On Permaculture Design: More Thoughts
ON PERMACULTURE DESIGN: MORE THOUGHTS, IDEAS, METHODOLOGIES, PRINCIPLES, TEMPLATES, STEPS, WANDERINGS, EFFICIENCIES, DEFICIENCIES, CONUNDRUMS AND WHATEVER STRIKES THE FANCY ...
PERMACULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE SITE DESIGN
Today professionals and students in business, government, education, healthcare, building, economics, technology, and ntal environme sciences are being called upon to ‘design’ sustainable ctivities. programs and a
Through systems science we have learned that actions taken today can affect the viability of living systems to support human activity and evolution for many generations to come. Sustainability is a concept introduced to communicate the imperative for humanity to develop in nment our built enviro those conditions that will sustain the structures, functions, and processes inextricably linked with capacities for life.
The challenge we face in this new ity era of sustainabil is a realization that the goals and needs for developing sustainable conditions in our social environment are complex, diverse, and at times namics counter to the dy of ecological systems.
In recent years ecology has been called upon to include the studies of how humans interrelate with ecological processes, within ecosystems. Although humans are part of the natural ecosystem when we speak of human ecology, the relationships between humanity and the t environment, i is helpful to think of the ‘environment’ as the social system. What are the relationships and interactions within this ecosystem? What are the relationships and interactions between the social system and ecological environment es (this includ air, soil, water, physical living and nonliving structures)? How do the interactions systems, between affect the global ecosystem?
The most fundamental means we have as a society in transforming human ecology is through modeling and designing in our social environment those conditions that will influence sustainable interactions and relationships within the global ecological system. “The social system is a central concept in human ecology because human activities that impact the global ecosystem are strongly influenced by the society in which people live”. Currently, social system designs create ragmentation, f and counter productive relationships with ecological environments and dynamic processes. esign Such d in social organizations directs human activity towards unsustainable patterns of behavior and living conditions that create imbalances in both social and environmental ecologies. We must learn anew how to ‘design’ within our social environment, viable, sustainable, and regenerative system ons. conditi Humanity has the cognitive capacity to on learn, envisi and project through design to application, intended future outcomes. Until now this capacity has been utilized for economic prosperity which has created many complex structures, and processes within the social environment that impede our capacity for sustainable development. Many e people ar being called upon to design and develop within -‐economic the socio environment the means for sustainable development. But along with s the awarenes of the need for transformation, is a growing realization that the environment in which we have learned to interpret information, develop skills and apply knowledge, to date have shaped our capacity to understand systems and their functioning process in our own lives.
Survival in our culture has been inextricably linked with our socio-‐economic environment. It is within this environment, that our observations and understanding of ‘how life works’ has d been maintaine for generations. The social environment was not developed with an understanding of ecological structures and functions for building and sustaining pacities those ca inherent in succession, and regeneration. Fragmented from this understanding, humanity misuses ecological resources, which support s processe for succession, regeneration, and evolution. All natural resources are moved or converted from the ecosystem to support the socio-‐economic system. Human constructions have been conceived and designed as though our function and survival is not only separate from the ecological systems, but unaccountable to sustaining those capacities in which we depend.
Socio-‐Economic Design
Conventional economic design, and production methodologies that serve one purpose such as economic wealth/ profit, results in a one way relationship in which commodities are being developed at increasing levels of resource use and energy consumption. If surplus does not go into replenishment of those same resources being used or consumed in the production process, and the resources are not being accounted for by the same valuation method as the commodities they were converted into; there is a one way valuation and accountability that hides resource depletion. Resource depletion within social, environmental, and human equity has become inherent in sign. current social de
Ecological Design
On the other hand ecological design, functions and self-‐organizes to create system-‐efficiencies, regenerative capacity, and succession. Yields and surplus are returned to the system in order to strengthen and optimize the developmental capacity of the elements or parts within the system. As the parts, (i.e. elements of a system) are able to develop and function to their fullest potential, and form capacity building relationships, there is an emergence of a viable and abundant eco (life)-‐system. Production and Consumption within ecological design is not the means to an end, but are instead part of an ongoing process of fortification. All resources, including waste are considered potential building blocks to be utilized to regenerate the systems’ form, feedback, and functional health.
The most comprehensive source for transformative design in the human social environment begins with learning how rmaculture to design Pe systems within any context of social, environmental, or economic organization.
The Permaculture Design methodology teaches students to learn through careful observation, and develop the ability to think through the cycles, functions, structures and dynamic principles of ecological systems.
The Permaculture Design process takes an interdisciplinary approach to understanding ecology, systems, and logy. socio This is integrated with specializations in appropriate technologies, -‐ eco engineering, design & building, physical-‐chemical-‐biological, renewable energies, and . economics In order to create, in human design, the structure, conditions, and capacities or f sustenance that will be sustainable over time, we must allow for a more ecologically stable and viable human culture to evolve.
SITE ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN
Site design is a process of intervention involving the location of circulation, structures, and utilities, and making natural and cultural values available to property owners and visitors. The process s encompasse many steps from planning to construction, including initial inventory, sment, asses alternative analysis, detailed design, and construction procedures and services.
In many places, the land is more damaged ly than previous believed. Soil erosion, groundwater contamination, acid rain, and other industrial pollutants are damaging the health of plant communities, thereby intensifying the challenge and necessity to restore habitats. As only one component of an interdependent natural system, the human species must develop a respect for the landscape and expend more effort understanding the interrelationships of r, soils, wate plant communities and associations, and habitats, as well as the impacts of human uses on them.
Beyond a change in basic approach, sustainable site design requires holistic, ecologically based strategies to create at projects th do not alter or impair but instead help repair and restore existing site systems. Site systems such as plant and animal communities, soils, and hydrology spected must be re as patterns and processes of the living world. These strategies apply to all landscapes, no matter how small or how urban. Useful in understanding sustainable ecologically-‐based site design are the "Valdez Principles for Site Design," developed by Andropogon Associates, Ltd. And the Permaculture design methodologies ands principles. ese Th strategies are precedent-‐setting in their application and especially important to rightfully integrate the built environment into a te. setting or si
• Recognition of Context. No site can be understood and evaluated without looking outward to the site context. Before planning and designing a project, fundamental questions must be asked in mpact light of its i on the larger community. • Treatment of Landscapes as Interdependent and Interconnected. Conventional development often increases fragmentation of the landscape. The small remaining islands of natural landscape are typically surrounded by a fabric of development that diminishes their ability to support a variety of plant communities and habitats. This situation must be reversed. Larger whole systems must be created by reconnecting fragmented landscapes and establishing contiguous networks with other natural systems both within a site and beyond its boundaries. • Integration of the Native Landscape with Development. Even the most developed landscapes, where every trace eems of nature s to have been obliterated, are not -‐ self contained. These areas should be redesigned to support some component of the natural ovide landscape to pr critical connections to adjacent habitats. • Promotion of Biodiversity. The environment is experiencing extinction of both plant and animal species. Sustaining even a fraction of the diversity known today will be very difficult. lf Development itse affords a endous trem opportunity to emphasize the establishment rsity of biodive on a site. Site design must be directed to protect local plant and animal communities, and new landscape plantings must deliberately h reestablis diverse natural habitats in organic patterns that reflect the processes of the site. • Reuse of Already Disturbed Areas. Despite the declining availability of relatively unspoiled land and the wasteful way sites are conventionally developed, existing built areas are being abandoned and new development located on remaining rural and natural ycle areas. This c must be reversed. Previously disturbed areas must be re-‐inhabited and restored, especially urban landscapes. • Making a Habit of Restoration. Where the landscape fabric is damaged, it must be repaired and/or restored. As stems most of the ecosy are increasingly disturbed, every development ould project sh have a restoration component. When site disturbance is uncontrolled, ological ec deterioration accelerates, and natural systems diminish in diversity and complexity. Effective restoration requires recognition of the interdependence of all site factors and must include repair of all site systems -‐ soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife. The above strategies can serve as policy guidelines in site design for developed areas of national parklands and challenge the design of appropriate tourism development.
