A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING

FOR IRONWARE, TINWARE, WOOD, ETC.

WITH SECTIONS ON TIN-PLATING AND GALVANIZING BY

WILLIAM N. BROWN SECOND EDITION: REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND SON "THE OIL AND COLOUR TRADES JOURNAL" OFFICES 8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE, E.C.

1913 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 8 WARREN ST., NEW YORK CONTENTS. PAGE SECTION I. INTRODUCTION. 1-5 Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned 4 The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather without a Priming 5

SECTION II. JAPAN GROUNDS. 6-19 White Japan Grounds 7 Blue Japan Grounds 9 Scarlet Japan Ground 9 Red Japan Ground 10 Bright Pale Yellow Grounds 10 Green Japan Grounds 10 Orange-Coloured Grounds 11 Purple Grounds 11 Black Grounds 11 Common Black Japan Grounds on Metal 12 Tortoise-shell Ground 12 Painting Japan Work 13 Varnishing Japan Work 17

SECTION III. JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS. 20-28 Enamelling Bedstead Frames and similar large pieces 24 Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and similar goods 25 Enamelling Old Work 27

SECTION IV. THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE—PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER—MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL JAPANESE LACQUER. 29-48 Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling 29 Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves 34 Stoves heated by direct fire 34 Stoves heated by hot-water pipes 36 Pigments suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer 45 White Pigments 45 Red Pigments 46 Blue Pigment 46 Yellow Pigments 46 Green Pigment 46 Black Pigment 46 Methods of Application 46 Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with Natural Japanese Lacquer 47

SECTION V. COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS.—MISCELLANEOUS. 49-57 Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron 49 Bronzing Compositions 49 Golden Varnish for Metal 51 Carriage Varnish 51 Metal Polishes 51 Black Paints 52 Black Stain for Iron 53 Varnishes for Ironwork 55

SECTION VI. PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING. 58-60 Amalgam Process 59 Immersion Process 59 Battery Process 59 Weigler's Process 60 Hern's Process 60

SECTION VII. GALVANIZING. 61-66

INDEX. 67-69 HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING.

SECTION I.

INTRODUCTION. Japanning, as it is generally understood in Great Britain, is the art of covering paper, wood, or metal with a more or less thick coating of brilliant varnish, and hardening the same by baking it in an oven at a suitable heat. It originated in Japan—hence its name—where the natives use a natural varnish or lacquer which flows from a certain kind of tree, and which on its issuing from the plant is of a creamy tint, but becomes black on exposure to the air. It is mainly with the application of "japan" to metallic surfaces that we are concerned in these pages. Japanning may be said to occupy a position midway between painting and porcelain enamelling, and a japanned surface differs from an ordinary painted surface in being far more brilliant, smoother, harder, and more durable, and also in retaining its gloss permanently, in not being easily injured by hot water or by being placed near a fire; while real good japanning is characterised by great lustre and adhesiveness to the metal to which it has been applied, and its non-liability to chipping—a fault which, as a rule, stamps the common article. If the English process of japanning be more simple and produces a less durable, a less costly coating than the Japanese method, yet its practice is not so injurious to the health. Indeed, it is a moot point in how far the Japanese themselves now utilize their classical process, as the coat of natural japan on all the articles exhibited at the recent Vienna exhibition as being coated with the natural lacquer, when recovered after six months' immersion in sea water through the sinking of the ship, was destroyed, although it stood perfectly well on the articles of some age. In the English method, where necessary, a priming or undercoat is employed. It is customary to fill up any uneven surface, any minute holes or pores, and to render the surface to be japanned uniformly smooth. But such an undercoat or priming is not always applied, the coloured varnish or a proper japan ground being applied directly on the surface to be japanned. Formerly this surface usually, if not always, received a priming coat, and it does so still where the surface is coarse, uneven, rough, and porous. But where the surface is impervious and smooth, as in the case of metallic surfaces, a priming coat is not applied. It is also unnecessary to apply such a coat in the case of smooth, compact, grained wood. The reason for using this coating is that it effects a considerable saving in the quantity of varnish used, and because the matter of which the priming is composed renders the surface of the body to be varnished uniform, and fills up all pores, cracks, and other inequalities, and by its use it is easy after rubbing and water polishing to produce an even surface on which to apply the varnish. The previous application of this undercoat was thus an advantage in the case of coarse, uneven surfaces that it formed a first and sort of obligatory initial stage in the process of japanning. This initial coating is still applied in many instances. But it has its drawbacks, and these drawbacks are incidental to the nature of the priming coat which consists of size and whiting. The coats or layers of japan proper, that is of varnish and pigment applied over such a priming coat, will be continually liable to crack or peel off with any violent shock, and will not last nearly so long as articles japanned with the same materials and altogether in the same way but without the undercoat. This defect may be readily perceived by comparing goods that have been in use for some time in the japanning of which an undercoat has been applied with similar goods in which no such previous coat has been given. Provided a good japan varnish and appropriate pigments have been used and the japanning well executed, the coats of japan applied without a priming never peel or crack or are in any way damaged except by violence or shock, or that caused by continual ordinary wear and tear caused by such constant rubbing as will wear away the surface of the japan. But japan coats applied with a priming coat crack and fly off in flakes at the slightest concussion, at any knock or fall, more especially at the edges. Those Birmingham manufacturers who were the first to practise japanning only on metals on which there was no need for a priming coat did not of course adopt such a practice. Moreover, they found it equally unnecessary in the case of papier-mâché and some other goods. Hence Birmingham japanned goods wear better than those goods which receive a priming previous to japanning. Priming or Preparing the Surface to be Japanned. The usual priming, where one is applied, consists of Paris white (levigated whiting) made into a thin paste with size. The size should be of a consistency between the common double size and glue, and mixed with as much Paris white as will give it a good body so that it will hide the surface on which it is applied. But in particular work glovers' or parchment size instead of common size is used, and this is still further improved by the addition of one-third of isinglass, and if the coat be not applied too thickly it will be much less liable to peel or crack. The surface should be previously prepared for this priming by being well cleaned and by being brushed over with hot size diluted with two-thirds of water, that is provided the size be of the usual strength. The priming is then evenly and uniformly applied with a brush and left to dry. On a fairly even surface two coats of priming properly applied should suffice. But if it will not take a proper water polish, owing to the uneven surface not being effectually filled up, one or more additional coats must be applied. Previous to the last coat being applied, the surface should be smoothed by fine glass paper. When the last coat of priming is dry the water polish is applied. This is done by passing a fine wet rag or moistened sponge over the surface until the whole appears uniformly smooth and even. The priming is now complete and the surface ready to take the japan ground or the coloured varnish. The First Stage in the Japanning of Wood or of Leather Without a Priming. [The leather is first securely stretched on a frame or board.] In this case, that is when no priming coat is previously applied, the best way to prepare the surface is to apply three coats of coarse varnish (1 lb. seed-lac, 1 lb rosin to 1 gallon methylated spirit, dissolve and filter). This varnish, like all others formed from methylated spirits, must be applied in a warm place and all dampness should be avoided, for either cold or moisture chills it and thus prevents it taking proper hold of the surface on which it is applied. When the work is prepared thus, or by the priming made of size and whiting already described, the japan proper is itself applied. SECTION II.

JAPAN GROUNDS. The japan ground properly so called consists of the varnish and pigment where the whole surface is to be of one simple colour, or of the varnish, with or without pigment, on which some painting or other form of decoration is afterwards to be applied. It is best to form this ground with the desired pigment incorporated with shellac varnish, except in the case of a white japan ground which requires special treatment, or when great brilliancy is a desideratum and other methods must be adopted. The shellac varnish for the japan ground is best prepared as 1 follows: shellac 1 /4 lb., methylated spirits 1 gallon. Dissolve in a well-corked vessel in a warm place and with frequent shaking. After two or three days the shellac will be dissolved. It is then recommended to filter the solution through a flannel bag, and when all that will come through freely has done so the varnish should be run into a proper sized vessel and kept carefully corked for use. The bag may then be squeezed with the hand till the remainder of the fluid varnish is forced through it, and this if fairly clear may be used for rough purposes or added to the next batch. Pigments of any nature whatever may be used with the shellac varnish to give the desired tint to the ground, and where necessary they may be mixed together to form any compound colour, such as blue and yellow to form green. The pigments used for japan grounds should all be previously ground very smooth in spirits of turpentine, so smooth that the paste does not grate between the two thumb nails, and then only are they mixed with the varnish. This mixture of pigment and varnish vehicle should then be spread over the surface to be japanned very carefully and very evenly with a camel-hair brush. As metals do not require a priming coat of size and whiting, the japan ground may be applied to metallic surfaces forthwith without any preliminary treatment except thorough cleansing, except in the cases specially referred to further on. On metallic surfaces three to four coats are applied, and in the interval between each coat the articles must be stoved in an oven heated to from 250° to 300° F. White Japan Grounds. The formation of a perfectly white japan ground and of the first degree of hardness has always been difficult to attain in the art of japanning, as there are few or no substances that can be so dissolved as to form a very hard varnish coat without being so darkened in the process as to quite degrade or spoil the whiteness of the colour. The following process, however, is said to give a composition which yields a very near approach to a perfect white ground: Take flake white or white lead washed and ground up with the sixth of its weight of starch and then dried, temper it properly for spreading with mastic varnish made thus: Take 5 oz. of mastic in powder and put it into a proper vessel with 1 lb. of spirits of turpentine; let them boil at a gentle heat till the mastic be dissolved, and, if there appear to be any turbidity, strain off the solution through flannel. Apply this intimate and homogeneous mixture on the body to be japanned, the surface of which has been suitably prepared either with or without the priming, then varnish it over with five or six coats of the following varnish: Provide any quantity 1 of the best seed-lac and pick out of it all the clearest and whitest grains, take of this seed-lac /2 lb. and of gum 3 anime /4 lb., pulverize the mixture to a coarse powder and dissolve in a gallon of methylated spirits and strain off the clear varnish. The seed-lac will give a slight tint to this varnish, but it cannot be omitted where the japanned surface must be hard, though where a softer surface will serve the purpose the proportion of seed-lac may be diminished and a little turpentine oleo-resin added to the gum anime to take off the brittleness. A very good varnish entirely free from brittleness may, it is said, be formed by dissolving gum anime in old nut or poppy oil, which must be made to boil gently when the gum is put into it. After being diluted with turps the white ground may be applied in this varnish, and then a coat or two of the varnish itself may be applied over it. These coats, however, take a long time to dry, and, owing to its softer nature, this japanned surface is more readily injured than that yielded by the shellac varnish. According to Mr. Dickson, "the old way of making a cream enamel for stoving (a white was supposed to be impossible) was to mix ordinary tub white lead with the polishing copal varnish and to add a modicum of blue to neutralize the yellow tinge, stove same in about 170°F. and then polish as before described". "This," continues Mr. Dickson, "would at the best produce but a very pale blue enamel or a cream. It was afterwards made with flake white or dry white lead ground in turps only and mixed with the polishing copal varnish with the addition of tints as required, by which means a white of any required character could be produced." Blue Japan Grounds. Authorities state that these may be formed from bright Prussian blue or verditer glazed over with Prussian blue or of smalt. By bright Prussian blue possibly a genuine Prussian blue toned down to a sky blue with white lead is meant, and by verditer the variety known as refiners' blue verditer, and as to smalt it must not be forgotten that it changes its colour in artificial light. Be that as it may, the pigment may be mixed with the shellac varnish according to the instructions already given, but as the shellac will somewhat injure the tone of the pigment by imparting a yellow tinge to it where a bright true blue is required, the directions already given as regards white grounds must be carried out. Scarlet Japan Ground. Vermilion is the best pigment to use for a scarlet japan ground, and its effect will be greatly enhanced by glazing it over with carmine or fine lake. If, however, the highest degree of brightness be required the white varnish must be used. Vermilion must be stoved at a very gentle heat. Red Japan Ground. The basis of this japan ground is made up with madder lake ground in oil of turpentine, this constitutes the first ground; when this is perfectly dry a second coat of lake and white in copal varnish is applied, and the last coat is made up of lake in a mixture of copal varnish and turpentine varnish. Bright Pale Yellow Grounds. Orpiment or King's yellow may be used, and the effect is enhanced by dissolving powdered turmeric root in the methylated spirits from which the upper or polishing coat is made, which methylated spirits must be strained from off the dregs before the seed-lac is added to it to form the varnish. The seed-lac varnish is not so injurious to yellow pigments as it is to the tone of some other pigments, because, being tinged a reddish yellow, it does little more than intensify or deepen the tone of the pigment. Green Japan Grounds. Green japan grounds are produced by mixing Prussian blue or distilled verdigris with orpiment, and the effect is said to be extremely brilliant by applying them on a ground of leaf gold. Any of them may be used with good seed-lac varnish, for reasons already given. Equal parts by weight of rosin, precipitated rosinate of copper, and coal-tar solvent naphtha will give a varnish which, when suitably thinned and the coats stoved at a heat below 212° F., will give a green japan second to none as a finishing coat as regards purity of tone at least. To harden it and render it more elastic half of the rosin might be replaced by equal weights of a copal soluble in solvent 1 naphtha and boiled linseed oil, so that the mixture would stand thus: rosinate of copper 1 lb., rosin /2 lb., boiled 1 1 oil /4 lb., hard resin (copal) /4 lb., solvent naphtha 1 lb. When heated to a high temperature this rosinate of copper varnish yields a magnificent ruby bronze coloration, especially on glass. Verdigris dissolves in turpentine, and successful attempts might be made to make a green japan varnish from it on the lines indicated for rosinate of copper. Orange-coloured Grounds. Orange-coloured grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or red lead with King's yellow, or orange lake or red orpiment (? realgar) will make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture. Purple Grounds. Purple grounds may be produced by the admixture of lake or vermilion with Prussian blue. They may be treated as the other coloured grounds as regards the varnish vehicle. Black Grounds. Black grounds may be formed either from lamp black or ivory black, but ivory black is preferable to lamp black, and possibly carbon black or gas black to either. These may be always applied with the shellac varnish as a vehicle, and their upper or polishing coats may consist of common seed-lac varnish. But the best quality of ivory black ground in the best super black japan yields, after suitable stoving, a very excellent black indeed, the purity of tone of which may be improved by adding a little blue in the grinding. Common Black Japan Grounds On Metal. Common black japan grounds on metal by means of heat are procured in the following manner: The surface to be japanned must be coated over with drying oil, and when it is moderately dry must be put into a stove of such heat as will change the oil black without burning it. The stove should not be too hot when the oil is put into it nor the heat increased too fast, either which error would make it blister, but the slower the heat is increased and the longer it is continued, provided it be restrained within a due degree, the harder will be the coat of japan. This kind of japan requires no polish, having received from the heat, when properly regulated, a sufficiently bright surface. Tortoise-Shell Ground. This beautiful ground, produced by heat, is valued not only for its hardness and its capacity to stand a heat greater than that of boiling water, but also for its fine appearance. It is made by means of a varnish prepared thus: Take one gallon of good linseed oil and half a pound of umber, boil them together until the oil becomes very brown and thick, strain it then through a coarse cloth and set it again to boil, in which state it must be continued until it acquires a consistency resembling that of pitch; it will then be fit for use. Having thus prepared the varnish, clean well the surface which is to be japanned; then apply vermilion ground in shellac varnish or with drying oil, very thinly diluted with oil of turpentine, on the places intended to imitate the more transparent parts of the tortoise-shell. When the vermilion is dry, brush the whole over with the black varnish thinned to the right consistency with oil of turpentine. When set and firm put the work into a stove where it may undergo a very strong heat, which must be continued a considerable time, for three weeks or even a month so much the better. This ground may be decorated with painting and gilding in the same way as any other varnished surface, which had best be done after the ground has been hardened, but it is well to give a second annealing at a very gentle heat after it has been finished. A very good black japan may be made by mixing a little japan gold size with ivory or lamp-black, this will develop a good gloss without requiring to be varnished afterwards. Painting Japan Work. Japan work should be painted with real "enamel paints," that is with paints actually ground in varnish, and in that case all pigments may be used and the peculiar disadvantages, which attend several pigments with respect to oil or water, cease with this class of vehicle, for they are secured by it when properly handled from the least danger of changing or fading. The preparation of pigments for this purpose consists in bringing them to a due state of fineness by grinding them on a stone with turpentine. The best varnish for binding and preserving the pigments is shellac. This, when judiciously handled, gives such a firmness and hardness to the work that, if it be afterwards further secured with a moderately thick coat of seed-lac varnish, it will be almost as hard and durable as glass. The method of painting in varnish is, however, far more tedious than with an oil or water vehicle. It is, therefore, now very usual in japan work for the sake of dispatch, and in some cases in order to be able to use the pencil (brush) more freely, to apply the colours in an oil vehicle well diluted with turps. This oil (or japanners' gold size) may be made thus: Take 1 lb. of linseed oil and 4 oz. of gum anime, set the oil in a proper vessel and then add the gum anime powder, stirring it well until the whole is mixed with the oil. Let the mixture continue to boil until it appears of a thick consistence, then strain the whole through a coarse cloth and keep it for use. The pigments are also sometimes applied in a gum-water vehicle, but work so done, it has been urged, is not nearly so durable as that done in varnish or oil. However, those who formerly condemned the practice of japanning water-coloured decorations allowed that amateurs, who practised japanning for their amusement only and thus might not find it convenient to stock the necessary preparations for the other methods, might paint with water-colours. If the pigments are ground in an aqueous vehicle of strong isinglass size and honey instead of gum water the work would not be much inferior to that executed with other vehicles. Water- colours are sometimes applied on a ground of gold after the style of other paintings, and sometimes so as to produce an embossed effect. The pigments in this style of painting are ground in a vehicle of isinglass size corrected with honey or sugar-candy. The body with which the embossed work is raised is best formed of strong gum water thickened to a proper consistency with armenian bole and whiting in equal parts, which, being laid on in the proper figures and repaired when dry, may be then painted with the intended pigments in the vehicle of isinglass size or in the general manner with shellac varnish. As to the comparative value of pigments ground in water and ground in oil, that is between oil-colours and water-colours in enamelling and japanning, there seems to have been a change of opinion for some time back, especially as regards the enamelling of slate. The marbling of slate (to be enamelled) in water-colours is a process which Mr. Dickson says well repays study. It is greatly developed in France and Germany. The process is a quick one and the pigments are said to stand well and to maintain their pristine hue, yet if many strikingly natural effects result from the use of this process, its use has not spread in Great Britain, being confined wholly and solely to the marbling of slate (except in the case of wall-paper which is water-marbled in a somewhat similar way). "In painting in oil-colour," says Mr. Dickson, "the craftsman trusts largely to his badger-hair brush to produce his effects of softness and marbly appearance; but in painting in water-colours, this softness, depth, and marbly appearance are produced mostly by the colour placed upon the surface, and left entirely untouched by badger or any other brush. The colour drying quickly, does not allow much time for working, and when dry it cannot be touched without spoiling the whole of the work. The difference first of all between painting in water and in oil colour, is that a peculiar grain exists with painting in water that it is absolutely impossible to get in oil. The charm of a marble is, I think, its translucency as much as its beautiful colour; it is to that translucency (for in marble fixed we have no transparency) that it owes its softness of effect, which makes marble of such decorative value. This translucency can only be obtained by thin glazes of colour, by which means each succeeding glaze only partly covers the previous one, the character of the marble being thus produced. This is done sometimes in oil-colour in a marvellous manner, but even the best of oil-painting in marble cannot stand the comparison of water-colour, and it is only by comparison that any accurate judgment can be formed of any work. The production of marbles in water-colour has a depth, softness, and stoniness that defies oil-painting, and in some cases will defy detection unless by an expert of marbles. It may be that first of all the materials employed are more in keeping with the real material, as no oil enters into the composition of real marble, and by using the medium of water we thus start better, but the real secret is that by using water as a medium the colours take an entirely different effect. In painting in water-colour greys of any tint or strength can be obtained suitable for the production of a marble of greyish ground, by pure white, tinted as required, being applied of different thicknesses of colour, all the modulations of tone being obtained by the difference in the thickness of the colour applied." Varnishing Japan Work. Varnishing is the last and the finishing process in japanning. It consists in (1) applying, and (2) polishing the outer coats of varnish, which are equally necessary whether the plain japan ground be painted on or not. This is best done in a general way with common seed-lac varnish, except on those occasions where other methods have been shown to be more expedient, and the same reasons, which decide as to the propriety of using the different varnishes as regards the colours of the ground, hold equally with those of the painting, for where brightness is a material point and a tinge of yellow would injure it, seed-lac must give way to the whiter resins; but where hardness and tenacity are essential it must be adhered to, and where both are necessary a mixed varnish must be used. This mixed varnish should be made from the picked seed-lac as directed in the case of the white japan 1 grounds. The common seed-lac varnish may be made thus: Take 1 /2 lb. of seed-lac and wash it well in several waters, then dry it and powder it coarsely and put it with a gallon of methylated spirits into a Bohemian glass flask so that it be not more than two-thirds full. Shake the mixture well together and place the flask in a gentle heat till the seed-lac appears to be dissolved, the shaking being in the meantime repeated as often as may be convenient; then pour off all the clear and strain the remainder through a coarse cloth. The varnish so prepared must be kept for use in a well-corked glass vessel. The whiter seed-lac varnishes are used in the same manner as the common, except as regards the substances used in polishing, which, where a pure white or the greater clearness or purity of other pigments is in question, should be itself white, while the browner sorts of polishing dust, as being cheaper and doing their business with greater dispatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces of work to be varnished should be placed near the fire or in a warm room and made perfectly dry, and then the varnish may be applied with a flat camel-hair brush made for the purpose. This must be done very rapidly, but with great care; the same place should not be passed twice over in laying on one coat if it can possibly be avoided. The best way of proceeding is to begin in the middle and pass the brush to one end, then with another stroke from the middle pass it to the other end, taking care that before each stroke the brush be well supplied with varnish; when one coat is dry another must be laid over it in like manner, and this must be continued five or six times. If on trial there be not a sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish without laying bare the painting or ground colour underneath more varnish must be applied. When a sufficient number of coats of varnish is so applied the work is fit to be polished, which must be done in common work by rubbing it with a piece of cloth or felt dipped in tripoli or finely ground pumice-stone. But towards the end of the rubbing a little oil of any kind must be used with the powder, and when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy it should be well rubbed with the oil alone to clean it from the powder and to give it a still greater lustre. In the case of white grounds, instead of the tripoli, fine putty or whiting should be used, but they should be washed over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any sand or any other gritty matter that may happen to be mixed with them. It greatly improves all kinds of japan work to harden the varnish by means of heat, which, in every degree that can be applied short of what would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a firm and strong texture where metals form the body; therefore a very hot stove may be used, and the stoving may be continued for a considerable time, especially if the heat be gradually increased. But where wood or papier- mâché is in question, heat must be applied with great caution. SECTION III.

