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Elizabeth F. Loftus Ceci, S Ceci, S. J., Brainerd, C. J., Fitneva, S. A., & Williams, Hansen, K., Heckman, J. J., & Mullen, K. J. (2003, July). W. M. (2002). Forgetting you remember: Representational The effect of schooling and ability on achievement test constraints on monitoring. Unpublished manuscript, Cor- scores (Discussion Paper No. 826). Bonn, Germany: Insti- nell University. tute for the Study of Labor. Ceci, S. J., & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1985). Don’t forget to take Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1995). The effects of ste- the cupcakes out of the oven: Prospective memory, time- reotypes and suggestions on preschoolers’ reports. Devel- monitoring and context. Child Development, 56, 152–164. opmental Psychology, 31, 568–578. Ceci, S. J., Bronfenbrenner, U., & Baker, J. (1988). Cali- Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: The triarchic framework bration and context in prospective memory. In M. M. for intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gruneberg, P. Morris, & P. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (Vol. 2, pp. 141–162). London: Wiley. White, T. L., Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1997). The Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). The suggestibility of chil- good, the bad, and the ugly: Accuracy, inaccuracy, and dren’s recollections: An historical review and synthesis. elaboration in preschoolers’ reports about a past event. Ap- Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403–439. plied Cognitive Psychology, 11(Special Issue), S37–S54. Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1995). Jeopardy in the court- room: The scientific analysis of children’s testimony. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1998). Children’s testimony: Ap- plied and basic issues. In I. Sigel & K. A. Renninger (Eds.), The handbook of child psychology (5th ed., Vol. 4, pp. 714–774). New York: Wiley. Ceci, S. J., Huffman, M. L., Smith, E., & Loftus, E. F. (1994). Repeatedly thinking about a non-event. Conscious- ness and Cognition, 2, 388–407. Ceci, S. J., & Liker, J. (1986). A day at the races: IQ, ex- pertise, and cognitive complexity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 255–266. Ceci, S. J., & Liker, J. (1988). Stalking the IQ–expertise relation: When the critics go fishing. Journal of Experi- mental Psychology: General, 117, 96–100. Ceci, S. J., Loftus, E. F., Leichtman, M., & Bruck, M. (1994). The possible role of source misattributions in the creation of false beliefs among preschoolers. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 304–320. Elizabeth F. Loftus Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (1997). Schooling, intelli- Award for Distinguished Scientific Applications of gence, and income. American Psychologist, 52, 1051–1058. Psychology Detterman, D. K., & Spry, K. M. (1988). Is it smart to play the horses? Comment on “A day at the races: IQ, ex- Citation pertise, and cognitive complexity” (Ceci & Liker, 1986). “For her outstanding contributions to the understanding of Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 91–95. human memory in both laboratory and field settings and for her invaluable contributions in applying scientific Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multi- knowledge to societal problems. Her clever studies of eye- ple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. witness memory and the misinformation effect are famous 864 November 2003 ● American Psychologist Copyright 2003 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/03/$12.00 Vol. 58, No. 11, 864–873 DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.58.11.864 throughout psychology. Her other important work focused The laboratory studies were exciting, but she soon wanted on the organization of semantic memory, the effects of to see actual witnesses to real events up close and personal. imagination on illusory memories, and the role of landmark She volunteered to help a public defender in a murder case. In events in organizing autobiographical memory. She is a exchange for him letting her watch the various phases of the foremost spokesperson for psychology and is a frequent case involving the witness testimony, she would educate him lecturer in public forums. Her work has provided fascinat- about the findings of psychological science that might be rele- ing applications of psychological science to the legal sys- vant to his case. His client was a woman who had gotten into tem and to contemporary societal issues.” a violent argument with her boyfriend. The client shot the boyfriend six times and was tried for murder. Psychological Biography studies helped the lawyer understand the conflicting eyewit- For more than 30 years, Elizabeth F. Loftus has been ob- ness testimony, and the defendant was ultimately acquitted. sessed with one topic: memory. Her obsession began about Loftus wrote an article about the research and the specifics of the time that Richard Nixon was elected