TRADITIONAL VERSUS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable site design reinforces the holistic character of a landscape. It conveys appreciation of and respect for the interrelationships of a site, illuminating the interconnection of all parts through responsive design integrated with interpretive and cultural objects. Using a resort as a model, the difference in focus between traditional and sustainable development can be illustrated.
§. GENERAL SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
• Promote spiritual harmony with, and embody an ethical responsibility to, the native landscape and its resources. • Plan landscape development according to ing the surround context rather than by overlaying familiar patterns and solutions. • Do not sacrifice ecological integrity ability or economic vi in a sustainable development; both are equally important e factors in th development process. • Understand the site as an integrated ecosystem with changes curring oc over time in dynamic balance; the impacts of development must be confined within these natural changes. • Allow simplicity of functions to prevail, cting while respe basic human needs of comfort and safety. • Recognize there is no such thing as waste, only resources out of place. • Assess feasibility of development in long-‐term social and environmental costs, not just -‐term short construction costs. • Analyze and model water and nutrient cycles prior to development intervention -‐ "First, do no harm." • Minimize areas of vegetation disturbance, earth grading, and water channel alternation. • Locate structures to take maximum advantage of passive energy technologies to provide for human comfort. • Provide space for processing all wastes created onsite (collection/recycling facilities, digesters, lagoons, etc.) so that no hazardous or destructive wastes will be released into the environment. • Determine environmentally safe means of onsite energy production and storage in the early stages of site planning. • Phase development to allow for the monitoring of cumulative environmental impacts of development. • Allow the natural ecosystem to be self-‐maintaining to the greatest extent possible. • Develop facilities to integrate selected maintenance h functions suc as energy conservation, waste reduction, recycling, and resource conservation into the visitor experience. • Incorporate indigenous materials and crafts uctures, into str native plants into landscaping, and local customs into programs and operations.
§. SPECIFIC SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Site Selection
Premises: What makes a region or site attractive evelopment? for tourism d First and foremost, it must possess outstanding natural or otherwise unique characteristics -‐ e.g., beaches, mountains, forests, ceans, lakes, rivers, o land forms, cultural resources -‐ that isitors v will want to experience. Siting ism of the tour development focuses on these natural characteristics, and the site inventory and analysis should clearly identify the quality and extent of these geographic features. A site may also be attractive for its ature proximity to a fe or merely its remoteness from other development.
The environmental characteristics that make an area attractive to visitors may also pose problems. Some attractive areas may tive be very sensi to disturbance and unable to withstand impacts of human activity. The limits of acceptable environmental change may be small for these areas, allowing only low density use to maintain a sustainable environmental quality. Other attractive areas may be too remote to justify development for direct visitor use. Conversely, some areas may be too close to safety hazards or overly developed to be appropriate for tourism development. However, some degraded areas may in fact provide opportunities for visitor development, allowing more options for site manipulation and ecological restoration.
Many recreational developments are in remote locations, often at the "end of the line," making many product inputs and xpensive outputs quite e and environmentally consumptive.
The site selection process ries asks a se of questions:
• Can development impacts on a site be minimized? • What inputs (energy, material, labor, products) are necessary to support a development option, and are required inputs available? • Can waste outputs (solid waste, sewage effluent, missions) exhaust e be dealt with at acceptable environmental costs?
The process of site selection for sustainable developments is one of identifying, weighing, and balancing the attractiveness (environmental, cultural, access) of a site against the costs inherent in its development (environmental, cultural, access, hazards, energetics, operational). The characteristics of a region or site should be described spatially (either conventional -‐generated or computer maps) to provide a precise geographic inventory. Spatial zones meeting programmatic objectives, within acceptable environmental parameters, are likely development sites.
Factors: The programmatic requirements and environmental teristics charac of sustainable tourism development will vary greatly, but the following factors should be considered in site selection:
• Capacity -‐ As difficult as it can be to as determine, every site h a carrying capacity for structures and human activity. d A detaile site analysis should determine this capacity based on the f sensitivity o site resources and the ability of the land to regenerate. • Density -‐ Siting of facilities should carefully lative weigh the re merits of concentration versus dispersal. Natural alues landscape v may be easier to maintain if facilities are carefully d. disperse Conversely, concentration of structure leaves more undisturbed natural areas. • Climate -‐ Environments for tourism developments range from rain forest to desert. The characteristics of a specific ould climate sh be considered when locating facilities so that human comfort can be maximized while protecting the facility from climatic forces such rms as violent sto and other extremes. • Slopes -‐ In many park environments steep slopes equiring predominate, r special siting of structures and costly construction practices. Building on slopes considered too steep can lead to soil erosion, loss of hillside vegetation, and damage to fragile wetland and marine ecosystems. Appropriate site selection should generally re locate mo intensive development on gentle slopes, dispersed n development o moderate slopes, and no development on steep slopes. • Vegetation -‐ It is important to retain as much existing native vegetation as possible to secure the integrity of the site. Natural vegetation is often an essential aspect of the visitor experience and should be preserved. Site selection should maintain large habitat oid areas and av habitat fragmentation and canopy loss. In some areas such as the tropics, most nutrients are held in the forest canopy, -‐ not in the soil loss of canopy therefore causes nutrient loss as well. Plants occur in natural associations (plant communities) and should remain as established naturally. • Views -‐ Views are critical and reinforce a visitor experience. Site location should maximize views of natural features and minimize views of visitor and support facilities. • Natural Hazards -‐ Sustainable development should be located with consideration of natural hazards such as precipitous topography, dangerous animals and plants, and hazardous water areas. Site layout should allow controlled access to these features. • Access to Natural and Cultural Features -‐ Good siting practices can maximize pedestrian access to the wide variety of onsite and offsite resources and recreational activities. Low velopment impact de is the key to protecting vital resource areas. • Traditional Activities -‐ Siting should be compatible with traditional agricultural, fishing, and hunting activities. Some forms of recreational development that supplant traditional land uses may not be responsive to the local economy. • Energy and Utilities -‐ Conventional energy and utility systems are often minimal or nonexistent in potential ecotourism areas. Siting should consider possible connections to offsite utilities, or more likely, spatial needs for onsite utilities. The potential exists for alternative energy use in many places, particularly solar-‐ and wind-‐based energy systems. Good sustainable siting considers these opportunities. • Separation of Support Facilities from Public Use Areas -‐ Safety, visual quality, noise, and odor are all factors that need to be considered when siting support services and facilities. These areas need ed to be separat from public use and circulation areas. In certain circumstances, utilities, energy systems, and waste recycling areas can be a positive part of the visitor experience. • Proximity of Goods, Services, and Housing -‐ Tourism developments require the input of a variety of goods and services and often large staffs for operation. Siting should consider the availability of these elements and the costs involved in providing them.
Site Access
Site access refers to not only the means of physically entering a able sustain development but also the en route experience route. For example, the en route experience could include transitions between origin and destination with sequential gateways, or it could provide an interpretive and/or educational experience. Other considerations for enhancing the experience of accessing a developed area include:
• Select corridors to limit environmental ntrol impacts and co development along the corridor leading to the facility. • Provide anticipation and drama by framing recting views or di attention to landscape features along the access route. • Provide a sense of arrival at the destination.
