Environ Biol Fish https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-018-0811-6

A baseline analysis of coastal water quality of the port , : a critical habitat for sport fisheries

Brenna M. Sweetman & James R. Foley & Michael K. Steinberg

Received: 16 January 2018 /Accepted: 21 August 2018 # Springer Nature B.V. 2018

Abstract This analysis examines temporal changes in and low population density of southern Belize. This water quality of the Port Honduras Marine Reserve study provides baseline information for future research (PHMR), Belize from 1998 to 2015. Trends in dissolved and outlines recommendations for management strate- (DO), salinity, and pH were ana- gies of PHMR to mitigate impacts from and lyzed from ten sites throughout PHMR for statistically future threats to water quality. significant relationships. Maintaining satisfactory water quality is critical for sustaining healthy fisheries. PHMR Keywords Water quality . Fish habitat . Belize . Sport represents a unique link between upland watersheds and fishing . Marine reserve coastal wetlands, mangroves, reefs, and seagrass beds. These ecosystems comprise important habitat for many fisheries including the economically valuable Introduction sport fish species of Megalops atlanticus (Atlantic tar- pon),Albulavulpes(bonefish) and Trachinotus falcatus Marine and coastal ecosystems are considered some of (permit). Sport fishing in the PHMR area has become the most biodiverse and highly vulnerable ecosystems increasingly popular in recent decades and is responsi- globally (Gray 1997;Wormetal.2006; Bierman et al. ble for generating direct and indirect income opportuni- 2011). Marine protected areas (MPAs), such as the Port ties for local communities, including Punta Gorda, the Honduras Marine Reserve (PHMR) in southern Belize, largest town in southern Belize. As a result, degradation are commonly used to maintain marine biological diver- of water quality of PHMR through land-based human sity and protect ecosystem health by monitoring and activities could have ecological and economic conse- regulating human activities (Kelleher and Kenchington quences for southern Belize. The results of the analyses 1991;Jones1994). These efforts in turn support the revealed significant seasonal variations and slight in- sustainable utilization of natural resources through eco- creasing trends in DO and salinity at several sampling tourism activities such as sport fishing (Di Lorenzo et al. sites. These relatively stable results are likely related to 2016). several factors including limited coastal development Water quality is the foundation of healthy marine habitat for fisheries. Degradation of water quality, hab- itat degradation, or a combination of both, can have B. M. Sweetman (*) : M. K. Steinberg Department of Geography, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, cascading consequences for fisheries and associated AL 35487, USA ecosystems (Karr 1981). Traditionally, water quality e-mail: [email protected] has been defined as the physical and chemical constitu- J. R. Foley ents of water required for human or ecosystem needs The Nature Conservancy, Belmopan, Belize (Karr and Dudley 1981). To maintain reproductive rates Environ Biol Fish and competitive abilities, fish species require specific atlanticus) and permit (Trachinotus falcatus) (Beck water quality standards, with deviation from normal et al. 2001; Gilliers et al. 2004; Adams and Cooke ranges resulting in adverse ecological impacts and de- 2015). Sport fishing for permit, bonefish and tarpon in clining populations (Jobling 1981; Karr and Dudley PHMR is considered a major component of the ecotour- 1981). For example, the depletion of DO influences ism industry in southern Belize, generating more than metabolic activity (Kramer 1987); salinity, a variable US$695,000 nationally in 2005 (Coleman and Diamond highly influenced by freshwater influx and precipitation, 2005). The lagoons and adjacent patch reefs of PHMR is critical for growth and reproduction; (Montague and provide the focal destination for permit sportfishing Ley 1993) and temperature is closely linked to biolog- guides in Belize and many view PHMR as the most ical productivity (Brett 1969; Houde 1989). Marine important permit fishing grounds in all southern Belize. water quality is complex and these variables can be In fact, Punta Gorda has dubbed