gengenshi) (the government denies that there are any HIV cases in the which, together with the Cabinet of Ministers, remains in country).378 Though the government has pledged support for charge of training and appointing all clergymen, along with hospitals and health facilities, there are serious concerns about monitoring their activities. All religious institutions, including the quality of healthcare personnel and accessibility of these madrasas, must be licensed by the Justice Ministry.369 facilities. The government’s commitment to improvements in Religious political parties are banned, and clergymen must be the healthcare system has been questioned by many external

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN trained in Turkmenistan to be approved and promoted by the organizations, such as Doctors Without Borders; their offer to authorities.370 assist the government on an MDR-TB (Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis) strategy was refused.379 The constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation between church and state. However, the government monitors Collapse of the social security system during the Niyazov all forms of religious expression, and unregistered religious presidency increased levels of poverty. The current government activity is banned. The government limits the activities of has restored pension payments for women over 57 and men over unregistered religious groups, prohibiting them from holding 62 (previously cancelled in 2006380). Internal travel restrictions public gatherings, proselytizing, or disseminating religious have been relaxed; previously, Turkmen citizens were required to materials.371 Few religious groups are allowed to register; as carry internal passports and needed express permission from the of August 2010, only eleven religious groups (aside from authorities to travel within the country. In rural areas, where most Muslims and Russian Orthodox Christians) were successfully poverty is concentrated, a National Rural Development Program registered.372 “With significant barriers to registration, some (2008-2020) emphasized improving rural infrastructure such as groups choose to forgo the bureaucratic process and operate water, electricity, health facilities, schools and roads. As agriculture covertly, although the penalties for unregistered activity can (mainly wheat and cotton) is a source of livelihood for over half 373

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS be severe. Amnesty International reports that since the mid- of Turkmenistan’s population, the government has raised internal 1990s, hundreds of foreign members of minority religious prices under the state-controlled system and provided access to groups have been deported. soft lines of credit.

Women are treated equally under the law, which guaranteed full political, economic, social and cultural rights and Development Challenges and Progress freedoms. Although Islam is the religion of the majority, women do not usually wear the veil nor do they practice Turkmenistan’s health and education sectors were particularly strict seclusion, although most women work in the home.381 neglected during the Niyazov era. The current government Many women, both in urban and rural settings, have began has announced strategies to improve both sectors, highlighted to work outside of the home out of economic necessity and in the National Socio-Economic Development Program for are a significant part of the workforce, particularly in the 2011-30, released in May 2010. Turkmenistan signed the health and education sectors. Most NGOs are led by women, UN Millennium Declaration, but data on the progress of the predominantly Turkmen, as many Russian speaking people MDGs is unreliable. that previously held the posts have left the country.

92 the communitylevel. groups whoseekgreater inlocalgovernance participation at (TCEP), focusedonbuildingthecapacityofcivilsociety International, the“CommunityEmpowerment Program” athree-yearUSAID supports program through Counterpart branch ofgovernment). Council (orKhalkMaslakhat, the2,507-memberexecutive and culturallife”. Its leadersare membersofthePeople’s organization, “promotes therole ofwomeninsocial,political of Women of Turkmenistan, women’s themostimportant do holdhigh-rankinggovernment positions.The Union Women donot represent a powerful politicalforce, but some otherwise. restricted the operations of civil society groups, religious or in Turkmenistan. AnNGOlawadoptedin2003severely Given legalrestrictions, faith-inspired few NGOs canoperate A Development Organizations andF projects aimedatsocialandeconomicdevelopment. moral education. Local Bahá’í communities are establishing worship, andclassesforchildren andyouth emphasizing reported activitiesincludecommunitymeetings,communal community development as a pillar of their faith beliefs. Their The Bahá’í communityin Turkmenistan promotes jurisdiction bothoperationallyandregarding curricula. Gülen Schools).Madrasas doexist,butare understate strictly enforced. women, andmanyexistinganti-discriminationlawsare not on gender. Wage parityandmarriagelawsweigh against in society and cultural traditions. in societyandculturaltraditions. inspired actors,thoughindirectly, Islam factor isanimportant 3,200 studentsand350teachers. which operates14highschoolsandoneuniversity forover operate, among them the Gülen Movement from Turkey, Education isasectorwhere somefaith-inspired organizations face numerous obstaclesinfindingplacestoworship. not known. Even thegroups thathave beenallowed toregister of theiractivitiesbeyond traditionalecumenicalfunctions,is register ofJustice, withtheMinistry butthenature andextent Church otherchurches and afew have beenpermittedto but nonewithaknown religious affiliation.TheCatholic work, ascommercial entitiesorotheralternateregistrations, are restricted. organizationshave Afew foundcreative waysto society capacity, buttheseinitiatives are limitedandactivities for secularNGOs, withsomeinitiatives todevelop civil their operationsaltogether. Gradually, somespaceisopening ctors 384 Many NGOs cut back their activities or stopped Many NGOs cutbacktheiractivitiesorstopped 383

387 Theproject hasnotengagedfaith- 382 Turkmenistan stillfaceschallenges 385 (See Text Box 17on nspired aith-Inspired 386

and UNICEF operate in the country with a limited mandate. and UNICEFoperate in thecountry well astheUnited Nations, butisnotanaidrecipient. UNDP Turkmenistan isamemberofthe World Bank andIMF, as and noumbrella organizationsforNGOcoordination. There are nocoordinating bodiesfordevelopment partners, C oordinating Bodies and Development P artners

93 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 uzbekistan

Uzbekistan faces a range of development challenges; the Uzbekistan’s economy is structured around industries direction development in the country takes is largely developed during the Soviet Union. It is the second-largest dependent on the government’s choice of development cotton exporter and is rich in natural resources including oil, strategy. Uzbekistan confronts economic stagnation, social gas, and gold. It was the only former Soviet Republic that discontent, rising unemployment, and emigration of surpassed its estimated 1989 level of GDP by 2001.389 educated youth. Yet Uzbekistan has rich natural resources and impressive human development indicators. Tight political and The record on social indicators is mixed. It has achieved the social controls are epitomized in its president, Islom Karimov, MDG for gender equality at primary and secondary school in power since independence in 1991. While Uzbekistan levels and has nearly universal access to quality education. GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| has held several elections, they are not seen as allowing free It is probable that it will attain the MDGs for quality and fair participation. Public space for civil society is limited, education and gender equality in higher education as well social protest has been met by violent suppression, and respect (some 45 percent of students at the post-graduate level are for human rights is an international concern. women, and 37 percent at the doctoral level).390 The 2009 literacy rate was 99 percent, and Uzbek adults have received Few international development organizations operate in on average ten years of schooling.391 Moreover, Uzbekistan’s Uzbekistan, and those that do are subject to strict government highly educated and skilled labor force faces close to 20 regulation that severely limits the scope of their activities. percent underemployment, in the face of limited economic Religious activities in this heavily Muslim country are highly opportunity. Life expectancy at birth is just over 68 years, restricted, with the government often equating social activity though healthcare quality has declined since the breakup of by faith-inspired organizations with religious extremism. the Soviet Union.392 BERKLEY CENTER Limited instances of faith-inspired development work do take place at the community level. Since independence, and despite gender equality in education, there has been a gradual return to traditional gender roles (from relative gender equality during the Soviet Union). Women’s participation in the labor force (58 percent) is lower Socio-Economic Background and Development than that of men (70 percent), and women are increasingly Challenges seen as homemakers subordinate to men in the household. 393 Women in government leadership positions, however, rose Uzbekistan has a population of about 28 million, comprising from six percent in1994 to 16 percent in 2005. about half of the Central Asian population as a whole. The population is approximately 80 percent Uzbek, 6 percent Women’s health indicators have shown some improvement. Russian, 5 percent Taji, three percent Kazakh, and 6.5 percent The maternal mortality rate dropped to 30 maternal other ethnic groups. Following independence in 1991, deaths per 100,000 live births in 2008 (compared to 53 in Uzbekistan saw a decade of rapid economic growth, followed 1990), although there is significant variation in rates across by economic stagnation, rising unemployment, declining Uzbekistan’s provinces. living standards, social discontent, and large scale emigration, particularly of the young educated workforce. Today, an Uzbekistan has rather tense relationships with Western estimated 30 percent of Uzbeks live below the poverty line, of countries, in large measure due to its human rights record. which nine percent live in extreme poverty.388 In 2009, GDP Ties have improved somewhat in recent years, in part because per capita PPP was estimated at $2,800. the US has sought military bases, and Europeans alternative 94 energy sources. Uzbekistan’s public/civic sphere is limited. Uzbekistan joined the Organization for the Islamic Political opposition is tightly restricted, the media is censored, Conference (OIC) in 1995 and the Islamic Development and the president holds most decision making power, Bank (IDB) in 2003. In 2009, the IDB, in conjunction with (despite constitutional provisions for separation of powers).394 the Asian Development Bank (ADB), established the $500 Religious extremism and terrorism tend to dominate the million Islamic Infrastructure Fund to make Islamic law political agenda. compliant equity investments accessible to twelve member countries, including Uzbekistan.402 The IDB has supported various projects, including supplying regional healthcare branches with technical equipment and adding in the Religion and the State reconstruction of major roads.403

Islam plays important, though often complex, roles in Uzbek Few international Muslim organizations operate in society. Uzbekistan has the largest Muslim population in Uzbekistan. The Aga Khan Development Network runs Central Asia; approximately 26 million, or 96 percent of the programs to provide villages with solar power. Mosques are country, identify as Sunni Muslim. About five percent are involved in charity at the local level through the Islamic Russian Orthodox. Sufism has witnessed a strong revival in practices of zakat, waqf, and sadaqah. Shrines serve as vehicles Central Asia, particularly with the Sufi Naqshbandi order in for channeling government funding into welfare services, and Uzbekistan, and is often portrayed as an alternative to extreme development of these shrines is one of the few areas where adherences.395 The government reached out to the Sufi-led the government promotes independent Islamic development. Islamic Supreme Council of America (ISCA) and asked The Oltin Meros Foundation, with the support of UNESCO, representatives to observe the 2000 presidential elections.396 develops shrines around specific programs designed to promote economic development, including tourism and folk Since independence, Uzbekistan has witnessed an Islamic handicrafts.404 revival, and the government is concerned with a rise in religious fundamentalism. Although the constitution mandates Several international Christian faith-inspired organizations freedom of religion, the government bans all non-approved operate in Central Asia, and some implement projects in religious activities, while promoting a state-sponsored Islam.397 Uzbekistan; programs focus on limited and clearly defined Unregistered organizations and those who practice outside interventions and largely avoid politically sensitive areas, state control are subject to persecution; some 6,500 Uzbeks are including human rights and advocacy. BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY in prison charged with religious extremism, or because of their | political beliefs.398 The Spiritual Administration of Muslims Caritas International has branches in five regions of in Uzbekistan is in practice a state-controlled agency which Uzbekistan, including the capital. Services include soup oversees mosque functions and religious sermons.399 The kitchens targeting the elderly and homeless, an after-school government has responded forcefully to civic protests believed children’s club, a medicine distribution project, and sports to have extremist elements. A 2005 government crackdown and computer literacy initiatives for children.405 World Vision, on a civilian protest (said by the government to have been operates eleven community development programs that assist organized by Islamist extremists who aimed to overthrow the homeless children, promote HIV/AIDS prevention, and government) resulted in hundreds of causalities. provide healthcare for people with disabilities. Habitat for Humanity currently provides water filters to villages.406

Some Christian groups have been particularly active in Faith-Inspired Organizations and Development refugee assistance. The 2010 ethnic violence in Kyrgyz Republic left many ethnic Uzbeks dead or displaced. The Civil society has a limited role in social and development work ACT Central Asia Forum members in Kyrgyz Republic in Uzbekistan. Relatively few NGOs, secular or faith-inspired, (Christian Aid, DanChurchAid and the Inter Church have a presence in the country. As of 2005, the government Organization for Development [ICCO]) maintained contact BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS requires the re-registration of all NGOs, in practice severly with partners in the border region to identify urgent needs, restricting NGO activities. Official government figures as working with World Vision Uzbekistan.407 DanChurchAid of November 2010 report that over 5,100 NGOs operate in is scoping possibilities for further engagement within Uzbekistan, more than double than in 2000.400 However, Uzbekistan. outside reports suggest a far smaller number (415), with tight restrictions imposed on foreign and domestic NGOs, The government strictly regulates religious schools, and all including controlling of funds, forced closures, or denied religious education centers must be officially sanctioned and registration.401 The mandatory registration process for NGOs staffed by state-approved instructors. There are ten madrassas, is complicated and bureaucratic, and registered NGOs must including two for women; students who wish to become ensure that the government has access to all program details. imams generally pursue university-level education at the Even so, a few NGOs and other development organizations, Islamic Institute in Tashkent. The government does not permit including faith-inspired organizations, do implement diverse Shia-inspired schools or private religious instruction. Many development programs in the country. imams do, however, offer informal religious education, albeit illegally.408 Gülen Movement schools were banned in 2000.409 95 Imams belonging to registered mosques visit prisoners convicted of religious extremism to persuade them to follow a more moderate religious practice.

The U.S. Government has reached out to Islamic leaders in Uzbekistan to promote religious tolerance and peaceful coexistence. In 2004 deputy mufti and head imams from Samarqand and Surkhondarya traveled to the United States to study religious diversity in the U.S. A three-year Comparative Religious Studies Program, funded by the US Embassy in Uzbekistan, encouraged the development of school curricula teaching religious tolerance.410

Women from local communities hold traditional regularly scheduled social or religious gatherings called gap. Gap in Uzbek means a gathering of women who adopt strategies for pooling their money and alternately using it in an effort to redistribute wealth. Gap networks tend to have limited financial or material resources, and they do not have formal relationships with development donors.411 Gap networks are a potential development tool utilizing traditional cultural practices to encourage women’s engagement in development planning.412

Partners and Coordinating Bodies

UNDP is the primary coordinating body between the GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| government and other development organizations. World Vision Uzbekistan has worked to establish a development network with government institutions.413 USAID, the ADB, UN Agencies, and the IMF also report some contact with faith- inspired groups. The ADB and UN collaborated alongside the governemnt of Uzbekistan to create a “Living Standards Strategy” based on MDG targets.414 The government produced its first MDG progress report in 2006. 415 BERKLEY CENTER

96

AZERBAIJAN Persian Gulf Persian

appendix 1:mapofsouthandcentralasia

RUSSIA IRAN Sea Caspian TURKMENISTAN INDIAN OCEAN Arabian Sea UZBEKISTAN AGFANISTAN KAZAKHSTAN PAKISTAN TAJIKISTAN KYRGY MALDIVES INDIA

Z

China, claimed by by claimed China, STAN

Administrated by by Administrated India NEPAL SRI LANKA CHINA BANGLADESH BHUTAN Bengal Bay of

97 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 appendix 2: university of birmingham religion and development reports – annotated bibiliography

The following articles (a selection of the entire series) were international Christian agencies, while most Islamic FBOs in written as working papers and policy briefs through the the country do not focus on this particular health issue. Religions and Development Research Programme, undertaken by the University of Birmingham and funded by the UK In a similar trend, Islamic FBOs are not as involved with drug Department for International Development. All articles can rehabilitation as Christian development agencies, according be accessed at http://www.religionsanddevelopment.org. to the authors’ findings. However, the Muslim FBOs are more likely (perhaps because of their majority religious status) to participate in some controversial political debates. For example, the authors assert that it was primarily Muslim GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN

| Mapping the Terrain FBOs that fought against the implementation of the Hudood Ordinance, a regressive aspect of Sharia Law that blurred the Muhammad Asif Iqbal, Saima Siddiqui, “Mapping the lines between rape and extra-marital sex. The authors use this Terrain: The Activities of Faith-based Organisations in example to discuss the role of FBOs in shaping the political Development in Pakistan,” 2008. and religious discourse of the country.

This article maps faith-based activities in Pakistan, highlighting The authors also note that while Christian and Muslim FBOs the key role they play in development. The study begins with are still active in Pakistan, the Hindu and Parsi FBOs are a contextual historical study delineating the political history losing momentum and are closing down operations. Some and religious demography of Pakistan. The growth of the of this decline is explained through the size of these minority faith-based development sector in Pakistan is discussed with communities, though the authors hint that interreligious and BERKLEY CENTER reference to the colonial period, during which several of these communal violence may also be another cause, particularly organizations were formed. This article describes the religious for the Hindu FBOs. For further areas of research, the authors terrain in Pakistan as pluralist and religiously vibrant. Despite highlight Sufi shrines as an unexplored potential development the political reputation of the country as an Islamic Republic, area. In addition, they note an emerging trend of urban there are vibrant non-Muslim religious communities, including FBOs providing religious and modern education, thereby Christian, Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian (Parsi). Several presenting competition to the traditional madrasa system that members of these communities are active in the welfare and only provides theological education. Because of their relative development arena, providing healthcare and education, and similarity in size, the authors suggest that a comparative alleviating poverty. The article examines the emerging trends study of Christian and Hindu FBOs in Pakistan would yield in the FBO sector, discusses the role of international FBOs in interesting analysis of minority religious traditions and their Pakistan, and analyzes how the development sector is changing. faith-inspired activities.