JAPANNING OR ENAMELLING METALS. In japanning metals, all good work of which should be stoved, they have to be first thoroughly cleaned, and then the japan ground applied with a badger or camel-hair brush or other means, very carefully and evenly. Metals usually require from three to five coats, and between each application must be dried in an oven heated from 250° to 300° F.—about 270° being the average. It has already been seen that the best grounds for japanning are formed of shellac varnish, the necessary pigments for colouring being added thereto, being mixed with the shellac varnish after they have been ground into a high degree of smoothness and fineness in spirits of turpentine. In japanning it is best to have the oven at rather a lower temperature, increasing the heat after the work has been placed in the oven. When a sufficient number of coats have been laid on—which will usually be two only—the work must be polished by means of a piece of cloth or felt dipped in tripoli or finely powdered pumice-stone. For white grounds fine putty powder or whiting must be employed, a final coat being afterwards given, and the work stoved again. The last coat of all is one of varnish. And here, as a preliminary remark, it is advisable that all enamels and japans should be purchased ready-made, as any attempt to make such is almost sure to end in disaster, while, owing to the fact that such are only required for small jobs; it would involve too much trouble and would not pay. It is for this reason that few japan recipes are given, as, although many are available, they do not always turn out as suitable for the purpose as could be desired, in addition to which the ready-made articles can be purchased at a very reasonable price and are much better prepared. The operator should procure his enamels a shade or two lighter than he desires to see in the finished article, allowing the chemical action due to the stoving to tone the colours down. Another necessity is to keep the enamel thoroughly well mixed by well stirring it every time it is used, as if this is not done the actual colouring matter is apt to sink to the bottom, the ultimate result being that streaky work is produced in consequence of this indifferent mixing of the enamelling materials. It is hardly necessary to state that all japanning or enamelling work must be done in a room or shop absolutely free from dust or dirt, and as far away as possible from any window or other opening leading to the open air, for two reasons—one being that the draught therefrom may cool the oven or stove, and the other that the air may convey particles of dust into the enamelling shop. In fact, it cannot be too much impressed upon the workmen that one of the primary secrets of successful enamelling is absolute cleanliness; consequently all precautions must be taken to ensure that the enamel is perfectly free from grit and dust, and it must be so kept by frequent straining through fine muslin, flannel, or similar material. The work having been thoroughly cleaned and freed from all grease and other foreign matter, it must be suspended or held immediately over the pan elsewhere referred to, and the enamel poured on with an ordinary iron ladle, or covered by means of the brush. When it has been permitted to drain thoroughly, the work should be hung on the hooks on the rods in the oven as seen in the explanatory sketch, care being observed that no portion of the work is in such a position that any superfluous enamel cannot easily drain off—in other words, the work must lie or hang that it is always, as it were, on the slant. Always bear in mind when shutting the oven door to do so gently, as if a slam is indulged in all the gas jets will be blown out, and an explosion would probably result. Should the job in hand be a large one, it will be found as well to get a cheaper enamel for the first coat, but if the work is only a small job, it will not be necessary to have more than one enamel, of which a couple of coats at least will be required. When the first coat has thoroughly dried and hardened, the surface will have to be thoroughly rubbed till it is perfectly smooth with tripoli powder and fine pumice-stone, and afterwards hand- polished with rotten-stone and putty powder. And here it may be remarked that the finer the surface is got up with emery powder and other polishing agents the better will be the enamelling and ultimate finish. The rubbing down being finished, another coat of enamel must be applied and the work baked as before, care being always taken to keep the enamel in a sufficiently fluid condition as to enable it to flow and run off the work freely. It can easily be thinned with a little paraffin. A third coat will frequently be advisable, as it improves the finish. In enamelling cycles, it is well to hang the front forks crown uppermost when they are undergoing the final baking, and it is advisable to bear in mind that wheels require an enamel that will stove at a lower temperature than is called for for other parts of the machine. Some japanners advocate the fluid being put on with camel-or badger-hair brushes, and for the best descriptions of work, final coats, and such like, I agree with them; but this is a detail which can be left to the operator's own fancy, the class of work, etc.; but I would remind him that applying enamel with a brush requires much care and a certain amount of "knack". It is something like successful lacquering in brasswork—it looks very simple, but is not. Each succeeding coat of japan gives a more uniform and glossy surface, and for this reason it may, in some cases, be necessary to repeat the operation no fewer than half a dozen times, the final coat being generally a layer of clear varnish only, to add to the lustre. Care must be taken for light-coloured japans or enamels not to have the temperature sufficiently high to scorch, or the surface will be discoloured, as they require a lower temperature for fixing than the dark japans, which, provided the article is not likely to be injured by the heat, are usually dried at a somewhat high temperature. The preceding instructions apply only to the best descriptions of work. When pouring enamel by means of the ladle over pieces of work, do not agitate the liquid too much—at the same time taking care to keep it well mixed—so as to form air bubbles, as this will cause trouble, and in pouring over the work do it with an easy and gentle and not too hurried a motion. In japanning curved pieces, such as mud-guards, etc., in hanging up the work in the oven see that the liquid does not run to extremities and there form ugly blots or blotches of enamel. When white or other light tones are used for japanning they are mixed with japanners' varnish, and these require more careful heating in the oven or stove than darker tints or brown or black. Fig. 1.—Trough for Dipping Bedstead Frames and other Large Work. Enamelling Bedstead Frames and Similar Large Pieces. At Fig. 1 is shown a trough in which large pieces, such as bedsteads, bicycle frames, etc., are dipped or immersed. For the first-mentioned class of work such high finish is not required as for bicycles, and consequently the enamel need not be applied with a brush, nor will it be necessary to rub down the work between each coat, but instead the pieces can be literally dipped in the tank of liquid, then allowed to drain on to the dripping-board—the superfluous enamel thus finding its way back into the trough or tank, the dripped articles being afterwards placed in the oven to harden. The trough must be of sufficient dimensions to allow the pieces of work to be completely immersed, and the dripping-board should be set at an angle of about 45°. Bedstead frames will never require more than two coats and the commoner class of goods only one. I would not advise the tradesman in a small way of business to go to the expense of a trough, etc., as it calls for much more room than is ordinarily available, but if he has the necessary plant for bicycle work he can, of course, do an occasional job of the other kind. Japanning Tin, such as Tea-trays and Similar Goods. For japanning sheet-iron articles, which are really tin goods, such as tea-trays and similar things, first scour them well with a piece of sandstone, which will effectually remove all the scales and make the surface quite smooth. Then give the metal a coating of vegetable black, which must be mixed with super black japan varnish, thinned with turps, and well strained. Only a small quantity of this varnish is necessary, as it will dry dead. The article must then be placed in the stove to harden at a temperature of 212° F., there to remain for from ten to twelve hours. When taken out of the stove, the articles must be allowed to get cold, after which they must be given a coat of super black japan, which, if necessary, must be thinned with turps, a stiff, short bristle brush being employed, and the varnish put on sparingly, so that it will not "run" when it gets warm. Two coats of this varnish on top of the vegetable black coating are usually sufficient, when done properly, but a third coating much improves the work, and from ten to twelve hours' hardening will be necessary between each coating. The small lumps which will be more or less certain to arise will require to be rubbed down between each application by a small and smooth piece of pumice-stone. If it is desired to add gold or bronze bands or any kind of floral or other kind of fancy decorations, these are painted on, after the ground japanning has been done, in japanners' gold size, and then the gold leaf is applied, or the bronze or other metal powder is dusted on, after which the objects so treated are again placed in the stove, where they will not require to be kept near so long as for ordinary japanning. After they have been removed, the gilt or bronzed portions must be treated with a protecting coat of white spirit varnish. Transfers can be applied in the same way. Tinned iron goods are the most largely japanned, and for these brown and black colours are principally employed. Both are obtained by the use of brown japan, the metal having a preliminary coating of black paint when black is required. Only one coating of brown japan is given to cheap goods, but for better articles two or more are applied. For these it is possible that a final dressing with pumice-stone, then with rotten-stone, and rubbed with a piece of felt or cloth, or even the palm of the hand, may be necessary, but as a rule not. Large numbers of articles of the above description, such as tea-trays, tea-canisters, cash-boxes, coal-boxes, and similar goods, are japanned at Birmingham, and it is to such that the preceding instructions apply. Enamelling Old Work. In all cases of re-enamelling old work, it is absolutely necessary to remove all traces of the first enamelling, and if this has been well done in the first instance, it will prove no mean job. The best way to clean the work is to soak it in a strong "lye" of hot potash, when the softened enamel can be wiped or brushed off—this latter method being pursued in the more intricate and ungetatable portions of the work. New work, which has not been enamelled, can be treated in the same way for the removal of all grease, stains, finger-marks, etc., and too much attention cannot be paid to the initial preparation of the surface of the metal, to have it thoroughly even and smooth, as it adds so much to the ultimate finish and appearance of the work. Plenty of labour must be bestowed before the final coat, as any blemish will show through this finishing, and so mar what would otherwise be a highly satisfactory bit of work. In all kinds of bicycle work, whether new or old, the most satisfactory results are obtained by the application of at least two, and sometimes four or five, successive coats of good but thin enamel, as this will impart the necessary perfect coat, combined with durability, a high finish, and a good colour. A good enamel should be sufficiently hard, so as not to be scratched on the merest touch or rubbing. It will, of course, be understood that no solder-work must be put into the stove, or the pieces will separate. Should any of this work be discovered, the pieces must be taken apart, and then brazed together before being enamelled, and put in the stove. SECTION IV.

THE ENAMELLING AND JAPANNING STOVE—PIGMENTS SUITABLE FOR JAPANNING WITH NATURAL LACQUER—MODERN METHODS OF JAPANNING WITH NATURAL JAPANESE LACQUER. Appliances and Apparatus used in Japanning and Enamelling. Besides the various enamels or japans and varnishes of various colourings and the stove, which will be found described and illustrated, together with the trough, in other pages, the worker will need some iron pots or cauldrons in which to boil the potash "lye" for the cleansing, more particularly, of old work, some iron ladles both for this work and for pouring the japan on the articles to be covered therewith, a few badger tools and brushes for small fine work, some hooks for the stove, a pair of pliers, a few bits of broom handle cut into short lengths and made taper, so as to fit into the tubes, etc., of bicycles and other work, so as to keep the hands as free from the japan as possible, some emery powder, pumice-stone powder, tripoli, putty powder, whiting, and a piece of felt or cloth. If he is also doing any common work, a stumpy brush of bristles and a soft leather will also be requisite, together with a file or two. These will about comprise the whole of the articles required, not very expensive, all of which will really not be required by a beginner. Owing largely to the strides made in the cycle trade enamelling is stoved by means of gas, and of this a plentiful supply is necessary. Enamelling stoves may really be described as hot-air cupboards or ovens, and for a stove 1 which will answer most requirements—say one of 6 feet by 6 feet by 3 /2 feet—six rows of atmospheric 1 burners will be necessary to heat it, while it will be also advisable to fix pipes of 1 /4 inch internal diameter from the gas meter to the stove. The atmospheric burners can be made from the requisite number of pieces of 1 1 1 1 /4-inch gas tube 3 /2 feet in length, one end of each being stopped, and having /3-inch holes drilled therein at 3 intervals of about 1 inch, the other end being left open for the insertion of ordinary /8-inch brass gas taps. Another plan preferred by some japanners is to have three rows of burners the full length of the stove, which, under some circumstances, due to structural conditions, will be found more suitable. Anyway, whatever the position of the stove, allowance must be made for a temperature up to 400° F. to be raised. In old-fashioned ovens the heat is applied by means of external flues, in which hot air or steam is circulated, but this system is generally unsatisfactory, the supply of heat having to be controlled by dampers or stop-cocks, and this has given place to the gas apparatus. Another simple form of oven, though not one which I shall recommend, is a species of sheet-iron box, which is encased by another and larger box of the same shape, so placed that from 2 to 3 inches of interspace exists between the two boxes. To this interspace heat is applied, and a flue will have to be affixed to this apparatus to carry off the vapours which arise from the enamel or japan. For amateur or intermittent jobbing work the oven illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3 is about as good as any, though to guard against fire it would be as well to have a course of brickwork beneath the oven, while if this is not possible on account of want of height, a sheet or so of zinc or iron will help to mitigate the danger. It is also advisable, if the apartment is a low-pitched one, to have a sheet of iron or zinc suspended by four corner chains from the ceiling in order to protect this from firing through the heat from the enamelling oven. Of course, it will be understood that every portion of the stove must be put together with rivets, no soldered work being permissible. Fig. 2.—Door of Oven when Shut. To those who wish to construct their own stove, it will be found that the framework can be shaped out of 1-inch angle iron, the panels or walls being constructed of sheet-iron of about 18 gauge, the whole being riveted together. The front will be occupied in its entire space by a door, which will require to be hung on strong iron 1 hinges, and the framework of this door should be constructed of 1 inch by /4 inch iron—a rather stouter material will really be no disadvantage—to which the sheet-iron plates must be riveted. In the centre of the door 1 must be cut a slit, say 1 /2 inches by 9 inches, which will require to be covered with mica or talc behind which must be placed the thermometer, so as it can be seen during the process of stoving, without the necessity of opening the door, which, of course, more or less cools the oven. And, by the way, this thermometer must register higher than the highest temperature the oven is capable of reaching. Above is shown a sketch of the stove, interior and exterior, which will give an idea of what a japanner's stove is like.

Fig. 3—Showing Stove when Open, and Back of Door. Inside the stove it will be necessary to fix rows of iron rods, some four inches from the top, from which to suspend the work, or angle-iron ledges can be used on which the rods or bars can be fixed, these arrangements being varied according to the particular description of work, individual fancy, or other circumstances. Large S hooks are about the handiest to use. A necessary adjunct of the stove is a pan, which can be made by any handy man or tinworker, which should be made to fit the bottom of the stove above the gas jets, it being arranged that it rests on two side ledges, or along some rods. One a couple of inches in depth will be found sufficient, and it will repay its cost in the saving of enamel, it being possible with its use to enamel a bicycle with as little as a gallon of enamel. Some workmen have the tray made with a couple of hinged side flaps, to turn over and cover up the pan when not in use, but this is a matter of fancy. Of course, they must always be covered up when not in use. For those who would prefer to use Bunsen burners, I show at Fig. 4 a sketch of the best to employ, these having three rows of holes in each.

Fig. 4.—Bunsen Burner. When brick ovens are employed they must be lined with sheet-iron, and in these very rare circumstances where gas is not available, the stove can be heated with coal or wood, which will, of course, involve a total alteration in the structural arrangements. I have not given the details here, as I do not think the necessity will ever arise for their use, and for the same reason I have refrained from giving the particulars for heating by steam and electricity, or the other methods which have been adopted by various workers, as there is no question but that a gas stove or oven, as described, is about the best and handiest for jobbers or amateurs. Modern Japanning and Enamelling Stoves. The modern japanning and enamelling stove consists of a compartment capable of being heated to any desired temperature, say 100° to 400° F., and at the same time, except as regards ventilation, capable of being hermetically sealed so as to prevent access of dust, soot, and dirt of all kinds to mar the beauty and lustre of the object being enamelled or japanned. Such a stove may be heated— 1. By a direct coal, coke, wood, peat, or gas fire (which surrounds the inner isolated chamber) (Fig. 5). 2. By heated air. 3. By steam or hot-water pipes, coils of which circulate round the interior of the stove or under the floor. Such ovens may be either permanent, that is, built into masonry, or portable. Fig. 5.—Greuzburg's Japanning Oven. 1. Stoves heated by direct fire.—These were, of course, the form in which japanning ovens were constructed somewhat after the style of a drying kiln. Fig. 5, Greuzburg's japanning oven heated on the outside by hot gases from furnace. The oven is built into brickwork, and the hot gases circulate in the flues between the brickwork and the oven, and its erection and the arrangement of the heating flues are a bricklayer's job. Coke containing much sulphur is objectionable as a fuel for enamel stoves Mr. Dickson emphasizes this very forcibly. He says: "In the days when stoves were heated by coke furnaces, and the heat distributed by the flues, the principal trouble was the escape of fumes of sulphur which caused dire disaster to all the enamels by entering into their composition and preventing their ever drying, not to speak of hardening. I have known enamels to be in the stoves with heat to 270° for two and three days, and then be soft. The sulphur also caused the enamels to crack in a peculiar manner, much like a crocodile skin, and work so affected could never be made satisfactory, for here again we come back to the first principle, that if the foundation be not good, the superstructure can never be permanent. The enamels, being permeated with sulphur and other products from the coke, could never be made satisfactory, and the only way was to clean it all off. The other principal troubles are the blowing of the work in air bubbles, which is caused mainly by the heat being too suddenly applied to the articles, but these are very small matters to the experienced craftsman." Fig. 6. 2. Stoves heated by hot-water pipes.—Let us first of all consider the principle on which these are constructed. In Perkins' apparatus for conveying heat through buildings by the circulation of water in small-bore hot-water pipes an endless tube or pipe is employed, the surface of which is occasionally increased by spiral or other turnings where the heat is to be given off or acquired: the annexed figure may serve to illustrate this principle; it represents a strong wrought-iron tube of about one inch diameter completely filled with water; the spiral A passes through a furnace where it is highly heated, and the water is consequently put into motion in the direction of the arrows; the boiling of the water or formation of steam is prevented by the pressure, whence the necessity of the extreme perfection and strength of the tube. B represents a second coil which is supposed to be in an apartment where the heat is to be given out. C is a screw stopper by which the water may be occasionally replenished. By this form of apparatus the water may be heated to 300° or 400°, or even higher, so as occasionally to singe paper. A larger tube and lower temperature are, however, generally preferable.[1] Fig. 7.—Enamelling Stove—in a Tin-plate Printing Factory—heated by Perkins' Hot-water Pipes. The principle of Perkins' invention has, during the last eighty years, i.e. since the date of the invention in 1831, been very extensively applied not only for the heating of buildings of every description, but it has also been utilized for numerous industrial purposes which require an atmosphere heated up to 600° F. The principle lends itself specially to the design of apparatus for raising and maintaining heat evenly and uniformly, and also very economically for such purposes as enamelling, japanning, and lacquering. The distinctive feature of this apparatus when applied to moderate temperatures lies in the adoption of a closed system of piping of small bore, a certain portion of which is wound into a coil and placed in a furnace situated in any convenient position outside the drying chamber or hot closet. The circulation is thus hermetically sealed and so proportioned that while a much higher temperature can be attained than is possible with a system of pipes open to the atmosphere, yet a certain and perfectly safe maximum cannot by any possibility be exceeded. The efficiency of the apparatus increases within certain limits in proportion to the pressure employed, which fact explains the exceedingly economical results obtained, while the fact that, owing to the high temperature used, a small-bore pipe can be made more effective than the larger pipes used in any open system, accounts for the lower first cost of the Perkins' apparatus. Fig. 8.—Japanning and Enamelling Oven Heated by Single Hot-water Pipes sealed at both ends with Furnace in Rear. Fig. 9—Japanning and Enamelling Oven For Bedstead, Ironmongery, Cash-box, and Lamp Factories. Fig. 10.—Japanning and Enamelling Stove for parts of Sewing Machines. It will be seen from the various illustrations that the articles to be treated are absolutely isolated from actual contact with the fire or the fire gases and other impurities which must be an objection to all methods of heating by means which are not of a purely mechanical nature. This principle not only recommends itself as scientifically correct and suited to the purpose in view, but is also a very simple and practical one. It affords the means of applying the heat at the point where it is required to do the work without unduly heating parts where heat is unnecessary; it secures absolute uniformity, perfect continuity, and the highest possible fuel economy.

Fig. 11.—Japanning and Enamelling Stove for Iron-Bedsteads and Household Ironmongery with Truck on Rails. Fig. 12—Permanent Japanning and Enamelling Stove for Kitchen Utensils built in Masonry. The nature of the work to be executed in the different classes and various sizes of stoves vary so greatly and indefinitely that only by careful attention to the special requirements of each case, on the part of the designers and constructors, is it possible to obtain the most satisfactory results. The arrangement of fixing the pipes round the lower walls of the room in this form of stove is somewhat cumbersome, but in a roomy stove this slight drawback is not felt quite so much. However, it seems a good principle to leave every inch of internal space available for the goods to be enamelled or japanned, This principle is carried out to the letter in the other form of stoves described and illustrated in the sequel. The figure shows a section through single chamber japanning and enamelling oven heated by hot-water pipes (steel) closed at both ends and partially filled with water which always remains sealed up therein, and never evaporates until the pipes require to be refilled. This stove may be heated (1) by hot-water pipes (iron), (2) by super-heated water, (3) by steam, but only to 80° C. The different compartments may be heated to uniform or to different temperatures with hot water; the stoke- hole is at the side and thus quite separated from the stove proper. The ovens must be on the ground floor, so that the super-heated steam from the basement may be available. The great drawback to the use of gas for heating japanning and enamelling stoves is the great cost of coal gas. Fig. 13.—Portable Gas Heated Japanning and Enamelling Stove fitted with Shelves, Thermometer, etc. Pigments Suitable for Japanning with Natural Lacquer. White Pigments.—Barium sulphate and bismuth oxychloride. These two are used for the white lacquer or as a body for coloured lacquers. When the lacquer is to be dried at a high temperature barium sulphate is preferable, but when it is dried at an ordinary temperature bismuth oxychloride is better. Since the lacquer is originally of a brown colour the white lacquer is not pure white, but rather greyish or yellowish. Many white pigments, such as zinc oxide, zinc sulphide, calcium carbonate, barium carbonate, calcium sulphate, lead white, etc., turn brown to black, and no white lacquer can be obtained with them. Red Pigments.—Vermilion and red oxide of iron. These two are used for the red lacquer, but vermilion should be stoved at a low temperature. Blue Pigment.—Prussian blue. Yellow Pigments.—Cadmium sulphide, lead chromate and orpiment. Green Pigment.—Chromium oxide (? Guignet's green). Black Pigment.—Lamp black. This is one of the pigments for black lacquer, but does not give a brilliant colour, therefore it is better to prepare the black lacquer by adding iron powder or some compound of iron to the lacquer. Various mixed colours are obtained by mixing some of the above-mentioned pigments. Examples of application are as follows:— (1) Golden Yellow.—Finished lacquer, 10 parts; gamboge, 1 to 3; solvent, 5. If utensils are lacquered with this thin lacquer and dried for about 2 hours in an air-oven at a temperature of 120° C. a beautiful hard coating of golden colour is obtained. (2) Black.—Black lacquer, 10 parts; solvent 2 to 4. Utensils lacquered with this lacquer are dried for about an hour at 130° to 140° C. (3) Red.—Vermilion, 10 parts; finished lacquer, 4; solvent, 2. This lacquer is dried for about an hour at 130° to 140° C. (4) Khaki or Dirty Yellow.—Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic oxide, 3; finished lacquer, 20 to 25; solvent, 15. This lacquer is dried for about half an hour at 160° C. (5) Green.—Barium sulphate, 100 parts; chromic oxide, 20 to 50; finished lacquer, 40 to 50; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 10 minutes at 160° C. (6) Yellow.—Barium sulphate, 100 parts; lead chromate, 40; finished lacquer, 40; solvent, 20. This is dried for about 15 minutes at 150° C. Almost all pigments other than the above-mentioned are blackened by contact with lacquer or suspend its drying quality. Several organic lakes can be used for coloured lacquers, that is to say, Indian yellow, thioflavin, and auramine lake for a yellow lacquer; fuchsine, rhodamine, and chloranisidin lake for a red; diamond sky blue, and patent nileblue lake for a blue; acid green, diamond green, brilliant milling green, vert-methyl lake, etc., for a green; methyl violet, acid violet, and magenta lake for a violet; phloxine lake for a pink. These lakes, however, are decomposed more or less on heating and fail to give proper colours when dried at a high temperature. Modern Methods of Japanning and Enamelling with Natural Japanese Lacquer. Urushiol, the principal constituent of Japanese lacquer, does not according to the Japanese investigator, Kisaburo Miryama, dry by itself at ordinary temperatures, but can be dried with ease at a temperature above 96° C. In the same way, lacquer that has been heated to a temperature above 70° C. and has entirely lost its drying quality can be easily dried at a high temperature. In this method of japanning the higher the temperature is, the more rapidly does the drying take place; for instance, a thin layer of urushiol, or lacquer, hardens within 5 hours at 100° C., within 30 minutes at 150° C., and within 10 minutes at 180° C. Japanning at a high temperature with natural lacquer does not require the presence of the enzymic nitrogenous matter in the lacquer, and gives a transparent coating which is quite hard and resistant to chemical and mechanical action; in these respects it is distinguished from that dried at an ordinary temperature. During the drying, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere and at the same time a partial decomposition takes place. This method of japanning has its application in lacquering metal work, glass, porcelain, earthenware, canvas, papier-mâché, etc.; because the drying is affected in a short time, and the coating thus obtained is much more durable than the same obtained by the ordinary method. For practical purposes it is better to thin the lacquer with turpentine oil or other solvent in order to facilitate the lacquering and lessen the drying time of the lacquer. Since the lacquer-coating turns brown at a high temperature, lacquers of a light colour should be dried at 120° to 150° C.; and even those of a deep colour must not be heated above 180° C. Most pigments are blackened by lacquer; therefore the varieties of coloured lacquers are very limited.