itself the Bpermit influenced by both natural and anthropogenic processes capital^ of Belize. In the Toledo District, and elsewhere (Karydis and Kitsiou 2013; Krembs and Sackmann in the country, guiding for sport fish is considered one of 2015). the most desirable jobs and is passed down from gener- Upland land-use change is one variable that can ation to generation. These activities produce significant accelerate changes in coastal water quality (Meador economic benefits through direct and indirect expendi- and Goldstein 2003; Foley et al. 2005). For PHMR, tures to the local communities. Robinson et al. estimated threats to water quality have been identified as that PHMR generates annual revenues of approximately watershed-based pollution, nutrient fertilizer runoff US$2.41 million based on fisheries, tourism and recre- and erosion from the adjacent watersheds that discharge ation values, highlighting the strong economic value of to the coastal waters (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999;Foley PHMR (Robinson et al. 2004). et al. 2015). In addition to understanding impacts from Although other studies have examined water quality land-use change, examining indirect anthropogenic in- of the PHMR region in the past (Sullivan et al. 1995; fluences on water resources from is an Heyman and Kjerfve 1999), no studies have evaluated issue of global concern (Vörösmarty et al. 2000). long-term changes since the establishment of PHMR as Geospatial modeling scenarios for 2020 to 2080 for an MPA in 2000. Water quality data for a 17-year period indicate the possibility of higher tem- is a valuable and impressive quantity of data for a peratures for Belize as well as reduced precipitation tropical, developing country. Additionally, scientific rates, potentially perturbing water temperature and sa- habitat studies are lacking for flats fisheries, with recent linity of shallow tropical ecosystems (Anderson et al. research mostly concentrated in the Bahamas and the 2008). Long-term water quality data are therefore criti- U.S. rather than the Caribbean (Adams and Cooke cal to understand directional changes in water resources 2015). This study directly addresses this issue by focus- to enable resource managers to better regulate both sport ing on fisheries habitat and water quality in Belize, an and commercial fishing activities (Ahmadia et al. 2015). understudied area quickly becoming known as a world- MPAs serve critical ecological roles by protecting class fly fishing destination. The objectives of this study fish nurseries, managing fisheries and preserving habi- were to analyze the temporal trends of DO, salinity, tat, among others (Lauck et al. 1998;Becketal.2001; temperature and pH of the coastal waters of PHMR Blyth-Skyrme 2006). In addition to high ecological between 1998 and 2015 and gain a broad understanding value, MPAs also provide important economic value of human impacts on an ecologically complex and eco- by enhancing tourism and promoting sustainable devel- nomically important marine landscape for improved opment (Dixon et al. 1993;Cho2005). For Belize, 30% management and research efforts. of the nation’s gross domestic product is directly related to commercial ecotourism activities that occur in the coastal zone, with sport fishing highlighted as one of Methods the most economically lucrative (Cho 2005; Moreno 2005). Shallow coastal waters, such as those of PHMR, Study area are well known for providing habitat for juvenile and adult sport fish including the highly sought-after species The coastal portions of Belize are a component of the bonefish (Albula vulpes), Atlantic tarpon (Megalops wider tri-national area of the . Within Environ Biol Fish the Gulf, PHMR is located between the latitudes 16° 08’ et al. 2003). Consequently, water quality is sensitive to Nand16° 12’ N and longitudes 88° 25’ Wand88° 45’ the watershed processes and land cover of the countries Won the coast of southern Belize and covers an area surrounding Belize. of 414 km2 (Fig. 1). East of PHMR is the southern During the wet season discharge typically exceeds extension of the Belize Barrier Reserve system, the dry season discharge by a factor of 5–9(Heyman the second largest barrier reef in the world and a and Kjerfve 1999; Burke and Sugg 2006). High precip- renowned UNESCO World Heritage Site (UNESCO itation during the wet season contributes to