The authors argue that FBOs in Pakistan are emerging as Masooda Bano, Padmaja Nair, “Faith-Based Organizations important members on key social and political issues. One in South Asia: Historical Evolution, Current Status and area, however, where Islamic FBOs are not as engaged as their Nature of Interaction with the State,” 2007. Christian colleagues is in interfaith dialogue. The authors suggest that while multiple FBOs are active in Pakistan – largely This article maps the historical development of faith-inspired dealing with the same health, gender, and welfare issues – they organizations in South Asia and their responses to colonial do not often find consensus on how to approach particular rule, revealing the complex relationship of faith-inspired issues. The largest FBOs involved in HIV/AIDS are local or organizations in South Asia to the state. For some organizations 98 them atbay. Theauthors concludethatthefuture ofFBOs in and increased funding,othergovernments prefer to keep work with FBOs because of their international recognition the state and FBOs. While some governments are happy to Asia. Thisgrowing trend haschangedthedynamicbetween and rehabilitation centers in localneighborhoodsSouth communities overseas to build educational facilities, hospitals, or organizations.Donations are collectedfrom diaspora growing intotransnationalorinternationalmovements and/ were once localreligiously-inspired organizationsare now As migrationtotheUS,Canada,andBritain increase, what thatalsoengageinsocialwelfarepolitical parties activities. in more complexformsofFBOs intheregion, including andpost-independenceerahasushered The post-partition Hindu reform movements thatalsohadadevelopment focus). work (suchasthe emergenceofseveral Christian missionary the riseofaneducatedmiddleclassandlocalreactions to influences thatcontributedtothegrowth ofFBOs include and hospitalswere establishedduringthatperiod.Other that thisiswhysuchalargenumberofeducationalinstitutes prestige associatedwithphilanthropy; theauthorssuggest the modernera.During thecolonialera,there wasfamily the development ofFBOs from thecolonialperiodinto The authorsalsotakeahistoricalapproach, highlighting and yet choose nottoidentifyasreligious organizations. number ofdevelopment organizationsthatare faith-inspired many FBOs seeminglyovert religiosity, there are alsoa Anddespite tend toofferthewidestrangeofsocialservices. Islam thaninanyotherreligion, whileHindu organizations education FBOs (suchasmadrasas)are muchstronger in FBOs are weaker inIslam compared toChristianity. Religious of welfare provision. and development service Health-based suggest thatnotallreligions are equallyactive inallsectors operating throughout theSouth Asianregion. Theauthors health, resulting inChristianmissionhospitalsandschools in contrast, has longheldaclearfocusoneducationand means ofproviding tothepoor. socialservices Christianity, thatisusedforIslamicproperty religious purposesasa Islam, there isanemphasisonwaqf, movable orimmovable temples orrepairing oldonesforthebenefitofpublic. In and manyorganizationsare new focusedonconstructing for example,there isanemphasisontempleworship, authors describetheirdifferences inapproach. In Hinduism, After discussingthereligions’ commonalities on charity, the that emphasize charity, almsgiving,andphilanthropy. describe passages in the sacred texts of each of these traditions Asia, suchasHinduism, Islam, andChristianity. Theybriefly features ofsomethelargestreligious traditionsinSouth In the authorsthe discussfirst the sectionunique of the article, unique toSouth Asia. that theyfund,asafeature ofdevelopment work thatis andthefaith-inspired political parties welfare organizations Further, thereport highlights,therelationship between the role ofreligious educationwithinamodernworldview. forothers,likemadrasas,thestateoftenquestions partner; involved inwelfare work, thegovernment isacomplementary Education (Madrasas) Bangladesh. engages thecomplexityofIslam, development, andgenderin beyond afocusonsexualfreedoms toward aframeworkthat must expandtheircurrent modelsofempowerment models their specificcontexts. She concludesthat Western academics as methodsofempowerment womenin for theseparticular that bothsituationscanbeinterpreted The authorasserts with thefamilyandabstainfrom politicalparticipation. Jama’at-i-Islamipolitical party encourageswomentostay more strictlytotheirreligious obligations,whiletheIslamic of Tablghi Jama’at motivates some women to pray and adhere The authorfindsacomplexanddiverse picture: theinfluence women inthecenterofhomewithfamily. however, bothare ofapatriarchal societythatplaces alsopart and believe thatitteachesrespect andengagementinsociety; some informalreligious roles. Bothwomenvalue theirfaith group Tablighi-Jama’at, andawealthy urbanwomanwith woman whoisalsoamemberinthereformist missionary ethnographic research on two women: a lower-middle-class female empowerment inBangladesh, theauthor focusesher In order todelve more deeplyintothecomplexformsof in politicshasalsoincreased, alongwithariseinliteracylevels. Atreligious thesametime,women’s observance. participation Islam through theriseofmadrasasandmore publicdisplaysof secular grounds, ithasbecomemore andmore identifiedwith author arguesthatalthoughthestatewasfoundedonlargely the intersectionofgender, religion, anddevelopment. The interesting spiritual, makingitaparticularly sitetoresearch society. Bangladesh isanoddmixofthesecularand time thatIslam ismore engagedindevelopment andcivil gender inequalityappearstobeonthedecrease atthesame the contextofdevelopmentwhere inBangladesh, acountry analyzes This article Islam’s abilitytoempower womenin Empowerment andIslaminBangladesh,” 2009. Sarah C. White, “Domains of Contestation: Women’s argues thatthere isareal divergence between theobjectives of the colonialperiod intothepost-independence era,Bano ofthemadrasasysteminBangladesh from tracing thehistory as apotentialmodelforother South Asiancountries. After In Bano thisarticle, examinesmadrasa reform inBangladesh Relations inBangladesh,” 2007. Masooda Bano,“Allowing for Diversity: State-Madrasa Gender andDevelopment and deeper. and that their range ofactivities will continue to grow wider South Asia,areligiously pluralistregion, strong isparticularly

99 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 reform for the traditional ulema and the educational standards Bano also suggests that one of the major areas of contention is of the modern government. At the same time, Bano notes the that the government tries to secularize the curriculum using a efforts and interests of the ulema themselves in improving the top-down approach, essentially telling the madrasa leadership madrasa curriculum; one such example is the development of to introduce secular subjects into the schools in addition to the Deoband schools as a reform movement from within the teaching Islamic subjects. Islamic tradition- one that was met with resistance from more conservative groups. The ulema in Bangladesh and Pakistan are However, what the government fails to fully realize is that the also committed to reviewing their texts so they can improve the madrasas are the main disseminators of Islamic education. level of education they provide for madrasa students. Although the general population of Pakistan is a mix of socially liberal and conservative, there are a fair amount of parents Yet Bano highlights the discordance between the type of reform that would like their children to be well-versed in Qur’anic the ulema is willing to engage and the government’s interest in studies and find the madrasas a viable and inexpensive option. making the madrasa curriculum more in line with modernity. Bano suggests that the government resist the temptation to The majority of the ulema sees this kind of reform – such as integrate modern subjects into the curriculum, and instead introducing secular and scientific subjects into the curriculum push for modernization through allowing new interpretations – as a betrayal of Islam and is hesitant to let the government of Islamic texts to be taught. This method would ensure that control the dissemination of religion. This leads to a contentious the students were engaging modern methods of interpretation relationship with governing bodies and an increased government and learning about the diversity within their own religious suspicion that madrasas have a radical agenda. tradition. This type of education, although based in the traditional madrasa system, enables the students to integrate The reform efforts have led to two madrasa systems in more fully into society and compete with graduates from elite Bangladesh: the state-funded Aliya madrasas, which have private schools. integrated secular subjects along with Islamic education, and the traditionally structured Qomi madrasas. While the state- Bano notes the complexity of the situation in Pakistan where funded Aliya madrasa system has expanded over the years, the government tends to be mostly secular, although the the Qomi madrasa system has the strongest leadership and avowed ethos of the nation is Islamic, and concludes that the most unity. And while graduates from the Aliya madrasas until the governments of Islamic nations solidify their own are competing for jobs in the open market, graduates from identity as either religious or secular, madrasa reform coming

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN the Qomi system are fulfilling religious positions in mosques, from the government will be difficult to produce and sustain. leaving control of religious authority and interpretation in the hands of the Qomi madrasas. Hence, the Bangladeshi reform program is not the best model for integrating madrasas in a liberal society, but is a viable means of providing education in Padmaja Nair, “The State and Madrasas in India”, 2009. conservative societies. Ano concludes that any reform agenda, whether sponsored by the government or introduced by the Madrasas in India, where Islam is a minority religion, are in a ulema, will take time and a deeper understanding of the how unique position. They have the dual duty of providing education the system works and its public appeal. while maintaining the religious and cultural identity of their community. In India, the relationship between the state and the madrasas is immediately different because the government is both secular and democratic, and while it promises freedom Masooda Bano, “Contesting Ideologies and the Struggle of religion for all, it is still overwhelmingly Hindu. for Authority: State-Madrasa Engagement in Pakistan,” 2007. The report notes that roughly 15% of India’s population is

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Muslim- by far India’s largest religious minority. But Nair In the post-9/11 environment, there has been considerable asserts that despite these large numbers, Muslims are not international attention on the madrasa system in South Asia, fully or equally integrated into the social fabric and in some particularly in majority-Muslim nations like Bangladesh and cases are heavily disadvantaged. One of the main areas of Pakistan. Thus, the ulema and the madrasa leaders in Pakistan inequality that Nair describes is in the educational arena, consider any government reform agenda to be associated with where most Muslim communities are not as educated as U.S. policy and are resistant to the changes. However, Bano Hindu communities and have less access to schools. The suggests that the Pakistani government has itself had a madrasa Muslim community, anxious to improve educational access reform agenda since the 1960s; it has been engaged in a tug- for their youth, consider madrasas a viable option; however, of-war with the ulema since that time to introduce modern the socio-political context of Muslims in India and the fear subjects into the school curriculum and thereby integrate the of radicalism mean that the madrasa system has met political madrasa students into mainstream society. resistance.

Bano contends that the madrasas have been able to resist The first part of the article describes the historical evolution of reform because of the strong links between political agents madrasas in India, focusing on the period just before British and Islam and because of the strong support base between the rule. Nair goes on to address the post-independence agenda more conservative elements of society and the senior ulema. of the secular state and its relationship to minority rights 100 the socialstatusoffemalegraduates intheirlocalcommunity. areas. Furthermore, mostfamilies believe that madrasasincreases values andprovide knowledge andcontactsforgirlsfrom rural members isthatmadrasasincrease pietyandfamily-oriented education ratherthanasubstitute. Theperception offamily that femalemadrasasare regarded tosecular ascomplementary that matchtheiraspirations.Bano arguesthatresearch reveals Because theyare educated,theywanttofindjobsandhave careers equality andindependencecreate anxiety for educated women. from middleincomefamiliestowestern notionsofgender globalization, massmedia,andincreasingly exposingwomen received secular educationisontherise.Bano arguesthat for Islamic educationamongyoung womenwhohave already of femalemadrasasinPakistan sincethe1970s.Thedemand facilities inPakistan. Bano traces thehistoricaldevelopments This paperaddresses the recent demandforfemaleeducational to Modernity,” 2010. Masooda Bano,“Female Madrasas inPakistan: AResponse more extensive research becarriedoutintheregion. relationship totheMuslim communityandsuggeststhat Indianto twoparticular stateswithaspecific historical settings.Nairurban torural notesthatthisstudyislimited influence thegovernment reform agenda,whichdiffers from The constitutionalobligationstominoritycommunitiesalso electoral tensionsinareas withsmallerMuslim communities. politics,thuscreatingis oftendeterminedby partisan further ones. But varies from thefinancialsupport statetoand secular andvocational subjectstoreplace strictlyIslamic willing tobemore flexiblewiththeircurriculum,adding If themadrasas are receiving generous financialaid,theyare madrasas inIndia isintimatelylinkedtofinancialsupport. The suggeststhatthe report relationship between thestateand raising literacylevels. political andpopulistagendasthanby agenuineinterest in formadrasasisinfluencedmoresuggests thatsupport by that thelow numbers ofMuslim children attendingmadrasas religious contentofthecurriculum.Further, thereport argues of madrasasin Indiaintervention hasmanagedto dilute the finds that–whetherforpolitical reasons ornot–government to provide anIslamic educationfortheirchildren. The report and 14.In turn,the madrasas invoke theirconstitutionalright commitment toeducationforchildren between theagesof6 intomadrasasbecauseoftheirconstitutional interventions madrasa education.The Indian government legitimizes its politics andtheincreased fearofallegedterrorism linkedto recently grown more complicatedbecauseofinternational the stateandmadrasas,thoughthisrelationship has that there hasalwaysbeenastrong relationship between madrasa system, and the Muslim minority. The report reveals depicts thecomplexrelationship between modernization,the of nationalMuslim likeJamiat-Ulema-e-Hind, parties Nair withleaders and program documentsaswell asinterviews for theMuslim community. Employing areview ofpolicy in the polls. in thepolls. successfulwelfare some very organizations have littlesuccess askingwhy asameansofsecuringvotes, itisworth services onlyoffer their behavior?Ifwelfare indeedthepoliticalparties is merely awaytowinvotes, oris there more substanceto organize, fund,andmanage.Is itpossiblethatwelfare work in South Asiaalsohave substantialwelfare programs thatthey This paperaddresses the reasons whysomanypolitical parties in Pakistan andBangladesh,” 2009. Parties and Welfare Work- The Case of the Jama’at-i-Islami Masooda Bano,“Markers ofIdentity:ReligiousPolitical F on divinerewards over materialsuccess. reason forthepopularityoffemalemadrasasisvalue put well asstudents andteachers.Bano suggeststhatthemain peers andfindprideintheirdutiesaswives andmothersas materialism. Therefore, theyhave more freedom thantheir guide themthrough thislifewithoutgettingattachedto claim theyhave enoughknowledge oftheProphet’s lifeto clothes andjewelry. Thegirlsfrom themadrasas,however, secular institutionsare filledwithmaterialdesires forgood capitalist market. Further, thegirlsnotethattheirpeers in makes them feel like theyare more than just numbers in a the practicalaspectsoftheirlives. Themadrasaeducation from madrasas functiontofulfillthegirls’ desires as well as the madrasasystemgoesbeyond that.Thefemalegraduates thatis tied toeconomicsandemployability,sense ofself-worth a Bano arguesthatwhileseculareducationfillsthe youth with behavior thatisreprehensible inIslam. of thefamily, andputtingtheelderlyinnursinghomes,all argue thelatterhasresulted inhighdivorce rates,thebreakdown the Islamic familyfoundationwith Western feminism. They of empowerment andcompare theirown role asthesource of women considertheirengagementatfemalemadrasasasatype empowerment thatexistinIslamic contexts.Many Muslim western feminismcannotaccuratelygaugethetypesoffemale westernpervasive liberalism. Bano that the notions of asserts traditional familyunitandthefrom whatwasconsidered the west. Female madrasas emerged as a method to protect the in theircommunitieswere notseducedby theliberalvalues of whether theywere doingenoughtoensure thatthewomen women inpoliticsandsocietycausedtheulematoquestion These enhancedandmore for publicallyvisibleopportunities level andinseniorpositions. inpoliticsatthegrassroots encouraged womentoparticipate the permissionoffirst. In addition, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto polygamy by makingitdifficulttohave asecondwifewithout He introduced Family LawOrdinances thatdiscouraged tried toemulateaspectsofthewest thathefoundprogressive. Ayub Khan,thecountry’s lawadministrator, firstmartial responsible for the increase in female madrasas. In the 1960s, are introduced levels new of liberalization within the country Bano arguesthatthe periodsinthe1960sand1970swhich aith-Inspired P olitical P arties andtheState