FOOTNOTES: [1] A question has been raised concerning the safety of Perkins' apparatus, not merely as relates to the danger of explosion, but also respecting that of high temperature; and it has been asserted that the water may be so highly heated in the tubes as to endanger the charring and even inflammation of paper, wood, and other substances in their contact or vicinity: such no doubt might be the case in an apparatus expressly intended for such purposes, but in the apparatus as constructed by Perkins, with adequate dampers and safety valves, and used with common care, no such result can ensue. Paper bound round an iron tube is not affected till the temperature exceeds 400°; from 420° to 444° it becomes brown or slightly singed; sulphur does not inflame below 540°. SECTION V.

COLOURS FOR POLISHED BRASS—MISCELLANEOUS. Painting on Zinc or on Galvanized Iron. Painting on zinc or galvanized iron is facilitated by employing a mordant of 1 quart of chloride of copper, 1 of nitrate of copper, and 1 of sal-ammoniac, dissolved in 64 parts of water. To thin mixture add 1 part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This is brushed over the zinc, and dries a dull-grey colour in from twelve to twenty-four hours, paint adhering perfectly to the surface thus formed. Bronzing Compositions. The following are the formulæ for a variety of baths, designed to impart to polished brass various colours. The brass objects are put into boiling solutions composed of different salts, and the intensity of the shade obtained is dependent upon duration of the immersion. With a solution composed of sulphate of copper, 120 grains; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 30 grains; and water 1 quart, greenish shades are obtained. With the following solution, all the shades of brown, from orange-brown to cinnamon, are obtained: chlorate of potash, 150 grains; sulphate of copper, 150 grains; and water, 1 quart. The following solution gives the brass first a rosy tint, and then colours it violet and blue: sulphate of copper, 435 grains; hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains; cream of tartar, 150 grains; and water, 1 pint. Upon adding to this solution ammoniacal sulphate of iron, 300 grains, and hyposulphite of soda, 300 grains, there are obtained, according to the duration of the immersion, yellowish, orange, rosy, and then bluish shades. Upon polarizing the ebullition, the blue tint gives way to yellow, and finally to a pretty grey. Silver, under the same circumstances, becomes very beautifully coloured. After a long ebullition in the following solution, we obtain a yellow-brown shade, and then a remarkable fire-red: chlorate of potash, 75 grains; carbonate of nickel, 30 grains; salt of nickel, 75 grains; and water, 10 oz. The following solution gives a beautiful dark-brown colour: chlorate of potash, 75 grains; salt of nickel, 150 grains; and water, 10 oz. The following gives in the first place, a red, which passes to blue, then to pale lilac, and finally to white: orpiment, 75 grains; crystallized sal-sodæ, 150 grains; and water, 10 oz. The following gives a yellow-brown: salt of nickel, 75 grains; sulphate of copper, 75 grains; chlorate of potash, 75 grains; and water, 10 oz. On mixing the following solutions, sulphur separates, and the brass becomes covered with iridescent crystallizations: (1) cream of tartar, 75 grains; sulphate of copper, 75 grains; and water, 10 oz. (2) Hyposulphite of soda, 225 grains; and water, 5 oz. Upon leaving the brass objects immersed in the following mixture, contained in corked vessels, they at length acquire a very beautiful blue colour: hepar of sulphur, 75 grains; ammonia, 75 grains; and water, 4 oz. A Golden Varnish for Metal. Take 2 oz. of gum sandarach, 1 oz. of litharge of gold, and 4 oz. of clarified linseed oil, which boil in a glazed earthenware vessel till the contents appear of a transparent yellow colour. This will make a good varnish for the final coating for enamelled and japanned goods. Carriage Varnish. The following is used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches and other vehicles: Take of pale 1 1 African copal 8 lb.; fuse, and add 2 /2 gallons of clarified linseed oil; boil until very stringy, then add /4 lb. 1 each of dry copperas and litharge; boil, and thin with 5 /2 gallons of turpentine; then mix while hot with the following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered vessel. Gum anime, 8 lb.; clarified linseed 1 1 1 oil, 2 /2 gallons; /4 lb. each of dried sugar of lead and litharge; boil, and thin with 5 /2 gallons of turpentine; and mix it while hot as above directed. Of course these quantities will only do for big jobs, and as it has to do with metal, it has been thought advisable to include the formula in this handbook. Metal Polishes. The active constituent of all metal polishes is generally chalk, rouge, or tripoli, because these produce a polish on metallic surfaces. The following recipes give good polishing soaps:— 1 (1) 20 to 25 lb. liquid soap is intimately mixed with about 80 lb. of Swedish chalk and /2 lb. Pompeiian red. (2) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut oil soap is mixed with 2 lb. tripoli, and 1 lb. each alum, tartaric acid, and white lead. (3) 25 lb. liquid coco-nut oil soap is mixed with 5 lb. rouge and 1 lb. ammonium carbonate. (4) 24 lb. coco-nut oil are saponified with 12 lb. soda lye of 38° to 40° B., after which 3 lb. rouge, 3 lb. water, and 32 grammes ammonia are mixed in. Good recipes for polishing pomades are as follows: (1) 5 lb. lard and yellow vaseline is melted and mixed with 1 lb. fine rouge. (2) 2 lb. palm oil and 2 lb. vaseline are melted together, and then 1 lb. rouge, 400 grains tripoli, and 20 grains oxalic acid are stirred in. (3) 4 lb. fatty petroleum and 1 lb. lard are heated and mixed with 1 lb. of rouge. The polishing pomades are generally perfumed with essence of myrbane. Polishing powders are prepared as follows: (1) 4 lb. magnesium carbonate, 4 lb. chalk, and 7 lb. rouge are intimately mixed. (2) 4 lb. magnesium carbonate are mixed with 150 grains fine rouge. An excellent and harmless polishing water is prepared by shaking together 250 grains floated chalk, 1 lb. alcohol, and 20 grains ammonia. Gilded articles are most readily cleansed with a solution of 5 grains borax in 100 parts water, by means of a sponge or soft brush. The articles are then washed in pure water, and dried with a soft linen rag. Silverware is cleansed by rubbing with a solution of sodium hyposulphite. Black Paints. Carbon, in one form or another, is the base of all black pigments. By far the most common of these, as used in structural plants, is graphite. Other black pigments are lamp-black (including carbon black) and bone-black, the former being produced in many grades, varying in price from twopence to half a crown per pound. Bone-black, which is refuse from the sugar-house black, varies in the percentage of carbon contained, which is usually about 10 or 12 per cent, the remainder being the mineral matter originally present in the bone, and containing 3 or 4 per cent of carbonate, whilst most of the remainder is phosphate of lime. Lamp-black is an absolutely impalpable powder, which having a small amount of greasy matter in it, greatly retards the drying of the oil with which it may be mixed. For this reason it is not used by itself, but is added in small quantity to other paints, which it affects by changing their colour, and probably their durability. For example, it is a common practice to add it to red lead, in order to tone down its brilliant colour, and also to correct the tendency it has to turn white, due to the conversion of the red oxide of lead into the carbonate. Black Stain for Iron. For colouring iron and steel a dead black of superior appearance and permanency, the following is a good formula: 1 part bismuth chloride, 2 parts mercury bi-chloride, 1 part copper chloride, 6 parts hydrochloric acid, 5 parts alcohol, and 50 parts lamp-black, these being all well mixed. To use this preparation successfully—the article to be blacked or bronzed being first made clean and free from grease—it is applied with a swab or brush, or, better still, the object may be dipped into it; the liquid is allowed to dry on the metal, and the latter is then placed in boiling water, the temperature being maintained for half an hour. If, after this, the colour is not so dark as is desired, the operation has simply to be repeated, and the result will be found satisfactory. After obtaining the desired degree of colour, the latter is fixed, as well as much improved generally, by placing for a few minutes in a bath of boiling oil, or by coating the surface with oil, and heating the object till the oil is completely driven off The intense black obtained by this method is admirable. Another black coating for ironwork, which is really a lacquer, is obtained by melting ozokerite, which becomes a brown resinous mass, with a melting-point at 140° F. The melted mass is then further heated to 212° F., the boiling-point of water. The objects to be lacquered are scoured clean by rubbing with dry sand, and are dipped in the melted mass. They are then allowed to drip, and the ozokerite is ignited by the objects being held over a fire. After the ozokerite has burned away, the flame is extinguished, and the iron acquires a firmly adhering black coating, which resists atmospheric influences, as well as acids and alkalies. If the black iron vessels are to contain alkaline liquids, the above operation is repeated. A good cheap stock black paint or varnish for ironwork is prepared, as follows: Clear (solid) wood tar, 10 lb.; 1 1 lamp black or mineral black, 1 /4 b.; oil of turpentine, 5 /2 quarts. The tar is first heated in a large iron pot to boiling-point, or nearly so, and the heat is continued for about 4 hours. The pot is then removed from the fire out of doors, and while still warm, and not hot, the turpentine, mixed with the black, is stirred in. If the varnish is too thick to dry quickly, add more turpentine. Benzine can be used instead of turpentine, but the results are not so good. Asphaltum is preferable to the cheap tar. To make another good black varnish for ironwork, take 8 lb. of asphaltum and fuse it in an iron kettle, then add 1 2 gallons of boiled linseed oil, 1 lb. of litharge, /2 lb. of sulphate of zinc (add these slowly, or the mixture will 1 boil over), and boil them for about 3 hours. Then, add 1 /2 lb. of dark gum amber, and boil for 2 hours longer, or until the mass will become quite thick when cool. After this it should be thinned with turpentine to the proper consistency. Varnishes for Ironwork. 1 A reliable authority gives the following as a very good recipe for ironwork varnish. Take 2 lb. of tar oil, /2 lb. 1 of pounded resin, and /2 lb. of asphaltum, and dissolve together, and then mix while hot in an iron kettle, taking all care to prevent the flames getting into contact with the mixture. When cold the varnish is ready for application to outdoor ironwork. Another recipe is to take 3 lb. of powdered resin, place it in a tin or iron vessel, 1 and add thereto 2 /2 pints of spirits of turpentine, which well shake, and then let it stand for a day or two, giving it an occasional shake. Then add to it 5 quarts of boiled oil, shake it thoroughly well all together, afterwards letting it stand in a warm room till it gets clear. The clear portion can then be drawn off and used, or reduced with spirits of turpentine till of the requisite consistency. For making a varnish suitable for iron patterns, take sufficient oil of turpentine for the purpose of the job in hand, and drop into it, drop by drop, some strong commercial oil of vitriol, when the acid will cause a dark syrupy precipitate in the oil of turpentine, and continue to add the drops of vitriol till the precipitate ceases to act, after which pour off the liquid and wash the syrupy mass with water, when it will be ready for use. When the iron pattern is to be varnished, it must be heated to a gentle degree, the syrupy product applied, and then the article allowed to dry. A fine black varnish suitable for the covering of broken places in sewing machines and similar articles, where the japanned surface has become injured or scratched, can be made by taking some fine lamp-black or ivory- black, and thoroughly mixing it with copal varnish. The black must be in a very fine powder, and to mix the more readily it should be made into a pasty mass with turpentine. For the ordinary repairing shop this will be found very handy. The following is a simple way for tarring sheet-iron pipes to prevent rusting. The sections as made should be coated with coal tar, and then filled with light wood shavings, and the latter set alight. The effect of this treatment will be to render the iron practically proof against rust for an indefinite period, rendering future painting unnecessary. It is important, of course, that the iron should not be made too hot, or kept hot for too long a time, lest the tar should be burnt off. The following is a varnish for iron and steel given by a recognized authority: 5 parts of camphor and elemi, 15 parts of sandarach, and 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, are dissolved in the requisite quantity of alcohol, and applied cold. Another good black enamel for small articles can be made by mixing 1 lb. of asphaltum with 1 lb. of resin in 4 lb. of tar oil, well heating the whole in an iron vessel before applying. A good brown japan can be prepared by separately heating equal quantities of amber and asphaltum, and adding to each one-half the quantity by weight of boiled linseed oil. Both compounds are then mixed together. Copal resin may be substituted for the amber, but it is not so durable. Oil varnish made from amber is highly elastic. If it is used to protect tin-plate printing, when the plates after stoving have been subsequently rolled so as to distort the letters, the varnish has in no way suffered, and its surface remains unbroken. A bronzing composition for coating iron consists of 120 parts mercury, 10 parts tin, 20 parts green vitriol, 120 parts water, and 15 parts hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity. SECTION VI.

PROCESSES FOR TIN-PLATING. In these days of making everything look what it is not, perhaps the best and cheapest substitute for silver as a white coating for table ware, culinary vessels, and the many articles requiring such a coating, is pure tin. It does not compare favourably with silver in point of hardness or wearing qualities, but it costs very much less than silver, is readily applied, and can be easily kept clean and bright. In tinning hollow ware on the inside the metal article is first thoroughly cleansed by pickling it in dilute muriatic or sulphuric acid and then scouring it with fine sand. It is then heated over a fire to about the melting-point of tin, sprinkled with powdered resin, and partly filled with melted pure grain tin covered with resin to prevent its oxidation. The vessel is then quickly turned and rolled about in every direction, so as to bring every part of the surface to be covered in contact with the molten metal. The greater part of the tin is then thrown out and the surface rubbed over with a brush of tow to equalize the coating; and if not satisfactory the operation must be repeated. The vessels usually tinned in this manner are of copper and brass, but with a little care in cleaning and manipulating, iron can also be satisfactorily tinned by this means. The vessels to be tinned must always be sufficiently hot to keep the metal contained in them thoroughly fused. This is covering by contact with melted tin. The amalgam process is not so much used as it was formerly. It consists in applying to the clean and dry metallic surface a film of a pasty amalgam of tin with mercury, and then exposing the surface to heat, which volatilizes the latter, leaving the tin adhering to the metal. The immersion process is the best adapted to coating articles of brass or copper. When immersed in a hot solution of tin properly prepared the metal is precipitated upon their surfaces. One of the best solutions for this purpose is the following:— 171/ oz Ammonia alum 4 . 1 Boiling 12 /2 lb. Protochloride of tin 1 oz. The articles to be tinned must be first thoroughly cleansed, and then kept in the hot solution until properly whitened. A better result will be obtained by using the following bath, and placing the pieces in contact with a strip of clean zinc, also immersed:— Bitartrate of potassium 14 oz. Soft water 24 " Protochloride of tin 1 " It should be boiled for a few minutes before using. The following is one of the best solutions for plating with tin by the battery process:— Potassium pyrophosphate 12 oz. 1 Protochloride of tin 4 /2 " Water 20 " The anode or feeding-plate used in this bath consists of pure Banca tin. This plate is joined to the positive (copper or carbon) pole of the battery, while the work is suspended from a wire connected with the negative (zinc) pole. A moderately strong battery is required, and the work is finished by scratch-brushing. In Weigler's process a bath is prepared by passing washed chlorine gas into a concentrated aqueous solution of stannous chloride to saturation, and expelling excess of gas by warming the solution, which is then diluted with about ten volumes of water, and filtered, if necessary. The articles to be plated are pickled in dilute sulphuric acid, and polished with fine sand and a scratch-brush, rinsed in water, loosely wound round with zinc wire or tape, and immersed in the bath for ten or fifteen minutes at ordinary temperatures. The coating is finished with the scratch-brush and whiting. By this process cast-or wrought-iron, steel, copper, brass, and lead can be tinned without a separate battery. The only disadvantage of the process is that the bath soon becomes clogged up with zinc chloride, and the tin salt must be frequently removed. In Hern's process a bath composed of— Tartaric acid 2 oz. Water 100 " Soda 3 " Protochloride of tin 3 " is employed instead of the preceding. It requires a somewhat longer exposure to properly tin articles in this than in Weigler's bath. Either of these baths may be used with a separate battery. SECTION VII.

GALVANIZING. Galvanizing, as a protecting surface for large articles, such as enter into the construction of bridges, roofs, and shipwork, has not quite reached the point of appreciation that possibly the near future may award to it. Certain fallacies existed for a long time as to the relative merits of the dry or molten and the wet or electrolytical methods of galvanizing. The latter was found to be costly and slow, and the results obtained were erratic and not satisfactory, and soon gave place to the dry or molten bath process, as in practice at the present day; but the difficulty of management in connexion with large baths of molten material, and the deterioration of the bath, and other mechanical causes, limit the process to articles of comparatively small size and weight. The electro deposition of zinc has been subject to many patents, and the efforts to introduce it have been lamentable in both a mechanical and financial sense. Most authorities recommend a current density of 18 or 20 ampères per square foot of cathode surface, and aqueous solutions of zinc sulphate, acetate or chloride, ammonia, chloride or tartrate, as being the most suitable for deposition. Electrolytes made by adding caustic potash or soda to a suitable zinc salt have been found to be unworkable in practice on account of the formation of an insoluble zinc oxide on the surface of the anode and the resultant increased electrical resistance; the electrolytes are also constantly getting out of order, as more metal is taken out of the solution than could possibly be dissolved from the anodes by the chemicals set free on account of this insoluble scale or furring up of the anodes, which sometimes reaches one-eighth of an inch in thickness. To all intents and purposes the deposits obtained from acid solutions under favourable circumstances are fairly adhesive when great care has been exercised to thoroughly scale and clean the surface to be coated, which is found to be the principal difficulty in the application of any electro-chemical process for copper, lead, or tin, as well as for zinc, and that renders even the application of paint or other brush compounds to futile unless honestly complied with. Unfortunately these acid zinc coatings are of a transitory nature, Their durability being incomparable with hot galvanizing, as the deposit is porous and retains some of the acid salts, which cause a wasting of the zinc, and consequently the rusting of the iron or steel. Castings coated with acid zinc rust comparatively quickly, even when the porosity has been reduced by oxidation, aggravated no doubt by some of the corroding agents—sal-ammoniac, for instance— being forced into the pores of the metal. Other matters of serious moment in the electro-zincing process, apart from the slowness of the operation, were the uncertain nature, thickness, and extent of the coating on articles of irregular shape, and the formation of loose, dark-coloured patches on the work; the unhealthy and non-metallic look and want of brilliancy and the lustre prevented engineers and the trade from accepting the process or its results, except for the commoner articles of use. To obviate any tendency of the paint to peel off from the zinc surface, as it generally manifests a disposition to do, it is recommended to coat all the zinc surfaces, previous to painting them, with the following compound: 1 part chloride of copper, 1 part nitrate of copper, 1 part sal- ammoniac, dissolved in 61 parts of water, and then add 1 part commercial hydrochloric acid. When the zinc is brushed over with this mixture it oxidizes the surface, turns black, and dries in from twelve to twenty-four hours, and may then be painted over without any danger of peeling. Another and more quickly applied coating consists of, bi-chloride of platinum, 1 part dissolved in 10 parts of distilled water, and applied either by a brush or sponge. It oxidizes at once, turns black, and resists the weak acids, rain, and the elements generally. Zinc surfaces, after a brief exposure to the air, become coated with a thin film of oxide—insoluble in water— which adheres tenaciously, forming a protective coating to the underlying zinc. So long as the zinc surface remains intact, the underlying metal is protected from corrosive action, but a mechanical or other injury to the zinc coating that exposes the metal beneath, in the presence of moisture causes a very rapid corrosion to be started, the galvanic action being changed from the zinc positive to zinc negative, and the iron, as the positive element in the circuit, is corroded instead of the zinc. When galvanized iron is immersed in a corrosive liquid, the zinc is attacked in preference to the iron, provided both the exposed parts of the iron and the protected parts are immersed in the liquid. The zinc has not the same protective quality when the liquid is sprinkled over the surface and remains in isolated drops. Sea air, being charged with saline matters, is very destructive to galvanized surfaces, forming a soluble chloride by its action. As zinc is one of the metals most readily attacked by acids, ordinary galvanized iron is not suitable for positions where it is to be much exposed to an atmosphere charged with acids sent into the air by some manufactories, or to the sulphuric acid fumes found in the products of combustion of rolling mills, iron, glass, and gas works, etc., and yet we see engineers of note covering-in important buildings with corrugated and other sheets of iron, and using galvanized iron tie rods, angles, and other constructive shapes in blind confidence of the protective power of the zinc coating; also in supreme indifference as to the future consequences and catastrophes that arise from their unexpected failure. The comparative inertia of lead to the chemical action of many acids has led to the contention that it should form as good, if not a better, protection of iron than zinc, but in practice it is found to be deficient as a protective coating against corrosion. A piece of lead-coated iron placed in water will show decided evidences of corrosion in twenty-four hours. This is to be attributed to the porous nature of the coating, whether it is applied by the hot or wet (acid) process. The lead does not bond to the plate as well as either of the other metals—zinc, tin, copper, or any alloys of them. The following table gives the increase in weight of different articles due to hot galvanizing:—