significant 2017). Inland and west of PHMR is the Toledo Dis- runoff of sediment and freshwater which drive gravita- trict, the southernmost and least densely populated tional currents. A study estimated terrestrial runoff to the district of Belize. The Toledo District contains the Gulf of Honduras using river discharge and ocean cir- Maya Mountain Marine Corridor and the seven wa- culation models and showed that the Gulf undergoes tersheds that drain into PHMR: Deep River, Golden considerable seasonal influence of suspended sediments Stream, Middle River, , Punta Ycacos and dissolved nutrients (Chérubin et al. 2008). The Lagoon, Rio Grande and Indian Hill Lagoon intense precipitation during wet season is one of the (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999)(Fig.1). three factors controlling currents in the Gulf of Hondu- PHMR is a tropical, semi-estuarine embayment that ras (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999; Chérubin et al. 2008). supports complex and diverse marine ecosystems in- The second factor is the northerly Cayman Current that cluding coastal and tidal wetlands, mangrove forests, creates a cyclonic counter current gyre between Belize seagrass beds and coral reefs (Foster et al. 2011; and Guatemala (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999;Chérubin Clarke et al. 2012). Three zones divide PHMR based et al. 2008). Third, occasional flows of deep, oceanic on use: 95% is a General Use Zone, where commercial, waters enter the Gulf of Honduras from the Caribbean subsistence and recreational fishing activities are Sea with deep currents flowing opposite to surface allowed; 4% is a Conservation Zone, where Bno-take^ currents (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999;Ezeretal.2005). recreational activities are permitted; and 1% is a Preser- vation Zone, where no human activities are allowed (Foster et al. 2011)(Fig.1). The ecosystems of PHMR Data collection support over 70 fish species, of which 40 have commer- cial value (Foster et al. 2011). The dominant vegetation Water samples were collected in situ from ten sampling type on the coast and of the cayes throughout PHMR is sites at monthly intervals from January 1998–December red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), which provides 2015 (Fig. 1). Data collection was completed by the crucial habitat for many larval and juvenile fish species Toledo Institute for Development and Environment (Robertson and Duke 1987; Robinson et al. 2004). () and the Coastal Zone Management Authority The Toledo District has a high annual precipitation of and Institute (CZMAI). Site determination was based on 4064 mm as a result of the close proximity to the Inter existing monitoring locations established by CZMAI. Tropical Convergence Zone (HYDROMET 2017). The All sites were located inside PHMR, with the exception region is also characterized by substantial seasonal var- of 1A, located south of the reserve at the Rio Grande iation in precipitation between the wet and dry season, River mouth. Physical parameters measured were tem- with June through September identified as the wettest perature and salinity and the chemical parameters mea- months (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999). Little variation in sured were DO and pH. Measurements were taken using annual air temperature exists with seasonal climate most a Minisonde Hydro-lab water quality multi-probe and influenced by precipitation rates. The high rainfall rates YSI ProPlus probe. The instruments were calibrated and associated with the rainy season in particular contribute inserted to a 1 m depth to record the values of surface to high watershed runoff entering PHMR, causing an water characteristics. Monthly precipitation data from inshore to offshore gradient in salinity, temperature and the weather observing station in Punta Gorda were during the wet season (Sullivan et al. 1995). acquired from the National Meteorological Service of The inner Gulf of Honduras receives a total estimated Belize for January 1998–December 2015. These data 1232 m3 s−1 annual freshwater discharge from were compiled into a comprehensive database and ap- 42,408 km2 of drainage area encompassing watersheds propriate measures were implemented for quality con- of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and Mexico (Thattai trol purposes. Environ Biol Fish