101 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 An investigation of the welfare work of the Jama’at-i-Islami in Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS) have unique characteristics that Pakistan and Bangladesh reveals that this political organization is blur the line between political party, religious party, and/or involved in a wide range of charitable, welfare, and development religiously-inspired welfare organizations. The BJP, which has services, including healthcare, education, emergency relief, and held power at the national level multiple times, would not self- orphan support. The organizations also charge a lower fee than identify as a religious political party, although, arguably, their the market rate for every service they provide. behavior is in part motivated by some religious commitments. In contrast, the RSS actively pursues a Hindutva agenda, Bano observes that the Jama’at-i-Islami is organized very while having strong ties in the political and welfare context differently in Pakistan than in Bangladesh because of with the BJP. historical, political, and practical reasons. Whereas the Jama’at in Pakistan has a strong network of welfare services, in This study is based on ethnographic research in multiple states, Bangladesh the Jama’at members play key roles in a number of particularly Madya Pradesh, the key state for BJP power, and independent organizations that reflect their religious ideology Uttar Pradesh, where the group lost their political standing. and their commitment to social justice. While the Jama’at Nair relies on interviews with key informants in several states. is a registered political party in Pakistan, it is periodically Further, the study tries to analyze the popularity of the Vidya restricted and banned in some parts of Bangladesh. The Bharatiya Schools, their relationship to the RSS, and their role study also reveals that although religious political parties are in education as well as increasing the RSS’s Hindutva agenda. complex organizations and have difficult, often contentious relationships with the state, they do provide a number of After completing this research project, Nair found that the welfare services to a large base of people and have strong RSS promotes the idea of an idealized Hindu nation and the networks with voluntary organizations. doctrine of Hindutva, which argues that Indian culture and identity is defined by Hindu culture. In many areas, especially Bano questions how the Jama’at decides to get involved in where there are large numbers of Muslims, Sikhs, or other different projects and how, as an organization, it determines religious minorities, there has been criticism that Hindutva where its focus will lie. Bano suggests that the Jama’at’s inspiration is a Hindu religious agenda. However, the RSS would argue lies at the intersection of their religious commitments and the that Hindutva is beyond religious identity, that it is a type needs of the community. Therefore, education is a large concern of nationalism that encompasses other religious identities. for the Jama’at organization because it is an important emphasis Therefore, if one is an Indian, regardless of whether s/he is a

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN of the Prophet and because it is critical for the economic and Muslim, Christian, or Sikh, one is automatically also a cultural social development of the community. In addition, Bano argues Hindu and should believe in the promotion of Hindutva. that the Jama’at in Bangladesh and Pakistan are always seeking The leaders of the RSS have also been heavily criticized for opportunities to help their community while remaining true to promoting the interests of the upper castes and using welfare the tenets of Islam. services as a method to invite conversions to Hinduism or to stop conversion out of Hinduism (a pertinent issue in the Bano concludes this article by noting that Western political subaltern or Dalit community). theorists have not accurately understood the phenomena of the religiously-inspired political parties in the South Asian Nair asserts that the BJP was formed to further the political contexts. While these parties might reap some material benefits aspirations of the RSS, while the concept of the Vidya during the course of their work, the primary motivation is the Bharatiya Schools arose from the desire to groom young minds welfare of the ummah and the promulgation of their religious to desire Hindutva for the future of their nation. Whereas the ideology. Yet, they are competing for membership, citizen BJP is willing to dilute the Hindutva ideology to secure more loyalty, and resources. This makes their relationship with votes, and hence keep them in power, the RSS is unyielding in the state and with other political organizations and actors the missionizing of their message. The secular ideology of the

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS particularly tricky because although they have a spiritual Indian government is also facing some complexities because agenda, it is enacted in the political sphere. Bano also suggests of the Vidya Bharatiya Schools, as there is pressure from the that organizations in South Asia undertake welfare work state ministries to “saffronize” or in other words, “Hinduize” because they consider it an integral part of their religious the school curricula. Some of these changes include rewriting identity. The importance of welfare work also motivates party Indian history to reflect a very particular Hindu perspective. members and followers and provides them with tangible As the Vidya Bharatiya Schools are state-funded, this causes evidence of their work and of God’s approval in this world. issues for the secular government.

The article describes the difficulties in drawing sharp lines between the activities and ideologies of these three organizations. Padmaja Nair, “Religious Political Parties and their Welfare Despite its Hindutva agenda, the RSS is a welfare organization Work: Relations between the RSS, the Bharatiya Janata not a religious group, while the BJP is a political party that Party and Vidya Bharatiya Schools in India,” 2009. is hesitant to address its religious inspirations. Furthermore, the links between the three organizations are tenuous and, This article addresses the distinctions between two of the largest depending on the nature of the political environment, can political parties engaged in welfare and development services run the spectrum. Sometimes, the BJP supports the RSS; in India. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Rashtriya yet at other times, the two organizations claim they have no 102 have formedOBCgroups and are seekinggovernment a factor. indeed While Muslims, Sikhs, andotherminorities groups, othercommunitieshave arguedthat religion is factor indeterminingthedisadvantaged positionofsocial Commission didnotconsider religious distinctionstobea OBC groups. Althoughtheoriginalcensus by the Mandal Other complicationshave arisenfrom the creation of rightfully betheirs. are inthepositiontostealgovernment benefitsthatshould formed OBC groups communities whoarguethatthenewly groups create complicationswithHindu subalternorDalit ignore theircomplaints.Further, OBC theformationof new Muslims while, they claim, the wealthy elite Muslims largely community, astheOBCsare notcomprisedofthepoor Thiscausestensionswithinthe actively participates. Muslim movements inwhich themarginalized Muslim community there trend isanew ofOBCor“Other Backward Classes” a single,unifiedagenda. and hasnotarticulated Further, Castes ofIndia, theMuslim populationisinternallydivided force. Similar tothesubalterns, theHindu Dalits, orScheduled Muslims inIndia andkeepthemfrom beingaunitedpolitical violence and internal caste politics havedivided the further and yet politically theyhave beenontheperiphery. Communal The Muslims in Maharashtra are thelargest religious minority, and empathyinthesethree distinctreligious communities. The studyconsiderstheelementsofcommunitariandiscord decisions ofreligious individuals. dimensions, andhenceaffectsboththesocialpolitical life inIndia. In addition,religion hasbothmoralandsocial determiningfactorof continues tobethemostimportant despite globalizationsandwestern influences, religious identity the Muslims, theSikhs, andtheHindus. Theysuggestthat the politicalengagementsofthree religious communities: engage casestudiesfrom Punjab andMaharashtra todiscuss as caste,tribe,andclan.In thisreport, Mahajan andJodhka but ratherchoosepoliticalrepresentation duetoaffiliationssuch community choosetoalignthemselves withonesingleparty, their community. On thecontrary, notallmembersofthe succeed inaddressing theneedsofmajoritymembers India oftenmeansthat organized religious donotalways parties communities inIndia. The study recognize thatthe diversity of freedom of religion as the backdrop for the role of marginalized The authorsdiscussthe role oftheconstitutionalcommitmentto in Contemporary India,” 2009. Democracy, andGovernance: Spaces for theMarginalized Gurpreet MahajanandSurinderS.Jodhka, “Religions, borders between theseorganizationsare alsoinconstantflux. with Hindutva agendasinIndiathe are difficulttodefine,and between religious organizationsandpolitical missionizing. To conclude,Nair arguesthattheboundaries anddoconsidertheir activitiesasaformof welfare service good educationtothepoorest membersofsocietyasa promoting anactive Hindutva agenda,are alsoaproviding ideological connection.The Vidya Bharatiya Schools,while Muslim minorities. and Hindu minorities as well as the Ahmediyya and Shia period ofinternalstrifewith violent attacksontheChristian To complicatemattersfurther, hasexperienced thecountry a majorfactorinpoliticaldiscourse forthepast50years. sharia andmaintainingthemore liberallegalsystemhasbeen The tug-of-warbetween thecomplete implementationof Western-style shariaaccommodations. legalsystemwithafew sharia, whiletheeliteshave generallyresisted andfoughtfora religion intothepoliticalsphere through implementing discourse. Further, tointroduce theulemahave struggled andinitspolitical define religion inthecontextofcountry the country, itsleaders,andcitizens to have alsostruggled of Western, liberalcharacter. However, that thestudyasserts constitution afterthe Westminster model withahealthydose ideology inPakistan thatwantedthestatetohave asecular since itsformationin1947.The notesonedominant report The ideologyof Pakistan hasbeenpulledinmultipledirections religious shrines. influencing theulema,andlevyingheavytaxationpolicieson to changethecurriculumatmadrasas, religious leaders,trying points tocontrol thereligious messageby co-optingthe country’s long-termpoliticalgoal.It hasalsotriedatvarious language andpursuedanIslamic agendaforthebenefitof sphere hasbeenfunctionalist.Thestateemployed Islamic that thetraditionalrole ofIslam inthePakistani political of welfare policyby government bodies. Thestudyargues relationship between Muslim organizationsanddevelopment The discussesthe role of report Islam in Pakistan, andthe and Governance inPakistan,” 2009. Mohammed Waseem andMariamMufti,“Religion,Politics, create contradictory and problematic responses. and problematic responses. create contradictory expression inthepoliticalsphere are distinctand canoften that personal religiousthe study asserts freedom and religious seat totheiridentityasmarginalized peoples.In conclusion, marginalized identitycantakeaback groups, thisparticular identity, it issimplyoneofmanyidentitymarkers, andfor on the same agenda. While religion of an individual’s is a part of religious communitiesasmonolithicgroups thatallagree diversity oftheircasestudiesreveal, itisnothelpfultothink Inalso hinderequalaccesstoopportunities. addition,asthe community’s forinclusionandpoliticalpower, struggle itcan while religious beliefsandcommitments can enhancea the Christianpopulationaswell. Theauthorsarguethat independence, aswell ashintingatpotentialissuesin Maharashtra enmassetoBuddhism thatconverted post- Sikh community, describingtheex-Hindu communityin The discussessimilarissuesinthemarginalized report pollution and politics as opposed to any other type of prejudice. government thatthediscriminationtheyfaceisduetocaste unique positionofbearingtheburden ofproof toprove tothe and prejudice. This places non-Hindu communitiesin the islimitedtothosewithcastediscrimination the OBCcategory some benefits and welfare services, Hindugroups arguethat

103 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 This study traces the roots of Islamism in the political arena in Pakistan beginning with the Pakistan movement through the post-partition era and into the development of religiously- inspired or influenced political parties. The study then examines the special case of the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and a specific study of the Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA), a unique alliance of religious political parties with a dynamic role in government. The study addresses the ways in which religiously-inspired political parties have multiple layers of commitment and action. Waseem and Mufti try to depict the complexity of the relationship that religiously- inspired political parties, in this case Islamic ones, have with other political parties, with donor agencies abroad, with the central or federal government, and with other Islamist parties that stand in opposition to their own. Therefore, this study also notes the voices of dissent within the Islamic context and highlight the fact that religious actors and adherents are not a monolithic group, but exist in contexts that are replete with disagreements and discord.

The report pays close attention to the political situation in NWFP as a pertinent case study for Islamist politics. The case study reveals that Islamism thrives on elite politics and intra-communitarian conflict. The conflicts were used to further their appeal at the polls, and research also showed that Islamist groups were willing to sacrifice ideology for future electoral wins that guaranteed power. In addition, the military has often turned to these religious political parties to

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN garner support and help them control the citizens in times of need, thereby establishing a firm relationship between the two groups. Furthermore, the growth of madrasas have allowed religiously inspired political organizations more control and allowed the ideology of Islamization to become more integrated into the mainstream. The study concludes by suggesting that the analysis of the MMA as an example of an Islamist political party is inconclusive. In many ways, the organization engages in providing good development services for issues related to gender, health, and education. These parties are also adroit at securing donor parties from overseas and getting local news the attention it deserves; however, the overall long term goals of the organization and whether they will be good for the country remains to be seen. BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS

104 annotated bibliography

Books Jaffrelot, Christophe, ed. Hindu Nationalism: A Reader. New York: Princeton University Press, 2007.

Chary, Manish. India: Nation on the Move: An Overview of India’s People, Culture, History, Economy, IT Industry This is an edited volume with a diverse number of contributors and More. Bloomington: University Press, 2009. that address the rise of Hindu nationalism and Hindutva ideology from different perspectives. The book addresses In this book, the author argues that India has emerged as Hindu reform movements and the development of the BJP an economic powerhouse post-Independence. The author and the RSS as political parties and the rise of interreligious BANGLADESH, JANUARY 10–11, 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY describes India’s culture, ancient and contemporary history, violence in India post-independence. | vibrant religious communities across the country, and the social and political challenges facing the Asian and Indian community. The author also provides an in-depth look into Das, Veena. Critical Events: An Anthropological the fascinating aspects of Indian life including caste, marriage, Perspective on Contemporary India. New Delhi: Oxford social problems and economic production. University Press, 1995.

Heitzman, James and Robert Worden, eds. Bangladesh: This book describes the critical events in the history of A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of contemporary India within an anthropological framework. Congress, 1989. The author addresses the major political event, such as Partition, and pertinent social issues such as minority rights This country study addresses the major political moments and the abolishment of sati. The author also analyzes the rise in Bangladeshi history. It includes well-researched sections of communal violence, the development of militant politics, on society, economy, the affects of climate change, gender- and the recent empowerment of women’s groups. related issues, and the role of religion in Bangladeshi culture BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS and society. Esposito John L. and M. Hakan Yavuz, eds., Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement. New York: Jaffrelot, Christophe. Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability: Syracuse University Press, 2003. Fighting the Indian Caste System. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. This edited volume examines the successful Islamic modernist Fethullah Gülen movement. Combining a devotion to Islam The author describes the complex situation between the secular with love for modern learning, especially modern science, the Indian government the role of religion and caste, including Fethullah Gülen movement has gained a substantial following the issues facing the Dalit community. He traces the role of since 1991 and has achieved great influence in Central Asia B.R. Ambedkar in the drafting of the Indian Constitution through the establishment of schools. Contributors explore the and the guarantee of religious freedom it declared. The book origins and establishment of the Gülen movement, its religious also addresses the role of caste politics and inter-caste violence formation, and spread across Turkey and Central Asia. that is pervasive in many parts of the country. 105 Hussain, Zahid. Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with discussion on the political environment of Bangladesh, Militant Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007. Islamist ideology, and Islamic organizations that are part of the society and affect the political and social arena through This Pakistani author and journalist describes the complexities their particular ideology. of political power in Pakistan and the internal struggle against militant Islam and jihadism. The author addresses the role of madrasas in present-day Pakistan and their connection to militant Shankar, Sri Sri Ravi, and James Larsen. Wisdom for the Islam, as well as the struggle for government control over religious New Millennium. Washington, DC: The Art of Living educational institutions. With keen attention to the religious Foundation Press, 1999. landscape of the country, the author also describes the role of civil society and sectarian politics in Pakistan’s struggle for stablity. This book is written by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, the co-founder of the International Association for Human Values, a non-profit organization with an immense following and international Gülen, M. Fethullah and Mehmet Unal, Naglihan Haliloglu, recognition and praise. The book addresses the importance Mustafa Mencutekin, Korkut Altay, and Hakan Yessilova, of incorporating spirituality as a necessary part of human trans., Toward a Global Civilization of Love & Tolerance. development and the role of meditation for personal healing. Third Impression Press, 2004.

Sharma, Jyotirmay. Hindutva: Exploring the Idea of This book is written by Fethullah Gülen and aims to awaken Hindu Nationalism. Delhi: Penguin Global Press, 2004. Muslims across the world to a greater awareness of Islam as a religion that teaches love and tolerance. With narratives from his This book addresses the complexity of the term Hindutva own life and study of Islam, Gülen expounds his own pluralistic in the modern Indian context and its connection to Indian beliefs and calls upon Muslims to be witnesses to God’s universal politics. The book traces the historical development of the mercy and work in devotion to his service through dialogue and term, its contested usage in the political context, and the interreligious cooperation throughout the world. various philosophers, idealists, and reformists that have focused on the reinterpretation of Hinduism and that have, in some way, affected the evolution and emergence of this term.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Srinivas, Tulasi. Winged Faith: Rethinking Globalization and Religious Pluralism through the Sathya Sai Movement. The author examines the context and aftermath of the partition, New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. weaving together local politics and ordinary lives with the larger political forces, including the role of the British in fostering the In this book, the author explores the emergence of the Sathya Independence movement. She notes that poor planning and lack Sai Movement and the implications for religious pluralism of long-term thinking played a large factor in the division of India in the global context. The Sathya Sai global civil religious along religious lines and contends that the aftershocks are still in movement incorporates Hindu and Muslim practices, effect today economically, politically, and socially. Buddhist, Christian, and Zoroastrian influences, and New Age rituals and beliefs. The author analyzes this movement and suggests new methods for studying the role of religion Marshall, Katherine Marisa Van Saanen, Development in light of new global developments, including international and Faith: Where Mind, Heart, and Soul Work Together. religious movements.

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Washington, DC: World Bank Publications, 2007.