Percentage Weight of Zinc per Square Description of Article of Increase of foot Weight

Thin sheet-iron 1.196 oz. 18.2

5 /16-in. plates 1.76 " 2.0

4-in. cut nails 2.19 " 6.72

7/ -in. die bolt and 8 approximately 1.206 oz. 1.00 nut Tin is often added to the hot bath for the purpose of obtaining a smoother surface and larger facets, but it is found to shorten the life of the protective coating very considerably. A portion of a zinc coating applied by the hot process was found to be very brittle, breaking when attempts were made to bend it; the average thickness of the coating was .015 inch. An analysis gave the following result: tin, 2.20; iron, 3.78; arsenic, a trace; zinc (by difference), 94.02. A small quantity of iron is dissolved from all the articles placed in the molten zinc bath, and a dross is formed amounting in many cases to 25 per cent of the whole amount of zinc used. The zinc-iron alloy is very brittle, and contains by analysis 6 per cent of iron, and is used to cast small art ornaments from. A hot galvanizing plant, having a bath capacity of 10 feet by 4 feet by 1 4 /2 feet outside dimensions, and about 1 inch in thickness, will hold 28 tons of zinc. With equal amounts of zinc per unit of area, the zinc coating put on by the cold process is more resistant to the corroding action of a saturated solution of copper sulphate than is the case with steel coated by the ordinary hot galvanizing process; or, to put it in another form, articles coated by the cold process should have an equally long life under the same conditions of exposure that hot galvanized articles are exposed to, and with less zinc than would be necessary in the ordinary hot process. The hardness of a zinc surface is a matter of some importance. With this object in view aluminium has been added from a separate crucible to the molten zinc at the moment of dipping the article to be zinced, so as to form a compound surface of zinco-aluminium, and to reduce the ashes formed from the protective coverings of sal-ammoniac, fat, glycerine, etc. The addition of the aluminium also reduces the thickness of the coating applied. Cold and hot galvanized plates appear to stand abrasion equally well. Both pickling and hot galvanizing reduce the strength, distort and render brittle iron and steel wires of small sections. The End. INDEX. A

Amalgam process in tin-plating, 59. C Appliances and apparatus used in japanning and enamelling, 29. Carriage varnish, 51. Colours for polished brass, 49. Common black japan grounds on metal, 12. B Composition for bronzing, 49. Cream enamel, 8. Battery process in tin-plating, 59. Black grounds, 11. —— japan grounds on metal, common, 12. E —— paints, 52. —— pigment, 46. Enamelling and japanning stoves, 29-46. —— stain for iron, 53. —— —— —— —— heated by direct fire, 34. —— varnish for sewing machines, 56. —— —— —— —— heated by hot-water pipes, 36. Blue japan grounds, 9. —— or japanning metals, 20-28. —— pigment, 46. —— old work, 27. Brass, polished, colours for, 49-57. Brick ovens, 33. Bright pale yellow grounds, 10. F Bronzing composition, 49. Brown japan, 57. First stage in the japanning of wood, 5. Bunsen burner, 33. —— —— in the japanning of leather, without a priming, 5. Heating stoves by direct fire, 34. —— —— by hot-water pipes, 36. Hern's process in tin-plating, 60. G

Galvanized iron, painting on, 49. I Galvanizing, 61-66. Golden varnish for metal, 51. Immersion process in tin-plating, 59. Green japan grounds, 10. Iron, black stain for, 53. —— pigment, 46. —— galvanized, painting on, 49. Ground, red japan, 10. Ironwork, varnishes for, 55. —— scarlet japan, 9. —— tortoise-shell, 12. Grounds, black, 11. J —— black japan, 12. —— blue japan, 9. Japan, brown, 57. —— bright pale yellow, 10. —— ground, red, 10. —— green japan, 10. —— —— scarlet, 9. —— japan, 6-19. —— grounds, 6-19. —— orange-coloured, 11. —— —— black, 12. —— purple, 11. —— —— blue, 9. —— white japan, 7 —— —— green, 10. —— —— white, 7. —— work, painting, 13. H —— —— varnishing, 17. Japanese gold size, 14. Japanese lacquer, 47. —— lacquer, 45. Japanning and enamelling stoves, 34. —— —— —— —— heated by direct fire, 34. —— —— —— —— heated by hot-water pipes, 36. O —— leather without a priming, first stage, 5. —— or enamelling metals, 20-28. Oil vehicle, 14. —— tin, 25. Old work, enamelling, 27. —— wood, first stage, 5. Orange-coloured grounds, 11.

L P

Lacquer, Japanese, 47. Painting japan work, 13. —— on galvanized iron, 49. —— —— zinc, 49. M Paints, black, 52. Pigments suitable for japanning with natural lacquer, Metal, golden varnish for, 51. 45. —— polishes, 51. —— black, 46. Metals, japanning or enamelling, 20-28. —— blue, 46. Modern japanning and enamelling stoves, 34. —— green, 46. —— red, 46. —— white, 45. N —— yellow, 46. Polished brass, colours for, 49. Natural Japanese lacquer, 47. Preparing the surface to be japanned, 4. Priming the surface to be japanned, 4. —— battery process, 59. Processes for tin-plating, 58. —— Hern's process, 60. Purple grounds, 11. —— immersion process, 59. —— Weigler's process, 60. Tortoise-shell ground, 12. R

Red japan ground, 10. U —— pigments, 46. Urushiol, 47.

S V Scarlet japan ground, 9. Sewing machines, black varnish for, 56. Varnish, carriage, 51, Shellac varnish, 6. —— for iron and steel, 57. Stoves, modern japanning and enamelling, 34. —— for metal, golden, 51. Stove, the enamelling and japanning, 29-45. —— shellac, 6. Surface to be japanned, priming or preparing the, 4. Varnishes for iron work, 55. Varnishing japan work, 17.

T W Tin, japanning, 25. Tin-plating, colours for, 58. Weigler's process of tin-plating, 60. Tin-plating, amalgam process, 59. White japan grounds, 7. —— pigments, 45. —— pigments, 46. Wood, first stage in the japanning of, 5.

Z Y Zinc, painting on, 49. Yellow grounds, bright pale, 10.

ABERDEEN: THE UNIVERSITY PRESS ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING

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A Practical Work of Instruction

INCLUDING NUMEROUS RECIPES FOR MAKING POLISHES, VARNISHES, GLAZE-LACQUERS, REVIVERS, ETC.

By RICHARD BITMEAD

AUTHOR OF "THE CABINET-MAKER'S GUIDE," "THE UPHOLSTERER'S GUIDE," ETC. Fourth Edition LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1910

[All rights reserved] PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

Early in the present century the method generally adopted for polishing furniture was by rubbing with beeswax and turpentine or with linseed-oil. That process, however, was never considered to be very satisfactory, which fact probably led to experiments being made for the discovery of an improvement. The first intimation of success in this direction appeared in the Mechanic's Magazine of November 22, 1823, and ran as follows: "The Parisians have now introduced an entirely new mode of polishing, which is called plaque, and is to wood precisely what plating is to metal. The wood by some process is made to resemble marble, and has all the beauty of that article with much of its solidity. It is even asserted by persons who have made trial of the new mode that water may be spilled upon it without staining it." Such was the announcementvi of an invention which was destined ultimately to become a new industry. The following pages commence with a description of the art of French Polishing in its earliest infancy, care having been taken by the Author, to the best of his ability, to note all the new processes and manipulations, as well as to concisely and perspicuously arrange and describe the various materials employed, not only for French polishing but for the improving and preparation of furniture woods, a matter of great importance to the polisher. The arts of Staining and Imitating, whereby inferior woods are made to resemble the most costly, are also fully treated, as well as the processes of Enamelling, both in oil-varnishes and French polish, together with the method of decorating the same. The condition of the art of polishing in America is dwelt upon, and various interesting articles written by practical polishers in the States, which appeared in their trade journal, The Cabinet-maker, have been revised and printed in this work. A number of valuable recipes, and other instructive matter, useful alike to the amateur and to the practical workman, are also given. CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE IMPROVING AND PREPARATION OF FURNITURE WOODS. PAGE Improving 2 Matching 3 Painting 5 Dyed Polishes 6

CHAPTER II.

STAINS AND IMITATIONS. Imitation Mahogany 8 Imitation Rosewood 8 Imitation Walnut 9 Imitation Ebony 10 Imitation Oak 11 Imitation Satin-wood 12 A Blue Stain 13 A Green Stain 13 A Purple Stain 13 A Red Stain 14 Imitation Purple-wood Stain 14 Chemicals used in Staining 15 Process of Staining 16 Ready-made Wood Stains 17

CHAPTER III.

FRENCH POLISHING. The Polish Used 18 Rubbers 22 Position 24 Filling-in 25viii Applying the Polish 26 Spiriting-off 30 Prepared Spirits 32 Antique Style 32 Dull or Egg-shell Polish 33 Polishing in the Lathe 34

CHAPTER IV.

CHEAP WORK. Glazing 37 Stencilling 39 Charcoal Polishing 40

CHAPTER V.

RE-POLISHING OLD WORK 42 CHAPTER VI.

SPIRIT VARNISHING. Varnishes 46 Brushes and Pencils 47 Mode of Operation 47 East Indian Varnishes 48

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. Remarks on Polishing 51 The Polishing Shop 52

CHAPTER VIII.

ENAMELLING. Materials 57 Tools 58 Mode of Operation 58 Polishing 60 Another Process 61 Decorations 63

CHAPTER IX.

AMERICAN POLISHING PROCESSES. Use of Fillers 65 Making Fillers 70 Japan of the Best Quality 70 Fillings for Light Woods 70 Another for Light Woods 70 For Mahogany or Cherry Wood 71 For Oak Wood 71 For Rosewood 71 For Black Walnut (1) 71 " (2) 71 An Oil Colour for Black Walnut (3) 72 Finishing 73 Black Walnut Finishing 75 Finishing Veneered Panels, etc. 78 Light Woods (Dead Finish) 79 Mahogany or Cherry Wood 79 Oak 79 Rosewood, Coromandel, or Kingwood (a Bright Finish) 79 Walnut 80 Finishing Cheap Work 81 With One Coat of Varnish 81 Wax Finishing 82 A Varnish Polish 82 With Copal or Zanzibar Varnish 83 Polishing Varnish 85 An American Polish Reviver 86

CHAPTER X.

MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES. Oil Polish 87 Wax Polish 87 Waterproof French Polish 88 Varnish for Musical Instruments 88 French Varnish for Cabinet-work 89 Mastic Varnish 89 Cabinet-maker's Varnish 90 Amber Varnish 90 Colourless Varnish with Copal 90 Seedlac Varnish 91 Patent Varnish for Wood or Canvas 91 Copal Varnish 91 Carriage Varnish 92 Transparent Varnish0x 92 Crystal Varnish for Maps, etc. 92 Black Varnish 92 Black Polish 93 Varnish for Iron 93 Varnish for Tools 93 To Make Labels Adhere to a Polished Surface 94 To Remove French Polish or Varnish from Old Work 94 Colouring for Carcase Work 94 Cheap but Valuable Stain for the Sap of Black Walnut 95 Polish (American) for Removing Stains, etc., from Furniture 96 Walnut Stain to be used on Pine and White-wood 96 Rosewood Stain 97 Rosewood Stain for Cane Work, etc. 97 French Polish Reviver 98 Morocco Leather Reviver 98 Hair-cloth Reviver 99 To Remove Grease Stains from Silks, Damasks, Cloth, etc. 99 To Remove Ink Stains from White Marble 99

CHAPTER XI.

MATERIALS USED. Alkanet-root 100 Madder-root 100 Red-sanders 101 Logwood 101 Fustic 102 Turmeric 102 Indigo 103 Persian Berries 103 Nut-galls 103 Catechu 103 Thus 104 Sandarach 104 Mastic 104 Benzoin 104 Copal 105 Dragon's Blood 106 Shellac 106 Amber 107 Pumice-stone 107 Linseed-oil 108 Venice Turpentine 110 Oil of Turpentine 110 Methylated Spirits 110 FRENCH POLISHING AND

ENAMELLING.

CHAPTER I.

THE IMPROVING AND PREPARATION OF FURNITURE WOODS. For a French polisher to be considered a good workman he should, in addition to his ordinary ability to lay on a good polish, possess considerable knowledge of the various kinds of wood used for furniture, as well as the most approved method of bringing out to the fullest extent their natural tones or tints; he should also be able to improve the inferior kinds of wood, and to stain, bleach, or match any of the fancy materials to which his art is applied, in a manner that will produce the greatest perfection. The following information is given to facilitate a thorough knowledge of the above processes. Improving.—Iron filings added to a decoction of gall-nuts and vinegar will give to ebony which has been discoloured an intense black, after brushing over once or twice. Walnut or poor-coloured rosewood can be improved by boiling half an ounce of walnut-shell extract and the same quantity of catechu in a quart of soft- water, and applying with a sponge. Half a pound of walnut husks and a like quantity of oak bark boiled in half a gallon of water will produce much the same result. Common mahogany can be improved by rubbing it with powdered red-chalk (ruddle) and a woollen rag, or by first wiping the surface with liquid ammonia, and red- oiling afterwards. For a rich mild red colour, rectified spirits of naphtha, dyed with camwood dust, or an oily decoction of alkanet-root. Methylated spirits and a small quantity of dragon's blood will also produce a mild red. Any yellow wood can be improved by an alcoholic solution of Persian berries, fustic, turmeric, or gamboge. An aqueous decoction of barberry-root will serve the same purpose. Birch when preferred a warm tint may be sponged with oil, very slightly tinted with rose-madder or Venetian red; the greatest care should be used, or it will be rendered unnatural in appearance by becoming too red. Maple which is of a dirty-brown colour, or of a cold grey tint, and mahogany, ash, oak, or any of the light-coloured woods, can be whitened by the bleaching fluid (see "Matching"). Numerous materials 3may be improved by the aid of raw linseed-oil mixed with a little spirits of turpentine. Artificial graining may be given to various woods by means of a camel- hair pencil and raw oil; two or three coats should be given, and after standing for some time the ground should have one coat of oil much diluted with spirits of turpentine, and then rubbed off. Matching.—Old mahogany furniture which has been repaired may be easily matched by wiping over the new portions with water in which a nodule of lime has been dissolved, or by common soda and water. The darkeners for general use are dyed oils, logwood, aquafortis, sulphate of iron, and nitrate of silver, with exposure to the sun's rays. For new furniture in oak, ash, maple, etc., the process of matching requires care and skill. When it is desirable to render all the parts in a piece of furniture of one uniform tone or tint, bleach the dark parts with a solution of oxalic acid dissolved in hot water (about two-pennyworth of acid to half a pint of water is a powerful solution); when dry, if this should not be sufficient, apply the white stain (see pp. 11, 12) delicately toned down, or the light parts may be oiled. For preserving the intermediate tones, coat them with white polish by means of a camel-hair pencil. On numerous woods, carbonate of soda and bichromate of potash are very effective as darkeners, as are also other preparations of an 4acid or alkaline nature, but the two given above are the best. A good way of preparing these darkeners, says the "French Polisher's Manual," an excellent little work published in Perth some years since, is to procure twopennyworth of carbonate of soda in powder, and dissolve it in half a pint of boiling water; then have ready three bottles, and label them one, two, three. Into one put half the solution, and into the other two half a gill each; to number two add an additional gill of water, and to number three two gills. Then get the same quantity of bichromate of potash, and prepare it in a like manner; you will then have six staining fluids for procuring a series of brown and dark tints suitable for nearly all classes of wood. The bichromate of potash is useful to darken oak, walnut, beech, or mahogany, but if applied to ash it renders it of a greenish cast. If a sappy piece of walnut should be used either in the solid or veneer, darken it to match the ground colour, and then fill in the dark markings with a feather and the black stain (see pp. 10, 11). The carbonate solutions are generally used for dark surfaces, such as rosewood represents, and a still darker shade can be given to any one by oiling over after the stain is dry. The better way of using these chemical stains is to pour out into a saucer as much as will serve the purpose, and to apply it quickly with a sponge rubbed rapidly and evenly over the surface, and rubbed off dry immediately with old rags. Dark and light portions, between which the contrast is slight, may be made to match by varnishing the former and darkening the latter with oil, which should remain on it sufficiently long; by this means the different portions may frequently be made to match without having recourse to bleaching or staining. Painting.—The next process is painting. It frequently happens in cabinet work that a faulty place is not discovered until after the work is cleaned off; the skill of the polisher is then required to paint it to match the other. A box containing the following colours in powder will be found of great utility, and when required for use they should be mixed with French polish and applied with a brush. The pigments most suitable are: drop black, raw sienna, raw and burnt umber, Vandyke brown, French Naples yellow (bear in mind that this is a very opaque pigment), cadmium yellow, madder carmine (these are expensive), flake white, and light or Venetian red; before mixing, the colours should be finely pounded. The above method of painting, however, has this objection for the best class of furniture, that the effects of time will darken the body of the piece of furniture, whilst the painted portion will remain very nearly its original colour. In first-class work, therefore, stained polishes or varnishes should be applied instead of these pigments. Dyed Polishes.—The methods of dyeing polish or varnish are as follows: for a red, put a little alkanet-root or camwood dust into a bottle containing polish or varnish; for a bright yellow, a small piece of aloes; for a yellow, ground turmeric or gamboge; for a brown, carbonate of soda and a very small quantity of dragon's blood; and for a black, a few logwood chips, gall-nuts, and copperas, or by the addition of gas-black. The aniline dyes (black excepted) are very valuable for dyeing polishes, the most useful being Turkey-red, sultan red, purple, and brown. A small portion is put into the polish, which soon dissolves it, and no straining is required. The cheapest way to purchase these dyes is by the ounce or half-ounce. The penny packets sold by chemists are too expensive, although a little goes a long way. CHAPTER II.

