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Perennial Grain Crops in the West Soudanian Savanna of Mali: Perspectives from Agroecology and Gendered Spaces

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Perennial Grain Crops in the West Soudanian Savanna of Mali: Perspectives from Agroecology and Gendered Spaces International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability ISSN: 1473-5903 (Print) 1747-762X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tags20 Perennial grain crops in the West Soudanian Savanna of Mali: perspectives from agroecology and gendered spaces Paul Rogé , Tidiane Diarisso, Fatoumata Diallo, Youssouf Boiré, Diakaridia Goïta, Brad Peter, Moussa Macalou, Eva Weltzien & Sieglinde Snapp To cite this article: Paul Rogé , Tidiane Diarisso, Fatoumata Diallo, Youssouf Boiré, Diakaridia Goïta, Brad Peter, Moussa Macalou, Eva Weltzien & Sieglinde Snapp (2017): Perennial grain crops in the West Soudanian Savanna of Mali: perspectives from agroecology and gendered spaces, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, DOI: 10.1080/14735903.2017.1372850 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1372850 Published online: 06 Sep 2017. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tags20 Download by: [UC Berkeley Library] Date: 06 September 2017, At: 09:47 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1372850 Perennial grain crops in the West Soudanian Savanna of Mali: perspectives from agroecology and gendered spaces Paul Rogé a, Tidiane Diarissob, Fatoumata Diallob, Youssouf Boiréc, Diakaridia Goïtac, Brad Peterd, Moussa Macaloub, Eva Weltzienc and Sieglinde Snappd,e aDepartment of Environmental Science, Policy, & Management, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA; bInstitut d’Economie Rurale (IER) – ECOFIL, Bamako, Mali; cInternational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Bamako, Mali; dCenter for Global Change & Earth Observations, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA; eDepartment of Plant, Soil & Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA ABSTRACT KEYWORDS Perennial grain crops may play an important role in environmentally sound and Africa; agroecology; gender; socially just food systems for Africa. We study the future possibility of integrating Mali; perennial grains perennial grains into Malian farming systems from the perspective of agroecology, and more specifically using a gendered space approach. We interviewed 72 farmers across the sorghum-growing region of Mali. We found that perennial grains offer a vision for transforming human relations with nature that mirrors the resource sharing of customary land tenure, including patterns of extensive and intensive land use in time and space. Women interviewees identified a broad set of potential advantages and challenges to perennial grain production. Advantages include reduced labour, saving seed, and improving food security. Women farmers were concerned about livestock, water access, and resource limitations. We argue that perennial grains may increase access to land and natural resources for women farmers. Perennial grains may improve soil quality, reduce labour early in the rainy season, and provision more resources from fallow lands. Pastoralists stand to benefit from improved pastures in the dry season. We conclude that investments are needed to develop viable crop types in consideration of the complexity of West African farming systems and the local needs of women farmers and pastoralists. Introduction efficiently and building soil quality (Culman, Snapp, Arguments for sustainable farming systems rooted in Ollenburger, Basso, & DeHaan, 2013). In comparison Downloaded by [UC Berkeley Library] at 09:47 06 September 2017 perennial grains are well established (see Armstrong, to annuals, perennial plant communities store more Glover, Reganold, & Cox, 2010; Cox et al., 2002; Cox, soil carbon, support a healthier soil microbial com- Glover, Tassel, Cox, & DeHaan, 2006; Cox, Picone, & munity, better maintain soil and water quality, Jackson, 2004; Crews & DeHaan, 2015; Glover, 2005; increase nutrient use efficiency in the soil, and Jackson, 1980; Jackson, 2002; Wagoner, 1990). The produce more above and below-ground biomass inspiration for developing an alternative to the stan- (Armstrong et al., 2010; Cox et al., 2006). dard of industrial agriculture by which human pro- The ongoing scientific and intellectual contri- ductive endeavours are measured is what Jackson butions for perennial grain systems have thus far of the Land Institute calls ‘nature’s standard’, or per- been openly shared, which makes them available ennial polycultures that mimic prairie ecosystems to ‘recombine with other forms of life, other ecol- (Richards, 2009). Perennial plant communities are dis- ogies, and other systems of knowledge production’ tinguished from