Site access can be achieved by various el means of trav including pedestrian, transit systems, private vehicles, boats, and e aircraft. Thes transportation means impose limitations on users based on the capabilities e of th traveler or the capacity of the particular transportation mode. Transportation means that are the least polluting, quiet, and least intrusive in the natural environment may be the opriate most appr for a recreational development. Where environmental r o other constraints make physical access impossible, remote video presentation may be the only way for people to access a site. The need to construct a road into a site is the first critical decision to be made. Building a road into a pristine site should be considered a serious intervention that will change the site forever. Roads tend to create irreversible impacts. Road Design and Construction: A curvilinear alignment should be w designed to flo with the topography and add visual interest; crossing unstable slopes should be avoided. Steep grades should be used as needed to lay road lightly on the ground, and retaining walls should be included on cut slopes to ensure long-‐term slope stability. e Th road should have low design speeds (with more and tighter curves) and a narrower width to minimize cut-‐and-‐fill disturbance. -‐ Over engineering of park roads should be avoided.
Access corridors should be provided for multiple purposes -‐ e.g., visitors, maintenance, security, emergency vehicles, under ground utilities. Secondary access (road, dock, or helicopter landing site) should always be provided to permit emergency entry and evacuation in the event of a natural disaster. Multiuse corridors can be ctive, effe especially in preconstruction planning. Using the same road during construction can limit site degradation and re-‐landscaping.
Many soils are highly susceptible to erosion. Vegetation clearing on the road shoulders should be minimized to limit erosion impacts and retain the benefits of greenery. All fill slopes should be stabilized and walls provided in cut sections where needed. Exposed soils should be immediately replanted and mulched. Paved ditches are frequently used to stem erosion along steep road gradients. In the design of park roads, landscape solutions are preferred to render a softer appearance.
Unpaved surfaces are appropriate in areas of stable soils, lower slopes, and low traffic loads, but they require more meable maintenance. Per paved surfaces allow limited percolation of precipitation while providing better wear than unpaved surfaces. Impermeable paved surfaces are oads needed for r with the highest load and traffic requirements. Whenever possible, d recycle materials should be used in the construction of the surfacing, e.g., crushed glass, shredded rubber tires, or recycled aggregate. The surfacing material should blend with predominant landscape tones. Contractual arrangements should be developed with local businesses for the reuse/recycling of any construction waste.
Other Access Improvements: It is imperative that ship corridors or channels do not traverse or that boat docks are not r constructed ove fragile marine environments such as coral reefs. Marine facilities ed should be develop to allow natural beach sand movement to continue unimpeded. Permanent anchor buoys should be installed in harbor areas to mitigate anchor damage to bottom environments.
Airstrip and approach flight paths should be located safely and to protect on recreati facilities (park development) from visual mpacts and noise i of airplanes. Permeable pavements should be used to increase water recharge and lessen runoff.
Core Site Access: Access within recreation-‐related development ally is typic pedestrian. Automobiles are usually restricted to the edges of the development. Paths should be laid out to avoid sensitive resources -‐ and be built at grade. In areas that are particularly environmentally sensitive ery or v steep, elevated walkways can be used. Elevated walkways also limit indiscriminate pedestrian access le to fragi vegetation.
While all visitor facilities should be accessible to visitors with disabilities, some natural features and site opportunities may by their very nature limit total accessibility. Rather than forcing unacceptable physical disturbance to make these areas accessible or precluding access to all visitors with disabilities, the concept of challenge levels should be used. The iculty degree of diff is determined and made known to visitors in advance much the same way ski slopes are classified as beginner, intermediate, or expert. Challenge levels assume that while key facilities will be readily accessible to all ections visitors, other s of the park or tourism development will be more difficult to access, and will involve some sense of adventure and accomplishment.
Utilities and Waste Systems
Utility Systems: With the development of a site comes me the need for so level of utility systems. Even the smallest human res habitat requi sanitary facilities for human waste and provisions for water. More elaborate developments have extensive systems to provide electricity, ng, gas, heati cooling, ventilation, and storm drainage. The provision of these services and the appurtenances associated with them sometimes create substantial impacts ape on the landsc and the functioning of the natural ecosystem. Sustainable site planning and design principles must be applied early in the planning process to assist in selecting systems that will not adversely affect the environment and will n work withi established natural systems. After the appropriate systems are selected, careful planning and design is required to address secondary impacts such as e soil disturbanc and intrusion on the visual setting.
Utility Corridors: Due to environmental impacts of utility transmission lines, onsite generation and wireless microwave receivers referred. are p When utility lines are necessary, they should be buried near other corridor areas that are already disturbed, such as roads and pedestrian paths. Overhead lines should not be located in desirable view sheds or over landform crests. Low impact alternatives for utility liens such as shielded conduit placed on the ground or on low pedestal mounts should be considered. Many utility lines can be concealed under boardwalks and thereby eliminate ground disturbance.
Utility System Facility Siting: Sustainable development of the infrastructure embodies the principles of reducing scale, dispersals of facilities, and the use of terrain or vegetative features to visually screen intrusive structures. Odor and noise are strong nuisance factors that must be addressed by location and buffering. Also, the insulation of mechanical equipment that can have acoustical impacts should be considered. The exception to this rule may be to feature alternative utility systems for the purposes of interpretation for mentally the environ conscious visitor. Night Lighting: The nighttime sky can be dramatic. Light intrusion and overlighting glare can obscure what little night sight is available to humans. Care is required to limit night lighting to the minimum necessary for safety. Urban lighting standards do not apply. Low voltage lighting with photovoltaic collectors should be considered as an energy-‐efficient alternative. Light fixtures should remain close to the ground, avoiding glare from eye level fixtures.
Storm Drainage: In undisturbed landscapes, storm drainage is typically handled by vegetation canopy, ground cover plants, soil absorption, and streams and waterways. In a modified landscape, storm t drainage mus be understood in regard to the impacts on the existing drainage e system and th resulting structures and systems that will be necessary to handle the new drainage pattern. The main principle in storm drainage control is unoff to regulate r to provide protection from soil erosion and avoid directing water able into unmanage volumes. Removal of natural vegetation, topsoil, and natural channels that provide natural drainage control should always be avoided. An alternative would be to try and stabilize soils, capture runoff in depressions (to help recharge ly), groundwater supp and -‐ re vegetate areas to replicate natural drainage . systems
Irrigation Systems: Low volume irrigation systems are appropriate in most areas as a temporary method to help restore previously disturbed areas or as a means to support local agriculture nd a native traditions. Restoration projects should consider the use of ultraviolet-‐tolerant irrigation components laid on f the surface o the soil and removed when native plants have d. become establishe Irrigation piping can be reused on other restoration eas ar or incorporated into future domestic hydraulic systems. Captured rain water, recycled r gray water, o treated effluent could be used as irrigation water.
Waste Treatment: It is important to use treatment technologies that are biological, non-‐mechanical, and do not involve soil leaching or land disposal that causes soil disturbance. While a septic system can , be considered treatment methods that result in useful products such as fertilizer and fuels should be preferred. Land-‐intensive methods that significantly alter the natural environment may not be appropriate in sensitive environments. Constructed biological ms syste are being put to use increasingly to purify wastewater. They offer the benefits of being environmentally responsive, nonpolluting, and st co -‐effective.
Site-‐Adaptive Design Considerations
The concept of sustainability suggests an approach to the relationship of site components that is somewhat different from conventional site design. With a sustainable approach, site components defer to the character of the landscape they occupy so that the experience of the landscape will be paramount. More ecological knowledge is at the core of sustainable tead design. Ins of human functional needs driving the site design, site components respond to the indigenous spatial character, climate, topography, soils, and vegetation as well as compatibility with the existing cultural context. For example, all facilities would conform to constraints of existing landforms and tree locations, and the xist character of e ing landscape will be largely maintained. Natural buffers and openings for privacy are used rather than artificially produced through planting and clearing. Hilly topography and dense vegetation are natural ways of separating nents. site compo
Natural Characteristics: The greatest challenge in achieving sustainable site design is to realize that much can be learned from nature. When nature is incorporated into designs, spaces can be more comfortable, interesting, and efficient. It is important to understand natural systems and the way they er interrelate in ord to work within these constraints with the least amount of environmental impact. Like nature, design should not be static but always evolving and adapting to interact more intimately with its surroundings.