This book assesses the intersection of faith and development and Sikand,Yogindar. Origins and Development of the the individuals who are inspired by their faith that work for social Tablighi-Jama’at (1920-2000): A Cross-Country change and social welfare. The book highlights that some of the Comparative Study. Delhi: Sangam Books Ltd, 2002. most devoted people in the development field are faith leaders who live and work with poor communities. The authors hope to The author traces the history and development of the Tablighi- build partnerships between development practitioners and faith- Jama’at from a small pietistic movement in India before inspired actors and organizations. Partition into the largest Islamic religious movement in the world. Sikand describes the political changes that helped the Jama’at in dawa (missionary) activities and the role that politics Fair, Christine and Ali Riaz, eds., Political Islam and have played in the growth of this pietistic movement and in Governance in Bangladesh. New York: Routledge Press, 2010. their development from India, to Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and eventually into the international community. This is an edited volume bringing together journalists and academics with different backgrounds and field experiences to assess the present situation in Bangladesh. The articles include 106 Aliya madrasa system in Bangladesh was able to integrate Aliya madrasa systeminBangladesh wasabletointegrate Bangladesh asamodelforother South Asiancountries. The In the authorexaminesmadrasareform thisarticle, in State-madrasa relations inSouth Asiaare acomplexissue. University ofBirmingham. Research Programme. Working Paper 13(2007). Relations inBangladesh.” Religions andDevelopment Bano, Masooda. “Allowing forDiversity: State-Madrasa madrasas increase pietyandfamily-orientedvalues. in someareas. Theperception offamilymembersisthat that femalemadrasasare preferred toseculareducation equality create anxiety for educated women. Research reveals globalization, massmedia,andwestern notionsofgender female madrasasinPakistan sincethe1970sandarguesthat in Pakistan. The authortracesthehistoricaldevelopment of This paper addresses the recent demand for female madrasas of Birmingham. Research Programme. Working Paper 45(2010)University Response toModernity.” Religions andDevelopment Bano, Masooda. “Female Madrasas inPakistan: A curriculum. engaged in a tug-of-war withthe ulema to modernize the has hadamadrasareform agendaformanyyears andhas However, theauthorcontendsthatPakistani government ofUSpolicy andareagenda aspart resistant tochanges. madrasa leadersinPakistan considergovernment reform difficulties. Inthepost9/11environment theulemaand and thegovernment inPakistan iscontentiousandrifewith arguesthat the This article relationship between madrasas Working Paper 14(2007)University ofBirmingham. Religions andDevelopment Research Programme. for Authority: State-Madrasa Engagement inPakistan.” Bano, Masooda. “ContestingIdeologies andtheStruggle Articles Indian government. the affirmative actionorScheduledCastebenefits from surrounding theinabilityforChristianDalits toacquire areasauthors describecasteviolenceinrural andthedebates caste discriminationtowards Dalits inmodernIndia. The who describe the various forms of inter-caste and intra- fromThis isanedited volume ofarticles Dalit Christians Delhi Press, 1990. Sugirtharajah, R.S.ed., Towards aDalit Theology. Delhi:

and liberty for all peoples as the backdrop for the role of forallpeoplesasthebackdrop for the roleand liberty of commitment to freedom ofreligion, equaltreatment, The authorsdiscussthe role ofthe Indian constitutional University ofBirmingham. Research Programme. Working Paper 26(2009). India.” Religionsin Contemporary andDevelopment Democracy, andGovernance: Spaces for theMarginalized Mahajan, Gurpreet andSurinder S.Jodhka. “Religions, hayward.pdf informationsee:http://cpn.nd.edu/assets/14644/ further and empower themtomove towards reconciliation. For capacity andresources toreach communitiestornby conflict describes how religious leadersandorganizationshave the institutions inconflictprevention andpeacebuilding. She Hayward addresses the need to engage religious actors and University, (2008). Network Conference, KrocInstitute, Notre Dame Prevention and Transformation. Catholic Peacebuilding Hayward, Susan. Religious ContributionstoConflict org/articles/8604/ Islamic education.For informationsee:http://wwrn. further who wouldliketheirchildren tohave accesstotraditional restricted, creating strifeamongthereligious communities also discusseshow therole of religious educationisseverely which declares allunregistered religious activityillegal.It discussesthe new religious lawinThis article Turkmenistan Religious News. Forum 18,November 11,2003(2003). International Human Rights Agreements.” Worldwide Corley, Felix. “Turkmenistan: New Religion Law Defies and thedesire toengageinwelfare/development work. common elementbetween themisashared love ofhumanity is uniquewithdifferent ritualsandpracticeshowever: one Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism. Eachreligion in South Asiaincluding, Sikhism, Judaism, Hinduism, Islam, Theauthorsdescribethediversity of rule. religious traditions organizations inSouth Asiaandtheirresponse tocolonial mapsthehistoricaldevelopment offaith-inspired This article 12 (2007).University ofBirmingham. and Development Research Programme. Working Paper Status andNature ofInteraction withtheState.” Religions Organizations inSouthHistorical Asia: Evolution, Current Bano, Masooda andPadmaja Nair. “Faith-Based fulfilling religious positionsinmosques. in theopenmarket, graduatesfrom theQomimadrasasare graduates from theAliyamadrasasare competingforjobs madrasas remained more traditionallystructured. While secular subjectsalongwithIslamic education,whiletheQomi

107 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 marginalized communities. Communal violence and internal For further information see: http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ caste politics have further divided India. Conflict exists students/sie/journal/Volume_2/Nolan.pdf between Hindu Dalits, or Scheduled Castes, and the Muslim community, creating interreligious conflict and strife. Siddiqui, Saima and Muhammad Asif Iqbal. “Mapping the Terrain: The Activities of Faith-based Organizations in Kadyr Malikov, “Muslim Community in Kyrgyzstan: Development in Pakistan.” Religions and Development Social Activity at the Present Stage.” Social Research Research Programme. Working Paper 24 (2008). Center. (2010). American University of Central Asia. University of Birmingham.

This article provides an overview and analysis of the role of This article maps faith-based activities in Pakistan, Muslim comminties in development activities in Kyrgyzstan, highlighting the key role of faith-inspired organizations. The including providing a lens through which to categorize the article describes the religious terrain in Pakistan as pluralistic actors and their involvement. The author argues that the and religiously vibrant. Despite the political reputation of Muslim community, particulary the youth, are passive in their the country as an “Islamic Republic,” there are vibrant non- social involvement and could better mobilize themselves for Muslim religious communities, including Christian, Hindu, the current socio-economic challenges facing Kyrgyzstan. Sikh, and Zoroastrian (Parsi). Several communities are active in welfare and development, providing healthcare, education, and alleviating poverty. Nair, Padmaja, “The State and Madrasas in India.” Religions and Development Research Programme. Working Paper 15 (2009). University of Birmingham. Tyson, David. “Shrine Pilgrimage in Turkmenistan as a Means to Understand Islam Among the Turkmen.” Central Asia Monitor. No. 1 (1997). Madrasas in India are in a unique position in South Asia because in the post-partition era, Islam is a minority religious This article provides a glimpse into Islam in Central Asia tradition in India. Madrasas in India have the dual duty of and highlights the fundamental traits and aspects of shrine-

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN providing education and also maintaining the religious and centered religious practice in Turkmenistan. The author tries cultural identity for their community. This article addresses to underscore the importance of these religious structures some of the tensions for madrasas and the Muslim community to the well being of society and for the faith of the Muslim in modern India. community. For further information see: http://www.uga. edu/islam/turkmen.html

Nair, Padmaja. “Religious Political Parties and their Welfare Work: Relations between the RSS, the Bharatiya White, Sarah C. “Domains of Contestation: Women’s Janata Party and Vidya Bharatiya Schools in India.” Empowerment and Islam in Bangladesh.” Religions and Religions and Development Research Programme. Development Research Programme. Working Paper 36 Working Paper 37 (2009). University of Birmingham. (2009). University of Birmingham.

This article addresses the distinctions between two of the This article addresses the intersection of religion, gender, and largest political parties Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the development and discusses how women’s roles are evolving Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh (RSS) that also engage in in the largely Islamic society of Bangladesh. The author

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS welfare and development work in India. The authors also describes how gender inequality is decreasing in Bangladesh address the concept of Hindutva and its role in the Hindu while Islam is correspondingly more engaged in development reform and development agenda. and civil society. There is evidence that women are becoming more religious committed while gaining empowerment.

Nolan, Tricia D., “Perceptions and Portrayals of Faith- Based Organizations in Education in Emergencies: A Case White, Sarah C. and Joe Devine. “Religion, Politics, and Study from Sri Lanka” in Education in Emergencies and the Everyday Moral Order In Bangladesh.” Religions and Post-Conflict Situations: 71Problems, Responses and Development Research Programme. Working Paper 40 Possibilities, Vol. 2, Spring (2005). (2009). University of Birmingham.

This article discusses the role of FBOs and development and questions how, and if, these organizations differ from The authors argue that most of the contemporary analyses secular development agencies. The author examines different between religion and development tend to focus on the role of countries to analyze the need for faith engagement. Further, religion in the political sphere and how it affects governance. she questions the dangers of neo-religious imperialism with In the past, Bangladesh has been largely ignored as a site for the U.S. sending FBOs to countries for development projects. potential research on the role of religion and development. 108 adb.org/Countries/default.asp economic growth. For informationsee:http://www. further also describe the ADB projects in the area to increase/promote discrimination, infant mortality, and violence. The reports variety ofdevelopment sectors,includingtherate ofgender named. The providea reports statisticalinformationfor the development challengesineachofthefocuscountries reports by theAsiaDevelopment Country Bank describe Nepal, Maldives, andSriLanka) Asia The Development (Afghanistan, Report Bank Country Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Pakistan/chap01.pdf information see:http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ status, andtheaffectsof Hudood Ordinances. For further are statisticsoneducation,training,health,nutrition,legal impact oftribal,feudal,andculturaldifferences. Included social classes,regions, areas andtherural/urban duetothe that there isdiversity regarding thestatusofwomenacross with otherformsofsocietalexclusion. The describes report status of women in Pakistan and argues that it is connected This by theAsia report Development Bank addresses the DevelopmentAsia Bank Report on Women (Pakistan) Defining_Agenda_Poverty_Reduction/Vol_1/chapter_23.pdf information see:http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ rates, andgenderviolence.Forchild, infantmortality further socio-economic andculturaldifficultiesfaced bythegirl areas,discusses genderdiscriminationinrural includingthe rates andalleviationstrategiesforIndia. The also report This by theAsia report Development Bank describespoverty DevelopmentAsia Bank Report onPoverty (India) activity%20at%20the%20present%20stage_eng.pdf community%20in%20Kyrgyz Republic_Social%20 dspace/bitstream/123456789/466/1/SRC_Muslim%20 For informationsee:http://elibrary.auca.kg:8080/ further between government bodiesandMuslim communities. Muslim groups. The alsodiscussestheinteraction report educational institutions,publicorganizations,andlocal inKyrgyzparticipation Republic. The analyzes report Islamic This assessescivilsocietyorganizationsand report Center Report (Kyrgyzstan) American University Social ofCentralAsia Research R integrated andintegralthaninmostwestern secularsocieties. Although itisa“secular” country, religion isfarmore eports English.pdf org.np/new/publications/State%20and%20Religion%20 traditions. For informationsee:http://www.ccd. further the government tobemore inclusive ofminorityreligious in Nepali society. The alsoaddressesreport theattempts by constitution ofNepal issecular, religion playsadistinctrole Nepali culture andsociety. The report reveals thatwhilethe secular governmentnew of Nepal and the role of religion in This CCD addressesreport theinteractionbetween the Center forConstitutionalDialogue CCD (Nepal) includes/pdf/bestpracticereport.pdf by HIV. For informationsee:http://www.caritas.org/ further the impactoftheirwork onpersonslivingwithandaffected faith communities,andnon-governmental organizationsand The notestheinteractionbetween thegovernment,report Episcopal conference intheprevention HIV/AIDSinIndia. Catholic bishopsofIndia, through thenational particularly This addressesreport the leadership role exercised by the Caritas International Report on AIDS (India) country/country.cfm?CountryId=11 For informationsee:http://www.ausaid.gov.au/ further aid projects thatare beingimplementedacross thecountry. economy anddevelopment challenges,aswell asthecurrent The provides report overview, acountry abriefoutlineofthe Pakistan includingthedevelopment agendaaftertheflood. This addressesreport Australia’s strategicapproach toaidin AusAID Report (Pakistan) transformative-approach-to-conflict-in-nepal/#more-5398 asiafoundation.org/in-asia/2010/06/25/local-mediation-a- using mediation strategies. For information see:http:// further different communitiestocometogetherandsolve conflict through mediation. The program enables people from to respond toconflictsandaddress theirunderlyingcauses in itseighthyear, hasprovided aplatformforlocalpeople Nepal pioneered by theAsiaFoundation. Theprogram, now This outlinesthecommunitymediationprogram in report Asia The Foundation (Nepal) Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/TKM/CSB-TKM.pdf docs/NGOPakistan.pdf; : http://www.adb.org/Documents/ NGOs/docs/NGOSriLanka.pdf; http://www.adb.org/ngos/ them. For informationsee:http://www.adb.org/ further policy regarding registration, andthetensionsbetween the government andNGOs, includingthelegalframework, networking. The alsoanalyze the reports relationship between and growth, theirsectoralfocus,andcoordination and Pakistan, and Turkmenistan, discussingtheirorigin These three describeNGOs workingreports in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkmenistan) DevelopmentAsia Bank Reports onNGOs (SriLanka,

109 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU) Report IPCS Issue Brief on the Role of Madrasas in Society (Afghanistan) (Pakistan)

The report analyzes the extent to which Afghan religious leaders This report analyzes the role of madrasas in Pakistan from been involved in the post-2001 efforts to foster development the 1970s into present day. It includes statistics on the and engage in peacebuilding. The authors highlight the role number of madrasas in the country, their relationship with of religious leaders in the community and addresses ways to the government, and a brief description of curriculum. It better engage them to work for stability and long-term peace also describes the difficulty of governmental control over the in the area. For further information see: http://www.cpau. school curriculum and the role of the religious leaders in the in org.af/docs/ReligiousCivilSocietyinAfghanistan.pdf the reform process. For further information see: http://www. ipcs.org/pdf_file/issue/2032153432IB11-SubaChandran- European Centre on Health of Societies in Transition and MadrassasInPak.pdf London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Report (Turkmenistan) Institute of Policy Studies, Pakistan (Afghanistan)

This report authored by Martin McKee, Bernd Rechel, and This report draws attention to the Afghan refugees in Pakistan Inga Sikorskaya provides an assessment of the state of health and Iran as a protracted problem that still awaits resolution. in Turkmenistan after the change in the country’s leadership The report analyzes long-term affects of refugees living in and the death of President Niyazov. The report includes Pakistan and how this will create issues with relations between information on infant mortality, life expectancy rates, maternal the two countries. The report also makes suggestions for health, HIV, and viral Hepatitis. For further information long-term rehabilitation solutions for refugees. For further see: http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/centres/ecohost/public_health/ information see: http://www.ips.org.pk/international- niyazov/health_in_turkmenistan_after_niyazov.pdf relation/the-muslim-world/988.html

Freedom House, Nations in Transit Report (Turkmenistan) Institute and the Silk Road Studies Program Report (Central Asia) This report addresses the development challenges in Turkmenistan including national democratic governance, the This report analyzes the role of Islam in Central Asia and notes

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN electoral process, civil society, and the role of independent that most of the available information is based on anecdotal media. The authors provide statistical information on poverty, evidence of religious activity. The evidence ranks Muslim crime, and corruption and analyze the factors that are slowing populations in terms of their religiosity and addresses the role of the rate of economic growth in the country. For further the government as a repressive force toward religious behavior. information see: http://www.freedomhouse.eu/images/ Next, the author discusses the nature and depth of the Islamic Reports/NIT-2010-Turkmenistan-final.pdf revival and the future of political stability in the region. For further information see: http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/ Gross National Happiness Commission Report on docs/silkroadpapers/1003Abramson.pdf Education (Bhutan) International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent This report is a proposal for the integration of Gross National Societies (Maldives) Happiness (GNH) into the school curriculum, teacher training, classroom teaching, and textbooks. The value- This report addresses the development projects of the Red based education suggested in the proposal hopes to integrate Cross in the Maldives. Projects include health indicators, good governance, psychological well-being, and a moral communicable disease, climate change, and disaster relief