annuals in their high resource avail- (Johnson & Goldstein, 2015). A common approach ability and productivity while using resources to developing novel perennial germplasm is CONTACT Paul Rogé [email protected] © 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 P. ROGÉ ET AL. through wide-crosses between annual crops and per- debates around perennial grains as a pathway to ennial relatives to confer perennial traits and allow transform food systems. for multiple harvests. Noteworthy examples include perennial wheat that was pioneered by plant bree- Historical precedence in Africa ders in Russia beginning in the 1930s, whereas per- ennial sorghum is a recent development (Cox et al., The concept of sustainable food systems rooted in 2006). perennial grains is not only a hypothetical future scen- This novel germplasm builds on indigenous ario in the African context. Over 60 wild grasses from farmer knowledge about mixed cropping and mixed annual and perennial grasslands have been ratooned annuals, yet almost no research has been harvested in Africa for grain (NRC, 1996, p. 1:251; conducted to demonstrate how perennial grains Harlan, 1989). Some of these species include guinea might integrate into current food systems. Contex- millet (Brachiaria deflexa) with a domesticated race tualization of the potential farmer demand for per- in Guinea, Egyptian grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium), ennial grains is urgently needed. One of the few and several species of fonio (Digitaria spp., Harlan, studies that interviewed farmers in the United 1989, pp. 86–87; Dalziel, 1985; Schnell, 1957). The States about their use of perennial wheat found seed of Saharan grasses contain about twice as that grain yield comparisons were less important much protein as domesticated cereals (17–21%, NRC, to them than the ability to solve problems not 1996, p. 1:257; Busson, 1965). Wild grasses span the addressed by their other crops (Adebiyi, Schmitt spectrum from survival foods during times of scarcity Olabisi, & Snapp, 2015). to staple foods (Harlan, 1989, p. 80). Emerging questions regarding the possible fit of Wild grasslands offer an example of how crops can perennial grains is particularly of interest in West produce grain and forage resources that are similar to Africa where there is tremendous pressure to close annual dual purpose crops but growing under more the yield gap between the genetic potential of marginal, unfavourable conditions, and with less modern crops and realized grain yields (see Houn- labour inputs. Kreb or kasha is a mix of several grass konnou et al., 2012; Larder, 2015; Struik, Kuyper, species that range from Bornu in Nigeria to Darfur in Brussaard, & Leeuwis, 2014; Tittonell & Giller, 2013). Sudan (Harlan, 1989, pp. 86–87). Several perennial Perennial grains represent a transformative species related to teff (Eragrostis spp.) are important approach to improving soil fertility while providing in the kreb complex, including E. cilianensis, E. ciliaris, high quality food and livestock forage (Glover E. gangetica, E. pilosa, and E. tremula (Dalziel, 1985; et al., 2010). Harlan, 1989, pp. 86–87). Kreb grasslands protect We make the case for perennial grains as an achiev- soils from desertification and overgrazing; the annual able and sustainable option for West Africa based on species in the kreb complex are fast growing and empirical evidence from sorghum-producing regions produce abundant seed while the perennial species of Mali.1 We interpret sustainability as environmentally protect soils due to their longer period of growth sound food production that takes into consideration (Batello, Marzot, Touré, & Kenmore, 2004, pp. 108– Downloaded by [UC Berkeley Library] at 09:47 06 September 2017 distributive and procedural justice (see Loos et al., 113). The environmental conditions where kreb 2014). This begins with a review of the literature on grows are unfavourable for domesticated crops, the historical uses of perennial grains in Africa and replete with grain-eating birds such as Quelea quelea on the socio-ecological dimensions of West African and soils that are saline, infertile, or waterlogged agriculture and pastoralism. We also reflect on semi- (Batello et al., 2004, pp. 108–113). structured interviews with farmers in the sorghum- The use of kreb has become sporadic as public growing region of Mali. We argue that the soil improv- policy has encouraged the settling of nomadic ing and forage potential of perennial grain systems herders, who traditionally would set aside areas from will likely benefit women farmers and pastoralists, animal grazing until after grains were harvested two groups that are often marginalized by the devel- (Batello et al., 2004, pp. 106–107). In addition to the opment of cash crops and intensified agriculture breakdown
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