Fig. 1 Map of study location in Belize illustrating ten water quality sampling locations, seven adjacent watersheds, the conservation and preservation zones of PHMR, the location of Punta Gorda Town and the municipal waste site. Site numbers correspond to those in Table 1

Statistical analyses 2013). The strength of the association between temper- ature, salinity, DO, pH, precipitation and season was Exploratory analyses and descriptive statistics were per- analyzed using the Spearman’s rho correlation analysis formed to understand annual and seasonal variations of (Stanley and Nixon 1992;HelselandHirsch2002; the water quality parameters at the ten sampling sites. Singh et al. 2004; Shrestha and Kazama 2007; Time series graphs for temperature, salinity, dissolved Sebastiá et al. 2013; Sanfilippo et al. 2016). These oxygen and pH were created from 1998 to 2015 to statistical analyses were performed in SPSS ver. 24.0 visualize long-term trends. Irregularities in sampling statistical package. frequency and data collection resulted in missing data, Long-term temporal analyses were used to detect the outliers and nonparametric data distribution. As a result, existence of increasing or decreasing trends for the only nonparametric statistical analyses were performed parameters of DO, temperature and salinity in PHMR to accommodate this idiosyncrasy. The nonparametric from 1998 to 2015. When seasonal variations are sub- Mann-Whitney U test was performed to understand stantial, the detection of water quality trends is complex significant short-term temporal variation of the water (Helsel and Hirsch 2002). As a result, the Seasonal quality variables by comparing wet season data (June– Kendall test, a modification of the Mann-Kendall test, September) to dry season data (October–May) (Mann was applied to the data for each sampling site (Hirsch and Whitney 1947; González et al. 2008;Sebastiáetal. et al. 1982). The Seasonal Kendall test has been widely Environ Biol Fish used to examine water quality of tropical and estuarine and pH (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). The time series graphs depict environments (Wiseman et al. 1990;Walker1991; trends over time but are not statistically significant. Stanley and Nixon 1992; Boyer et al. 1999;Stoddard The results of the temporal analysis revealed statisti- et al. 1999; Donohue et al. 2001). The goal of this test is cally significant seasonal fluctuations for temperature, to understand continuous, monotonic (increasing or de- dissolved oxygen, salinity, pH and precipitation be- creasing) long-term trends of water quality variables. tween the wet and dry season, with pH demonstrating The Seasonal Kendall test is robust and recommended the least fluctuation. The results of Spearman’srho for use with water quality datasets that contain missing correlation analysis identified moderate (0.40–0.59) to data observations and seasonal autocorrelation, two strong (0.60–0.79) positive associations between sea- principal characteristics of the available dataset (Hirsch son, temperature, salinity and precipitation at the et al. 1982). Although there are several large gaps in the p < 0.01 threshold. Season was negatively correlated dataset (2001–2003, 2003–2004, 2006–2007), Helsel with temperature (−0.58), positively correlated with sa- and Hirsch recommend a monotonic trend test over a linity (0.46), and negatively correlated with precipita- step-trend analysis if the data gap is less than one third tion (−0.71). Salinity and precipitation also showed an of the total record, as is the case for this study Helsel and inverse relationship (−0.51). Hirsch (2002). Missing data for pH spanning several The results of the Seasonal Kendall test indicate years resulted in its omission from the Seasonal Kendall statistically significant increasing trends with positive test. Twelve Bseasons^ were selected to represent each Sen’s slope for DO at eight sampling sites and an month of sampling. For example, an observation for increasing salinity trend at six sampling sites (Table 1). January was compared to other January observations No significant trends were found for temperature at any to determine an increase or decrease with time. Sen’s of the sites. The maximum slope value was 0.30 for slope estimator was used to find the rate of change (i.e. salinity at site 3A. No slope values were greater than the median slope) by estimating the slope of the trend 0.30, indicating considerably low rates of change over and variance of the residuals (Sen 1968; Helsel and the 17-year study period. Hirsch 2002). A positive slope represents an increasing trend and a negative slope represents a decreasing trend. The Seasonal Kendall analyses was performed in Discussion XLSTAT ver. 2017.5 using significance thresholds of p <0.05,p < 0.01, and p <0.001. The seasonal analysis highlights the strong influence of seasonality as a major source of variation in the surface coastal water quality of PHMR, an important consider- ation when addressing future climate change variability. Results The seasonal patterns visible for temperature, salinity and precipitation were anticipated as strong correlations The results of the exploratory analyses showed mean often exist between precipitation, temperature and salin- water were highly seasonal ranging from ity in tropical marine environments with wet seasons 30.29 °C during the wet season (site 2A) to 27.80 °C (Schaffelke et al. 2012). The long-term temporal analy- during the dry season (site 4C). Mean salinity ranged ses revealed six sites with increasing salinity trends and from 23.05 parts per thousand (ppt) (2A) during the wet eight sites with increasing DO trends. These sites are season to 35.13 ppt (4B) during the dry season. Mean mostly clustered in the northern latitudes of PHMR. DO DO varied from 5.54 mg/l during the wet season (4C) to is one of the most critical components of water quality 6.19 mg/l during the dry season (4A). A comparison of and low levels are known to cause harmful problems to mean values of temperature and salinity between wet fisheries (Heisler et al. 2008). The examination of DO in and dry season demonstrated a seasonal pattern at all this study showed no hypoxic (< 2.0 mg/l) or anoxic stations, whereas mean values of DO and pH showed (<0.2 mg/l) conditions at any time for any of the sam- little seasonal variation. The time series graphs demon- pling sites (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008). On the contrary, strate the cyclical fluctuations of wet and dry season for the increasing DO values represent an improvement of temperature with weaker (Fig. 2) at the ten sites but water quality. This assessment contrasts with other glob- show weaker seasonal fluctuations for DO, salinity, al trends of coastal water quality that generally identify Environ Biol Fish Rio Grande Hen and Chick