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS values system in the current education system. For further efforts. The report also describes the work they engage information see: http://www.grossnationalhappiness.com/ with their partner organizations. For further information PowerPoints/value-education.pdf see: http://www.ifrc.org/cgi/pdf_appeals.pl?annual11/ MAAMV00111plan.pdf Hunger Project Report on Women (India) Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Education The Hunger Project delineates the issues facing women in rural Report (Afghanistan) India, including malnutrition, poor health, lack of education, and overwork. The report links female mortality and infant This report outlines the plans for madrasa and education mortality rates to cultural norms that enable gender inequality reform for Afghanistan in order to improve educational access to persist particularly in rural areas. For further information and standards. The report describes various projects that will see: http://www.thp.org/where_we_work/south_asia/india/ be implemented by the government to introduce secular research_reports/chronic_hunger_and_status_of_women subjects into madrasa curriculum, train teachers, and engage other Islamic nations to improve education in Afghanistan. For further information see: http://www.iiep.unesco.org/ fileadmin/user_upload/News_And_Events/pdf/2010/ Afghanistan_NESP.pdf 110 educational systeminBhutan inthe21 This providesreport ofthechallengesfacing an overview (Bhutan) National Report ontheDevelopment ofEducation 2010.pdf National%20Report%20-%20submitted%20Aug%20 http://www.foreign.gov.mv/v3/pdf/Maldives’%20UPR%20 term development inthecountry. For informationsee: further status ofhumanrights,andgovernment mechanismsforlong the of thelegalsystem,level ofpoliticalparticipation, ofForeignMinistry Affairs.The includesadescription report This isagovernment onthe report Maldives issued by the (Maldives) ofForeignMinistry Affairs Government of Maldives see: http://www.un.org/events/women/2002/sit.htm empowerment, andpeacebuilding.For information further including viableprojects topromote education, gender regime andstrategicmethodstoimprove thewayforward The addressesreport theissuesforwomenduring Taliban main development challengesfacingwomeninAfghanistan. strategy thatdiscussesthe report This isanin-depthcountry United Nations Report (Afghanistan) ac.nz/igci/downloads/BriefingDoc4.pdf the country. For informationsee:http://www.waikato. further and issuesoffoodsecurityasaresult offloodsandcyclones in statistical informationontheriseofdisease,lossagriculture, impact ofnaturaldisastersinthecountry. The provides report Bangladeshi economy, aswell asthe socialandcultural This addressesreport theimpactof climatechangeonthe Bangladesh (Bangladesh) Socio-Economic Implications forClimate Change in dataoecd/46/55/21055658.pdf For informationsee:http://www.oecd.org/ further operation oftheDevelopment CooperationDirectorate. and theNetwork onEnvironment andDevelopment Co- Structural Policies oftheEnvironment (WPGSP) Directorate, being jointlyoverseen by the Working Party onGlobal and Development andClimateChangeproject, anactivity development inBangladesh. The isfrom theOECD report This addressesreport theimpactofclimatechangeon (Bangladesh) OECD Development andClimateChangeReport Reports/ICE_2008/bhutan_NR08.pdf information see: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_ teaching andlearningstrategiesintheschools.For further of Education, thecurricularpolicies,educationalcontent,and the organizationandmanagementstructure oftheMinistry st century. It discusses see: http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e487856.html improve socio-economic conditions.For information further to successfully rehabilitate the refugees into civil society and analyzes theneedforNepal to follow refugee conventions The discussesthecurrentreport conditionsin campsand refugee crisisthatisadrawn ontheresources ofthecountry. The discussesthe report Maoist conflictandtheensuing operationsprofile forThis outlinesthe country report Nepal. UNHCR Report (Nepal) unesco.org/images/0014/001460/146086e.pdf in thecountry. For informationsee:http://unesdoc. further multiple ethnicandtribalconflictsthataffect relationships on Dalit groups andDalit women,payingattentiontothe tensions indifferent regions of Nepal withaspecialfocus ofthecountry.parts The addressesreport thecaste related caste-based socialdiscriminationthatisoperative invarious This drawsattentiontothe various formsofgenderand report Discrimination (Nepal) UNESCO Report onForms andPatterns ofSocial information see:http://www.unicef.org/rosa/Faith.pdf their involvement hasonthecommunity. For further in trainingimamsHIV/AIDSprevention andtheimpact in Bangladesh. The analyzes the report role ofthegovernment HIV/AIDS prevention withsectionsontheactivityofimams This UNICEF describesthe report role of religious leadersin UNICEF Report on the Role of Faith Leaders (Bangladesh) www.unicef.org/pakistan/overview.html www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh.html; http:// unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_39946.html; http:// health forchildren. For informationsee:http://www. further countries thatare working toraiseeducationandimprove provide informationonvarious UNICEFprojects inthe natural andpoliticalcrisesthatimpacteducation. Reports describe literacylevels, healthfactors,andcountry-specific children inBangladesh andPakistan respectively. The reports These UNICEF delineatethechallengesfacing reports Bangladesh, Pakistan) Overviews (Afghanistan, UNICEF Reports, Country shtml officesites,see:http://www.undp.org/mdg/countries.country governance inthecountry. To accessUNDPreports and ofsecuring Afghanistan, report focusesontheimportance sections oneducation,extreme hunger, andpoverty. In report includestheMDGsandprogress reports including Management andthe achievement ofMDGs.For Nepal, the Health, Education, Governance, Environment, Disaster derived from the UNDAF, namely, Poverty Reduction, describes how focusesonfive priorityareas UN support as for report profiles Bhutan ofUNagencies.Thecountry asoperations thatserve reports The UNDPproduces country UNDP Reports (Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan)

111 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 USAID Report (Pakistan)

This report analyzes Pakistan’s development challenges. The country has widespread poverty and weak governance structures, and now faces additional burdens related to the war on terror in neighboring Afghanistan, religious militancy, and insurgency. The report addresses the issues facing the country in education, healthcare, and governance. For further information see: http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/ cbj2004/asia_near_east/Pakistan.pdf

USIP Reports (Afghanistan; Pakistan)

These reports describe two ongoing projects per country to promote peace-building by engaging local religious leaders in conflict mediation and madrasa reform. The Afghanistan report also discusses a dialogue project between Afghanistan and Pakistan to aid the conflict at the border. For further information see: http://www.usip.org/files/regions/faqs/ PIP%20Afghanistan%202-2010_0.pdf; : http://www.usip. org/religionpeace/index.html

World Health Organization Reports: Bangladesh, Nepal, Maldives

These reports by the World Health Organization outline the major health factors in the focus countries. The reports include statistical information on communicable disease,

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN malnutrition, maternal health, and infant mortality rates.

The World Bank Country Reports (India, Afghanistan, Kyrgyz Republic, and Nepal)

These World Bank country reports describe population statistics, poverty, and healthcare concerns in the named focus countries. The report outlines World Bank programs working for poverty alleviation, peace-building, and agricultural and rural development across the each of countries. Some reports include case studies. For further information see: http://web. worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,me nuPK:115635~pagePK:64020917~piPK:64021009~theSite PK:40941,00.html#CountryReports

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS The World Bank Report on HIV (Bhutan)

This report analyzes HIV/AIDS rates in Bhutan and then discusses the factors that could increase infection, including cross-border migration, international travel, behavioral risk factors, and sexually transmitted infections. For further information see: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/

The World Bank Report on Women (Afghanistan)

This World Bank country report describes population statistics, poverty, and healthcare concerns in Afghanistan. The report focuses primarily on the role of women in Afghan society after the end of the Taliban regime and offers strategies to reduce gender discrimination and empower women from rural and urban parts of the country. For further information see: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/223546-1151200256097/chap1.pdf 112 endnotes

1 Emma Tomalin, “Hinduism and International Devel- April 18, 2011). opment: Religions and Development Background Pa- per,” University of Birmingham Religions and Devel- 9 Darshan S. Tatla, “Sikhism and Development: A Re- opment Research Programme, 2009, 48, http://www. view,” University of Birmingham Religions and De- religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- velopment Research Programme, 2008, http://www. dom454f80f60b3f4/1245229037_working_paper_19.pdf religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- (accessed February 9, 2011). dom454f80f60b3f4/1226574653_working_paper_21__ web_version.pdf (accessed February 9, 2011). 2 Ibid.

10 2011 10–11, BANGLADESH, JANUARY David L. White, “From Crisis to Community Definition: | 3 Ibid. The Dynamics of Eighteenth-Century Parsi Philanthropy,” Modern Asian Studies 25, no. 2 (May 1991): 303-320. 4 “About Us,” The Art of Living Foundation, http:// us.artofliving.org/content-about-us?center=usa (February 9, 11 “Bombay Parsi Panchayat,” Encyclopedia Iranica, http:// 2011). www.iranica.com/articles/bombay-parsi-panchayat-the-larg- est-zoroastrian-institution-in-modern-history (accessed Feb- 5 Mohammed Ralf Kroessin, “Concepts of Develop- ruary 9, 2011). ment in ‘Islam’: A Review of Contemporary Literature and Practice,” University of Birmingham Religions and 12 Ibid. Development Research Programme, 2008, http://www. religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- 13 “Jainism at a glance,” BBC: Religions, August 27, 2009, dom454f80f60b3f4/1229939956_working_paper_20___ http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/ataglance/ web_file.pdf (accessed February 9, 2011). glance.shtml (accessed February 9, 2011).

6 “Religion, politics and moderation: Contrasts between Uz- 14 Sanjoy Majumder, “Faith and charity in Indian temple bekistan and Tajikistan,” The Economist, May 15, 2003, http:// town,” BBC, January 9, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS www.economist.com/node/1787408?story_id=1787408 (ac- hi/8448290.stm (accessed February 9, 2011). cessed February 9, 2011). 15 Ibid. 7 Stephen Schwartz, “Sufism and the Future of Islam,” from Tech Central Station, Center for Islamic Pluralism, February 16 “Projects,” Institute of Jainology, http://www.jainology.org/ 10, 2005, http://www.islamicpluralism.org/1169/sufism- projects/ (accessed February 9, 2011). and-the-future-of-islam (accessed February 9, 2011). 17 Kirsteen Kim, “Concepts of Development in the Chris- 8 For further information on Sufi institutions, leaders, and tian Traditions: A Religions and Development Back- charity activities in Central Asia, see: Olcott, Martha Brill, ground Paper,” University of Birmingham Religions and “Sufism in Central Asia – A Force for Moderation or a Cause Development Research Programme, 2007, http://www. of Politicization,” Carnegie Papers – Russia and Eurasian Pro- religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- gram, no. 84 (May 2007), http://www.carnegieendowment. dom454f80f60b3f4/1202734590_WP16.pdf (accessed Feb- org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=19197 (accessed ruary 9, 2011). 113 18 Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. edu/resources/topics/religion_and_conflict_case_studies (ac- http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/organiza- cessed March 3, 2011). tions/bahai-international-community (accessed June 9, 2011). 29 “Religion, Conflict, and Peacebuliding,” United States Agency for International Development (USAID), September 19 Central Asia: Islam and the State (ICG Asia Report N.59), 2009, http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_pro- International Crisis Group, July 10, 2003, http://merln.ndu. grams/conflict/publications/docs/Religion_Conflict_and_ edu/archive/icg/centralasiaislamandthestate.pdf (accessed Peacebuilding_Toolkit.pdf (accessed December 27, 2010). February 9, 2011). 30 Scott R. Appleby, “Building Sustainable Peace: The Roles of 20 Ibid. Local and Transnational Religious Actors,” in Religious Plural- ism, Globalization, and World Politics, ed. Thomas Banchoff 21 Bano, Masooda and Nair, Padmaja, Faith-based orga- (Oxford University Press, 2008), 125-54. nizations in South Asia: Historical Evolution, Current Sta- tus, and Nature of Interactions with the State. Religions 31 Cynthia Sampson, “Religion and Peacebuilding” in Peace- and Development Research Programme, University of making in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, ed. Birmingham, Working Paper 12 (2007), http://www.re- I. William Zartman, revised edition, (Washington, D.C.: ligionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- United States Institute of Peace, 2007), 273-326. dom454f80f60b3f4/1202734559_WP12.pdf (accessed June 22, 2011). 32 Thomas J. Biersteker, “Prospects for the UN Peacebuilding Commission,” Disarmament Forum, no. 2 (2007), 37-44. 22 Ronald J. Sider and Heidi Rolland Unruh, “Typology of Religious Characteristics of Social Service and Educational 33 Katherine Marshall, “Development, Religion, and Wom- Organizations and Programs,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sec- en’s Roles in Contemporary Society,” The Review of Faith and tor Quarterly 2004 33: 109. International Affairs 8, no. 4 (Winter 2010): http://pdfserve. informaworld.com/437484_731449491_930196532.pdf 23 Clarke, G. and Jennings M. (2008) Development, Civil So- (accessed February 8, 2011). ciety and Faith-based Organizations: Bridging the Sacred and

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN the Secular’ Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. 34 Roy, Nilanjana S., “A Campaign Against Girls in India,” The New York Times, April 12, 2011, http://www.nytimes. 24 Faith-based Organizations Forum on Multi-religious Co- com/2011/04/13/world/asia/13iht-letter13.html (accessed operation for Humanitarian Relief, Development and Peace: May 9, 2011). Report and Reccomendations, Religions for Peace, October 2009 Toronto, Ontario, Canada. http://religionsforpeace.org/ 35 Sunil K. Pandya, “Yearning for Baby Boys,” British Medi- report-of-2009-fbo-forum-on.pdf (accessed June 22, 2011). cal Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 296, no. 6632 (May 7, 1988), 1312, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29530651 (ac- 25 Also see Rakodi, Carol, “Religions in Development: The cessed December 31, 2010). Approach of the RaD Programme, ”International Develop- ment Department, School of Public Policy, University of Bir- 36 Nicola Jones, Rebecca Holmes and Jessica Esprey, “Gen- mingham, Working Paper 9 (2007), http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ der and the MDGs: A gender lens is vital for pro-poor results r4d/PDF/Outputs/ReligionDev_RPC/WP9.pdf (accessed (ODI Briefing Paper 42),” Overseas Development Institute June 22, 2011). (ODI), September 2008, http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/ download/2386.pdf (accessed December 30, 2010). 26

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS “Muslim Women Assert Headscarf Rights,” Mus- lim Ummah of North America (MUNA), February 27, 37 Alan J. DeYoung and Elizabeth A. Constantine, 2007, http://www.muslimummah.net/php/articles/articles. “Regendered Education and Society in the Newly Indepen- php?itemno=153&&category=Women (accessed February 9, dent States (NIS) of Central Asia,” in Gender, Equality and 2011). Education from International and Comparative Perspectives, ed. David P. Baker and Alexander W. Wisemen (UK: Emerald 27 Muhammad Asif Iqbal and Saima Siddiqui, “Mapping the Group Publishing Limited, 2009), 255-300. Terrain: The Activities of Faith-based Organisations in De- velopment in Pakistan,” University of Birmingham Religions 38 Susan Hayward and Katherine Marshall, Women, Religion, and Development Research Programme, 2008, http://www. and Peace: Exploring an Invisible Force – Conference Report, religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD), Berkley dom454f80f60b3f4/1229940021_working_paper_24___ Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs and the United web_file.pdf (accessed February 9, 2011). States Institute for Peace (USIP), December 2010.