• Wind -‐ The major advantage of wind in recreational development is its cooling aspect. For example, trade winds in the tropical environments often come from the northeast to the southeast ientation quadrant, or of structures, and outdoor gathering places to take advantage of this cooling wind movement, or "natural" air conditioning. Native cultures understand this technique quite well, and local structures reflect these principles.
• Sun -‐ Where sun is abundant, it is imperative to provide shade for human comfort and safety in activity areas (e.g., pathways patios). The most economical and practical way is to use natural vegetation, slope aspects, or introduced shade structures. The need for natural light in indoor spaces and solar energy are important siderations con to save energy and showcase environmental responsive solutions. • Rainfall -‐ Even in tropical rain forests where water is seemingly abundant, clean potable water is often in short supply. Many settings must import water, which substantially increases energy use and operating costs, an makes conservation of water important. Rainfall should be captured for a variety of uses (e.g., drinking, bathing) and this water reused for secondary purposes (e.g., flushing toilets, washing clothes). Wastewater or excess runoff from developed areas should be channeled ged and dischar in ways that allow for groundwater recharge instead of soil erosion. Minimizing disturbance to soils and vegetation and keeping development om away fr natural drainage ways protect the environment as well as the structure.
• Topography -‐ In many areas, flatland is at a premium and should be set aside for agricultural uses. This leaves only slopes upon which to build. Slopes do not have to be an insurmountable traint site cons if innovative design solutions and sound construction techniques are applied. Topography can potentially provide vertical separation and more privacy for individual structures. Changes in topography can also enhance and vary the way a visitor experiences the site nging by cha intimacy or familiarity (e.g., from a canyon walk to sweeping hillside overview). Again, protection of native soil and vegetation are critical concerns in high slope areas, and elevated walkways and point footings for structures are appropriate design solutions to this problem. • Geology and Soils -‐ Designing with geologic features such as rock outcrops can enhance the sense of place. For example, integrating rocks into the design of a deck or boardwalk brings the visitor in direct contact with the resource and the uniqueness of a place. Soil disturbances should be kept to a minimum to avoid erosion of fragile tropical soils and discourage growth of exotic plants. If limited soil disturbance must take place, a continuous cover over disturbed soils rosion with e control netting should always be maintained. • Aquatic Ecosystems -‐ Development near aquatic areas must be based on an extensive understanding of sensitive resources and processes. In most cases, development should be set back from the aquatic zone and protective measures taken to address indirect environmental ts. impac Particularly sensitive habitats such as beaches should fied be identi and protected from any disturbance. Harvesting of any aquatic resources should be based on definitive assessment of sustainable yield quently and subse monitored and regulated. • Vegetation -‐ Exotic plant materials, while possibly interesting and beautiful, are not amenable to maintaining healthy tems. native ecosys Sensitive native plant species need to be identified rotected. and p Existing vegetation should be maintained to encourage biodiversity ct and to prote the nutrients held in the biomass of native vegetation. Native ould planting sh be incorporated into all new developments on a 2:1 ratio of native plants removed. getation Ve can enhance privacy, be used to create "natural rooms," and be a primary source of shade. Plants also contribute to the visual integrity or natural fit of a new development in a natural setting. In some cases, plants can provide opportunities for food production and other useful products on a sustainable basis. • Wildlife -‐ Sensitive habitat areas should always be avoided. Encouraging wildlife to remain close to human activities centers enhances the visitor experience. This can be achieved by maintaining as much original habitat as possible. Creating artificial habitats or feeding wildlife could have disruptive effects on the natural ecosystem and should normally be avoided. • Visual Character -‐ Natural vistas should be used in design whenever possible. Creating onsite visual intrusions (road cuts, utilities, etc.) should be avoided, and views of offsite intrusions carefully controlled. A natural look can be maintained by using native building material, hiding structures within the vegetation, and working with the topography. It is easier to minimize the building footprint initially than it is to heal a visual scar at the end of construction.
Cultural Context: Local archeology, history, and people ting are the exis matrix into which visitation must fit. Sustainable principles seek balance between existing cultural patterns with new development. Developing an understanding of local culture and seeking their input in the development processes can make the difference between acceptance and failure.
• Archeology -‐ A complete archeological survey prior to development is imperative to preserving resources. Once resources are located, they can be incorporated into designs as an educational or interpretive tool. If discovered during construction activities, work ld shou be stopped and the site reevaluated. Sacred sites must be respected and protected. • History -‐ Cultural history should be reinforced through design by investigating and then interpreting vernacular design vocabulary. Local design elements and architectural character should be analyzed and employed to establish an architectural theme for new development. • Indigenous Living Cultures -‐ Cultural traditions should be encouraged and nurtured. A forum should be provided for local foods, music, art and crafts, lifestyles, dress, and architecture, as well as a means to supplement local incomes (if acceptable). Traditional harvesting esource of r products should be permitted to reinforce the value e of maintaining th resource.
Construction Methods and Materials
The complexity of construction is magnified in most parkland given the sensitivity of resources, isolation, and availability of local craftsmen and materials. The goal to leave landscape visually unimpaired after development drives the need to find new methods of management, new techniques, and evaluation constant re of every method and material use. For the project sful, to be succes there should be no residual signs of construction, and environmental damage should not be permitted. Through a network of ns, organizatio sources of nontoxic, renewable or recyclable, and environmentally responsive building products are available to use when specifying materials.
Certain site design strategies may be discouraged based on the probable environmental impacts of the construction ssary methods nece to build them. Providing fewer vehicular roads and more pedestrian circulation paths may allow smaller structures in a more dispersed arrangement and be a means of providing greater experience of the landscape (see sketch no. 3). The desire to incorporate structures sensitively into the landscape t may sugges the use of a few small light structures in place of one r larger one. Fo example, outdoor or semi-‐outdoor living, cooking, or bathing facilities combined d with enclose sleeping facilities may reflect local custom and create less disturbance . to the site
Construction Process Program: This required program will be a primer for developers, construction contractors, and e maintenanc workers. The plan covers materials, methods, testing, and options. ganization A careful or and sequencing of construction is emphasized. Examples include building walkways first, then using them as access to the site. Also it is important to plan material staging for areas in conjunction with future facilities. A knowledgeable construction supervisor must be involved, and all new construction methods should be tested in a prototypical first phase. Maintenance and operations staff should also be involved in this construction program and should participate in the development of an operations manual.
Construction Limits and Landscape Features: All undisturbed soil and vegetation located outside specifically designated construction limits should be fenced or otherwise protected (e.g., drop cloths, tree barriers). Where disturbance occurs, the site should be restored as soon as possible. All topsoil from construction area should be collected for use in site restoration. Preplanning the construction process will help identify alternative methods that minimize ce resour degradation. Flexibility in revising construction plans should be ange allowed to ch materials and construction methods based on actual site impacts. Not all of the design will be constructed as drawn; therefore, the construction supervisor must be knowledgeable of the design intent and project environmental philosophy in order to redesign or adapt as necessary. Throughout construction, resource cators indi should be monitored to ensure that resources are not being adversely affected.
Native Landscape Preservation/Restoration
Preservation of the natural landscape mportance is of great i during construction because it is much less expensive logically and more eco sound than subsequent restoration. Preservation entails carefully defining the construction -‐ zone do not "clear and grub" any unnecessary soil areas because it encourages volunteer exotic growth in scarred areas.