34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24 22 22 20 20 Wilson Caye Moho/Stuart Caye

34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24 22 22 20 20 West Snake Caye East Snake Caye

34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24 22 22 Temperature (°C) 20 20 Deep River Punta Ycacos

34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24 22 22 20 20 Golden Stream Middle Snake Caye

34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24 22 22 20 20 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Year Year Fig. 2 Time series graphs of temperature at the ten water quality sampling sites in PHMR, Belize (January 1998–December 2015) decreasing marine DO and degradation of water quality implies little change in optimal physiological ranges in coastal environments (Mallin et al. 2000;DeJonge for fishes and low impacts on associated biological et al. 2002;Joosetal.2003; Diaz and Rosenberg 2008; processes. This consistency bodes well for stake- Brodie et al. 2012). The lack of directional temperature holders such as sport fishing guides who rely on trends for all sites over the 17-year study period predictable environmental conditions. The relatively Environ Biol Fish Rio Grande Hen and Chick 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Wison Caye Moho/Stuart Caye

12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 West Snake Caye East Snake Caye 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 (mg/L) 4 4 2 2 Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen Dissolved 0 0 Deep River Punta Ycacos 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Golden Stream Middle Snake Caye 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Year Year Fig. 3 Time series graphs of dissolved oxygen (DO) at the ten water quality sampling sites in PHMR, Belize (January 1998–December 2015) stable water quality of PHMR during the study period population density of the Toledo District relative to is likely associated with several factors. The absence the rest of Belize are probable explanations contrib- of beaches, limited coastal development, and low uting to satisfactory water quality. Environ Biol Fish Rio Grande Hen and Chick

60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Wilson Caye Moho/Stuart Caye 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 West Snake Caye East Snake Caye

60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20

Salinity (ppt) 10 10 0 0 Deep River Punta Ycacos 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Golden Stream Middle Snake Caye 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Year Year Fig. 4 Time series graphs of salinity at the ten water quality sampling sites in PHMR, Belize (January 1998–December 2015) Environ Biol Fish Rio Grande Hen and Chick 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Wilson Caye Moho/Stuart Caye 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 West Snake Caye East Snake Caye 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8

pH 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Deep River Punta Ycacos 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Golden Stream Middle Snake Caye 14 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2 2 0 0 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Jan-98 Apr-01 Jul-04 Nov-07 Feb-11 Jun-14 Year Year Fig. 5 Time series graphs of pH at the ten water quality sampling sites in PHMR, Belize (January 1998–December 2015) Environ Biol Fish