28 The Berkley Center series of case studies on religion in con- 39 Katherine Marshall, “Education for All: Where does re- flict includes several from South and Central Asia; Sri Lanka ligion come in?” Comparative Education 46, no. 3 (August and Kashmir among them: http://berkleycenter.georgetown. 2010): 2733-287. 114 tober 18,2010, 2011.pdf (accessedApril 25,2011). projects/prodocs/UPPR/UPPR%20factsheet%20Mar%20 Factsheet –UNDPBangladesh, http://www.undp.org.bd/ html (accessedFebruary 15,2011). 767~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:295760,00. ADESHEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20195502~menuPK:295 EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/BANGL tober 18,2010,http://www.worldbank.org.bd/WBSITE/ (accessed Februaryirf/2010/148789.htm 9,2011). man Rightsand Labor, 2010,http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/ desh,” ofState U.S.Department Bureau ofDemocracy, Hu- 2, 2011). docs/silkroadpapers/1003Abramson.pdf (accessedFebruary Program, March 2010,http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/ Stability,” Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Silk Road Studies the Central Asian Islamic Revival: Impact and Prospects for pdf (accessedJune 1,2011). r4d/PDF/Outputs/ReligionDev_RPC/summary_paper_37. Research Summary WP37, 2009http://www.dfid.gov.uk/ opment Research Programme –University ofBirmingham, and the Vidya Bharati schools in India,” Religions and Devel - Work: Relations between the RSS, the Bharatiya Janata Party http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/children_4856.htm (ac - York: Rowman &Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2004). Children: The Unlikely Alliance for Global Human Rights(New 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 2011). org/bangladesh/children_4856.htm (accessedFebruary 15, (accessed February 2,2011). www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=733 Pacific Region,” Migration Policy Institute, July 2009,http:// Ibid. “Urban Partnerships for Poverty Reduction,” Project 2010,” Overview “Bangladesh Country World Bank, Oc - Ibid. “International Religious Freedom Report 2005:Bangla- David M.Abramson, “Foreign Religious Education and Nair, Padmaja, “Religious Political Parties andtheir Welfare “EarlyMarriage,” in Bangladesh: TheChildren, UNICEF, “Bangladesh: TheChildren,” UNICEF Ibid. “Bangladesh: TheChildren,” UNICEF. Stephen CastlesandMark J.Miller, “Migration intheAsia- “Bangladesh: TheChildren,” UNICEF, http://www.unicef. “Bangladesh Country Overview 2010,” Overview “Bangladesh Country World Bank, Oc- For information:AllenD.Hertzke, further Freeing God’s resourcefiles/1261372867.pdf (accessed April 27,2011). mad (SAW), Dhaka, Bangladesh, http://www.ihmsaw.org/ opment Goal is exceed able,” Institute of Hazrat Moham- poverty eradicationinBangladesh: The Millennium Devel- for_web.pdf (accessedFebruary 11,2011). dom454f80f60b3f4/1211530945_working_paper_13___ religionsanddevelopment.org/files/resourcesmodule/@ran- and Development Research Programme, 2007,http://www. lations inBangladesh,” University ofBirmingham Religions Asadullah.ppt (accessedApril 21,2011) 2007, siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDIA/Resources/ Regional Conference onEducation forAll,24-26October dullah ,Mohammad Niaz, World Bank-DFID South Asia and Conflict Studies, New Delhi, India, No. 47, August 2007. internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(http tion andassistance,” IDMC, January 14,2011,http://www. 28, 2011). http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e4878e6.html (accessedApril February 15,2011). traffic_women_forced_labour_domestic_2006.pdf (accessed www.antislavery.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/t/ for Economic CooperationandDevelopment, 2006,http:// Slavery International commissionedby: Federal Ministry in thecontextofMiddle EastandGulf Region,” Anti- 15,2011). ary (accessedFebrunewDesign/news-details.php?nid=150309 - The Daily Star, August 11,2010,http://www.thedailystar.net/ ments/Fact_Sheets/SRI.pdf (accessedFebruary 15,2011). Development Bank, April 2010,http://www.adb.org/Docu- 60 59 58 57 56 55 66 65 64 63 62 61 World Bank, 2007,225-240,(accessed23November 2010). , ed. terventions Tara Bedi, AlineCoudouel,Kenneth Simler, Picture: Using Poverty Maps toDesign Better Policies andIn- Sri Lanka:Policy Impacts andLessons,” More thanaPretty vtx/home (accessedFebruary 15,2011). cessed February 15,2011). Masooda Bano, “Allowing forDiversity: State-Madrasa Re- Ellis, Tiffany, “Madrasas in Bangladesh,” Institute of Peace “Sri Lanka:IDPs andreturnees remain inneed ofprotec- “Trafficking inwomen,forced labour, anddomestic work: “World Bank Report: Madrasa teachersmostlyuntrained,” “Asian Development Bank & Sri Lanka: Fact Sheet,” Asian TaraNobuoand Vishwanath Yoshido, “2011 UNHCR Country Operations Profile-“2011 UNHCRCountry Sri Lanka,” See forexample,Hossain, Monowar Dr., “Zakat Based Ibid. “ UNHCR statistics,http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/ Madrasa Education: The Bangladeshi Experience,” Asa- “ Poverty Maps in -

115 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 CountrySummaries)/A58D1A4759B71CE7C1257816004 tional donor community pledged US$4.3 Billion for rehabili- 7CC93?OpenDocument&count=10000 (accessed February tation and reconstruction to jointly monitor the overall situ- 15, 2011). ation and effective use of the pledged funds. DPSG looks at how the root causes of the armed conflict are being addressed, 67 “Asian Development Bank Country Gender Assessment: including devolution/decentralization of power. It also looks Sri Lanka,” Asian Development Bank, 2008, http://www.adb. at how donors adopt the principles of conflict sensitivity in org/Documents/Reports/CGA-SRI/CGA-sri.pdf (accessed their work. February 15, 2011). 79 World Bank Country Assistance Strategy: Sri Lanka (2009- 68 “Population Characteristics,” Sri Lanka Department of 2012), World Bank, 2011, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ Census and Statistics, 2001, http://www.statistics.gov.lk/ SRILANKAEXTN/Resources/233046-1223267463122/ PopHouSat/Pop_Chra.asp (accessed July 21, 2010). SLCAS20092012.pdf (accessed February 15, 2011).

69 These figures are derived from the 1981 census and the 80 For more information on the Muslim Aid/UMCOR 2001 census, the latter of which was only carried out in 18 partnership, see: Guy Hovey and Amjad Saleem, “Faith, relief out of Sri Lanka’s 25 districts. and development: the Sri Lanka experience,” Forced Migra- tion Review, no. 30, 2008, 66-67, http://www.fmreview.org/ 70 Susan Hayward, “In the Field: Polonnoruwa, Sri Lanka,” FMRpdfs/FMR30/66-67.pdf (accessed February 15, 2011). United States Institute for Peace, December 6, 2009, http:// www.usip.org/in-the-field/polonnoruwa-sri-lanka (accessed 81 Information drawn from: Ground Views: Journalism for September 1, 2010). Citizens, http://www.groundviews.org/ (accessed February 15, 2011). 71 “International Religious Freedom Report 2009: Sri Lan- ka,” U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Hu- 82 Remarks by Susan Hayward (USIP), Religious Contribu- man Rights, and Labor, October 26, 2009, http://www.state. tions to Conflict Prevention and Transformation, Catholic gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127371.htm (accessed September 1, Peacebuilding Network Conference, Kroc Institute and 2010). Notre Dame University, April 14, 2008, http://cpn.nd.edu/ assets/14644/hayward.pdf (accessed November 8, 2010).

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 72 “U.S. Congress Pressures Sri Lanka on Anti-Conversion Law,” The Becket Fund for Religious Freedom, February 5, 83 For further information, see USIP website: “Local Inter- 2009, http://www.becketfund.org/index.php/article/946. religious Peacemaking in Sri Lanka,” http://www.usip.org/ html (accessed January 6, 2011). programs/projects/local-interreligious-peacemaking-sri-lanka (accessed February 15, 2011). 73 A study of NGOs: Sri Lanka, Asian Development Bank, 1999, http://www.adb.org/NGOs/docs/NGOSriLanka.pdf 84 Asoka Bandarage, “Diasporas and Post-Conflict Develop- (accessed September 3, 2010). ment in Sri Lanka,” Harvard International Review, April 19, 2010, http://hir.harvard.edu/diasporas-and-post-conflict-de- 74 Tricia D. Nolan, “Perceptions and Portrayals of Faith-Based velopment-in-sri-lanka (accessed November 10, 2010). Organizations in Education in Emergencies: A Case Study from Sri Lanka,” Education in Emergencies and Post-Conflict 85 “Nepal Peace Support Project (project abstract),” World Situations: Problems, Responses and Possibilities 2, (Spring Bank Nepal, May 10, 2010, http://www.worldbank.org. 2005): 71-81, http://www.tc.columbia.edu/students/sie/ np/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73 journal/Volume_2/Nolan.pdf (accessed November 10, 2010). 230&theSitePK=223555&menuPK=286969&Projectid

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS =P110762 (accessed February 16, 2011). 75 Rohan Edrisinha, “Sri Lanka,” The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law12, no. 3, USAID (May 2010): http:// 86 Nepal Country Overview 2010,” World Bank, April 2010, www.icnl.org/knowledge/ijnl/vol12iss3/special_5.htm (ac- http://www.worldbank.org.np/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ cessed February 15, 2011). COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/NEPALEXTN/0,,conte ntMDK:22147453~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSite 76 “Sri Lanka tightens grip on foreign aid workers,” Reliefweb, PK:223555,00.html (accessed May 2, 2011). http://reliefweb.int/node/374582 (accessed April 29, 2011). 87 Nepal Millennium Development Goals – Progress Report 77 For more information, see Department of Muslim Re- 2010, United Nations Development Programme, http:// ligious and Cultural Affairs Muslim Orphanages web- www.undp.org.np/pdf/MDG-Layout-Final.pdf (accessed site (2003): http://www.muslimaffairs.gov.lk/siteview. May 6, 2011). php?pid=172&title=Muslim%20Orphanages (accessed Feb- ruary 15, 2011). 88 “Gender and Social Development,” UNDP Nepal, http:// www.undp.org.np/gender/index.php (accessed May 4, 2011). 78 The Donor Peace Support Group was created following the June 2003 Tokyo conference on Sri Lanka, when the interna- 89 Pandey et al., 2006. 116 html (accessedFebruary 16,2011). www.tradingeconomics.com/maldives/gini-index-wb-data. cessed February 16). http://www.undp.org.np/pdf/MDG-Layout-Final.pdf (ac- United Nations Country Team ofNepal, September 2010, Government ofNepal, National Planning Commissionand cessed February 16,2011). Muslim-and-Buddhist-religious-schools-11545.html (ac- http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Government-to-recognise- Buddhist religious schools,” News Asia , February 18,2008, 2011). ports/civil-society-briefs/nep/csb-nep.pdf (accessedMay 4, Bank, October 2005,http://www.adb.org/documents/re - 2011). gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127369.htm (accessedFebruary 16, Rights, andLabor, October 26,2009,http://www.state. ofState,U.S. Department Bureau ofDemocracy, Human 2011). images/0014/001460/146086e.pdf (accessedFebruary 16, UNESCO, Kathmandu,2006,http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ terns of Social Discrimination inNepal: AReport,” jong, Sanjeev Pkhrel andNabin Rawal,“Forms andPat- 16,2011). ary irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportID=91437 (accessedFebru - ues againstDalits,” IRIN,December 24,2010,http://www. html (accessedFebruary 16,2011). 119~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:223555,00. SOUTHASIAEXT/NEPALEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21683 worldbank.org.np/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ doc/Nepal%20020909.pdf (accessedFebruary 16,2011). escap.org/ESID/hds/development_account/mtg/EGM_Bg_ pal,” UNESCAP, Kathmandu,May 2009,http://www.un- 102 101 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 der, Co.: Westview, 2002),403-404. Kalpit Parajuli, “Government to recognise Muslim and ofCivilSociety –Nepal,” “Overview AsiaDevelopment “International Religious Freedom Report 2009:Nepal,” Ibid. Tulsi RamPandey, Surendra Mishra, Damber Chem- For more informationsee:“Nepal: Discrimination contin- Ibid. “Education in Nepal,” World Bank Nepal, http://www. Neeta Thapa,“Country Profile of Excluded Groups in Ne- Nepal Millennium Development Goals: Progress Report 2010, “GINIindexinMaldives,” Trading Economics, http:// Ibid. Craig Baxter, Government and Politics (Boul- in South Asia asia/3930765.stm (accessedFebruary 20,2011). News, July 28, 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_ ments/Fact_Sheets/MLD.pdf (accessedFebruary 20,2011). 2009, Asian Development Bank, http://www.adb.org/Docu - cessed November 29,2010). Programme: Maldives. http://undp.org.mv/v2/?lid=130 (ac- dives.pdf (accessedFeruary 16,2011). dencymaldives.gov.mv/Documents/ConstitutionOfMal- of Maldives 2008,” trans.Dheena Hussain, http://www.presi- February 16,2011). Report%20-%20submitted%20Aug%202010.pdf (accessed eign.gov.mv/v3/pdf/Maldives’%20UPR%20National%20 fairs: Government ofMaldives, 2010,1-26,http://www.for- (accessedFebruarydrl/rls/irf/2009/127368.htm 16,2011). Rights, andLabor, Octobe 26,2009,http://www.state.gov/g/ ofStateU.S. Department Bureau ofDemocracy, Human Maldives, finds WEF report,” Minivan News , October 14, (accessed February 21,2011). fileadmin/Pdf/Development/Achievements_Challenges.pdf the UN,October 2006,http://www.maldivesmission.ch/ Permanent Mission oftheRepublic ofMaldives Mission to 21,2011). ary Maldives, http://undp.org.mv/v2/?lid=133 (accessedFebru- ference-held-in-london.html (accessedDecember 2,2010). www.soetendorpinstitute.org/faith-and-climate-change-con- Jacob Soetendorp Institute for Human Values, 2009,http:// 108 107 106 105 104 103 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 cessed February 20,2011). maldives-climate-change-sea-levels?_s=PM:WORLD (ac- com/2009-10-17/world/maldives.underwater.meeting_1_ change,” 2011). (accessedFebruarydives_country_report_2007.pdf 20, ning.gov.mv/en/images/stories/publications/mdg/mdgs_mal- National Development, October 2007, http://www.plan- 2007, Government ofMaldives ofPlanning Ministry and Nick “Maldives: Bryant, Paradise soontobelost,” BBC “Asian Development Bank andMaldives,” December 31, “About theMaldives,” United Nations Development “Functional Translation oftheConstitutionRepulic “Maldives UPRNational Report,” ofForeign Ministry Af- “International Religious Freedom Report 2009: Maldives,” J.J.Robinson, “Women earnhalfasmuchmen inthe Ibid. “Factsheets: Unique challenges,impressive achievements,” “Goal 2:Achieve education,” universal primary UNDP “Faith andClimateChangeConference heldinLondon,” “From underwater, Maldives sendswarningonclimate Millennium Development Goals: Report Maldives Country CNN, October 17,2009,http://articles.cnn.

117 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 2010, http://minivannews.com/politics/women-earn-half- 126 “ICD signs deal with Maldives,” AJP, October 2009, as-much-as-men-in-the-maldives-finds-wef-report-12339/ http://www.sukuk.me/news/articles/28/ICD-signs-deal- print/ (accessed February 21, 2011). with-Maldives.html (accessed February 21, 2011).

116 “Report on the Maldives Islands: 9th Session of the Uni- 127 “News Release: ADB, Islamic Development Bank to Set versal Periodic Review,” rep. the Maldives Women Coalition Up Shari’ah-Compliant Infrastructure Fund,” Asian Devel- (MWC) and the Sexual Rights Initiative, November 2010, opment Bank, June 2, 2009, http://www.adb.org/media/ http://www.mulabi.org/epu/9th%20round/Maldives.pdf Articles/2009/12902-asian-infrastructures-funds/joint-NR. (accessed February 21, 2011). pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).

117 “Terms of Reference for Technical Assistance to Opera- 128 “Maldives,” International Federation of Red Cross and Red tionalize a Shelter for Survivors of Gender-Based Violence Crescent Societies: Revised Plan 2011, IFRC, 2011, http://www. and Domestic Violence in the Maldives,” UNFPA Maldives, ifrc.org/cgi/pdf_appeals.pl?annual11/MAAMV00111plan. http://countryoffice.unfpa.org/maldives/drive/TORforInter- pdf (accessed February 21, 2011). nationalConsultant-ShelterOperationalization.pdf (accessed November 29, 2011). 129 “A Rapid Assessment of Perceptions into Environmen- tal Management in the Maldives,” vol. 1, Asian Develop- 118 “Maldives National Report,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ment Bank, May 2006, http://www.adb.org/Documents/ Government of Maldives, August 2010, http://www.foreign. Produced-Under-TA/39129/39129-04-MAL-DPTA.pdf p. gov.mv/v3/pdf/Maldives’%20UPR%20National%20Re- 25/48 (accessed February 21, 2011). port%20-%20submitted%20Aug%202010.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011). 130 “Replies to Questionnaire on the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action A/52/231,” Division for the Ad- 119 Laura Ortega, “Maldives to withdraw reservations on vancement of Women, Government of the Maldives, May women’s rights treaty,” Minivan News, February 24, 2010, 2002, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/re- http://minivannews.com/politics/maldives-to-withdraw-res- sponses/maldives.htm (accessed February 21, 2011). ervations-on-womens-rights-treaty-3831 (accessed February 21, 2011). 131 Fathimath Afiya, “Comment: Can the Maldives insistute a vibrant NGO sector?” Minivan News, October 10, 2010,

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 120

| “Maldives National Report,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, http://minivannews.com/society/comment-can-the-mal- Government of Maldives, August 2010, http://www.foreign. dives-institute-a-vibrant-ngo-sector-12136 (accessed Febru- gov.mv/v3/pdf/Maldives’%20UPR%20National%20Re- ary 21, 2011). port%20-%20submitted%20Aug%202010.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011). 132 Ibid.