Restoration of native planting patterns should be used when site disturbances are unavoidable. All native plants disturbed truction by the cons should be saved, healing them first in a temporary nursery. hould The site s be replanted with native materials in a mix consistent with that found in a natural ecosystem. In some instances, native materials should be used nally compositio to achieve drama and visual interest for human benefit.
Noxious or toxic plant materials should not be used adjacent to visitor facilities. Eradication or control of exotic species should be considered, without creative negative effects on native plants. Some exotics are relatively benign; others are highly invasive. There should be an e awareness of th hazards of removing exotics that may have displaced pecies, a native s but in the process achieved a useful or even symbiotic relationship with other . native plants Ideally, plantings of native materials to control exotics should be or used. Water f new plantings can be provided by locating plants in drainage swales or by using temporary irrigation. New plantings should be mulched with forest cover.
Interpretation of the restoration areas will inform and educate the public on the value of native landscape restoration. Protection of existing resources in the ecosystem is the fundamental purpose of esign. sustainable d Visitor Safety and Security
Visitor awareness of their natural surroundings is the best safety insurance. Written and personal briefings by staff could help foster awareness of safety risks and allow visitors to take responsibility for their own safety and security.
Some important esign d considerations are as follows:
• Visitors must have a sense of personal curity safety and se to be attracted to recreation areas. The facility must have reasonable provisions to protect visitors from natural and manmade hazards. Location of walks and lodging must be designed to discourage visitor contact with dangerous plants or animals. • The design should consider safety from s; climate extreme visitors may be unaware of natural hazards, including intense sun, high wind, heavy rainfall, and extreme ity. humid • Ecological integrity must be balanced ncerns with safety co in a development where adventure and challenge are integral to the experience. Various challenge levels in site facilities should ded be provi to accommodate all visitors, including visitors th wi disabilities. • The use of artificial lighting should be limited to retain natural ambient light levels -‐ baffle lights or use ground-‐mounted light fixtures to limit spillover light impacts while providing a basic ity. sense of secur • Appropriate atmosphere and security can be enhanced by remote location and controlled access to the facilities -‐ incorporate natural barriers into facility design to minimize need for security fencing or barriers. • An alternate means of access should be available to provide essential emergency provisions of water, food, and medicine, and a reliable communication system.
CONCEPTS AND THEMES IN DESIGN (Bill Mollison)
Laws, principles, concepts and themes Conversion of a law to a directive
There is a great variety of natural laws and principles and, as designers, we use these as active tools, literally directives to act, whereas those who discovered them did so as a result of a passive process of observation. The greatest difficulty we have as designers is in the intelligent local application of cosmic passive principles.
An axiom is either an established principle -‐ or a self evident truth (sunrise in the east, sunset is in the west).
A principle is a basic truth, a rule of conduct, a law determining how something works.
A law is a statement of fact about the behavior of natural phenomena; it is supported by a set of hypotheses that have proved to be supportable or “correct”.
A thesis is an idea that is offered up for proof or discussion.
A hypothesis is a statement that is testable by experiment; it is objective, testable and priori a before the test.
Many statements made by people are somewhat xtures confused mi of the foregoing.
A rule is a discovered relationship, e.g. “as a rule” water flows at right angle to contour.
A directive is a way to proceed. It is an applied principle, and has an active component.
By examining several sets of rules, laws and principles we can establish a set of practical directives, principles by which we can act on design.
All designers should be aware of the fundamental laws that govern every natural system.
The overriding law is that:
The total energy of the universe is constant l and the tota entropy is constantly increasing.
Entropy is bound energy; it becomes unavailable for work, or not useful to the system. It is the waters of a mountain forest that has reached the sea, the heat, noise and exhaust smoke that an automobile lling, emits while trave and the energy of food used to keep an animal warm, alive nse, and mobile. In a se it is also disordered or opposing energy of contesting forces.
All energy entering an organism, population tem or ecosys can be accounted for as energy that is stored or leaves. Energy can m be transferred fro one form to another, but it cannot disappear or be destroyed or created.
This is a restatement of the First cs. Law of Thermodynami
Caloric bookkeeping, energy budgets or energy audits are what measure the efficiency of a designed system. In , today’s society gardens and farms, much non-‐ harmonic energy is degraded to waste.
No energy conversion is ever completely efficient.
This is the second Law of Thermodynamics.
No matter how good a design is, and how complex the net we set up to catch energies before they are bound, or to slow , the increase in entropy when it comes to the universal equation, we must lose. tion The only ques really is “how much need we lose of incoming or released energy?” and how much can we usefully store?
1. Nothing in nature grows forever. 2. Continuation of life depends on the maintenance of the -‐ global bio geochemical cycles of essential elements, in particular, C, O, N, S and P. 3. The probability of extinction of populations of a species is greatest when the density is very high or very low. 4. The chance that a species has to survive and reproduce is dependent primarily upon one or two key factors in the complex web of relationships of the organism to its environment.
The Over-‐run Thesis
5. Our ability to change the face of the of the Earth increase at a faster rate than our ability foresee to the consequences of change.
The Life Ethic Thesis
6. Living organisms are not only means, dition but ends. In ad to their instrumental value to humans and other ms, living organis they have an intrinsic worth.
Although these laws are basic, inescapable and immutable, what we as designers have to deal with are the here and now of survival on Earth. We must study whether the resources and energy consumed m derive fro renewable or non-‐ renewable resources and how non-‐renewable resources can best be used to conserve and generate energy in living (renewable) systems.
Fortunately for us, the -‐term very long energy derived from the Sun is available on Earth and can be used to renew stems resources if life sy are carefully constructed and preserved.
There are several practical design considerations to observe:
• The systems we construct should last ible as long poss and take least possible energy to maintain. • These systems fuelled by the Sun, should produce not only for their own needs, but also the needs of the people creating and maintaining them. A system is sustainable if it produces more energy than it consumes, at least enough in surplus to maintain and replace r itself ove its lifetime. A well design system achieves this, and a large ion surplus of product over and above this basic requirement of sustainability. • We can use energy to construct these ing systems, provid that in their lifetime, they store or conserve more energy nstruct than we use to co and maintain them.
Resources, Their Nature and ent: Managem
• Matter • Energy • Space • Time • Diversity
Are all categories of resources and these are constant universal principles.
• Food • Climate • Habitat • Plants • Animals
These are the basic resources affecting plant and animal populations. Resources are things thought of as of use to us, and enable rgy us to utilize ene more efficiently.
A resource is anything available to an organism, population, or ecosystem that up to an optimum level allows an increasing rate of energy exchange.
However we need to look at life n systems as a whole i order to see that there are several categories of resources and the use of some decrease the availability of others, -‐over use of parts of the general resource base by a species or individual decreases the diversity and or vitality of the whole system.
Definition of resource use effect:
• Increase if used (browse) • Not affected by use (time) • Decrease if not used (annuals) • Need management to be maintained (forests) • Decrease if used (fossil fuels, fers) deep aqui • Decrease other resources if used (uranium, biocides)
All these actions, to some extent, are se affected by wi or unwise management. All, except time and diversity, have an optimum amount that can be stacked into a system beyond which there is either no increase in yield, or a decrease in yield.
However the number of possible life gned niches in a desi system has no fixed value, there is no limit to richness.
The Principle of Chaos and Disorder
If resources are added beyond the capacity of the system to use them, then that system becomes disordered and goes into chaos.
Chaos or disorder is the opposite of harmony, as competition is opposite of cooperation. In disorder, much useful elled energy is canc out by the use of opposing energy, thus creating entropy or bound energy.
Society, gardens, whole systems and human lives are wasted in disorder and opposition. The aim of the designer -‐ is therefore two fold:
• To use only that amount of energy tively that can be produc absorbed by the system. • To build armony, h as cooperation, into the functional organization of the system.