Table 1 Monotonic trends in DO, temperature, salinity derived Grande on a daily basis for cooking and washing as with the seasonal Kendall test for 10 sites of Port Honduras Marine visible by the frequent domestic use stations with flat Reserve (PHMR), Belize from 1998–2015 stones, increasing the possibility of negative down- Site number Site name Parameter Sen’sslope stream impacts (Fig. 6). Additionally, of high concern in the Rio Grande watershed is the Bdump,^ an unreg- 1A Rio Grande Temperature 0.009 ulated, land-based municipal waste site located less than − DO 0.007 1kmfromtheRioGrandeRiver.Highprecipitation, Salinity 0.009 especially during the rainy season, can lead to substan- − 2A Golden Stream Temperature 0.018 tial runoff increasing the risk of contaminants from the DO 0.101* dumpsite flowing overland or subsurface directly into Salinity −0.158 the Rio Grande River and PHMR (Halvorson and Foley 2B Hen and Chick Temperature −0.025 2013). DO 0.075 A study evaluating sediment and nutrient delivery Salinity 0.108* from human activities to the entire Gulf of Honduras 2C Moho/Stuart Caye Temperature −0.026 estimated that 80% of sediment and over half of all DO 0.151** nitrogen and phosphorous originate in Honduras, with Salinity 0.047 relatively minor contributions from Belize (Burke and 3A Deep River Temperature −0.018 Sugg 2006). Expanding agricultural activities in Belize DO 0.101* as well as Honduras and Guatemala will increase the Salinity 0.301*** influx of sediment, nutrients and pollutants from fresh- 3B Wilson Caye Temperature 0.061 water sources entering the marine systems (Thattai et al. DO 0.096** 2003). Land-use modeling scenarios incorporating lax Salinity 0.173 regulation predicted a 10% increase in nutrient delivery 3C West Snake Caye Temperature −0.071 and a 13% increase in sediment delivery by 2025 for the DO 0.144* Gulf; whereas scenarios with favorable environmental Salinity 0.255* policies and sustainable development predicted a 5% 4A Punta Ycacos Temperature −0.007 reduction in nutrient and sediment delivery (Burke and DO 0.104** Sugg 2006). Salinity 0.070* Marine-based water quality threats include proposed 4B Middle Snake Caye Temperature 0.023 tourism infrastructure development on West Snake DO 0.157*** Caye, shrimp farming, offshore oil development, and Salinity 0.185** cruise ship tourism. A proposed development plan for 4C East Snake Caye Temperature −0.024 West Snake Caye, a relatively untouched caye centrally DO 0.121** Salinity 0.116*

(* = p < 0.05, ** = p < 0.01, and *** = p <0.001) Slope significance is indicated with asterisks