121 Animesh Roul, “Jihad and Islamism in the Maldive Islands,” 133 “Major issues in NGO Law: NGO Federation,” March 22, The Jamestown Foundation, February 12, 2010, http:// 2010, http://www.haveeru.com.mv/english/details/29516/ www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_ Major_issues_in_NGO_Law:_NGO_Federation (accessed news%5D=36036&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=7&cHash February 21, 2011). =f218d5b027 (accessed February 21, 2011). BERKLEY CENTER 134 “Development assistance and partnerships: flows, instru- 122 “Maldives,” Directory of Development Organizations, vol. ments, and coordination,” WHO Country Cooperation Strat- II.A: Asia and the Middle East, ed. 2010, http://www.devdir. egy 2007-2011, World Health Organization, 20-23, http:// org/files/Maldives.PDF (accessed February 21, 2011). www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/WHO_Country_Coopera- tion_Strategy_-_Maldives_development_assistance.pdf (ac- 123 “Explanation of the World Watch List,” Open Doors UK, cessed February 21, 2011). 2011, http://www.opendoorsuk.org/resources/documents/ WorldWatchList.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011). 135 Ibid.

124 “Maldives Aid projects will continue despite refusal to reg- 136 “Moving from aspirations to impact: NGO shadow report ister the NGO by the Dictator,” Dhivehi Observer, May 10, on CRC Maldives,” Hama Jamiyya and Care Society, August 2006, http://www.dhivehiobserver.com/FOM/maldivesaid/ 2006, http://www.crin.org/docs/Maldives_HJ_NGO_Re- Press_Conf_0805206621828.htm (accessed February 21, port.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011). 2011). 137 “Development assistance and partnerships: aid flows, in- 125 “Maldives (Tsunami Aid Organizational Chart)”, Oregan struments, and coordination,” 2007-2011. State Tsunami Research Facility, 2005, http://nees.oregon- state.edu/killer_wave/Asia/pdf/mald.pdf (accessed February 138 “Fact Sheet: Asian Development Bank and Bhutan,” Asian 21, 2011). Development Bank, December 31, 2009, http://www.adb. org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/BHU.pdf (accessed February 118 springerlink.com/content/vq4826112g8g2703/fulltext.pdf tional Review of Education, 54(2008):475-91, http://www. of Monastic andModern Education inBhutan?” Interna- February 22,2011). collections/journals/jbs/pdf/JBS_02_02_04.pdf (accessed ies, Edinburgh, 2000,)http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/ tan,” (paperpresented attheConference ofSouth Asian Stud- cessed February 22,2011). 2011). tion, http://bhutanfound.org/?cat=19 (accessed February 22, February 22,2011). dot?id=376a6b73-f42a-49eb-b76a-98c99b66e25 (accessed www.trust.org/trustlaw/country-profiles/good-governance. 22,2011). ary Bhutan, http://www.undp.org.bt/mdg.htm (accessedFebru- 22, 2011). gov.bt/pressReleases/EducationGNH.pdf (accessedFebruary and Education , rep. Mar. 10-12, 2010,http://www.health. Organized by CBSandSeminar Foundation (India): GNH tions.aspx (accessedFebruary 22,2011). RNS-Buddhist-Bhutan-bans-clergy-from-voting-in-elec- September 29,2010,http://pewforum.org/Religion-News/ voting inelections,” Pew Forum onReligion andPublic Life, cessed February 22,2011). http://bhutanyouth.org/our-work/sponsor-a-monk/ (ac- piness.html (accessedFebruary 22,2011). tonpost.com/onfaith/georgetown/2008/08/measuring_hap- Washington Post, August 22,2008.http://newsweek.washing- ing Happiness inBhutan,” inGeorgetown onFaith Blog, 2011). nance/Project%20Document%20gender.pdf (February 21, Bhutan, 2007,http://www.undp.org.bt/assets/files/Gover - ened withincreased capacityofwomen(project),” UNDP 151 150 149 148 147 146 145 144 143 142 141 140 139 22, 2011). Brian D.Denman andNamgyel Singye, “Convergence KarmaPhuntsho, “On “HIV/AIDSinBhutan,” World Bank, August 2008,(ac- “About theFoundation: Our Mission,” Bhutan Founda- Ibid. “Anti-corruption profile: Bhutan,” Trust Law,http:// “Millennium Development Goals inBhutan,” UNDP Vishal Arora, “RNS:Buddhist Bhutan bansclergyfrom “Sponsor aMonk,” Bhutan Youth Development Fund, Ibid. KatherineMarshall, “Georgetown/On Faith: Measur- “Bhutan: Localgovernance systemsandcapacitystrength- Lyonpo Zangley Dukpa, India‐Bhutan GNHDialogue the Two Ways ofLearningin Bhu- The The bhutan.pdf>. unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/reports/ tan). ICEReport. UNESCO,2004. Web.

119 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 ment Approach in Nepal,” Journal of Refugee Studies 18, no. 2 192 Mayell, 2003. (2005): 151-64. 193 National Crime Record Bureau, Ministry of Home Af- 173 Ibid. 157. fairs, Figures at a Glance, http://ncrb.nic.in/CII-2009-NEW/ cii-2009/figure%20at%20a%20glance.pdf (accessed May 174 Ibid. 11, 2011).

175 Ibid. 194 Jodhka, S.S. and Pradyumna, B., Mapping Faith-based Development Activities in Maharashtra, India, Working Paper 176 Ibid. 157. No.28, Religions and Development Research Programme, University of Birmingham, UK, 48 pp. 177 Ibid. 156. 195 Ibid. 178 “India at a glance,” World Bank, February 2010, http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ 196 V.D. Savarkar, “Who is a Hindu?,” Essentials of Hindutva, COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,conte 41, http://www.savarkar.org/content/pdfs/en/essentials_of_ ntMDK:20195738~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSite hindutva.v001.pdf (accessed December 1, 2010). PK:295584,00.html (accessed February 22, 2011). 197 Jodhka, S.S. and Pradyumna, B. 179 Ibid. 198 Ibid. 180 Ibid. 199 “Overview,” Aim for Seva, http://www.aimforseva.org/ 181 Ibid. about.php (accessed February 23, 2011).

182 Manish Chary, India: Nation on the Move: An Overview of 200 Nathan Grills, “‘Believing in HIV: Recommendations India’s People, Culture, History, Economy, IT Industry and More, for Scaling-Up the Response to HIV of Fatih Based Orga- iUniverse Press, 2009. nizations in India,” Oxford University Department of Public

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN Health, CDC Global AIDS Program, and the HIV Depart- 183 Arvind P.Nirmal, “Towards a Christian Dalit Theology,” ment of the WHO, 2008, http://www.aidsportal.org/Article_ Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology:Emerging Trends, ed. R.S. Details.aspx?ID=7192 (accessed February 23, 2011). Sugirtharajah (Mayknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1999). 201 “Home,” India Partners, http://www.indiapartners.org/ 184 Ibid. (accessed February 23, 2011).

185 “India Country Overview,” World Bank, April 2010, 202 Ibid. http://www.worldbank.org.in/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/INDIAEXTN/0,,conte 203 “Home,” The Deaf Resource Library, http://www.deafli- ntMDK:20195738~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSite brary.org/ (accessed February 23, 2011). PK:295584,00.html (accessed 29 December 2010). 204 “Improving Education in Madrasas: An India Case Study,” 186 Roy, Nilanjana S., “A Campaign Against Girls in India,” USAID India, http://www.beps.net/publications/India%20 The New York Times, April 12, 2011, http://www.nytimes. Madrasa%20FINAL.pdf (accessed May 11, 2011).

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS com/2011/04/13/world/asia/13iht-letter13.html (accessed May 9, 2011). 205 HRD says no to American tutors in madrasas, The Times of India, February 4, 2011, http://articles.timesofindia. 187 “India Country Overview,” World Bank, April 2010. indiatimes.com/2011-02-04/india/28363133_1_hrd- ministry-interference-external-affairs (accessed May 11, 188 UNICEF India, http://www.unicef.org/india/health.html 2011). (Accessed May 9, 2011). 206 “Vocational Training for rural women in India brings 189 Hilary Mayell, “India’s ‘Untouchables’ Face Violence, Dis- unexpected dividends,” Baha’i Topics, (reprinted from One crimination,” National Geographic News, June 2, 2003, http:// Country October-December 1990,) http://info.bahai.org/ar- news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/06/0602_030602_ ticle-1-8-1-16.html (accessed February 23, 2011). untouchables.html (accessed February 23, 2011). 207 “Home,” Seva Mandir, http://www.sevamandir.org/ (ac- 190 Ibid. cessed February 23, 2011).

191 Ibid. 208 Ibid. 120 12, 2011). http://www.who.int/gho/countries/pak.pdf (accessed May stan/women_pakistan.pdf (accessedFebruary 23,2011). ments/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Paki- Development Bank, 2000,1-14,http://www.adb.org/Docu- view,” htm (accessedmay11,2011). CEF Pakistan, http://www.unicef.org/pakistan/media_6973. html (accessedFebruary 23,2011). www.unicef.org/infobycountry/pakistan_pakistan_statistics. mat.aspx (accessedFebruary 23,2011). brookings.edu/opinions/2010/0817_pakistan_floods_kara- Institute, Washington, D.C., August 17, 2010, http://www. and Economic Impact ofthe Recent Floods,” theBrookings html (accessedMay 12,2011). 059~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:293052,00. KISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293 SITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PA ment,” World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WB- tiancouncil.in/ (accessedFebruary 23,2011). cessed February 23,2011). www.nacdor.org/TEXT%20FILES/Introduction.htm (ac- February 23,2011). http://www.ncdhr.org.in/nfdlrm/about-nfdlrm (accessed 226 225 224 223 222 221 220 219 218 217 216 215 214 213 212 211 210 209 DR.pdf. Ibid. “Pakistan Health Profile,” World Health Organization, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. “Situational Analysisof Women inPakistan –anOver- “Education key but progress uneven for Pakistan,” UNI- Pakistan: Statistics,” UNICEF, March 2,2010,http:// Ibid. Jehangir Karamat,“Pakistan’s Water World: The Political “Pakistan: Achieving Results inaChallengingEnviron - Ibid. “Home,” AllIndia ChristianCouncil,http://www.chris- Ibid. “National Conference ofDalit Organisations,” http:// “Home,” National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, “Introduction,” http://internationalbudget.org/pdf/NCH- Pakistan (FY2004 Congressional Budget Justification), Women inPakistan Briefing (Country Paper), Asian partment Blog,partment July 16,2010(accessedMay 12,2011). University ofBirmingham International Development De - (accessedFebruaryirf/2005/51616.htm 9,2011). man Rightsand Labor, 2010,http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/ stan,” ofState, U.S.Department Bureau ofDemocracy, Hu- e1809 (accessedFebruary 24,2011). http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/ edited by John L.Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, faretrust.com.pk/nawt/Welcome.asp (accessedFebruary 24, Alamgir Welfare Trust International, http://www.alamgirwel- (accessed February 24,2011). org.pk/history.html (accessedFebruary 24,2011). www.edhifoundation.com/ (accessedFebruary 23,2011). (accessed February 23,2011). activities/emergencies/caritas_in_emergencies.html?cnt=318 en/gb/ (accessedFebruary 23,2011). dex.htm (accessedFebruary 23,2011). cessed February 23,2011). 1999, http://www.adb.org/ngos/docs/NGOPakistan.pdf (ac- east/Pakistan.pdf (assessedFebruary 23,2011). http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2004/asia_near_ United States AgencyforInternational Development, 2004, 233 232 231 230 229 228 227 245 244 243 242 241 240 239 238 237 236 235 234 Ibid. “Understanding Faith-based Organisations inPakistan,” Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. (accessedFebruary 23,2011). “International Religious Freedom Report 2010:Paki - “Pakistan, Islam in,” InOxford of The Dictionary Islam., “Introduction ofAlamgir Welfare Trust International,” “About Us,” Dar-Ul-Sukun, http://www.darulsukun.com/ Ibid. “Home,” Pakistan Red Crescent Society, http://www.prcs. isEdhi Foundation,” “What Edhi Foundation, http:// Ibid. “Joining handsPakistan,” Caritas,http://www.caritas.org/ “Home,” Muslim Hands, http://www.muslimhands.org/ “Home,” Muslim Aid,http://www.muslimaid.org.pk/in- Ibid. Ibid. “A Study of NGOs: Pakistan,” AsianDevelopment Bank,

121 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 2011). by-faith-in-south-and-central-asia

246 “Welcome,” Al-Mustafa Welfare Society (Trust), http:// 262 Sabrina Tavernise, “Turkish Schools Offer Pakistan a www.almustafa.net/index1.html (accessed February 24, Gentler Version of Islam,” New York Times, May 4, 2008, 2011). http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/04/world/asia/04islam. html?pagewanted=3&_r=1 (accessed February 24, 2011). 247 “Home,” Akhuwat, http://www.akhuwat.org.pk/ (accessed February 24, 2011). 263 Ibid.

248 Iqbal and Siddiqui, 2008. 264 “Pakistan (Progress in Peacebuilding),” United States Institute of Peace, April 2010, https://docs.google.com/ 249 “Christian Development Organization, Karachi, Pakistan,” viewer?url=http://www.usip.org/files/regions/faqs/Pakistan ChristianVolunteering.org, http://www.christianvolunteer- %2520Progress%2520in%2520Peacebuilding%2520Apr ing.org/org/christian-development-organization.jsp (accessed il%25202010.pdf&pli=1 (accessed February 24, 2011). February 24, 2011). 265 Ibid. 250 “Understanding Faith-based Organisations in Pakistan,” 266 Ibid. 251 “Ministry’s Profile,” Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Zakat & Ushr, http://mozu.gov.pk/Administration/Minis- 267 “Peacebuilding Organizations: Pakistan,” Insight on Con- try_Profile.htm (accessed February 24, 2011). flict, http://www.insightonconflict.org/conflicts/pakistan/ peacebuilding-organisations (accessed February 24, 2011). 252 Ibid. 268 Ibid. 253 Refer to: Nicholas D. Kristof, “Religious Donations Go- ing Awry,” New York Times ‘On the Ground Blog’, November 269 Ibid. 20, 2010, http://kristof.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/20/reli- gious-donations-going-awry/#more-7085 (accessed February 270 Ibid.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 24, 2011). 271 Ibid. 254 “Welcome to Ministry of Education,” Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, http://www.moe.gov.pk/ 272 Ibid. (accessed February 24, 2011). 273 Ibid. 255 Ibid. 274 Ibid. 256 Hasan Mansoor, “Pakistan Christian schools strike after killings,” AFP, August 3, 2009, http://www.google.com/host- 275 Ibid. ednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i-xDZKhJz4vVyAx-sdpk2cIK- pX3A (accessed Feburary 24, 2011). 276 Ibid.

257 “Welcome,” Christian Fellowship of Pakistan, http://www. 277 Ibid. christianfellowshippakistan.org/Pakistan/Welcome.html (ac- 278

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS cessed February 24, 2011). Ibid.