Do not confuse order with tidiness, because tidiness is usually disordered in the life sense.
1. Applying laws and principles to design 2. Resources 3. Yields 4. Cycles: a niche in time 5. Pyramids, food webs, growth and vegetarianism 6. Complexity and connections 7. Order and chaos 8. Permitted and forced functions 9. Diversity 10. Stability 11. Time and yield
PATTERNS
A. Pattern Understanding: Reading the Land (gathering information) 1. Seeing through the eyes of the artist a. Shapes, relative sizes, colors, textures, edges, negative and positive space, growth levels, the canvas of the landscape, underlying design features, slope, waves and spirals, geometric forms b. Form and function: metamorphosis of organic forms through the year 2. General patterns of models of events 3. Matrices and the strategies of mplexing compacting and co components 4. Properties of media 5. Boundary conditions 6. The harmonics and geometries of boundaries 7. Compatible and incompatible borders and components 8. The timing and shaping of events 9. Spirals 10. Flow over landscape and objects 11. Open flow and flow patterns 12. Toroidal phenomena 13. Dimensions and potentials 14. Closed (spherical) models; accretion ion and expuls 15. Branching and its effects; conduits 16. Orders of magnitude in branches 17. Orders and dimensions 18. Classification of events 19. Time and relativity in the model 20. The world we live in as a tessellation of events 21. Introduction to pattern applications 22. The tribal use of patterning 23. The mnemonics of meaning 24. Patterns of society 25. The arts in the service of life 26. Additional pattern applications
B. Pattern Applications: how to apply what we have learned through observation and study (field walk) 1. Exercises in observation and site analysis a. Ex: animal tracking 1. Following a trail from start to finish 2. Interpreting signs (track forms, weather imprints, trails, feeding and bedding areas, animals in the web of life, habitat, species, etc.) b. Plant identification 1. Leaf and flower shapes and colors 2. Plant guilds and habitat l, based on climate, soi etc. 3. Uses of wild plants: food, medicine, and utility 4. Using the senses for identification: ex: taste tests, scent c. Micro/macro seeing: taking in the entire perspective of the landscape, seeing things up close and at a distance 2. Problem solving: exercises on placement of elements and reasons for choices based on pattern understanding 3. Analysis and diagnosis of landscape plusses and minuses: discussion on what needs to be augmented and what nated needs to be elimi or transformed based on pattern rstanding unde 4. Processes and connections; not isolated events a. Exercise: analysis of intrinsic behaviors, needs and products of each element b. How each element fits in with other elements in a working whole in the landscape based on observations of patterns and relationships found in the landscape
Pattern in Design The world is a sequence of events within a pattern. All things spiral through the pattern. In pattern application, there are two aspects: 1) the perception of patterns that already exist (and how these function), and 2) the imposition of pattern on sites in order to achieve specific needs. Zone and sector planning are examples of pattern application.
A) Edge effects and harmonics Edge effect: the interface between two presents ecosystems re a third, more complex system which combines both. The interface, or edge, receives more light and nutrients and so is more productive. Harmonics and area: increase in linear effects while the area is constrained.
Low productivity (square, circle productivity pond): increases as the shape of the pond is changed to produce more “margin” or edge. The number of plants around the edge may almost double, and so sh may the number of fi since they are mainly marginal feeders.
Other examples of patterning edge with include: • Circle garden rather than linear garden (saves space and water) • Trellis on zigzag pattern rather than straight line • Crops planted in strips and contours nable with companio crop in between strips (crops receive more light for photosynthesis and yield is high for both) • Windbreak can be planted either to deflect wind or to funnel it into a gap for wind power. • Gardens can make use of “keyhole” e pattern to maximiz space and yield.
Species edge possibilities are determined by whether plants/animals are compatible. E.g. wheat planted with Lucerne (alfalfa) will increase yield, while yields decrease if planted with Brassica.
B) Flow Patterns Can use pattern in river flow to scour deep ponds, to accumulate mulch on edges, and to build up a layer of silt. Mulch and silt accumulate during the flood phase of the river, but trees must be planted to catch this accumulation. Aboriginal tribal song pattern shows a map of desert with wadis and saltbushes. Pattern and song are used r togethe to find one’s way in a desert landscape.
PATTERN UNDERSTANDING Traditional uses Revelation, seeing in one example 1000 questions
The universe is a series of events. Most are similar in form, as the core model (apple core). Tessellation is orm connected f of two core models from the earth, as oceans and land masses or the simpler nnis pattern of a te ball. Section of the core model demonstrates many recognizable patterns very we see e day in the natural environment. Events evolve patterns because it is the most efficient way to grow. There are two classes of events one organic, typified by seeds as growth patterns, and one inorganic, atomic and typified by explosions and impacts (craters and shatters), like the pattern of the ion. atomic bomb explos But they are both very similar in form.
Orders of All Things
Traditional uses of pattern by people:
• Critical in navigation in seas and deserts alike. • Sagas and genealogy. • Timing of events, and therefore prediction.
Patterns are information dense, as teaching systems.
Pattern understanding, and pattern teaching.
Pattern applications, and how to apply pattern knowledge in design. Design a sense is good application of pattern or the sophisticated application of patterning.
References:
-‐Alexander, Christopher, A Pattern Language, Oxford University Press, London, 1977. -‐Bohm, David, Wholeness and the Implicate Order, Routledge and Keegan Paul, London, 1980. -‐Brown, Tom, Field Guide to Nature Observation and Tracking, Berkley Books, NYC, 1977. -‐Capra, Fritjof, The Tao of , Physics Fontana Press, 1976. -‐Coates, Callum, Living Energies, Gateway Books, Bath UK, 1996. -‐Cook, Sir Theodore The Andrea, Curves of Life, Constable, London, 1967. -‐Garrett, William, Torque Analysis, Investment Book Publishers, Washington, 1980. -‐Hall, Manley The P., Secret Teachings of , All Ages Philosophical Research Society Inc, LA, 1977. -‐Lawlor, Robert, Sacred Geometry, Thames and Hudson, London, 1982. -‐Mandlebrot, Benoit, The Fractal Geometry of Nature, W.H. Freeman Company, NYC, 1982. -‐Mollison, Bill, Introduction to Permaculture, Tagari Publications, Tyalgum Australia, 1991. -‐Mollison, Bill, Permaculture: A Designer’s , Manual Tagari Publications, Tyalgum Australia, 1988. -‐Plummer, Tony, Forecasting Financial Markets, John Wiley and Sons, NYC, 1989. -‐Schneider, Michael, A Beginner’s Guide to the , Universe Harper and Collins, NYC, 1994. -‐Schwenk, Theodore, Sensitive Chaos, Rudolf Steiner Press, London, 1965. -‐Thompson, D’arcy, On Growth and , Form Cambridge University Press, 1952. -‐Tompkins, Peter and Bird, Secrets Christopher, of the , Soil Harper and Row Publishers, NYC, 1989.