Field observations of PHMR and the Rio Grande River were integrated to better understand the region’s water resources. The sensitivity of marine water quality to terrestrial land use land cover changes has been highlighted in many studies and PHMR is the receiving area of all upland human activities (Rogers 1990; Fabricius 2005; Burke et al. 2004; Maina et al. 2013; Ramos-Scharrón and LaFevor 2016) These areas in- clude individuals from the Mayan communities of San Fig. 6 Photo of flat stones used for domestic use along the Rio Pedro de Columbia and San Miguel who use the Rio Grande River by the San Pedro de Colombia Mayan village Environ Biol Fish located in the Conservation Zone of PHMR, threatens anglers pursue new fishing opportunities in southern the future success of adjacent fisheries habitat (TIDE Belize, it’s critical to observe appropriate conservation 2016). West Snake Caye, and the flats around it, are measures such as habitat protection to allow PHMR to popular destinations for sport fisherman and guides continue to benefit fisheries and the local economy. from Punta Gorda (Fig. 7). Another potential threat to This study provides a baseline water quality informa- water quality in the region is aquaculture, specifically tion of PHMR, however, data collection over the 17- shrimp farming north of PHMR near the Town of Mon- year study period was completed by various organiza- key River. A recent study in the Placencia Lagoon tions and individuals and the likelihood of human error revealed negative ecological impacts on coastal water and inconsistencies with data collection and measure- quality coincided with shrimp farming (Ledwin 2010). ments is increased. Additionally, several gaps in the Although all of these economic opportunities appear span of data collection from 2001 to 2003, 2003– financially lucrative, they threaten the long-term sus- 2004, and 2006–2007 are clearly visible in the time tainability of Belize’s ecotourism industry (Gould series graphs (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5). These gaps limit 2017). statistical confidence of the results and verification with The primary objectives of the MPAs of Belize are to future studies would be beneficial. conserve , protect commercially valuable In situ data collection can be limited spatially and species and manage tourism and recreation (Cho temporally and remote sensing analyses are an increas- 2005). Marine and coastal tourism activities in PHMR ingly common approach for water quality studies that are essential for the economic and social well-being of would benefit the PHMR region (De Jonge et al. 2002; local communities as they represent a major source of Goetz et al. 2008). Satellite imagery would provide livelihood. Whereas other areas of Belize have experi- insight on sediment loads during the wet and dry sea- enced environmental consequences from uncontrolled sons for the easterly flowing currents and more detailed development, ineffective management and improperly information on chlorophyll-a, a variable directly associ- enforced regulation of natural resources, PHMR can ated with algal growth and excess nutrients. In addition persist as a highly valuable economic resource for south- to remote sensing, modeling river discharge is also a ern Belize (Burford et al. 2003; Cherrington et al. 2010; cost-effective method of analysis. Several studies have Steinberg 2015). evaluated discharge of southern Belize including the Sport fishing is an important component of ecotour- ICRAN-MAR into the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Sys- ism in Belize, with Bcatch and release^ practices that tem (Heyman and Kjerfve 1999; Thattai et al. 2003; generally preserve fish populations (Adams et al. 2014; Ezer et al. 2005; Burke and Sugg 2006). Future water Steinberg 2015). Ecotourism is increasingly prominent quality studies would benefit from incorporating annual in southern Belize where fly fishers typically pay flux models to provide additional information on fresh- US$500 per day for a sport fish guide. As recreational water inputs, frequency of sediment and nutrient loads and the spatial extent of currents. Sustainable financing, governance and legislation enforcement are common struggles of MPAs in tropical developing countries worldwide (Christie and White 2007; Wilkinson and Salvat 2012). Water quality mon- itoring of PHMR by TIDE ceased in 2015 as a result of inadequate funding. Many of TIDE’s research and out- reach programs are now inactive as the organization shifts to focus more on restoring finances through their BRidge to Reef^ ecotourism activities. If co- management is not achieved with TIDE, all responsibil- ity will fall to the Belize Fisheries Department, an entity already strained by minimal resources. A new PHMR management plan is currently under- – Fig. 7 Photo of waters surrounding West Snake Caye, the location way to update the 2011 2016 management plan to of proposed tourism infrastructure conserve habitat, coastal and marine resources, human Environ Biol Fish communities and the economy. In 2017 a managed countries in Central America but will continue to face fisheries access program was adopted at a national scale evolving obstacles related to sustainable financing and and now requires 2800 fishermen to obtain licenses and inadequate resources for environmental management. accurately record their catches (McDonald et al. 2017). The success of PHMR, and the associated sport fisher- Belize is one of the first countries to pioneer this inno- ies, is strongly linked to the support of the local com- vative approach to fisheries management. The informa- munity and Belizean authorities to continue to protect tion from this study highlights attainable goals that the ecological and economic integrity of PHMR. would benefit the new management plan. Additionally, Belizean authorities need to think about establishing Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Toledo Institute new, or leveraging existing, partnerships at local and for Development and Environment and the many individuals who assisted with the data collection for this study over the years, international scales as a way seek alternative sources of without whom this work would not have been possible. We also funding for monitoring efforts and continue community thank the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers and the engagement activities that will ultimately benefit con- Yellow Dog Community Conservation Foundation for financial servation and economic objectives. support.

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