STAINS AND IMITATIONS. In consequence of the high price demanded for furniture made of the costly woods, the art of the chemist has been called into requisition to produce upon the inferior woods an analogous effect at a trifling expense. The materials employed in the artificial colouring of wood are both mineral and vegetable; the mineral is the most permanent, and when caused by chemical decomposition within the pores it acts as a preservative agent in a greater or less degree. The vegetable colouring matters do not penetrate so easily, probably on account of the affinity of the woody fibre for the colouring matter, whereby the whole of the latter is taken up by the parts of the wood with which it first comes into contact. Different intermediate shades, in great variety, may be obtained by combinations of colouring matters, according to the tint desired, and the ideas of the stainer. The processes technically known as "grounding and ingraining" are partly chemical and partly mechanical, and are designed to teach the various 8modes of operation whereby the above effects can be produced. We will commence with Imitation Mahogany.—Half a pound of madder-root, and two ounces of logwood chips boiled in a gallon of water. Brush over while hot; when dry, go over it with a solution of pearlash, a drachm to a pint. Beech or birch, brushed with aquafortis in sweeping regular strokes, and immediately dried in front of a good fire, form very good imitations of old wood. Venetian red mixed with raw linseed-oil also forms a good stain. The following is a method in common use by French cabinet-makers. The white wood is first brushed over with a diluted solution of nitrous acid; next, with a solution made of methylated spirits one gill, carbonate of soda three-quarters of an ounce, and dragon's blood a quarter of an ounce; and a little red tint is added to the varnish or polish used afterwards. Black American walnut can be made to imitate mahogany by brushing it over with a weak solution of nitric acid. Imitation Rosewood.—Boil half a pound of logwood chips in three pints of water until the decoction is a very dark red; then add an ounce of salt of tartar. Give the work three coats boiling hot; then with a graining tool or a feather fill in the dark markings with the black stain. A stain of a very bright shade can be made with methylated spirits half a gallon, camwood three-quarters of a pound, red-sanders a quarter of a pound, extract of logwood half a pound, aquafortis one ounce. When dissolved, it is ready for use. This makes a very bright ground. It should be applied in three coats over the whole surface, and when dry it is glass-papered down with fine paper to a smooth surface, and is then ready for graining. The fibril veins are produced by passing a graining tool with a slight vibratory motion, so as to effect the natural-looking streaks, using the black stain. A coat of the bichromate of potash solution referred to on page 4 will make wildly-figured mahogany have the appearance of rosewood. Imitation Walnut.—A mixture of two parts of brown umber and one part of sulphuric acid, with spirits of wine or methylated spirits added until it is sufficiently fluid, will serve for white wood. Showy elm-wood, after being delicately darkened with the bichromate solution No. 1, page 4, will pass for walnut; it is usually applied on the cheap loo-table pillars, which are made of elm-wood. Equal portions of the bichromate and carbonate solutions (see page 4), used upon American pine, will have a very good effect. Another method for imitating walnut is as follows: One part (by weight) of walnut-shell extract is dissolved in six parts of soft-water, and slowly heated to boiling until the solution is complete. The surface to be stained is cleaned and dried, and the solution applied once or twice; when half-dry, the whole is gone over again with one part of chromate of potash boiled in five parts of water. It is then dried, rubbed down, and polished in the ordinary way. The extract of walnut-shells and chromate of potash are procurable at any large druggist's establishment. A dark-brown is the result of the action of copper salts on the yellow prussiate of potash; the sulphate of copper in soft woods gives a pretty reddish-brown colour, in streaks and shades, and becomes very rich after polishing or varnishing. Different solutions penetrate with different degrees of facility. In applying, for instance, acetate of copper and prussiate of potash to larch, the sap-wood is coloured most when the acetate is introduced first; but when the prussiate is first introduced, the heart-wood is the most deeply coloured. Pyrolignite of iron causes a dark-grey colour in beech, from the action and tannin in the wood on the oxide of iron; while in larch it merely darkens the natural colour. Most of the tints, especially those caused by the prussiates of iron and copper, are improved by the exposure to light, and the richest colours are produced when the process is carried out rapidly. Imitation Ebony.—Take half a gallon of strong vinegar, one pound of extract of logwood, a quarter of a pound of copperas, two ounces of China blue, and one ounce of nut-gall. Put these into an iron pot, and boil them over a slow fire till they are well dissolved. When cool, the mixture is ready for use. Add a gill of iron filings steeped in vinegar. The above makes a perfect jet black, equal to the best black ebony. A very good black is obtained by a solution of sulphate of copper and nitric acid; when dry, the work should have a coat of strong logwood stain. Imitation Oak.—To imitate old oak, the process known as "fumigating" is the best. This is produced by two ounces of American potash and two ounces of pearlash mixed together in a vessel containing one quart of hot water. Another method is by dissolving a lump of bichromate of potash in warm water; the tint can be varied by adding more water. This is best done out of doors in a good light. Very often in sending for bichromate of potash a mistake is made, and chromate of potash is procured instead; this is of a yellow colour, and will not answer the purpose. The bichromate of potash is the most powerful, and is of a red colour. A solution of asphaltum in spirits of turpentine is frequently used to darken new oak which is intended for painter's varnish, or a coating of boiled oil. Another method of imitating new oak upon any of the inferior light-coloured woods is to give the surface a coat of Stephens's satin-wood stain, and to draw a soft graining-comb gently over it, and when the streaky appearance is thus produced a camel-hair pencil should be taken and the veins formed with white stain. This is made by digesting three-quarters of an ounce of flake white (subnitrate of bismuth), and about an ounce of isinglass in two gills of boiling water; it can be made thinner by adding more water, or can be slightly tinted if desired. Proficients in staining and imitating can make American ash so like oak that experienced judges are frequently deceived, the vein and shade of the spurious wood looking nearly as natural as the genuine. After the veining is done, it should be coated with white hard varnish, made rather thin by adding more spirits, after which the ground can be delicately darkened if required. Imitation Satin-wood.—Take methylated spirits one quart, ground turmeric three ounces, powdered gamboge one and a-half ounces. This mixture should be steeped to its full strength, and then strained through fine muslin, when it will be ready for use. Apply with a sponge, and give two coats; when dry, glass-paper down with fine old paper. This makes a good imitation for inside work. By the addition of a little dragon's blood an orange tint can be produced. A yellow colour can also be given to wood by boiling hot solutions of turmeric, Persian berries, fustic, etc. but the colour is very fugitive. A more permanent colour results from nitric acid, and last of all by the successive introduction of acetate of lead and chromate of potash. Sulphate of iron also stains wood of a yellowish colour when used as a preservative agent, so much so, that the use of corrosive sublimate is recommended for this purpose when it is desirable to preserve the light colour. A Blue Stain.—This dye can be obtained by dissolving East Indian indigo in arsenious acid, which will give a dark blue. A lighter blue can be obtained by hot solutions of indigo, of sulphate of copper, and by the successive introduction of pyrolignite of iron and prussiate of potash. A Green Stain.—Dissolve one ounce of Roman vitriol in a quart of boiling water, to which is added one ounce of pearlash; the mixture should then be forcibly agitated, and a small quantity of pulverised yellow arsenic stirred in. A green is also the result of successive formations in the pores of the wood of a blue and a yellow as above indicated, and by a hot solution of acetate of copper in water. A yellowish green may be obtained by the action of copper salts on the red prussiate of potash. A Purple Stain.—Boil one pound of logwood chips in three quarts of water, until the full strength is obtained; then add four ounces of pearlash and two ounces of powdered indigo. When these ingredients are thoroughly dissolved, it is ready for use, either hot or cold. A purple is also obtained by a boiling hot solution of logwood and Brazil-wood, one pound of the former and one quarter of a pound of the latter to a gallon of water. A Red Stain.—Methylated spirits one quart, Brazil-wood three ounces, dragon's blood half an ounce, cochineal half an ounce, saffron one ounce. Steep the whole to its full strength, and strain. A red can also be produced by macerating red-sanders in rectified spirits of naphtha. An orange-red colour may be obtained by the successive action of bichloride of mercury and iodide of potash, madder, and ammoniacal solutions of carmine. Imitation Purple-wood Stain.—Grind a piece of green copperas on coarse glass-paper, and mix with polish coloured with red-sanders. This makes a capital purple stain, and is used by French cabinet-makers. These dyestuffs may be much improved by the addition of a mordant applied after they are dry; this will greatly assist in modifying and fixing the tints and shades which the dyes impart. The best thing for the purpose, in the writer's opinion, is clear ox-gall, which, besides being useful as a mordant, will destroy all unctuous matter. Chemicals used in Staining.—It may perhaps be useful here to give the common or popular names of the chemicals employed in the operations of staining and imitating, as few polishers know them by the scientific names used by chemists:— Nitric acid is but another phrase for aquafortis. Sulphuric acid, for oil of vitriol. Ammonia, for spirits of hartshorn. Sulphate of magnesia, for Epsom salts. Nitrate of potass, for sal prunelle. Chlorine, for aqua regia. Sulphate of copper, for blue vitriol. Subborate of soda, for borax. Superoxalate of potass, for salts of sorrel. Hydrochlorate of ammonia, for sal ammoniac. Subnitrate of bismuth, for flake white. Acetic acid, for vinegar. Acetate of lead, for sugar of lead. Sulphate of lime, for gypsum. Carbonate of potass, for pearlash. Bitartrate of potass, for cream of tartar. Nitrate of silver, for lunar caustic. Supercarbonate of iron, for plumbago. Cyanide of iron, for Prussian blue. Subacetate of copper, for common verdigris. Susquecarbonate of ammonia, for sal volatile. Alcohol, for pure spirit. Sulphate of iron, for green copperas. Sulphate of zinc, for white copperas. Process of Staining.—The natural qualities of woods are very variable; so also are the textures of the different sorts usually used for staining. It will be readily perceived that there is no fixed principle upon which certain peculiar tints or shades can be produced with any degree of certainty. In order to arrive at the best results, the stainer is recommended to observe the following rules:— All dry stuffs are best reduced to powder, when it is possible, before macerating or dissolving them. All liquids should be strained or filtered before use. The requisite ingredients should always be tested before a free use is made of them, as the effect produced by a coat of stain cannot be accurately ascertained until it is thoroughly dry. Amateurs in staining had far better coat twice or thrice with a weak stain than apply a strong one; for if too dark a tint is first obtained it is often irremediable. Flat surfaces will take stain more evenly if a small portion of linseed-oil is first wiped over, well rubbed off, and allowed to dry, then lightly papered down with fine glass- paper. End-way wood which is of a spongy nature should first have a coat of thin varnish, and when dry well glass-papered off. For applying stain a flat hog-hair tool is the best; and for a softener-down a badger-hair tool is used. For mahogany shades and tints a mottler will be found of service, as will also a soft piece of Turkey sponge. For oak, the usual steel graining-comb is employed for the streaking, and for veining badger sash-tools and sable pencils. Ready-made Wood Stains.—There are numerous stains suitable for common work in the market obtainable at a small cost by residents in London, but it is cheaper for those who reside in country towns to make their own, if only a small quantity is required. The principal makers of wood stains are H. C. Stephens, of 191, Aldersgate- street, E.C., and Jackson, 213, Union-street, Southwark, S.E. These makers prepare stains in a liquid state, and also in powders for oak, walnut, mahogany, satin-wood, ebony, and rosewood. The powders are sold in packages at 8s. per lb. or 1s. for two ounces, and are soluble in boiling water. Judson, of 77, Southwark-street, S.E., makes a mahogany powder in sixpenny packets, and any reliable oilman will sell a good black stain at 8d. per quart, or a superior black stain at 1s. 2d. per quart. Fox, of 109, Bethnal Green-road, also prepares stains in a liquid state. CHAPTER III.

FRENCH POLISHING. The Polish Used.—The oil or wax polish was used for all kinds of furniture before the introduction of French polish, the invention of which, as its name implies, is due to French cabinet-makers. It was first introduced into England about seventy years since; some time elapsed, however, before it was brought to a high state of perfection. At first apprentices or porters were entrusted with the polishing, they having been usually called upon to do the wax polishing; but in course of time it was found that its successful adoption implied the possession of considerable skill, and it came to be regarded as an art of no little importance—so much so, that the early polishers who had perfected themselves used to work in a shop with closed doors, lest the secret of their success should be discovered. From that time polishing became a separate branch of the cabinet business. The following original recipe as first invented has been extracted from a French work, the Dictionnaire Technologique, not, however, for its usefulness (it having gone into disuse many years ago), but as a matter of curiosity:—

"French Polish." Gum sandarach 14 ounces 2 drachms Gum mastic in drops 7 " 2 " Shellac (the yellower the better) 14 " 2 " Alcohol of 0.8295 specific gravity 3 quarts and 1 pint. "Pound the resinous gums, and effect their solution by continued agitation, without the aid of heat; if the woods are porous, add seven ounces one drachm of Venice turpentine. If an equal weight of ground glass be added, the solution is more quickly made, and is also otherwise benefited by it. Before using, the wood should be made to imbibe a little linseed-oil, the excess of which should be removed by an old flannel." Notwithstanding the improvement made upon the old processes by this new method, it was by no means considered to be perfect, for the polish was found to impart its brown tinge to the light-coloured woods, especially in marqueterie work, and to deteriorate their appearance. It will be readily seen that it was a great desideratum among polishers to render shellac colourless, as, with the exception of its dark-brown hue, it possesses all the properties essential to a good polish or spirit varnish in a higher degree than any of the other resins. In 1827 the Society of Arts came forward with its valuable aid and offered a premium of a gold medal, or thirty guineas, "for a polish or varnish made from shell or seed-lac, equally hard, and as fit for use in the arts as that at present prepared from the above substance, but deprived of its colouring matter." After numerous experiments, this long-felt want was perfectly attained by Dr. Hare, who was awarded the premium. His method was as follows: "Dissolve in an iron kettle one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water; add one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine till the lac is all precipitated. The precipitate is white, but its colour deepens by washing and consolidation; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the process above mentioned, yields a polish or varnish which is as free from colour as any copal varnish." At the present time shellac is bleached by filtration over animal charcoal. Numerous experiments were afterwards made in the manufacture of polishes; several chemists devoted their attention to its manufacture, and an improved polish was soon produced which was used for a number of years. The following are its proportions:— Shellac 14 ounces. Sandarach ¾ ounce. White resin ¾ " Benzoin ¾ " Gum thus ¾ " O.P. finishing spirit ½ a gallon. The "filling-in" processes also began to be used, which effected a considerable saving in the quantity of polish usually required, and in consequence of the expensiveness of spirits of wine rectified spirits of naphtha was used as a substitute for the making of polishes, etc.; but it was discovered that its continued use soon affected the eyesight of the workmen, and it had to be abandoned, the methylic alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, or wood spirit, as it has been differently called, taking its place. This was first discovered by Mr. Philip Taylor in 1812, and is obtained by distilling wood. Messrs. Dumas & Peligot, after analysing it, determined that it contained 37·5 per cent. of carbon, 12·5 per cent. of hydrogen, and 50 per cent. of oxygen. When pure, it remains clear in the atmosphere; but for the sake of economy it is often employed in the manufacture of other compounds called methylated. This spirit began to be much used in the manufacture of polishes and varnishes in the year 1848, and has continued to be much used ever since. The wonderful improvements which have been effected in polishes since their first introduction obviously prove that they have now arrived at a very high point of perfection, and polishing is now justly acknowledged, both by skilled artisans and connoisseurs, to be an important decorative art. French polish or varnish at the present time can easily be obtained at most chemists or oil shops, or direct from the manufacturers, amongst whom may be mentioned Mr. W. Urquhart, 327, Edgware-road, W.; Messrs. Turner & Sons, 7 to 9, Broad- street, Bloomsbury, W.C.; Messrs. William Fox & Son, Bethnal Green-road, E.; Mr. G. Purdom, 49, Commercial-road, E. The London prices are: Best French polish, 5s. 6d. per gallon; best white polish, 9s. per gallon; brown or white hard varnish, 8s. per gallon; patent glaze, 10s. per gallon; methylated spirits, 3s. 3d. per gallon. For those who prefer to make their own, the following will be found an excellent recipe:— 12 ounces of orange shellac. 1 ounce of benzoin. 1 ounce of sandarach. ½ gallon of methylated spirits. Pound the gums well before mixing with the spirit, as this will hasten their dissolution. White polish for white wood and marqueterie work should be made with bleached shellac instead of the above. In making polishes or varnishes, the mixture will frequently require shaking until dissolved. Rubbers.—In commencing to polish, the materials required are old flannel for the rubbers and clean old linen or cotton rags for the coverings, the softer the better; some polishers, however, prefer white wadding for rubbers instead of flannel. Rubbers for large surfaces are usually made of soft old flannel, firmly and compactly put together somewhat in the form of a ball, and the more they possess softness and compactness, and are large and solid, the more quickly and satisfactorily will they polish extensive surfaces. Small pliable rubbers are usually employed for chairs or light frame-work. Perhaps for a beginner a rubber made of old flannel may be best, as it takes some little practice to obtain the necessary lightness of hand. The rubber for "spiriting-off" should be made up from a piece of old flannel or woollen cloth, and covered with a piece of close rag, doubled. Carefully fold the rag and screw it round at the back to make it as firm as possible, and sprinkle some spirit on the face of it just as it is covered; then give it two or three good smacks with the palm of the hand, and begin by laying on as lightly as possible for the first few strokes and gradually increase the pressure as the rubber gets dry; then take off the first fold of the cover and work it perfectly dry. The rubber should present to the wood you are about to work on a smooth-rounded or convex surface. Have beside you linseed-oil in one receptacle, and some French polish in another. Apply one drop of polish and one drop of oil, and polish with a circular movement—traversing steadily the whole surface to be polished, and from time to time, as may be necessary (when the rubber gets sticky and harsh, indicating that the inside needs replenishing with more polish), open and apply more of it, and again draw over the linen cover, holding it tightly to form the convex face proper to do the work. After replenishing, the rubber will probably need a little more oil to help it to work smoothly. Having thus worked on one coat of polish evenly over all the wood until it has got what may best be described as a full look, set it aside for two or three hours to sink in and become hard, and when completely dry, lightly paper off with glass-paper (very finest), afterwards dusting the surface to remove any trace of powder, and lay on a second coat of polish in the same method. Then allow twenty-four hours to dry. Another light papering may possibly be needed—dust off as before recommended and let the wood have a third coat of polish. For this third coat a fresh rubber should be made, the inside being sparingly supplied with spirits of wine instead of polish. Put a double fold of linen over it, touch it with one drop of oil, and go very lightly and speedily over the whole work. In spiriting-off—the object of which is to remove any trace of smudge that may blur the surface unless removed thus by spirit—you should go gently to work, using a very light hand, or you may take the polish off as well, amateurs more especially. Position.—All work should be placed in an easy and accessible position while it is being polished, so that the eye may readily perceive the effect of the rubber; this will greatly help to relieve the difficulties attending the polishing of a fine piece of furniture. It should also be kept quite firm, so that it cannot possibly move about. The most suitable benches for polishers are the ordinary cabinet-makers' benches, with the tops covered with thick, soft cloths; these cloths should not be fastened down, it being an advantage to be able to remove them when required. When a piece of work too large to be placed upon the bench is in hand, pads will be found useful to rest it upon. These can be made by covering pieces of wood about two feet in length by three inches in width with cloth several times doubled, the work being placed so that a good light falls upon it. All thin panelling should be tacked down upon a board by the edges while polishing. Filling-in.—The first process the wood usually undergoes is "filling-in." This consists in rubbing into the pores of the wood Russian tallow and plaster of Paris, which have been previously heated and mixed together so as to form a thick paste. For rosewood, or to darken mahogany, a little rose-pink should be added. After well rubbing in, the surface should be cleared from all the surplus paste with the end of the scraper, and then rubbed off with shavings or old rags, and made quite clean. For birch or oak, some use whiting or soft putty moistened with linseed-oil for the filling; this preparation prevents in a great measure the rising of the grain. For white delicate woods, such as sycamore, maple, or satin-wood, plaster of Paris, mixed with methylated spirit, is used. When polishing pine, a coat of Young's patent size (2d. per lb.) is used instead of the above mixtures, and when dry is rubbed down with fine glass-paper. Some workmen, who regard their modes of filling-in as important secrets, do their work surprisingly quick by the methods here given. The various processes are soon acquired by a little practice, and contribute greatly to the speedy advancement of a smooth and imporous ground, which is the most important point to observe in polishing. Applying the Polish.—In commencing to use the polish some are provided with a small earthenware dish, into which the polish is poured for wetting the rubbers; while others make a slit in the cork of the polish bottle, and so let it drip on to the rubber; whichever method is adopted, the rubber should not be saturated, but receive just enough to make a smear. Every time after wetting the rubber and putting on the cover it should be pressed upon the palm of the hand, or if a small rubber it can be tested between the thumb and finger. This is an important operation, for by it the polisher can easily tell the exact state of moisture, and at the same time, by the pressure being applied, the moisture is equalised. The tip of the finger should then be just dipped into the linseed-oil, and applied to the face of it; if the rubber should be rather sappy, the greatest care must be used or a coarse streaky roughness will be produced; extreme lightness of hand is required until the rubber is nearly dry. (It would be a serious error to bear heavily on the rubber while the surface is moist; to do so, and to use too much oil on the rubber, are the causes of many failures in polishing.) In commencing to work, pass the rubber a few times gently and lightly over the surface in the direction of the grain; then rub across the grain in a series of circular movements, all one way, in full and free sweeping strokes, until the rubber is dry. Continue this operation until the pores are filled in, and the surface assumes a satisfactory appearance. It should then be left for about twelve hours; the polish will be well into the wood by that time. The polish should then be carefully rubbed down with No. glass-paper; this will remove the atomic roughness usually caused by the rising of the grain during the sinking period. In flat-surface work a paper cork can be used, and the rubbing lightly and regularly done in a careful manner, so as to avoid rubbing through the outer skin, especially at the edges and corners, or the work will be irremediably defaced. The woods which possess a rising grain are well known to polishers; these are the light-coloured woods with a coarse grain, viz., ash, birch, and oak. This rising of the grain can in a great measure be prevented by passing a damp sponge over the work before commencing the polishing, allowing it to dry, and papering it. After the rubbing or smoothing-down process is finished, the work should be well dusted; the polishing can then recommence. The above operation must be again repeated with a rotary motion and gradually increased pressure as the rubber gets dry, and finished by lighter rubbings the way of the grain; this will remove any slight marks that may be occasioned by the circular movements of the rubber. Working too long on any one part is to be avoided, nor should the rubber be allowed to stick even for an instant, or it will pull the coating of polish off to the bare wood. The rubber should be covered with a clean part of the rag as soon as a shiny appearance becomes apparent upon it, or at each time of damping, and less oil should be used towards the end of the operation, so as to gradually clear it all off from the surface. Rubber marks can be removed by rubbing in a direction the reverse of the marks with a half-dry rubber and increased pressure. When the work has received a sufficient body, in finishing the drying of the last rubber, ply it briskly the way of the grain to produce a clean dry surface for the spiriting-off. The following is the method usually employed on fine carved or turned work when finished in the best style. In the first place it is embodied with polish, using a small rubber for the operation, after which it should have one coat of shellac (two parts by weight of shellac to one of spirits) applied with a brush, and when dry it should be carefully smoothed down with flour paper, the utmost caution being observed in dealing with the sharp edges, or the carving will be spoiled. Then it is embodied with polish again, and one coat of glaze applied with the greatest care. A few hours should be allowed to harden, and then finished off with a rubber slightly damped with thin polish. This is an expensive method, but it will pay in appearance for all the time bestowed. For the best class of cabinet and pianoforte work in amboyna or burr-walnut it is advisable not to use linseed-oil on the sole of the rubber when polishing, but the best hog's lard; the reason for this is that these veneers being so extremely thin and porous the oil will quickly penetrate through to the groundwork, softening the glue, and causing the veneers to rise in a number of small blisters. Of course, this is not always the case, but the use of lard instead of oil will be found a good preventative. Lard is also used on the above class of work when it is desirable to preserve the colour of the wood in its natural state. The following method is employed for the best work: Immediately on receiving the job from the cabinet-maker, a good coating of thin, clean glue should be applied with a sponge or brush; this is allowed to dry, and thoroughly harden; it is then cleaned off, using the scraper and glass-paper, cutting it down to the wood. The bodying-in with white polish is the next process, the usual sinking period being allowed; it is again cleaned off, but the scraper this time should not quite reach the wood. Then embody again, and treat in a like manner. In getting up the permanent body, commence with a slight embodying; let this stand, and when the sinking period is over rub it down with a felt rubber and powdered pumice-stone; continue this several times, till the surface presents a satisfactory appearance, and the job is ready for the spiriting process. By this means the wood will retain its natural colour, and a beautiful transparent polish will result, and remain for a number of years. This also is an expensive process, but the result cannot be obtained in any other way. Spiriting-off.—Most polishers affirm that if an interval of at least a couple of hours elapse between the final embodying and the spiriting-off the brilliancy of the polish will be improved, and remain harder and more durable. The spirit is applied in exactly the same way as the polish, and the same rubber can be used, but it should be covered with more than one fold of the soft linen rag; care should be taken not to make it very wet, or the gum on the surface of the work will be redissolved, and a dulness instead of a brilliancy will result. If the spirit should be very strong, the rubber should be breathed upon before using, and a little more oil taken up; some, however, prefer to mix a little polish with the spirit, while others prefer the spirit to be weakened by exposure to the air for a few hours; experience alone must be the teacher in this particular; but if the spirit should not "bite," as it is termed, all will be well. The last rubber should be worked a little longer than usual, and a trifle quicker, so as to remove the slight greasy moisture on the surface. The finishing touch is given to the work by a soft rag loosely rolled up and just a few drops of spirit dropped upon it, applied quickly the way of the grain. This will remove every defect, and leave it clear and brilliant. If, in a short time after finishing, the polish becomes dull or rough, it will be owing to too much oil being absorbed in the process and working through the surface, combined with dust. It should be cleaned off first with a soft cloth, damped with a little warm water, and the whole repaired, as at first, with equal parts of polish and spirits mixed together, using the least possible damp of oil to make it finish clear; there is no danger of its happening again. In all cases the work must be rubbed till quite dry, and when nearly so the pressure may be increased. The rubber for spiriting-off should be made up from a piece of old flannel, and be covered with a piece of old rag. This is preferable to very thin rag, and will give a better finish. Prepared Spirits.—This preparation is useful for finishing, as it adds to the lustre and durability, as well as removes every defect of other polishes, and it gives the surface a most brilliant appearance. It is made of half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, two drachms of shellac, and two drachms of gum benzoin. Put these ingredients in a bottle and keep in a warm place till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently; when cold add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use. Antique Style.—For mediæval or old English furniture a dull polish is generally preferred to a French polish, because it has a gloss rather than a brilliant polish, which materially assists in showing up mouldings or carvings to the best advantage; it is also more in character with the work of the Middle Ages. Another advantage is the facility of obtaining a new polish (after being once done) should the first one get tarnished, as the finishing process can be performed without difficulty by any one, and a new polish obtained each time. On receiving a job which is required to be done in this style, it should be "filled-in" in the usual manner, and afterwards bodied with white polish to a good extent; it is then left for a sinking period (say twelve hours). The work is then carefully rubbed down with powdered pumice-stone and a felt-covered block or rubber, and after well dusting it is ready for finishing. The preparation used for this process is mainly composed of bees'-wax and turpentine (see Wax Polish, page 87), well rubbed in with a piece of felt or a woollen rag, and finished off by rubbing briskly with a very soft cloth or an old handkerchief to produce a gloss. Dull or Egg-shell Polish.—This is another style of finishing for mediæval work; the process is very simple. In commencing a job to be finished in this style, the process of "filling-in" and "embodying" are first gone through, then a sinking period is allowed, after which it is embodied again, till the work is ready for finishing. All the parts should be carefully examined to see if there is a good coating of polish upon them. This is important, for if the work should be only thinly coated it is liable to be spoiled by rubbing through in the last process. After allowing a few hours for the surface to harden, a pounce bag of powdered pumice-stone should be applied to the work, and a felt-covered rubber used, rubbing down in the direction of the grain until the work is of the desired dulness. For the cheaper kind of work done in this style, the first process, of course, is the filling-in; then a rubber of wadding is taken and used without a cover, made rather sappy with polish and a few drops of oil added; and after bodying-in with this sufficiently, the work should be stood aside for twelve hours, then rubbed down with some fine worn glass-paper. The embodying is then again commenced, a proper rubber and cover being used; and when sufficient is put on, and while the surface is still soft, the pounce above mentioned should be applied, and rubbed down with a piece of wadding slightly moistened with linseed-oil until the desired dulness appears. This is becoming the fashionable finish for black walnut work. Polishing in the Lathe.—The lathe is of more use to a polisher than a great many persons outside the trade would imagine. By its aid turned work can be finished in a most superior style, and in less time than by hand. The articles usually done by the lathe are wood musical instruments, such as clarionets, flutes, etc.; also cornice-poles, ends, and mahogany rings, the latter being first placed in a hollow chuck and the insides done, after which they are finished upon the outside on a conical chuck. For table-legs, chair-legs, and all the turnery used in the cabinet-work, it will be found of great advantage to finish the turned parts before the work is put together. Most of the best houses in the trade finish their work in this way, where all the work is polished out entirely with the rubber. In the first place, the filling-in is done. The band is thrown off the pulley and the work rubbed in; at the same time the pulley is turned round by the left hand. When this is done, the band is replaced and the work cleaned off with rags or shavings, the lathe to be driven with speed to get a clean surface. When applying the polish the lathe should revolve with a very slow motion. The rubbers best adapted for turned work are made of white wadding, as the hollows and other intricacies can be completely finished out with a soft rubber. The work should first receive a coating of thick shellac, two parts by weight of shellac to one of methylated spirits, and applied with a brush or a soft sponge; after a couple of hours this is nicely smoothed with fine paper, and the "bodying-in" completed with the soft rubber and thin polish. There are numerous hard woods which do not require filling-in, amongst which may be mentioned boxwood, cocus, ebony, etc.; these may be rapidly polished in the lathe, on account of their texture, with the white polish. In spiriting-off a very soft piece of chamois leather (if it is hard and creased it will scratch) should be damped with methylated spirits, then wrung so that the spirit may be equally diffused; the lathe should then be driven at a rapid speed, and the leather held softly to the work. In a few minutes, if a dark wood, a brilliant surface will be produced. CHAPTER IV.