President of the the case for Psychology Today magazine. After that, her life United States and a couple of Americans walked on the would never be the same. The circulation of the magazine moon for the first time. It was then that she began to think was near a million and was read by many lawyers and judges. of herself as a research psychologist. She discovered that The phone starting ringing off the hook. Lawyers wondered if she had a talent: She could design experiments, complete Loftus could help on their cases. Legal-conference organizers them, analyze the data, and publish the findings in scien- wondered if she could lecture on this subject at their continu- tific journals. Some of that undergraduate education at the ing education meetings. And the next few decades of her life University of California, Los Angeles (where she majored would be filled with scientific discoveries and legal cases, in mathematics and psychology), and that graduate educa- intermixed and interwoven, so that the issues in a legal case tion at Stanford (where she received her doctorate in psy- might suggest a study and a study might enter into a legal case. chology) had truly sunk in. It was an exciting realization: Loftus’s research has focused on eyewitness testimony, She not only could read about real psychological scientists and she has published extensively on both its psychological but could actually be one. and legal aspects. She has also investigated the issue of the Today, Elizabeth Loftus is distinguished professor at the accuracy of memories formed in childhood and the possi- University of California, Irvine. She holds positions in the bility of recovery later in life of memories of traumatic Departments of Psychology and Social Behavior and Crimi- events that had apparently been repressed. She has devoted nology, Law and Society. She also holds appointments in the much research effort to the possibility that recovered mem- Department of Cognitive Sciences and the Center for the Neu- ories may be false—false memories that in some cases are robiology of Learning and Memory. Formerly, she was pro- due to therapeutic treatments designed to help patients fessor of psychology and adjunct professor of law at the Uni- dredge up memory. She has done scores of studies that versity of Washington, Seattle, where she taught for 29 years. show not only that memories can be distorted by sugges- Loftus’s early studies were about semantic memory— tive influences but also that entirely false memories can be memory for language, concepts, and general knowledge of planted in people’s minds. She has succeeded in planting the world. Soon she wanted to study some aspect of mem- false memories of getting lost for an extended time as a ory that had more obvious real-world applications. The child, facing a threat to one’s life as a child, witnessing perfect place for someone with a background in memory demonic possession as a child, seeing wounded animals as and an interest in legal issues was the study of witnesses to part of a traumatic bombing, and more. legally relevant events, such as crimes and accidents. Her Because of this research, Loftus has been invited to earliest studies of eyewitness testimony addressed several consult (and sometimes to testify as an expert witness) in issues: When someone sees a crime or accident, how accu- hundreds of cases, including the McMartin Preschool Mo- rate is his or her memory? What happens when witnesses lestation case, the Hillside Strangler case, the Abscam are questioned by police officers, and what if those ques- cases, the trial of Oliver North, the trial of the officers ac- tions are biased? While other memory researchers were cused in the Rodney King beating, the Menendez brothers, using words or nonsense syllables, or sometimes sentences, the Michael Jackson case, the Bosnian War trials in the Loftus began showing people films of traffic accidents. She Hague, the Oklahoma City bombing case, and the trial of found that a question such as “How fast were the cars go- the Marines accused of culpable negligence when they sev- ing when they smashed into each other?” led to higher esti- ered the cables of a ski lift while flying in the Italian Alps. mates of speed than a more neutral question that used the Loftus also worked on cases involving allegations of re- verb hit. Moreover, the “smashed” question led more peo- pressed memories, such as those involving George Franklin ple to later falsely claim that they had seen broken glass when of San Mateo, California; Cardinal Bernardin of Chicago; there was none. Her early papers concluded that leading ques- Gary Ramona of Napa, California; and Jacob Beard, ac- tions could contaminate or distort a witness’s memory. cused of the “Rainbow Murders” in West Virginia. The November 2003 ● American Psychologist 865 research also has given her opportunities to consult with States. A future winner of this APA award could then many government agencies on problems of human mem- place the start of her career in that historical moment.
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