METHODS OF DESIGN: Design Strategies and Techniques
Permaculture is about whole systems, not about separate components. Because each element in a landscape or the built ts environment affec every other element at a site, we believe that a complete, comprehensive sment asses is tantamount to develop healthy, productive, energy efficient relationships between elements for the benefit of everyone involved in day to day operations. By paying attention to all the details: topography, climate, water, wind, vity sun, acti nodes and corridors, buildings, machinery and tools, the waste stream, plants and animals, it enables us to make best use at of wh is already on the ground, and what we intend to put there. With a dynamic interaction of elements in process, and an assessment of both spatial and temporal attributes, organized und around so ecological principles, we can maximize yields and balance the er landscape. In ord to accomplish this we conduct a three phase process as follows:
Phase I: Initial discussion, protocol, history, institutional analysis, vision, mission, geopolitical assessment, bioregional delineation, values, objectives, needs, s, want budgets. Phase II: On site assessment, abiotic and biotic sical, factors, phy biological and cultural attributes, landform, built environment, rgy ene sources, present and historical land use features, activity nodes and corridors, abitat land tenure, critical h foundations, soil composition, vegetation composition and cover, successional pattern and plant productivity, wildlife corridors, water resources, climatological factors, the waste stream. Phase III: Recommendations based on assessment tability and needs, sui analysis, the whys and wherefores of transitioning een” into a “gr environment. Phase IV: Implementation Phase V: Management and Maintenance,
Broad Scale Site Design
Methodology of Design
Permaculture design emphasizes patterning of landscape, function, and species assemblies. It asks the question, “Where lement does this e go? How is best placed for maximum benefit in the system?”
Permaculture is made up of techniques and strategies:
• Techniques are how we do things (one-‐dimensional) • Strategies are how and -‐dimensional) when (two • Design is patterning (multi-‐dimensional)
Permaculture is all about the science and ethics of design patterning
Approaches to design: -‐Maps: “where is everything?” -‐Analysis of elements: “how do these things connect?” -‐Sector planning: “where do we put things?” -‐Observational -‐Experiential
Maps: A main tool of a designer, but “the map is never the territory”. Be careful not to design just from maps, no map tells the entire story that can be observed on the ground. A sequence of maps learly is valuable to see c where to place elements: Water, Access, Structures, Topology etc.
The analysis of elements: List the needs, products, and the intrinsic characteristics of each element. Lists y are made to tr and link the supply needs of elements to the production needs of others.
An example that is easy to understand eded is the lists ne to link a chicken into a system:
Experiment on paper, connecting and combining ments the ele (buildings, plants, animals, etc) to achieve no pollution (excess product), and minimum work. Try to have one element s fulfill the need of another.
Observational: Free thinking or thematic thinking pecies) (e.g. on weed s a) Note phenomenon b) Infer (make guesses) c) Investigate (research) d) Devise a strategy
Experiential: Become conscious—of yourself, feelings, nt. and environme Can be free-‐conscious or thematically-‐conscious. -‐ Zazen walking without thinking, unreflective.
PUTTING IT TOGETHER: Use all the sign methodologies of de
Select elements – pattern assembly Place elements – pattern relationship
Applying Specific Methods, Laws and Principles to Design
Methodologies of Design Permaculture design emphasizes patterning of landscape, function, and species assemblies. It asks the question, “Where does this (element) go? How is it placed for maximum benefit in the system?
Permaculture is made up of techniques and strategies: • Techniques: concerned with how to do things (one dimensional) e.g. organic gardening • Strategies: concerned with how and when (two dimensional) e.g. Fukuoka system • Design: concerned with patterning (multi-‐dimensional) e.g. permaculture
Approaches to Design: 1. Maps (“Where is everything?”) 2. Analysis of elements (“How do these things connect?”) 3. Sector planning (“Where do we put things?”) 4. Observational 5. Experiential
Maps (be careful-‐ the “map” is not Must the territory”) make observations. Sequence of maps valuable to see clearly where to place many elements. Clear overlays to plan: Access, Water, Buildings, Topology.
Analysis of Elements An analytical approach: list the needs, products, and the intrinsic characteristics of each element. This is done on paper. Lists are made to ome try to supply (by s other element in the system) the needs of any particular element. Experiment on paper with connecting and combining the elements (buildings, plants, animals, etc) to achieve no pollution (excess of product) and minimum work. Try to have one element fulfill the needs of another element.
Observational Free thinking or thematic thinking (e.g. ry on blackber or bracken) (a) Note phenomenon (b) Infer (make guesses) (c) Investigate (research) (d) Devise a strategy
Experiential Become conscious of yourself, feelings, environment. Can be free-‐conscious or thematically-‐conscious. Zazen-‐ walking without thinking, unreflective. Putting It Together: Use all the methodologies sign. of de Select elements -‐ pattern assembly
1. Analysis: design by listing characteristics mponents of co 2. Observation: design by expanding on direct observations of a site 3. Deduction from nature: design by adopting lessons learned from nature 4. Options and decisions: design as a selection of options or pathways based on decisions 5. Data rlay: ove design by map overlays (see above) 6. Random assembly: design by assessing the results of random assemblies 7. Flow diagrams: design for work places 8. Zone and sector analysis: design by ster application of a ma pattern
Sector Planning Sector planning includes (a) zones, (b) sector, (c) slope, and (d) orientation
Zones: It is useful to consider the site as a series of zones (which can be concentric rings) that form a single pathway through the system that moves outward from the home center. The placement of elements in each zone depends on importance, priorities, and number of visits needed for each icken element. E.g. a ch house is visited every day, so it needs to be close (but not necessarily next to the house). An herb garden would be close to the kitchen.
Zone 1:
• Home center • Herbs, vegetable garden • Most built structures • Very intensive • Start at the backdoor
Zone 2:
• Intensive cultivation, main crop • Heavily mulched orchard • Well-‐maintained • Mainly grafted and selected species • Dense planting • Use of stacking and storey system design • Some animals: chickens, ducks, pigeon • Multi-‐purpose walks: collect eggs , milk, distribute greens and scraps • Cut animal forage
Zone 3:
• Connects to zone 1 and 2 for easy access • May add goats, sheep, geese, bees, dairy cows • Plant hardy trees and native species • Un-‐grafted for later selection, later grafting • Animal forage • Self-‐forage systems: poultry forest etc • Windbreaks, firebreaks • Spot mulching, rough mulching • Trees protected with , cages strip-‐fencing • Nut tree forests
Zone 4:
• Long term development • Timber for building • Timber for firewood • Mixed forestry systems • Watering minimal • Feeding minimal • Some introduced animals: cattle, deer, pigs • Zone 5: • Uncultivated wilderness • Re-‐growth area • Timber • Hunting
Species, elements, and strategies change in each zone.
SECTORS: the aim of sector planning is to channel external energies (wind, sun, fire) into or away from the system.
The zone and sector factors together regulate the placement of icular part plant, animal species and structures.
SLOPE: placement of an element on slope so that gravity is used to maximum capacity:
-‐Water storage -‐Mulch and other materials (kick down) -‐Cold air falls, warm air rises
ORIENTATION: placement of an element so that it faces -‐ sun side or shade-‐side, depending on its function and needs.
1. Zoning of information and ethics 2. Incremental design 3. Summary of design methods 4. The concepts of guilds in nature 5. Succession: evolution of a system 6. The establishment and maintenance of systems 7. General practical procedures in property design
C. Ideas and Applications (give examples of some these principles in your site) 1. Relative location 2. Each element performs many functions 3. Each important function is supported tions by many func 4. Efficient energy planning 5. Using biological resources properly 6. Energy cycling 7. Small-‐scale intensive systems 8. Accelerating succession and evolution 9. Diversity -‐ (poly cultures) 10. Edge effects 11. Water Conservation and the Keyline System (swales, dams, ponds, etc.) 12. Attitudinal principles in practice
D. Draw Basic Design based on initial observations of your site (use bubble diagrams and drafting tools)
Principle Summary: Definition of Permaculture design: Permaculture design is a system of assembling conceptual, material, and strategic components in a pattern which functions to benefit life in all its forms. It seeks to provide a sustainable and secure place for living things on Functional this earth. design: Every component of a design should function in many ways. Every essential function should be supported by many components. Principle of self-‐regulation: The purpose of a functional and self-‐regulating design is to place elements or components in such a way that each serves the needs, and accepts the r products, of othe elements.