CHEAP WORK. Glazing.—Glaze is known to the trade under several names, such as slake, finish, and telegraph; it is used only for cheap work, when economy of time is a consideration, and is made as follows: mastic, 1 oz.; benzoin, 5 ozs.; methylated spirit, 5 gills. A superior article can be obtained from G. Purdom, 49, Commercial Road, Whitechapel, E., who is the manufacturer of a "patent glaze." First give the work a rubber or two of polish after the "filling-in"; it is important to dry the last rubber thoroughly, so that no unctuousness remains upon the surface before applying the glaze, otherwise it will be of no effect. The way to apply it is as follows: Prepare a rubber as for polishing and make it moderately wet, and take only one steady wipe the way of the grain, never going over the same surface twice while wet; and when dry, if one coat is found not to be enough, apply a second in the same manner. For mouldings or the backs and sides of chair-work, this is generally considered to be sufficient. Some polishers will persist in using glaze to a large extent, even on the best-paid work; but it is not recommended, as the surface will not retain its brilliancy for a lengthened period, particularly in hot weather. Nothing is so good for the best class of work as polishing entirely with French polish. The way of treating small flat surfaces such as the frames of tables, looking-glasses, builders' work, etc., is to first fill in, and give one or two rubbers of polish, drying the last rubber thoroughly; then glaze, and after a period of two or three hours finish with a rubber slightly wetted with thin polish. It is a bad plan to put glaze on newly-spirited work, or to re-apply it on old bodies. The following is another method for cheap work: A coating of clear size is first given in a warm state (this can be obtained at most oil-shops), and when dry is rubbed down with fine glass-paper, after which a coating of varnish is applied with a sponge or a broad camel-hair brush, giving long sweeping strokes. The tool should be plied with some degree of speed, as spirit varnishes have not the slow setting properties which distinguish those of oil, and care should be taken not to go over the same part twice. When this is thoroughly hard it is nicely smoothed with fine paper, a few rubberfuls of polish is given, and it is then ready for spiriting-off. Another plan is frequently adopted for cheap work: Make a thin paste with plaster of Paris, suitably tinted and watered, and well rub in across the grain with a piece of felt or old coarse canvas till the pores are all full; any superfluity should be instantly wiped off from the surface before it has time to set. The succeeding processes are papering and oiling. In applying the polish, which should be done immediately after oiling, the rubber should be made rather sappy with thin polish, and worked without oil. During the embodying a pounce-bag containing plaster of Paris is sparingly used; this application tends to fill the pores and also to harden the body of polish on the exterior, but too much should not be used, or it will impart a semi-opaque appearance to the work. This first body is allowed sufficient time to harden; it is then rubbed down lightly with flour paper or old worn No. 1, and then embodied with thicker polish or a mixture of polish and varnish, and the smallest quantity of oil applied to the rubber. When a sufficient body of polish is given to the work, the surface is rubbed very carefully with a lump of moist putty plied in the longitudinal direction of the grain; this will bring up a gloss, and very little spiriting will be required. Stencilling.—An imitation of marqueterie on light-coloured woods can be obtained by the following method: Cut a stencil pattern in stout cartridge paper (this is best done upon a piece of glass with the point of a sharp penknife), and place it on the centre of a panel or wherever required, and have ready some gas-black mixed with thin polish; apply this with a camel-hair pencil over the cut-out pattern, and when it is removed finish the lines and touch up with a finer tool. The work should be first bodied-in, and when the pattern is dry rubbed down with a piece of hair-cloth (the smooth side down) on a cork rubber to a smooth surface, after which the polishing can be proceeded with until finished. Upon oak this will have the appearance of inlaid work. Charcoal Polishing.—A method known as "charcoal polishing" is now much used for producing the beautiful dead-black colour which seems to have the density of ebony. Its invention is due to French cabinet-makers. The woods used by them are particularly well adapted for staining black or any other colour, limetree, beech, cherry, pear, soft mahogany, or any wood of a close and compact grain being the woods usually selected. The first process is to give the work a coating of camphor dissolved in water and made rather strong; this will soon soak into the wood, and immediately afterwards another coat composed of sulphate of iron-water with a few nut-galls added. These solutions in blending penetrate the wood and give it an indelible tinge, and also prevent insects from attacking it. After these coats are dry, rub the surface with a hard brush (an old scrubbing- brush will do) the way of the grain, after which rub the flat parts with natural stick charcoal, and the carved or indented portions with powdered charcoal; the softest portion of the charcoal only should be used, because if a single hard grain should be applied it would seriously damage the surface. The workman should have ready at the same time a preparation of linseed-oil and essence of turpentine (linseed-oil one gill, and essence of turpentine one teaspoonful), a portion of which should be freely taken up with a piece of soft flannel and well rubbed into the work. These rubbings with the preparation and charcoal several times will give the article of furniture a beautiful dead-black colour and polish. This method of polishing is applied to the black-and-gold furniture, cabinets, etc., in imitation of ebony. Another good black polish is obtained by gas-black being applied to the rubber after wetting with French polish, the cover being then put on and worked in the usual manner. These black polishes should not be applied if there are coloured woods in the piece of furniture. Should the work be already dyed black, or in black veneers, it is best to use white polish, which will greatly help to preserve the transparent density of the dye. CHAPTER V.

RE-POLISHING OLD WORK. If the piece of furniture requiring to be re-polished should be in bad condition, it is best to clean off thoroughly, using the liquid ammonia (see page 94), or by the scraper and glass-paper. The indentations may be erased by dipping into hot water a piece of thick brown paper three or four times doubled and applying it to the part; the point of a red-hot poker should be immediately placed upon the wet paper, which will cause the water to boil into the wood and swell up the bruise; the thickness of the paper prevents the wood from being scorched by the hot poker. After the moisture is evaporated, the paper should be again wetted if required. If only shallow dents, scratches, and broken parts of the polish present themselves, carefully coat them two or three times with a thick solution of shellac, and when the last coating becomes hard carefully paper down with a piece of old glass- paper and a cork rubber. If the surface should be in good condition, it is necessary only to remove the viscid rust; this is done by friction with a felt-covered rubber and pure spirits of turpentine; by this means the polish remains unsullied. If the surface should not be in very good condition, a flannel should be used smeared with a paste of bathbrick-dust and water, or a paste made of the finest emery flour and spirits of turpentine. After cleansing, and before the polish is applied, it is a good plan to just moisten the surface with raw linseed-oil; this will cause the old body to unite with the new one. In order to carry out the process of re-polishing with facility, it is necessary to disunite all the various parts, such as panels, carvings, etc., before commencing the operation. The polish is applied in the usual manner, and when a good body is laid on the work should be set aside for twelve hours, after which it can be finished. It should be particularly observed that in polishing no job should be finished immediately after the rubbing-down process; a sinking period should always be allowed. If the work should be immediately finished, the consequences are that in a few hours all the marks and scratches of the paper, etc., will be discernible, and the polished surface will present a very imperfect appearance, although looking perfect when first finished. Holes and crevices may be well filled up with a cement made in the following manner: In a large iron spoon place a lump of beeswax about the size of a walnut, a pinch of the pigments mentioned on page 5, according to the colour required, a piece of common rosin the size of a nut, and a piece of tallow as large as a pea; melt, and it is ready for use. Some add a little shellac, but much will make it very brittle. A similar substance to the above can be bought at the French warehouses. CHAPTER VI.

SPIRIT VARNISHING. Most polishers are agreed that to obtain a good surface with varnish it is necessary to give the work, where it is possible to do so, a rubberful of polish first, and to thoroughly dry the rubber; but in most carved work the surface is not accessible, and the brush must be used. Sometimes the carving is extremely coarse, and with an open porous grain, in which case it is best to oil it first and then to fine-paper it down; by this process a thin paste is formed by the attrition, which materially assists in filling up the pores. Before commencing to use the varnish have ready an earthenware dish or box,—one of the tins used for the preserved meats or fish will answer the purpose,—with two holes drilled so that a piece of wire can be fastened diametrically across the top; this is called a "regulator," and when the brush is passed once or twice over this it prevents an unnecessary quantity of varnish being transferred to the work. Varnishes.—The ingredients for making varnish are very similar to those for making polish, but the proportions are somewhat different. Furniture varnish consists of two kinds, viz.: the brown-hard and the white- hard; the former is used for dark woods, such as mahogany, walnut, rosewood, etc.; whilst the latter is used for the light-coloured woods, in conjunction with the white polish. A few years since the brown-hard varnish was made from these ingredients: 1 gallon of methylated spirit, 40 ozs. of shellac, 4 ozs. of rosin, 5 ozs. of benzoin, 2 ozs. of sandarach, 2 ozs. of white rosin. The brown-hard varnish which is used at the present time is made differently, and produces a better result; it is made from the following: 1 gallon of methylated spirit, 32 ozs. of shellac, 8 ozs. of rosin, 8 ozs. of benzoin. The white-hard or transparent varnish for white wood is made with 1 gallon of methylated spirit, 32 ozs. of bleached shellac, 24 ozs. of gum sandarach. In making either polishes or varnishes, all the gums should be first pounded and reduced to powder before mixing with the spirit, and when mixed they should be occasionally well shaken or stirred, so as to hasten their dissolution. Brushes and Pencils.—The brushes used for varnishing are either flat, in tin, or round, tied firmly to the handle, and made of camel's-hair; but the small white bristle-tools and red-sable pencils will frequently be found of service in coating delicate carving, or turned work. Varnish brushes can be obtained from a quarter of an inch to four inches and upwards in width; the most useful brush, however, for general use is about an inch wide. It is important that brushes should be cleaned in spirits immediately after use, for if laid by in varnish they lose their elasticity and are soon spoiled; but if this preservative principle is ever neglected, the hardened brush should be soaked in methylated spirit, and if wanted for immediate use the spirit will soften the varnish quicker if made luke-warm. The spirit should be gently pressed out by the finger and thumb. All varnish brushes when not in use should be hung up, or kept in such a position that they do not rest upon their hairy ends, either in a box or tin free from dust. Mode of Operation.—It is usual in varnishing to give the work three coats, and always allow each coat to dry thoroughly before applying the next. It should be noted that spirit varnishes begin to dry immediately they are laid on; therefore, on no account should they be touched with the brush again whilst wet, or when dry they will present a rough surface. Always ply the brush quickly, and never go over a second time. When giving the first or second coats it is unimportant how they are applied, whether across the grain or with the grain, but the finishing coat should always be with the grain. If the varnish should appear frothy when laid on, it is of no consequence, as it will dry smooth if equally and evenly applied before a good fire or in a warm atmosphere. Coloured varnishes can be made in exactly the same manner as coloured polishes (see page 6). The beautiful glossy black varnishes so admired on Indian cabinet-work, specimens of which can be seen at the Indian Museum, are very difficult to obtain in England, but a description of them may be interesting. East Indian Varnishes.—The Sylhet varnish is composed of two parts of the juice of the bhela (the tree which bears the marking nuts of India), and one part of the juice of the jowar. The articles varnished with it at Sylhet are of the most beautiful glossy black; and it seems equally fitted for varnishing iron, leather, paper, wood, or stone. It has a sort of whitish-grey colour when first taken out of the bottle, but in a few minutes it becomes perfectly black by exposure to the air. In the temperature of this country it is too thick to be laid on alone; but it may be rendered more fluid by heat. In this case, however, it is clammy, and seems to dry very slowly. When diluted with spirits of turpentine, it dries more quickly; but still with less rapidity than is desirable. The tsitsi, or Rangoon varnish, is less known than the Sylhet varnish. It is probably made from the juice of the bhela alone. It appears to have the same general properties as the Sylhet varnish, but dries more rapidly. The varnish from the kheeso, or varnish-tree, may be the same as the Rangoon varnish, but is at present considered to be very different. The kheeso grows particularly in Kubboo, a valley on the banks of the Ningtee, between Munnipore and the Burman empire. It attains to such a large size, that it affords planks upwards of three feet in breadth, and in appearance and grain is very like mahogany. A similar tree is found in great abundance and perfection at Martaban. A poisonous vapour exhales from several of the Indian varnishes, especially from that of Sylhet, and is apt to produce over the whole skin inflammations, swellings, itchings, and pustules, as if the body had been stung by a number of wasps. Its effects, however, go off in a few hours. As a preventative the persons who collect the varnish, before going to work, smear their faces and hands with greasy matter to prevent the varnish poison coming into contact with their skin. CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. Remarks on Polishing.—Amateurs at French polishing will be more successful on a large surface than a small one. When polishing, the rubber-cloth should be changed occasionally, or the brightness will not remain when finished. A most efficacious improver of many kinds of woods is raw linseed-oil mixed with a little rectified spirits of turpentine. French polish can be tinted a light-red with alkanet-root, and a dark-red with dragon's blood. A good Turkey sponge is capable of spreading either stain or varnish more smoothly than a camel's-hair brush on a flat surface. The sub-nitrate of bismuth mentioned on p. 12 is beginning to supersede oxalic acid for bleaching processes. Thin panels for doors should be securely tacked down to a level board, and polished with a large round flannel rubber having a very flat sole. Fret-work panels should have all the edges entirely finished with varnish before they undergo the above operation. To get a good polish upon a full-fret panel is considered by polishers to be the most difficult part in the work, on account of the extreme delicacy and frangibility of the work and the great carefulness required. Soft spongy wood may be satiated by rubbing a sponge well filled with polish across the grain until it becomes dry. In polishing a very large surface, such as a Loo-table top or a wardrobe end, it is best to do only half at a time, or if a large top a quarter only. The approved method of treating dining-table tops is to well body-in with French polish, after which thoroughly glass-paper down with fine paper, and then use the oil polish (see page 87). Immediately after using a rubber, it should be kept in an air-tight tin canister, where it will always remain fresh and fit for use. The Polishing Shop.—A few words as to the polishing shop may be acceptable to those who possess ample room and desire the best results. First in order is the location and arrangement of the finishing rooms. Preference is to be given to the upper rooms of a building for several reasons, among which may be named the securing of better light, greater freedom from dust, and superior ventilation. A good light in this, as in many other arts, is a very important matter, and by a good light we mean all the light that can be obtained without the glare of the direct rays of the sun. Light from side windows is preferable to that from skylights for three reasons: (1) Skylights are very liable to leakage; (2) they are frequently, for greater or less periods, covered with snow in winter; (3) the rays of the sun transmitted by them in summer are frequently so powerful as to blister shellac or varnish. Good ventilation is at all times of importance, and especially so in summer, both as tending to dry the varnish or shellac more evenly and rapidly, and as contributing to the comfort of the workmen. The latter consideration is of importance even as a matter of economy, as men in a room the atmosphere of which is pleasant and wholesome will feel better and accomplish more than they could do in the close and forbidding apartments in which they sometimes work. Any suggestion in reference to freedom from dust, as a matter to be considered in locating rooms for this business, would seem to be entirely superfluous, as it is clear that there is hardly any department of mechanical work which is so susceptible to injury from dust as the finishing of furniture, including varnishing and polishing. Finishing rooms may be arranged in three departments. The first should include the room devoted to sand- papering and filling. These processes, much more than any other part of furniture polishing, produce dirt and dust, and it is plain that the room devoted to them should be so far isolated from the varnishing room as not to introduce into it these injurious elements. Another room should be appropriated to the bodying-in, smoothing and rubbing-down processes. The third room is for spiriting and varnishing, or the application of the final coats of varnish, which is the most important of all the processes in finishing. It requires a very light and clean room, and a greater degree of heat than a general workroom. It should, as nearly as possible, be uniform, and kept up to summer heat; in no case ought the temperature to fall below fifty nor rise higher than eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit while the varnishing process is going on. Varnishing performed under these circumstances will be more thorough in result, have a brighter appearance and better polish, than if the drying is slow and under irregular temperature. For drying work, the best kind of heat is that from a stove or furnace. Steam heat is not so good for two reasons: (1), it is too moist and soft, causing the work to sweat rather than to dry hard, and (2), the temperature of a room heated by steam is liable to considerable variation, and especially to becoming lower in the night. This fire heat is as necessary for the varnishing room in damp and cloudy weather in summer as it is in winter. At all seasons, and by night as well as by day, the heat should be as dry as possible, and kept uniformly up to summer heat, by whatever means this result is secured. Varnished work, after receiving the last coat, should be allowed to remain one day in the varnishing room. It may then be removed into the general workroom. A remark may be proper here, viz., that there is sometimes a failure to secure the best and most permanent results from not allowing sufficient time for and between the several processes. An order is perhaps to be filled, or for some other reason the goods are "rushed through" at the cost of thoroughness and excellence of finish. The following suggestion is made by way of caution in reference to the disposal of oily rags and waste made in the various processes of finishing. These articles are regarded as very dangerous, and are frequently the cause of much controversy between insurance companies and parties who are insured. The best way to dispose of this waste is to put it into the stove and burn it as fast as it is produced. If this rule is strictly adhered to there will be no danger of fire from this source. All liquid stock should be kept in close cans or barrels, and as far from the fire as possible. CHAPTER VIII.