258 “Gunmen attack Pakistan school,” BBC News, August 5, 279 Ibid. 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2173184.stm (accessed February 24, 2011). 280 Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population, Pew 259 Suba Chandran, “Madrassas in Pakistan,” Institute of Research Center, October 2009, http://pewforum.org/up- Peace and Conflict Studies, September 2003, http://www. loadedfiles/Topics/Demographics/Muslimpopulation.pdf ipcs.org/pdf_file/issue/2032153432IB11-SubaChandran- (accessed February 24, 2011). MadrassasInPak.pdf (accessed February 24, 2011). 281 “Asian Development Bank and Afghanistan: Factsheet,” 260 Ibid. Asian Development Bank, December 31, 2009, http://www. state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148786.htm. 261 Participant comments from “Workshop on Global Development and Institutions Inspired by Faith in South and 282 Ibid. Central Asia,” http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/events/ workshop-on-global-development-and-institutions-inspired- 283 Poverty Status in Afghanistan, A Profile based on Na- 122 Together-but-worlds-apart-Christian-aid-groups-raise-suspi- org/eng/Issues-and-Analysis/Library/Part-3-Exporting-Faith- tion for Women’s RightsinDevelopment, http://www.awid. holds of Islam,’” in The Boston Globe, October 2006, Associa- World’s Apart: ChristianGroups RaiseSuspicion inStrong - affiliated-groups (accessed March 1,2011). aid-workers-deaths-highlights-delicate-position-of-Christian- com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0809/Afghanistan- Science Monitor, August 9,2010,http://www.csmonitor. delicate positionofChristian-affiliated groups,” Christian May18, 2011). and%20Sayedabad%20Report%20-%20Final.pdf (accessed http://www.cmi.no/pdf/?file=/afghanistan/doc/Kunduz%20 –CooperationforPeaceDepartment andUnity, July 2007 ies from Sayedabad andKunduz.” Research and Advocacy tions ofReligious CivilSociety In Afghanistan:CaseStud- 2011, ary www.undp.org.af/WhatWeDo/dg.htm (March 1,2011). (Marchorg/country/afghanistan 1,2011). (March 1,2011). ages/IntWomensDay04/AfghanWomenFact%20Sheet.pdf municator, http://www.womenforafghanwomen.org/im- 1, 2011). www.un.org/events/women/2002/sit.htm (accessedMarch tions Economic andSocial Council,March 8,2002,http:// (accessed March 1,2011). pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:305985,00.html TANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20154015~menuPK:305992~ TERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/AFGHANIS January 2011,http://www.worldbank.org.af/WBSITE/EX- 295 294 293 292 291 290 289 288 287 286 285 284 PovertyReport.pdf (accessedMarch 1,2011). es/305984-1264608805475/6739619-1286210806756/AF- worldbank.org/AFGHANISTANEXTN/Resourc- of Economy,Ministry July 2010,http://siteresources. World Bank andtheIslamic Republic ofAfghanistan, tional Riskand Vulnerability (NRVA) Assessment , The Susan Milligan, “Part Faith 3:Exporting ‘Together, but Ben Arnoldy, “Afghanistan aidworkers’ deathshighlights Nawabi, Wardak, andZaman. “The Role and Func- 2011,” Overview AfghanistanCountry World Bank, Janu- “Democratic Governance,” UNDPAfghanistan,http:// Ibid. “Afghanistan (Data),” World Bank, http://data.worldbank. “Afghanistan: Afghan Women Fact Sheet,” AfghanCom- Ibid. Ibid. “The Situation of Women inAfghanistan,” United Na- “Afghanistan 2011,” Overview Country World Bank, Researc hInstitute Oslo. September 2010 Transnational LinksinAfghanReligious Education.“ Peace News_And_Events/pdf/2010/Afghanistan_NESP.pdf 1389. http://www.iiep.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ 2011). content&view=frontpage&Itemid=1 (accessedMarch 1, ucation, http://english.moe.gov.af/index.php?option=com_ stan.htm (accessedMay 18,2011). office-reports/report-on-the-domestic-revenues-of-afghani- http://www.apap.af/www/budget/budget-get Department. lution-afghan/EN/index.htm (accessedMarch 1,2011). review/2009/Afghanistan-law-order-elections/conflict-reso- it forthemselves,” NATO Review, http://www.nato.int/docu/ www.advocacynet.org/page/awn (accessedMarch 1, 2011). 1, 2011). ghanistan, http://www.rawa.org/index.php (accessedMarch html (accessedMarch 1,2011). com/rahim-kanani/islam-and-maternal-mortal_b_618826. Huffington Post,June 21,2010,http://www.huffingtonpost. istan: AReligious andCultural Approach toSaving Lives,” 2011). es/223546-1151200256097/chap1.pdf (accessedMarch 1, sources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resourc- tion andPovery Reduction, World Bank, http://sitere- 1389. cion-in-strongholds-of-Islam (March 1,2011). 302 301 300 299 298 297 296 312 311 310 309 308 307 306 305 304 303 Borchgrevink, Kaja.“Beyond Borders: Diversity and Ibid. National Education Strategic Plan forAfghanistan–1385- “Home,” Islamic Republic of Ed of Afghanistan Ministry - Nawabi, Wardak, andZaman. The AfghanistanParliamentary -Bud AssistanceProject - Nawabi, Wardak, andZaman. Christian Dennys, “Conflict Resoltuion: Afghans, doing ChristianDennys, “Conflict Resoltuion: Afghans,doing Ibid. “Afghan Women’s Network,” The Advocacy Project, http:// “Home,” RevolutionaryAssociationofthe Women ofAf - Ibid. RahimKanani,“Islam andMaternal Mortality inAfghan- Ibid. “Introduction: Afghanistan,” National Reconstruc - Borchgrevink, Kaja. National Education Strategic Plan forAfghanistan–1385-

123 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 313 “Afghanistan (Progress in Peacebuilding),” United States 326 Ibid. Institute of Peace, February 2010, http://www.usip.org/files/ regions/faqs/PIP%20Afghanistan%202-2010_0.pdf (ac- 327 “Education in Kazakhstan,” UNICEF, http://www.unicef. cessed March 1, 2011). org/ceecis/Kazakhstan.pdf (accessed March 1, 2011).

314 “Overview of Civil Society Organizations: Afghanistan.” 328 Dave, “Kazakhstan,” 259. Asian Development Bank. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Re- ports/Civil-Society-Briefs/AFG/CSB-AFG.pdf (accessed May 18, 329 “Kazakh Census Reveals Ethnic, Religious Changes,” Cen- 2011). tral Asian Newswire, November 15, 2010, http://centralasian- ewswire.com/Kazakhstan/Kazakh-census-reveals-ethnic-reli- 315 “Culture Matters: Lessons from a Legacy of Engaging gious-changes/viewstory.aspx?id=2336 (accessed December Faith-based Organizations.” United Nations Population 1, 2010). Fund. http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/ documents/publications/2008/Culture_Matter_II.pdf (ac- 330 “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Kazakh- cessed May 18, 2011). stan,” U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Hu- man Rights and Labor, 2010, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/ 316 See UNDP—http://www.undp.org.af/fnews/ irf/2010/148793.htm (accessed December 1, 2010). teacher&religious.html and http://www.undp.org.af/ whoweare/undpinafghanistan/Projects/2ndQ08Repor 331 Aysegul Aydingun, “Islam as a Symbolic Element of Na- ts/2008-08-05%20-%20Second%20Quarter%202008%20 tional Identity Used by the Nationalist Ideology in the Na- Progress%20Report%20-%20AJDL.pdf tional and State Building Process in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan,” Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies. no. 17, Sum- 317 Kadyr Malikov, Muslim Community in Kyrgyzstan: So- mer 2007, 68-83, www.jsri.ro/new/?download=5_aydin- cial Activity at the Present Stage, American University of gun_17.pdf (accessed March 2, 2011). Central Asia, 2010, http://elibrary.auca.kg:8080/dspace/ bitstream/123456789/466/1/SRC_Muslim%20communi- 332 Mushfig Bayram, “Kazakhstan: Ethnic-based mosques ty%20in%20Kyrgyz Republic_Social%20activity%20at%20 ‘cannot be opened,” Worldwide Religious News, November 4, the%20present%20stage_eng.pdf (accessed December 27, 2010, http://wwrn.org/articles/34423/?&place=russia-cis (ac-

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN 2010). cessed March 2, 2011).

318 “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Kyryz 333 “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Kazakh- Republic,” U.S. Department of State Bureau of Democracy, stan,” U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Hu- Human Rigths, and Labor, November 17, 2010, http://www. man Rights and Labor. state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148795.htm (accessed December 27, 2010). 334 “United National Human Rights Council Universal Pe- riodic Review: Kazakhstan,” United Nations Human Rights 319 Martin Vennard, “Kyrgyz Republic keeps a tight grip on Council, September 8, 2009, http://www.icj.org/dwn/data- religion,” BBC News, January 19, 2010, http://news.bbc. base/KazakhstanUPRfinal09.pdf (accessed March 2, 2011). co.uk/2/hi/8446662.stm (accessed December 23, 2010). 335 “Overview of NGOS/Civil Society: Kazakhstan,” Asian 320 Malikov, Muslim Community in Kyrgyzstan: Social Activity Development Bank, 2005, http://www.adb.org/Documents/ at the Present Stage. Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/KAZ/CSB-KAZ.pdf (accessed March 2, 2011). 321

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS “Kyrgyz Republic Flash Appeal (June 2010-June 2011)”, UNFPA and UNICEF, 2010, http://ops.unocha.org/Re- 336 “Number of registered non-commercial organizations in ports/daily/CAPProjectSheet_900_20101227.pdf (accessed Kazakhstan,” Electronic Newsletter. USAID, ICNL 4, May 28, March 1, 2011). 2010, http://www.icnl.org/programs/location/nis/resources/ Newsletter%204_2010%20(English).pdf (accessed March 2, 322 Ibid. 2011).

323 Bhavna Dave, “Kazakhstan.” in Nations in Transit 2010. 337 “Court Practice in Cases Involving Non-Commercial (Washington, DC: Freedom House, 2010), 261. Organizations,” Electronic Newsletter. USAID, ICNL. Iss. 5, July 2, 2010, http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/ 324 Ibid. search?q=cache:l0ZKqu1JMcQJ:www.icnl.org/programs/lo- cation/nis/resources/Newsletter%25205_2010%2520(Engli 325 Millennium Development Goals in Kazakhstan (2010), UN sh).doc+Court+Practice+in+Cases+Involving+Non-Comme Kazakhstan and the Government of Kazakhstan, October 15, rcial+Organizations,%E2%80%9D&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk 2010, http://www.un.kz/userfiles/1006_oon_mdgr2010_ &gl=us&source=www.google.com (accessed March 2, 2011). eng.zip (accessed March 1, 2011), 38. 338 “Broken Promises: Freedom of religion or belief issues 124 2010). printout/0,8816,1969290,00.html (accessedDecember 17, March 3,2011). http://dushanbe.usembassy.gov/pr_12102010.html (accessed mocracy, Human Rights, and Labor, November 17, 2010, jikistan,” United States ofState Department Bureau ofDe- jikistan/notebook.cfm (accessed January 3,2010). al Integrity, http://www.globalintegrity.org/reports/2006/ta- 2010). (accessedJanuaryCountry-Gender-Assessments/taj.asp 3, Bank, May 2006,http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/ 2010). Profile.aspx?crName=TAJIKISTAN (accessed December 7, states/tajikistan/facts-and-figures (accessed 3,2010). January tion, http://www.euro.who.int/en/where-we-work/member- files/1296639.stm (accessed December 7,2010). - 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_pro (accessedDecembernews/2010/0831_2.htm 7,2010). http://www.ilo.org/public/english/region/eurpro/moscow/ vey,” International LabourOrganization, August 31,2010, 2011). K:141127~theSitePK:258744,00.html (accessedMarch 2, MDK:20630697~menuPK:287255~pagePK:141137~piP COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TAJIKISTANEXTN/0,,content 2010, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ Bank. “International NGOs inEurope andCentralAsia,” World tween Marist Priest, Father Stan Hosie, and Betty Silverstein: Teachers,” cessed March 2,2011). PK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:258599,00.html (ac- COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20513289~page Bank, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/ 350 349 348 347 346 345 344 343 342 341 340 339 (accessedMarchphp?module=article&view=983 2,2011). Committee, June 30,2010,http://www.nhc.no/php/index. in KazakhstanandKyrgyz Republic,” Norwegian Helsinki “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Ta - Nargis Zokirova, “Reporter’s Notebook: Tajikistan,” Glob- “Tajikistan,” United Nations,- http://data.un.org/Country “Tajikistan: Facts andFigures,” World Health Organiza- “Tajikistan profile,” country BBCNews , December 1, “Tajikistan’s statisticsagency carriesoutwork force sur- Ibid. Brief 2010: “Country Tajikistan,” World Bank, October CounterpointInternational wasbornoutcollaborationbe- Pelin Turgut, “Muslim The Missionary: Preacher and His “International NGOs inEurope andCentralAsia,” World Tajikistan Gender Country ,AsianDevelopment Assessment Time, April 26,2010,http://www.time.com/time/ ary 3,2010). ary (accessed Januline%20study%20summary%20English.pdf - ICCO, and Christian Aid, www.noedhjaelp.dk/.../Base - public and Tajikistan andtheirFamilies,” DanChurchAid, Spread ofHIVAmongLaborMigrants from Kyrgyz Re- ChurchAid, ICCO,andChristianAidonPreventing the ccdp/religion_politics.html (accessedMarch 3,2011). velopment andPeacebuilding, http://graduateinstitute.ch/ The Graduate Institute Geneva Centre onConflictand De- 2010). ary (article%20Bruno%20De%20Cordier).pdf (accessed3Janu- be/crg/staff/publications/ISIM%20Review%2019-10%20 stan,” ISIMReview 19,Spring 2007,http://www.psw.ugent. vember 13,2010. com/turkmenistan/economy_profile.html (accessed March Index Mundi, December 30, 2010,http://www.indexmundi. html (accessedMarch 3,2011). 43~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:300736,00. ISTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20631627~menuPK:3007 SITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TURKMEN menistan, March 2010,http://web.worldbank.org/WB- 19, 2010). (December php?option=com_content&task=view&id=299 December 18,2010. cember 18,2010. ment-ENGLISH-final-signed.pdf (accessed March 3,2011). www.undg.org/docs/10462/UNDAF-2010-2015-Docu- the Government of Turkmenistan, August 15,2009,http:// DAF) for Turkmenistan 2010-2015,” United Nations and 357 356 355 354 353 352 351 366 365 364 363 362 361 360 359 358 “Baseline Study –Key Findings: The Pilot Project of Dan- Abramson, 2010. “Religion andPolitics: Initiatives andApplied Research,” Ibid. Bruno De Cordier, “Shiite Aid Organizations in Tajiki- Tatiana Kotova, by Michael Bodakowski, interview No- Ibid. “Turkmenistan Economy Profile: Economy – overview,” Ibid. Ibid. Brief 2010(Turkmenistan),” “Country World Bank Turk- “ “Partners,” UNDP Tajikistan, http://www.undp.tj/index. Ibid. Abdurakhim Nazarov, by Michael Bodakowski, interview Shurob Khaitov, by Michael Bodakowski, interview De - United Nations Development AssistanceFramework (UN-

125 BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | 2011 3, 2011). 383 Ibid.

367 Ibid. 384 “Overview of NGOS/Civil Society: Turkmenistsan,” Asian Development Bank, 2005, http://www.adb.org/Documents/ 368 “Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmeni- Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/TKM/CSB-TKM.pdf (accessed stan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies (Area Handbook Se- March 3, 2011). ries),” U.S. Libraray of Congress Federal Research Division, 1996, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@ 385 Bayram Balci, “Central Asia: Fethullah Gülen’s Mission- field(DOCID+tm0031 (accessed March 3, 2011). ary Schools,” Fetullah Gülen Movement, June 15, 2006, http://www.fethullahGülenmovement.mobi/press-room/ 369 Felix Corley, “Turkmenistan: New religion law defies in- review/1204-central-asia-fethullah-Gülens-missionary- ternational human rights agreements,” Forum 18, November schools.html (accessed March 3, 2011). 11, 2003, http://wwrn.org/articles/8604/ (accessed March 3, 2011). 386 “Turkmenistan,” Bahai.org, http://www.bahai.org/world- wide-community/national-communities/turkmenistan (ac- 370 David Tyson, “Shrine Pilgrimage in Turkmenistan as a cessed March 3, 2011). Means to Understand Islam among the Turkmen,” Central Asia Monitor—Online Supplement, no. 1, 1997, http://www. 387 “Turkmenistan Community Empowerment Program,” uga.edu/islam/turkmen.html (accessed March 3, 2011). Counterpart International, http://www.counterpart.org/our- work/projects/tcep-in-turkmenistan (accessed December 16, 371 “Background Note: Turkmenistan,” U.S. Department 2010). of State, October 31, 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/ bgn/35884.htm (accessed December 10, 2010). 388 “Asian Development Bank and Uzbekistan: Fact Sheet,” Asian Development Bank, April 2010, http://www.adb.org/ 372 Ibid. Documents/Fact_Sheets/UZB.pdf (accessed March 3, 2011).

373 Annette Bohr, “Turkmenistan,” in Nations in Transit 2010, 389 Ibid. Freedom House, http://www.freedomhouse.eu/images/Re-

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY GEORGETOWN ports/NIT-2010-Turkmenistan-final.pdf (accessed March 3, 390 “MDG Campaign,” UNDP Uzbekistan, http://www. 2011). undp.uz/en/mdgs/ (accessed March 3, 2011).

374 “Country Brief 2010 (Turkmenistan),” World Bank Turk- 391 “Uzbekistan: Country profile of human development,” menistan. UNDP Uzbekistan, http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/ profiles/UZB.html (accessed March 3, 2011). 375 Martin McKee, Bernd Rechel and Inga Sikorskaya, “Health in Turkmenistan after Niyazov,” European Centre on Health 392 “Background Note: Uzbekistan,” U.S. Department of of Societies in Transition and the London School of Hygiene State Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, August 19, & Tropical Medicine, 2009, http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/centres/ 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2924.htm (accessed ecohost/public_health/niyazov/health_in_turkmenistan_af- March 3, 2011). ter_niyazov.pdf (accessed March 3, 2011). 393 “Uzbekistan,” United Nations, http://data.un.org/Coun- 376 Ibid. tryProfile.aspx?crName=UZBEKISTAN (December 9, 2010). 377

BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS | BERKLEY CENTER REPORTS Bohr, 2010. 394 “Background Note: Uzbekistan,” U.S. Department of 378 McKee, et al., 2009. State Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs.

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