References: -‐Barrat, Krome, Logic and Design, Design Books, Guilford, CT, 1980. -‐Birkeland, Janis, Design for Sustainability, Earthscan, Sterling, Virginia, 2004. -‐Fuller, Buckminster, Synergetics, Macmillan Publishing Company, NYC, 1975. -‐Grillo, Paul, Form Function Design, Dover Publications, NYC, 1960. -‐Hemenway, Toby, Gaia’s Garden: A Guide to Home-‐Scale Permaculture, Chelsea Green Publishing Company, White River Junction, nt, Vermo 2001. -‐Holmgren, David, Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond , Sustainability Holmgren Design Services, Victoria, Australia, 2002. -‐Lyle, John Tillman, Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development, John Wiley and Sons, NYC, NY, 1994. -‐Lyle, John, Design for Human Ecosystems, Island Press, Washington DC, 1999. -‐McHarg, Ian, Design With Nature, American Museum of Natural History, Garden City, NY, 1969. -‐Mollison, Bill, Introduction to Permaculture, Tagari Publications, Tyalgum Australia, 1991. -‐Mollison, Bill, Permaculture: A Designer’s , Manual Tagari Publications, Tyalgum Australia, 1988. -‐Schneider, Michael, Beginner’s Guide to Constructing the , Universe Harper Collins, 1994. -‐Todd and Todd, Nancy and John, From Eco-‐Cities to Living , Machines North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA, 1993. -‐Van der Ryn, Sim and Ecological Cowan, Stuart, Design, Island Press, Washington DC, 1996. -‐Yeang, Ken, Designing With Nature, McGraw Hill, Inc., NYC, 1995.
FROM ROBERT KOURIK
Site Assessment Analysis Checklist
A. Site a. Parcel number b. Latitude c. Utilities, location of: i. Gas line ii. Water line iii. Electric line B. Easements, legal limitations as per title or deed C. Existing Buildings, size and location D. Existing Vegetation a. Soil indicators b. Water indicators c. Potential uses i. Fuel ii. Edible iii. Compostable iv. Insectary plants v. Others E. Climate Information a. Evapo-‐transpiration i. Rainfall, yearly and monthly averages ii. Humidity, yearly and monthly averages iii. Wind, prevailing and monthly average iv. Temperature, monthly maximum, minimum, average b. Frost-‐ average and extreme first and last dates c. Spring bloom sequence d. Leaf fall sequence e. Insolation, number of sunny and cloudy days f. Heating and cooling degree days (for solar applications) F. Physical Characteristics a. Elevation b. Slope i. Erosion potential ii. Air drainage iii. Water table’s distance from surface iv. Pollution sources and impacts G. Soil Survey a. Clay, sand and silt content b. Structure c. Organic matter content d. pH e. Nutrients-‐ nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, trace minerals, etc H. Ecology a. People impacts-‐ foot traffic, views from and to neighbors, and sounds b. Animals-‐ gophers, deer, moles, other varmints c. Pests d. Diseases I. Personal Considerations a. Aesthetic preferences-‐ favorite plants, colors, fragrances b. Allergies c. Fear of insects-‐ especially wasps and bees d. Leisure time for maintenance e. Budget for installation and maintenance f. Diet and taste favorites g. Privacy form sound and light (END KOURIK)
EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL, BILOGICAL AND CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES THAT MAY BE MAPPED AT THE SITE SCALE
A. Physical a. Soils i. Bearing capacity ii. Porosity iii. Stability iv. Erodibility v. Fertility vi. Acidity (pH) b. Topography i. Elevation ii. Slope iii. Aspect c. Hydrology i. Surface drainage ii. Water chemistry (e.g. salinity, nitrates, ) phosphates iii. Depth to seasonal water table iv. Aquifer recharge areas v. Seeps and springs d. Geology i. Landforms ii. Seismic hazards iii. Depth to bedrock e. Climate i. Solar access ii. Winds (i.e. prevailing and winter) iii. Fog pockets B. Biological a. Vegetation i. Plant communities ii. Specimen trees iii. Invasive species b. Wildlife i. Endangered or threatened species habitats C. Cultural a. Land use i. Prior land use ii. Land use on oining adj properties b. Legal i. Political boundaries ii. Land ownership iii. Land use regulations iv. Easements and deed restrictions c. Utilities i. Sanitary sewer ii. Storm sewer iii. Electric iv. Gas v. Water vi. Telecommunications d. Circulation i. Street function (e.g. arterial, collector) ii. Traffic volume e. Historic i. Building and landmarks ii. Archaeological sites f. Sensory i. Visibility ii. Visual quality iii. Noise iv. Odors
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Responsibilities:
• Estimating project costs from site-‐gathered data or finalized landscape plans. • Schedule development for ts. Projec • Daily scheduling, logistics, and coordination of crews/personnel, and subcontractors on multiple simultaneous projects. • Management and ongoing implementation. • Clear & effective communication with Site ign Foremen, Des Team, and Office Staff of project expectations, standards, and timelines. • Daily punch list generation based -‐time on real site conditions/progress. • Daily collection & submission of job-‐cost data, crew labor hours, and job progress actuals. • Excellent client relations & communication skills are a requirement of this position. • Safety program development.
Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the lifecycle of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction.
Construction project management may be defined cifically more spe as “the process of coordinating the skill and labor ing of personnel us machines and materials to form the materials into a desired structure.” Construction operations involve planning, designing facilities, and supervising construction. Related items are the procurement of materials and equipment and the use of personnel.
Project management in architecture and ncompasses construction e a set goals of that may be accomplished by implementing a series of operations subject to resource constraints. There are potential conflicts and management challenges between the goals with regard to , scope, cost, time and quality, and the constraints imposed by workers, materials and financial . resources
• Planning • Organizing
• Staffing • Directing • Controlling Much of the construction manager’s job zed is characteri by the plans to be constructed. If they ailed, are det if they are workable, if the project manager has the authority to undertake them and understands what is expected, then the construction manager will require little of anything else from either the owner or constructor. The core of the project construction manager’s job in planning is decision-‐ making, based on investigation rather than on snap judgment.
The key to successful planning is establishing the construction objectives of what to do, where to place emphasis, and how oject to accomplish pr als. go It is critical when planning to make assumptions based on facts. For example: weather predictions are based on past weather data; or policies for observing national holidays are expected to continue. These are forecast data and basic policies that apply to the future.
• Develop project objectives, goals and strategies • Develop project work breakdown structure • Develop precedence diagrams to establish logical relationship of project activities and milestones • Develop time-‐based schedule for the project based on the time precedence diagram • Plan for resource support of the project
Organizing Function
The organizing function determines and enumerates the activities required to complete the project, groups these signs activities, as the groups, and delegates authority to carry them out.
Staffing Function
Staffing is finding the right person for the job.
A simple universal list of steps in tion the staffing func include:
• Determine project team member needs • Assess factors that motivate people est to do their b work • Provide appropriate counseling and mentoring as required • Establish rewards program for project team members • Conduct initial study of impact of motivation uctivity on prod
Directing Function
The management function of directing involves guiding and supervising subordinates to improve work methods. The project manager must have a thorough knowledge of the organization’s structure, the interrelation of activities and personnel, and their capabilities. A simple universal list of steps in the directing function include:
• Establish “limits” of authority for decision or making f the allocation of project
resources
• Develop leadership style • Enhance interpersonal skills • Prepare plan for increasing participative management techniques in
managing the project team
• Develop consensus decision-‐making techniques for the project team
Controlling Function
The key to development of a good control process is the preliminary planning, detail planning, e and th execution. A simple universal list of steps in the controlling function include:
• Establish cost, schedule and technical tandards performance s for the project • Prepare plans for the means to evaluate project progress • Establish a project management information system for the project • Prepare a project review strategy • Evaluate project progress