ENAMELLING. The process of enamelling in oil varnishes as applied to furniture must be understood as a smooth, glossy surface of various colours produced by bodies of paint and varnish skilfully rubbed down, and prepared in a peculiar way so as to produce a surface equal to French polish. Ornament can be added by gilding, etc., after the polished surface is finished. We will begin with the white or light-tinted enamel. The same process must be pursued for any colour, the only difference being in the selection of the materials for the tint required to be produced. It should be observed that enamelling requires the exercise of the greatest care, and will not bear hurrying. Each coat must be allowed sufficient time for the hardening, and the rubbing down must be patiently and gently done; heavy pressure will completely spoil the work. Materials.—The materials used for the purpose above named are: white lead ground in turpentine and the best white lead in oil; a clear, quick, and hard-drying varnish, such as the best copal, or the varnishes for enamel manufactured by Mr. W. Urquhart, 327, Edgware Road, W.; or white coburg and white enamel varnish, ground and lump pumice-stone, or putty-powder, great care being taken in the selection of the pumice-stone, as the slightest particle of grit will spoil the surface; and rotten-stone, used either with water or oil. Tools.—The tools required are several flat wooden blocks, of various sizes and forms, suitable for inserting into corners and for mouldings—these must be covered with felt on the side you intend to use, the felt best adapted for the purpose being the white felt, from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, which can be obtained of Messrs. Thomas Wallis & Co., Holborn Circus, or at the woollen warehouses; two or three bosses (made similar to polish rubbers) of cotton-wool, and covered with silk (an old silk handkerchief makes capital coverings); wash or chamois leather, and a good sponge. Mode of Operation.—If the wood is soft and porous it is best to commence with a coating of size and whiting applied in a warm state, which is allowed to dry; it is then rubbed down with glass-paper, and two coats of common paint given, mixed in the usual way and of the same colour as you intend to finish with. In practice this is found to be best; after these two coats are thoroughly dry, mix the white-lead ground in turps, with only a sufficient quantity of varnish to bind it, thinning to a proper consistency with turps. It is as well to add a little of the ordinary white-lead ground in oil, as it helps to prevent cracking. Give the work four or five coats of this, and allow each coat to dry thoroughly. When it is hard and ready for rubbing down, commence with a soft piece of pumice-stone and water, and rub just sufficient to take off the roughness. Now use the felt-covered rubbers and ground pumice-stone, and cut it down, working in a circular manner. The greatest care is required to obtain a level surface free from scratches. After the work is well rubbed down, if it should appear to be insufficiently filled up, or if scratched, give it two more coats, laid on very smoothly, and rub down as before. If properly done, it will be perfectly smooth and free from scratches. Wash it well down, and be careful to clean off all the loose pumice-stone. Then mix flake- white from the tube with either of the above-named varnishes, till it is of the consistency of cream. Give one coat of this, and when dry give it another, adding more varnish. Let this dry hard, the time taken for which will of course depend upon the drying qualities of the varnish; some will polish in eight or nine days, but it is much the best to let it stand as long as you possibly can, as the harder it is, the brighter and more enduring will be the polish. When sufficiently hard, use the felt, and very finely-ground pumice-stone and water; with this cut down till it is perfectly smooth; then let it stand for a couple of days, to harden the surface. Polishing.—In commencing to bring up a polish, first take rotten-stone, either in oil or water; use this with the felt rubber for a little while, then put some upon the surface of the silk-covered boss, and commence to rub very gently in circular strokes; continue this till there is a fine equal surface all over. The polish will begin to appear as you proceed, but it will be of a dull sort. Clean off: if the rotten-stone is in oil, clean off with dry flour; if in water, wash off with sponge and leather, taking care that you wash it perfectly clean and do not scratch. You will now, after having washed your hands, use a clean damp chamois leather, holding it in the left hand, and using the right to polish with, keeping it clean by frequently drawing it over the damp leather. With the ball of the right hand press gently upon the work, and draw your hand sharply, forward or towards you; this will produce a bright polish, and every time you bring your hand forward a sharp shrill sound will be heard similar to rubbing on glass. Continue this till the whole surface is one bright even polish. It will be some time before you will be able to do this perfectly, especially if the skin is dry or hard, as it is then liable to scratch the work. A smooth, soft skin will produce the best polish. For the interior of houses, the "Albarine" enamel manufactured by the Yorkshire Varnish Company, of Ripon, is recommended. This article combines in itself a perfectly hard solid enamel of the purest possible colour; and for all interior decorations, where purity of colour and brilliancy of finish are desired, it is universally admitted to be the most perfect article of the kind hitherto introduced to the trade. It is applied in the same manner as ordinary varnish. Another Process.—The preceding section describes the process of enamelling by oil varnishes, and the directions referring to the polishing will be found of value for the "polishing up" on painted imitations of woods or marbles. There is another process whereby an enamel can be produced upon furniture at a much cheaper rate than the preceding, and one too, perhaps, in which a polisher may feel more "at home." The work should first have a coating of size and whiting (well strained); this will act as a pore-filler. When dry, rub down with fine paper, after which use the felt-covered rubber and powdered pumice-stone, to remove all the scratches caused by the glass-paper and to obtain a smooth and good surface. Then proceed to make a solution for the enamel: first procure two ounces of common isinglass from the druggist's, and thoroughly dissolve it in about a pint of boiling water; when dissolved, stir in two ounces and a-half of subnitrate of bismuth—this will be found to be about the right quantity for most woods, but it can be varied to suit the requirements. With this give the work one coat, boiling hot; apply it with a soft piece of Turkey sponge, or a broad camel's-hair brush, and when dry cut down with powdered pumice-stone; if a second coat is required, serve in precisely the same manner. Then proceed to polish in the ordinary way with white polish. After wetting the rubber, sprinkle a small quantity of the subnitrate of bismuth upon it; then put on the cover, and work in the usual manner; continue this till a sufficient body is obtained, and after allowing a sufficient time for the sinking and hardening it can be spirited off. Enamelled furniture has had, comparatively speaking, rather a dull sale, but there is no class of furniture more susceptible of being made to please the fancy of the many than this. It can be made in any tint that may be required by the application of Judson's dyes, and the exercise of a little skill in the decoration will produce very pleasing effects. Decorations.—The decorations are usually ornaments drawn in gold. A cut-out stencil pattern is generally used, and the surface brushed over with a camel's-hair pencil and japanner's gold size, which can be obtained at the artist's colourman's, or, if preferred, can be made by boiling 4 ozs. of linseed-oil with 1 oz. of gum anîme and a little vermilion. When the size is tacky, or nearly dry, gold powder or gold leaf is applied. The gold is gently pressed down with a piece of wadding, and when dry the surplus can be removed with a round camel's- hair tool. In all cases where gold has been fixed by this process it will bear washing without coming off, which is a great advantage. CHAPTER IX.

AMERICAN POLISHING PROCESSES The method of polishing furniture practised by the American manufacturers differs considerably from the French polishing processes adopted by manufacturers in most European countries. This difference, however, is mostly compulsory, and is attributable to the climate. The intense heat of summer and the extreme cold of winter will soon render a French polish useless, and as a consequence numerous experiments have been tried to obtain a polish for furniture that will resist heat or cold. The writer has extracted from two American cabinet- trade journals, The Cabinet-maker and The Trade Bureau, descriptions of the various processes now used in the States, which descriptions were evidently contributed by practical workmen. The following pages are not, strictly speaking, a mere reprint from the above-named journals, the articles having been carefully revised and re-written after having been practically tested; attention to them is, therefore, strongly recommended. In these processes the work is first filled in with a "putty filler," and after the surface has been thoroughly cleaned it is ready for shellac or varnish. Second, a coating of shellac is next applied with a brush or a soft piece of Turkey sponge. This mixture is composed of two parts (by weight) of shellac to one of methylated spirits, but what is called "thin shellac" is composed of one part shellac to two of spirits. After the coating is laid on and allowed to dry, which it does very soon, it is rubbed carefully with fine flour glass-paper, or powdered pumice- stone—about four coats are usually given, each one rubbed down as directed. Third, when the surface has received a sufficient body, get a felt-covered rubber and apply rotten-stone and sweet oil in the same manner as you would clean brass; with this give the work a good rubbing, so as to produce a polish. Fourth, clean off with a rag and sweet oil, and rub dry; then take a soft rag with a few drops of spirit upon it, and vapour up to a fine polish. With these few preliminary remarks, the following will be easily understood. Use Of Fillers.—The cost of a putty filler consists chiefly in the time consumed in applying it. In the matter of walnut-filling much expense is saved in the processes of coating and rubbing if the pores of the wood be filled to the surface with a substance that will not shrink, and will harden quickly. The time occupied in spreading and cleaning a thin or fatty mixture of filler, or a stiff and brittle putty made fresh every day, is about the same, and while the thin mixture will be subject to a great shrinkage, the putty filler will hold its own. It will thus be seen that a proper regard to the materials used in making fillers, and the consistency and freshness of the same, form an important element in the economy of filling. A principal cause of poor filling is the use of thin material. By some a putty-knife is used, and the filling rubbed into the surfaces of mouldings with tow, while others use only the tow for all surfaces, mostly, however, in cases of dry filling. In the use of the wet filler, either with a knife or with tow, workmen are prone to spread it too thin because it requires less effort, but experience shows that the greatest care should always be taken to spread the putty stiff and thick, notwithstanding the complaints of workmen. In fact, this class of work does not bring into play so much muscle as to warrant complaints on account of it. Nor can there be any reasonable excuse for taking a longer time to spread a stiff filler than a thin filler. Good results are not always obtained by the use of thick fillers, because the putty is spread too soon after the application of the first coat of oil, which liquid should be quite thin, and reduced either with benzine or turpentine, so that when the putty is forced into the pores the oil already in them will have the effect of thinning it. As an illustration of the idea meant here to be conveyed, we will suppose a quantity of thick mud or peat dumped into a cavity containing water, and a similar quantity of the same material dumped into another cavity having no water; the one fills the bottom of the cavity solid, while the other becomes partly liquid at the bottom, and must of necessity shrink before it assumes the solidity of the former. Hence it appears that work to be filled should be oiled and allowed to stand some time before receiving the filler, or until the oil has been absorbed into the pores. The preparatory coating should not be mixed so as to dry too quickly, nor allowed to stand too long before introducing the putty, for in this case the putty when forced along by the knife will not slip so easily as it should. The cost of rubbing and sand-papering in the finishing process is very much lessened if the cleaning be thorough, and if all the corners and mouldings be scraped out, so that pieces of putty do not remain to work up into the first coat of shellac, or whatever finish may be used as a substitute for shellac. Another important feature in hard filling is to let the work be well dried before applying the first coat of finish. One day is not sufficient for the proper drying of putty fillers, and if in consequence of insufficient drying a part of the filling washes out, it is so much labour lost. As a safeguard against washing out, these fillers should be mixed with as much dryer or japan as the case warrants, for it frequently occurs that work must be finished, or go into finish, the day following the filling, whether it be dry or not. By observing the main facts here alluded to, good filling may always be obtained, and at a cost not exceeding that of poor work. For the light woods, including ash, chestnut, and oak, the filling is similar to that used in walnut, except the colouring material, which, of course, must be slight, or just enough to prevent the whiting and plaster from showing white in the pores. This colouring may consist of raw sienna, burnt sienna, or a trifle raw, or umber; one of these ingredients separate, or all three combined, mixed so as to please the fancy and suit the prevailing style. The colouring may be used with a dry filling, although a wet filling is more likely to give a smooth finish and greater satisfaction, and the colour of the filler can be seen better in the putty than in the dry powder. Upon cheap work a filler should be used that requires the least amount of labour in its application. For this purpose liquid fillers, like japan, are suitable. If, however, a fine finish on fine goods is required, the putty compositions of various mixtures are the more appropriate. The secret of the process of filling consists in the mixing of the compounds and the method of using them. A liquid filler or a japan simply spread over the work in one or two coats can hardly be called filling, yet this will serve the purpose very well for cheap furniture. Thick compositions or putty fillers are composed of whiting and plaster, or similar powders having little or no colour. This material is mixed with oil, japan, and benzine, with a sufficient quantity of colouring matter to please the fancy. The value of these fillers is in proportion to their brittleness or "shortness," as it is termed, and, to give them this quality, plaster is used and as much benzine or turpentine as the mixture will bear without being too stiff or too hard to clean off. Sometimes a little dissolved shellac is used to produce "shortness." This desirable feature of a filler is best effected by mixing a small quantity of the material at a time. Many workmen mistakenly mix large batches at a time with a view of securing uniformity of colour, and this is one cause why such fillers work tough and produce a poor surface. An oil mixture soon becomes fatty and tough, and must be reduced in consistency when used, as it is apt when old to "drag" and leave the pores only partly filled. These fillers should be mixed fresh every day, and allowed to stiffen and solidify in the wood rather than out of it. The surface of a pore is the largest part of it, and it is desirable to fill it to a level as nearly as possible. This is done by using the filler thick or stiff. Making Fillers.—In making "fillers," a quantity of the japan which is used in the ingredients can be made at one time, and used from as occasion may require. It is made in the following manner: Japan of the Best Quality.—Put ¾ lb. gum shellac into 1 gall. linseed-oil; take ½ lb. each of litharge, burnt umber, and red-lead, also 6 oz. sugar of lead. Boil in the mixture of shellac and oil until all are dissolved; this will require about four hours. Remove from the fire, and stir in 1 gall. of spirits of turpentine, and the work is finished. Fillings for Light Woods.—Take 5 lb. of whiting, 3 lb. calcined plaster (plaster of Paris), ½ gall. of raw linseed- oil, 1 qt. of spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. of brown japan, and a little French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well, and apply with a brush; rub it well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. This thoroughly fills the pores of the wood and preserves its natural colour. Another for Light Woods.—Take 10 lb. of whiting, 5 lb. of calcined plaster, 1 lb. of corn starch, 3 oz. calcined magnesia, 1 gall. of raw linseed-oil, ½ gall. spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. of brown japan, 2 oz. French yellow. Mix well, and apply with brush; rub in well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. For Mahogany or Cherry Wood.—Take 5 lb. of whiting, 2 lb. of calcined plaster, 1½ oz. dry burnt sienna, 1 oz. Venetian red, 1 qt. of boiled linseed-oil, 1 pt. of spirits of turpentine, and 1 pt. of brown japan. Mix well, apply with brush, and rub well in with excelsior or tow. Clean off with rags dry. For Oak Wood.—Take 5 lb. of whiting, 2 lb. calcined plaster, 1 oz. dry burnt sienna, ½ oz. of dry French yellow, 1 qt. raw linseed-oil, 1 pt. benzine spirits, and ½ pt. white shellac. Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. For Rosewood.—Take 6 lb. of fine whiting, 2 lb. of calcined plaster, 1 lb. of rose-pink, 2 oz. of Venetian red, ½ lb. of Vandyke brown, ½ lb. of Brandon red, 1 gall. of boiled linseed-oil, ½ gall. of spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. of black japan. Mix well together, apply with brush, rub well in with tow, and clean off with rags. For Black Walnut (1).—For medium and cheap work. Take 10 lb. of whiting, 3 lb. dry burnt umber, 4 lb. of Vandyke brown, 3 lb. of calcined plaster, ½ lb. of Venetian red, 1 gall. of boiled linseed-oil, ½ gall. of spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. of black japan. Mix well and apply with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. For Black Walnut (2).—An improved filling, producing a fine imitation of wax finish, may be effected by taking 5 lb. of whiting, with 1 lb. of calcined plaster, 6 oz. of calcined magnesia, 1 oz. of dry burnt umber, 1 oz. of French yellow to tinge the white. Add 1 qt. of raw linseed-oil, 1 qt. of benzine spirits, ½ pt. of very thin white shellac. Mix well, and apply with a brush; rub well in, and clean off with rags. An Oil-Colour for Black Walnut (3), to be used only on first-class and custom work.—Take 3 lb. of burnt umber ground in oil, 1 lb. of burnt sienna ground in oil, 1 qt. of spirits of turpentine, 1 pt. of brown japan. Mix well and apply with a brush. Sand-paper well; clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful chocolate colour to the wood. Numerous compositions are in the market for filling the pores of wood, and in this connection particular attention has been given to walnut, for the reason that this wood is used in large quantities in the furniture industry, and is nearly, if not quite, as porous as any other of the woods used. A variety of walnut fillings have been recommended to the trade in order to meet the demand consequent upon the different grades of finish and the method of obtaining the finish, so that it would be difficult to pronounce as to the superiority of any one filling for general purposes. In treating this subject, attention should be given to the necessities for the use of filling, so that each one may determine for himself the kind of composition best adapted for the work in hand, and the best method of applying it. Finishing.—Having described the methods of making and applying the "fillings," we will now describe the mode of finishing, and begin with the "dead-oil finish." We can remember when a satisfactory oil-finish was produced either with a good quality of japan or a fair quality of spirits. These materials are recommended to be used by inexperienced workmen and those not familiar with the mixing of the various grades of japan and varnish with oil, turpentine, benzine, etc. This method of oil-finish, too, is scarcely inferior to the shellac or spirit-varnish method, and it is cheaper. When the best finish is desired, a sufficient number of coats to fill the pores of wood to a level are required, and then the whole surface should be subjected to the rubbing process. The use of these fillers provides an oil-finish in a simplified form for those who are not aware of the difference between hard and soft gum compositions as a base for rubbing. In fact, the rubbing process constitutes a fine oil-finish, and requires a hard gum, whether it be of japan, varnish, or shellac. The use of varnish or its substitute as a filler and finish is more frequent than the use of shellac, and for cheap work it is equally good. The surface produced by a hard gum composition must be smooth and dead, or but slightly glossed, so as to admit of the pores being filled full or to a level. It may be added that a coat or any number of coats of the composition referred to above is substantially a filling, and the quality of finish depends upon the number of coats, together with the amount of rubbing applied. Thus far we have simply called attention to the best quality of oil-finish and the manner of producing it. Possibly three-fourths of all wood-finishing, particularly walnut-finishing, is several degrees below the best quality. In fact, oil-finish may imply only one coat of any composition that will dry, while two coats may be regarded as fair, and three coats a very good quality of finish. For the class of finish not rubbed down with pumice-stone and water, oil-varnish would be out of place on account of its gloss; hence shellac, being in composition similar to japan, is the better material, because of its dull appearance or lack of gloss as compared with shellac. In addition to the liquid fillers already mentioned, there is a putty or powder filling used for cross-grained woods, or such woods as have a deep pore. This filling is forced into the wood previous to the application of the other finishing compounds, with the use of which it in no way interferes. On the contrary, it economises the use of the liquid fillers, and, while constituting a part of an oil-finish, is also a finish wholly independent of the other methods mentioned—that is to say, the same results can be obtained by the use of either one, although the putty or powder filling is attended with greater expense both as to time and material. The hard filling is generally used on walnut, ash, and all coarse-grained woods. With regard to oil-finishes, viz., spirit-varnish or oil-varnish, shellac is thought by many to be the best for fine work; but others think differently. We may say of shellac that it will finish up into any degree of polish, and while it will not retain a French polish long in this climate, it will replenish easier and cheaper than any other finish, and continue to improve under each application. For a common finish, however, oil preparation is as good as shellac, and even for a fine finish it is only second to shellac, if made of a hard gum. On common finish, too, the oil will wear better than shellac in stock or on storage, so far as preserving its freshness is concerned. The cost of oil-finish is governed chiefly by the amount of labour expended on it. A suite of walnut furniture can be well rubbed with sand-paper in two hours, or even less; while two weeks could be profitably employed in rubbing another suite with pumice and water. Black Walnut Finishing.—The fashionable finish for black walnut work, particularly chamber sets, is what is known to the trade as the "dead-oil finish." It is admired, perhaps, because it has a gloss, rather than a shine of the varnish stamp. There is no more labour required upon it than upon a bright finish, but the process of manipulation is different, and harder to the fingers. It should be premised that the walnut work of the day bears upon its surface, to a greater or less extent, raised panels covered with French burl veneer. And upon this fact largely depends the beauty of the production. And the endeavour is to so finish the article that there shall be a contrast between the panel and the groundwork on which it is placed. In other words, the former should be of a light colour, while the latter is of a darker shade. In that view the palest shellac should be used on the panels, and darker pieces, liver coloured, etc., on the body of the work. The darker grades of shellac are the cheaper, and will answer for the bulk of the work, but the clearest only for the panels. In commencing to finish a job direct from the cabinet-maker's hand, rough and innocent of sand-paper, first cover the panels with a coat of shellac to prevent the oil in the filling from colouring them dark. Next, cover the body of the work with a wood filling composed of whiting and plaster of Paris, mixed with japan, benzine, and raw linseed-oil, or the lubricating oil made from petroleum; the whole covered with umber, to which, in the rare cases when a reddish shade is wanted, Venetian red is also added. This filling is then rubbed off with cloths, and by this process tends to close up the grain of the wood and produce an even surface. More or less time should be allowed after each of the several steps in the finishing process for the work to dry and harden, though much less is required in working with shellac than with varnishes composed of turpentine, oil, and gums. But the time that should be allowed is often lessened by the desire to get the work through as soon as possible, so that no standard can be set up as to the number of hours required between each of the several processes. It would be well if twelve hours intervened, but if work to which ten days could well be devoted must be hurried through in three, obviously the processes must follow each other in a corresponding haste. A coating of shellac is then given the whole work, light on the panels and dark on the body work, and when it has dried and hardened, which it does very soon, it may be rubbed down. This process of "rubbing down" should be done evenly and carefully, so as not to rub through the shellac at any point, and be done with the finer grades of sand-paper for the cheaper class of work, particularly at first, but at a later period of the process, and for the better class of articles in all cases, hair-cloth should be used, the material for the "rubbing down" being pumice-stone moistened with raw linseed-oil for the best work, and the lubricating oil, before mentioned, for cheaper work, or the covered parts of the better grades. This rubbing down involves labour, wear of fingers and finger-nails, and is carried on with an ordinary bit of hair-cloth, the smooth surface next the wood, and not made in any particular shape, but as a wad, ball, or otherwise. In the corners and crevices where the hair-cloth will not enter it will be necessary to use sand-paper of the finest grades, and worn pieces only. Three coats of shellac are put on, followed each time by this rubbing-down process, each one giving the work a smoother feeling and a more perfect appearance. Afterwards, to complete the whole, a coating of japan thinned with benzine is applied, which gives to the work a clean appearance and the dead glossy finish. There is this objection to the above style of finish, that the japan catches all the dust which touches it, and holds it permanently, so that many of the best workmen will not have work finished in this way for their own private houses, preferring the brighter look given by shellac and varnish without rubbing down the last coat, believing that the work can be kept much cleaner. Finishing Veneered Panels, etc.—The large oval panels of desks, etc., covered with French veneer, are generally taken out and finished by themselves. The process is similar to that above given, with successive coats of shellac and varnish, and the oil and pumice-stone rubbing down; but the final part of this latter process is a rubbing down with rotten-stone; then the merest trifle of sweet-oil is applied all over the surface and wiped off. (See Rosewood, etc., farther on.) For Light Woods (Dead Finish).—Apply two or three coats of white shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil, and clean off well with rags; use varnish-polish on the panels. Another.—Finish as in the previous recipe. For a flowing coat of varnish-finish apply one flowing coat of light amber varnish. If a varnish-polish is desired, apply three coats of Zanzibar polishing varnish. Rub down and polish, and the result will be a splendid finish. Mahogany or Cherry Wood.—For shellac dead finish apply two coats of yellow shellac. Rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil. If a varnish-finish is desired, apply a flowing coat of light amber varnish or shellac thus rubbed. The panels should receive two coats of Zanzibar polishing varnish. Oak.—For a dead finish give three coats of shellac, two-thirds of white and one-third of yellow, mixed. Rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil. For a cheap varnish-finish give one flowing coat of light amber varnish in the shellac, rubbed as directed. Varnish-polish the panels. Rosewood, Coromandel, or Kingwood (a Bright Finish).—Apply two thin coats of shellac, sand-papering each coat; then apply three or four coats of Zanzibar polishing varnish, laying it on thin, and giving it sufficient time to dry thoroughly. When it is perfectly hard, rub down with pumice and water. Polish with rotten-stone to a fine lustre, clean up with sweet-oil, and vapour up the oil with a damp alcohol rag. The result is a splendid mirror- like polish. This is the method employed in polishing pianofortes in America. Walnut.—For a cheap finish, apply one coat of yellow shellac. When dry, sand-paper down. Apply with brush; rub in well; clean off with rags. This gives a very fair finish. For a medium dead finish apply two or three coats of yellow shellac. When dry, rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil; clean up well; varnish-polish the panels. For finish. Before using the above filling, give the work one coat of white shellac. When dry, sand-paper down, and apply the above filling. Give two coats of white shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseed-oil; clean up well with brown japan and spirits of turpentine, mixed. Wipe off. This is a good imitation of wax-finish; it is waterproof, and will not spot as wax-finish does. The panels are to be varnished-polished. This is to be used with the improved filling No. 2. For finish. Apply three coats of yellow shellac; rub down with pumice and raw linseedoil; clean off well. Varnish-polish the panels. Use this with the oil colour No. 3. Finishing Cheap Work.—With One Coat of Varnish.—Give the work a coat of boiled linseed-oil; immediately sprinkle dry whiting upon it, and rub it well in with tow all over the surface. The whiting absorbs the oil and completely fills the pores of the wood. For black walnut add a little dry burnt umber. For mahogany or cherry add a little Venetian red, according to the colour of the wood. The application can be made to turned work while in motion in the lathe. Clean off well with rags. The work can then be finished with a single coat of varnish, and for cheap work makes a very good finish. For varnishing large surfaces, a two-inch oval varnish brush is to be used first to lay out the varnish, and then a two-inch flat badger flowing-brush for a softener. The latter lays down moats and bubbles left by the large brush. A perfectly smooth glass-like surface is thus obtained. When not in use, these tools should be put into a pot containing raw linseed-oil and spirits of turpentine. This keeps them in a better working condition than if they are kept in varnish, making them clean and soft. Standing in varnish they congeal and become hard as the spirit evaporates from the varnish. For shellacing a large surface use a two-inch bristle brush; for small work, such as carvings and mouldings, use a one-and-a-half inch flat brush. These brushes when not in use should be taken from the various pots and deposited in an earthen pot sufficiently large to hold all the shellac brushes used in the shop. Put in enough of raw linseed-oil and thin shellac to cover the bristles of the brushes. Kept in this manner, they will remain clean and elastic, and will wear much longer. Wax Finishing.—Take ½ gall. of turpentine, 1½ lb. yellow beeswax, 1 lb. white beeswax, ½ lb. white rosin. Pulverise the rosin, and shave the wax into fine shavings. Put the whole into the turpentine, and dissolve it cold. If dissolved by a fire-heat, the vitality of the wax is destroyed. When it is thoroughly dissolved, mix well and apply with a stiff brush. Rub well in, and clean off with rags. When dry, it is ready for shellac or varnish as may be desired. A Varnish Polish.—Take 10 oz. gum shellac, 1 oz. gum sandarach, 1 drachm Venice turpentine, 1 gall. alcohol. Put the mixture into a jug for a day or two, shaking occasionally. When dissolved it is ready for use. Apply a few coats. Polish by rubbing smooth. For the commonest kind of work in black walnut a very cheap polish can be made in the following manner: Take 1 gall. of turpentine, 2 lb. pulverised asphaltum, 1 qt. boiled linseed-oil, 2 oz. Venetian red. Put the mixture in a warm place and shake occasionally. When it is dissolved, strain and apply to the wood with a stiff brush. Rub well with cloth when dry. Then take 1 pt. of thin shellac, ½ pt. boiled linseed-oil. Shake it well before using. Apply with cloth, rubbing briskly, and you will have a fine polish. With Copal or Zanzibar Varnish.—As a substitute for filling, the wood may receive one coat of native coal-oil, thinned with benzine-spirits; then apply one coat of shellac, and follow with varnish, as desired. The time is not far distant when manufacturers must and will use varnish for the finishing of all kinds of furniture on account of the high price of shellac. Furniture finished in the last-named method may be rubbed with either water or oil. Water has a tendency to harden varnish, while oil softens it. If water is used there will be a saving of oil and rags. In the other case shellac, when rubbed with oil, should be cleaned with japan. This removes the greasy and cloudy appearance which is left after the rubbing with oil, and the work will have a clean, dry, and brighter appearance than otherwise. We suggest another idea for finishing black walnut for a cheap or a medium class of work. In the first place, fill the pores of the wood, and apply one thin coat of shellac to hold the filling in the pores of the wood. Let this stand one day; sand-paper down with fine paper, then with a brush apply a coat of coach japan. Rub well, and clean off with rags. Let this stand one day to dry, then, with some sand-paper that has been used before, take off the moats from the japan. Go over the whole surface with a soft rag saturated with japan; wipe and clean off carefully, and the job is finished. This, though a cheap finish, is a good one for this class of work. We give one more method of finishing black walnut, that is, with boiled linseed-oil only, and there is no other way of obtaining a genuine oil-finish. Sand-paper the wood down smoothly; apply a coat of boiled linseed-oil over the whole surface; sand-paper well, and clean up dry with rags; let it stand one day to dry, then apply one more coat of oil; rub well in with rags, but do not use sand-paper on this coat. Apply three, four, or more coats in the same way. When the work has received the last coat of oil and is dry, sand-paper down with old paper. Then clean up with the best coach japan with rags, and let the work stand one day to dry. The panels are to be varnish-polished the same as other wood. The work is then finished, and ready for the warerooms. This method takes a longer time than finishing with either varnish or shellac; but the cost is less both for materials and for labour, the workman being able to go over a greater surface in the same time. The work will stand longer, and the method gives a rich and close finish, bringing out the figure and rich colour of the wood better than in any other method of finishing. It does not cost so much as shellac finish; it only requires a little more time for drying between the coats of oil. In finishing in varnish or shellac, to get the body or surface for polishing three or four coats are frequently applied, which is liable to produce a dull cloudy appearance. For this reason, and having in view the high and increasing price of stock, it seems to us that this really superior method of finishing in oil must take the place of shellac and varnish-finish in good work. Polishing Varnish.—This is certainly a tedious process, and considered by many a matter of difficulty. The following is the mode of procedure: Put two ounces of powdered tripoli into an earthen pot or basin, with water sufficient to cover it; then, with a piece of fine flannel four times doubled, laid over a piece of cork rubber, proceed to polish your varnish, always wetting it well with the tripoli and water. You will know when the process is complete by wiping a part of the work with a sponge and observing whether there is a fair and even gloss. Clean off with a bit of mutton suet and fine flour. Be careful not to rub the work too hard, or longer than is necessary to make the face perfectly smooth and even. Some workmen polish with rotten-stone, others with putty-powder, and others with common whiting and water; but tripoli, we think, will be found to answer best. An American Polish Reviver.—Take of olive-oil 1 lb., of rectified oil of amber 1 lb., spirits of turpentine 1 lb., oil of lavender 1 oz., tincture of alkanet-root ½ oz. Saturate a piece of cotton batting with this polish, and apply it to the wood; then, with soft and dry cotton rags, rub well and wipe off dry. This will make old furniture in private dwellings, or that which has been shop-worn in warerooms, look as well as when first finished. The articles should be put into a jar or jug, well mixed, and afterwards kept tightly corked. This is a valuable recipe, and is not known, the writer believes, outside of his practice. CHAPTER X.

MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES. Oil Polish.—One quart of cold-drawn linseed-oil to be simmered (not boiled) for ten minutes, and strained through flannel; then add one-eighth part of spirits of turpentine: to be applied daily with soft linen rags, and rubbed off lightly; each time the oil is applied the surface should be previously washed with cold water, so as to remove any dirt or dust. This method of polishing is particularly useful for dining-table tops; it will in about six weeks produce a polish so durable as to resist boiling water or hot dishes, and be like a mirror for brilliancy. Wax Polish.—Eight ounces of beeswax, 2 oz. of resin, and ½ oz. of Venetian turpentine, to be melted over a slow fire; the mass, when quite melted, is poured into a sufficiently large stone-ware pot, and while it is still warm 6 oz. of rectified turpentine are stirred in. After the lapse of twenty-four hours the mass will have assumed the consistency of soft butter, and is ready for use. A small portion of the polish is taken up with a woollen rag and rubbed over the surface of the work—at first gently, then more strongly. When the polish is uniformly laid on, the surface is once more rubbed lightly and quickly with a fresh clean rag to produce a gloss. Waterproof French Polish.—Take 2 oz. gum benjamin, ½ oz. gum sandarach, ½ oz. gum anîme, 1½ oz. gum benzoin, and 1 pt. alcohol. Mix in a closely-stoppered bottle, and put in a warm place till the gums are well dissolved. Then strain off, and add ¼ gill of poppy-oil. Shake well together, and it is ready for use. A Varnish for Musical Instruments.—Take one gallon of alcohol, 1 lb. gum sandarach, ½ lb. gum mastic, 2 lbs. best white resin, 3 lbs. gum benzoin; cut the gums cold. When they are thoroughly dissolved, strain the mixture through fine muslin, and bottle for use; keep the bottle tightly corked. This is a beautiful varnish for violins and other musical instruments of wood, and for fancy articles, such as those of inlaid work. It is also well adapted for panel-work, and all kinds of cabinet furniture. There is required only one flowing coat, and it produces a very fine mirror-like surface. Apply this varnish with a flat camel's-hair or sable brush. In an hour after application the surface is perfectly dry. French Varnish for Cabinet-work.—Take of shellac 1½ oz. gum mastic and gum sandarach, of each ½ oz., spirit of wine by weight 20 oz. The gums to be first dissolved in the spirit, and lastly the shellac. This may be best effected by means of the water-bath. Place a loosely-corked bottle containing the mixture in a vessel of warm water of a temperature below the boiling point, and let it remain until the gums are dissolved. Should evaporation take place, an equal quantity to the spirit of wine so lost must be replaced till the mixture settles, then pour off the clear liquid for use, leaving the impurities behind; but do not filter it. Greater hardness may be given to the varnish by increasing the quantity of shellac, which may be done to the amount of one-twelfth of the lac to eleven-twelfths of spirit. But in this latter proportion the varnish loses its transparency in some degree, and must be laid on in very small quantities at a time. Mastic Varnish.—Mastic should be dissolved in oil of turpentine, in close glass vessels, by means of a gentle heat. This varnish is extensively used in transparencies, etc. Cabinet-maker's Varnish.—Take 5 lbs. very pale gum shellac, 7 oz. gum mastic, 1 gallon alcohol. Dissolve in a cold atmosphere with frequent stirring. Amber Varnish.—This is a most difficult varnish to make. It is usually prepared by roasting the amber and adding hot linseed-oil, after which turpentine can be mixed if required. But for a small quantity, dissolve the broken amber, without heat, in the smallest possible quantity of chloroform or pure benzine. Heat the linseed- oil, remove it from the fire, and pour in the amber solution, stirring all the time. Then add the turpentine. If not quite clear, heat again, using the utmost caution. Colourless Varnish with Copal.—To prepare this varnish the copal must be picked; each piece is broken, and a drop of rosemary-oil poured on it. Those pieces which, on contact with the oil, become soft are the ones used. The pieces being selected, they are ground and passed through a sieve, being reduced to a fine powder. It is then placed in a glass, and a corresponding volume of rosemary-oil poured over it; the mixture is then stirred for a few minutes until it is transformed into a thick liquor. It is then left to rest for two hours, when a few drops of rectified alcohol are added, and intimately mixed. Repeat the operation until the varnish is of a sufficient consistency; leave the rest for a few days, and decant the clear. This varnish can be applied to wood and metals (Journal of Applied Chemistry). Seedlac Varnish.—Wash 3 oz. of seedlac in several waters; dry it and powder it coarsely. Dissolve it in one pint of rectified spirits of wine; submit it to gentle heat, shaking it as often as convenient, until it appears dissolved. Pour off the clear part, and strain the remainder. Patent Varnish for Wood or Canvas.—Take 1 gallon spirits of turpentine, 2¼ lbs. asphaltum. Put them into an iron kettle on a stove, and dissolve the gum by heat. When it is dissolved and a little cool, add 1 pint copal varnish and 1 pint boiled linseed-oil. When entirely cool it is ready for use. For a perfect black add a little lamp- black. Copal Varnish.—Dissolve the copal, broken in pieces, in linseed-oil, by digestion, the heat being almost sufficient to boil the oil. The oil should be made drying by the addition of quick-lime. This makes a beautiful transparent varnish. It should be diluted with oil of turpentine; a very small quantity of copal, in proportion to the oil, will be found sufficient. Carriage Varnish.—Take 19 oz. gum sandarach, 9½ oz. orange shellac, 12½ oz. white resin, 18 oz. turpentine, 5 pints alcohol. Dissolve and strain. Use for the internal parts of carriages and similar purposes. This varnish dries in ten minutes. Transparent Varnish.—Take 1 gallon alcohol, 2 lbs. gum sandarach, ½ 1b. gum mastic. Place them in a tin can. Cork tight and shake frequently, placing the can in a warm place. When dissolved it is ready for use. Crystal Varnish for Maps, etc.—Mix together 1 oz. Canada balsam and 2 oz. spirits of turpentine. Before applying this varnish to a drawing or a painting in water-colours the paper should be placed on a stretcher, sized with a thin solution of isinglass in water, and dried. Apply the varnish with a soft camel's-hair brush. A Black Varnish.—Mix a small quantity of gas-black with the brown hard varnish previously mentioned. The black can be obtained by boiling a pot over a gas-burner, so that it almost touches the burner, when a fine jet- black will form at the bottom, which remove and mix with the varnish, and apply with a brush. A Black Polish can be made in the same way: after wetting the rubber, just touch it with the black. Place the linen cover over, touch it with oil, and it is ready for work. Varnish for Iron.—Take 2 lbs. pulverised gum asphaltum, ¼ lb. gum benzoin, 1 gallon spirits of turpentine. To make this varnish quickly, keep in a warm place, and shake often till it is dissolved. Shade to suit with finely- ground ivory-black. Apply with a brush. This varnish should be used on iron-work exposed to the weather. It is also well adapted for inside work, such as iron furniture, where a handsome polish is desired. Varnish for Tools.—Take 2 oz. tallow, 1 oz. resin; melt together, and strain while hot to remove the specks which are in the resin. Apply a slight coat on the tools with a brush, and it will keep off the rust for any length of time.

To Make Labels Adhere to a Polished Surface.—Brush the back of a label over with thin varnish or polish, and press down with a soft rag; this must be done quickly, as the polish soon becomes dry. This is the way labels are put on pianofortes, and also the paper imitation of fancy woods on polished pine-work. How to Remove French Polish or Varnish from Old Work.—Cleaning off old work for re-polishing or varnishing is usually found difficult, and to occupy much time if only the scraper and glass-paper be used. It can be easily accomplished in a very short time by washing the surface with liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the polish will peel off like a skin, and leave the wood quite bare. In carvings or turned work, after applying the ammonia, use a hard brush to remove the varnish. Unadulterated spirits of wine used in a tepid state will answer the same purpose. Colouring for Carcase Work.—In the best class of cabinet-work all the inside work—such as carcase backs, shelves, etc.—is made of good materials, such as wainscot, soft mahogany, Havannah cedar, or American walnut; but for second-class work, pine or white deal is used instead, and coloured. The colouring matter used should match with the exterior wood. For mahogany take ½ lb. of ground yellow ochre to a quart of water, and add about a tablespoonful of Venetian red—a very small quantity of red in proportion to the yellow is sufficient for mahogany—and a piece of glue about the size of a walnut; the whole to be well stirred and boiled. Brush over while hot, and immediately rub off with soft shavings or a sponge. For the antique hues of old wainscot mix equal parts of burnt umber and brown ochre. For new oak, bird's-eye maple, birch, satin-wood, or any similar light yellowish woods, whiting or white-lead, tinted with orange chrome, or by yellow ochre and a little size. For walnut, brown umber, glue size, and water; or by burnt umber very moderately modified with yellow ochre. For rosewood, Venetian red tinted with lamp-black. For ebony, ivory-black; but for the common ebonised work lamp-black is generally used. When the colouring is dry, it should be rubbed down with a piece of worn fine glass-paper, and polished with beeswax rubbed on a very hard brush—a worn-out scrubbing-brush is as good as anything—or it can be well rubbed with Dutch rush. In polishing always rub the way of the grain. The cheap work seldom gets more than a coat of colour rubbed off with shavings. Cheap but Valuable Stain for the Sap of Black Walnut.—Take 1 gallon of strong vinegar, 1 lb. dry burnt umber, ½ lb. fine rose-pink, ½ lb. dry burnt Vandyke brown. Put them into a jug and mix them well; let the mixture stand one day, and it will then be ready for use. Apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge; it will dry in half an hour. The whole piece is then ready for the filling process. When completed, the stained part cannot be detected even by those who have performed the work. This recipe is of value, as by it wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used with good effect. Polish for Removing Stains, etc., from Furniture (American).—Take ½ pint alcohol, ¼ oz. pulverised resin, ¼ oz. gum shellac, ½ pint boiled linseed-oil. Shake the mixture well, and apply it with a sponge, brush, or cotton flannel, rubbing well after the application. Walnut Stain to be used on Pine and White-wood.—Take 1 gallon of very thin sized shellac; add 1 lb. of dry burnt umber, 1 lb. of dry burnt sienna, and ¼ lb. of lamp-black. Put these articles into a jug, and shake frequently until they are mixed. Apply one coat with a brush. When the work is dry, sand-paper down with fine paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap varnish. It will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and will be adapted for the back-boards of mirror-frames, for the backside and inside of case-work, and for similar work. Rosewood Stain.—Take 1 lb. of logwood chips, ½ lb. of red-sanders, ½ gallon of water. Boil over a fire until the full strength is obtained. Apply the mixture, while hot, to the wood with a brush. Use one or two coats to obtain a strong red colour. Then take 1 gallon of spirits of turpentine and 2 lb. of asphaltum. Dissolve in an iron kettle on a stove, stirring constantly. Apply with a brush over the red stain, to imitate rosewood. To make a perfect black, add a little lamp-black. The addition of a small quantity of varnish with the turpentine will improve it. This stain applied to birchwood gives as good an imitation of rosewood as on black walnut, the shade on the birch being a little brighter. Rosewood Stain for Cane Work, etc.—Take 1 gallon alcohol, 1 lb. red-sanders, 1 lb. dragon's blood, 1 lb. extract logwood, ½ lb. gum shellac. Put the mixture into a jug, and steep well till it obtains its full strength. Then strain, and it will be ready for use. Apply with brush, giving one, two, or more coats, according to the depth of colour desired. Then give one or more coats of varnish. This stain is suitable for use on cane, willow, or reed work, and produces a good imitation of rosewood. French Polish Reviver.—This recipe will be found a valuable one. If the work is sweated and dirty, make it tolerably wet, and let it stand a few minutes; then rub off and polish with a soft rag. It is important that the ingredients should be mixed in a bottle in the order as given: Vinegar, 1 gill; methylated spirit, 1 gill; linseed- oil, ½ pint; butter of antimony (poison), 1 oz. Raw linseed-oil, moderately thinned with turpentine or spirits of wine, will also make a good reviver. Old furniture, or furniture that has been warehoused for a long time, should be washed with soda and warm water previous to applying the reviver. Morocco Leather Reviver.—The coverings of chairs or sofas in morocco, roan, or skiver can be much improved by this reviver. If old and greasy, wash with sour milk first. The reviver should be applied with a piece of wadding, and wiped one way only, as in glazing. The colour can be matched by adding red-sanders. Methylated spirit, ½ pint; gum benzoin, 2 oz.; shellac, ½ oz. Mix, and shake up occasionally until dissolved. Hair-cloth Reviver.—Mix equal parts of marrow-oil (neats-foot), ox-gall. and ivory-black, to be well rubbed with a cloth. This composition forms a valuable renovator for old hair-cloth. To Remove Grease Stains from Silks, Damasks, Cloth, etc.—Pour over the stain a small quantity of benzoline spirit, and it will soon disappear without leaving the least mark behind. The most delicate colours can be so treated without fear of injury. For paint stains chloroform is very efficacious. To Remove Ink Stains from White Marble.—Make a little chloride of lime into a paste with water, and rub it into the stains, and let it remain a few hours; then wash off with soap and water. CHAPTER XI.

MATERIALS USED. Alkanet-root (botanical name, Anchusa tinctoria).—This plant is a native of the Levant, but it is much cultivated in the south of France and in Germany. The root is the only part used by French polishers to obtain a rich quiet red; the colouring is chiefly contained in the bark or outer covering, and is easily obtained by soaking the root in spirits or linseed-oil. The plant itself is a small herbaceous perennial, and grows to about a foot in height, with lance-shaped leaves and purple flowers, and with a long woody root with a deep red bark. Madder-root (Rubia tinctoria).—This plant is indigenous to the Levant; but it is much cultivated in Southern Europe, and also in India. Its uses are for dyeing and staining; it can be procured in a powdered state, and imparts its red colour when soaked in water or spirits. This is a creeping plant with a slender stem; almost quadrangular, the leaves grow four in a bunch; flowers small, fruit yellow, berry double, one being abortive. The roots are dug up when the plant has attained the age of two or three years; they are of a long cylindrical shape, about the thickness of a quill, and of a red-brownish colour, and when powdered are a bright Turkish- red. Extracts of madder are mostly obtained by treating the root with boiling water, collecting the precipitates which separate on cooling, mixing them with gum or starch, and adding acetate of alumina or iron. This is in fact a mixture of colouring matter and a mordant. Red-sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus).—The tree from which this wood is obtained is a lofty one, and is to be found in many parts of India, especially about Madras. It yields a dye of a bright garnet-red colour, and is used by French polishers for dyeing polishes, varnishes, revivers, etc. Logwood (Hæmatoxylon campeachianum).—This is a moderate-sized tree with a very contorted trunk and branches, which are beset with sharp thorns, and blooms with a yellow flower. It is a native of Central America and the West Indies. This valuable dye-wood is imported in logs; the heart-wood is the most valuable, which is cut up into chips or ground to powder for the use of dyers by large powerful mills constructed especially for the purpose. Logwood, when boiled in water, easily imparts its red colour. If a few drops of acetic acid (vinegar) is added, a bright red is produced; and when a little alum is added for a mordant, it forms red ink. If an alkali, such as soda or potash, is used instead of an acid, the colour changes to a dark blue or purple, and with a little management every shade of these colours can be obtained. Logwood put into polish or varnish also imparts its red colour. Fustic (Maclura tinctoria).—This tree is a native of the West Indies, and imparts a yellow dye. Great quantities are used for dyeing linens, etc. The fustic is a large and handsome evergreen, and is imported in long sticks. Turmeric (Curcuma longa).—Turmeric is a stemless plant, with palmated tuberous roots and smooth lance- shaped leaves. It is imported from the East Indies and China. The root is the part which affords the yellow powder for dyeing. It is also a condiment, and is largely used in Indian curry-powder. Paper stained with turmeric is used by chemists as a test for alkalies, and it is also used in making Dutch, pink, and gold-coloured varnishes. Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria).—Indigo is a shrub which grows from two to three feet in height, and is cut down just as it begins to flower. It is cultivated in almost all the countries situated in the tropics. The dye substance is prepared from the stems and leaves, and is largely used in calico-printing. Persian Berries (Rhamnus infectorius).—These berries are the produce of a shrub of a species of buckthorn common in Persia, whence they derive their name; but large quantities are also imported into England from Turkey and the south of France. The berries are gathered in an unripe state, and furnish a yellow dye. Nut-galls.—These are found upon the young twigs of the Turkish dwarf oak (Quercus infectoria), and are produced by the puncture of an insect called Cynips. The supply is principally from Turkey and Aleppo. Nut- galls contain a large quantity of tannin and gallic acid, and are extensively used in dyeing. Catechu.—This is obtained from the East Indies, and is the extract of the Acacia catechu, a thorny tree. The wood is cut up into chips similar to logwood, and after boiling and evaporation the liquor assumes the consistency of tar; but when cold it hardens, and is formed into small squares. It is extensively used by tanners in place of oak bark. Thus.—Thus is the resin which exudes from the spruce-fir, and is used by some polishers in the making of polishes and varnishes. Sandarach is the produce of the Thuya articulata of Barbary. It occurs in small pale yellow scales, slightly acid, and is soluble in alcohol; it is used in both polishes and varnishes. Mastic exudes from the mastic-tree (Pistacia lentiscus), and is principally obtained from Chios, in the Grecian Archipelago. It runs freely when an incision is made in the body of the tree, but not otherwise. It occurs in the form of nearly colourless and transparent tears of a faint smell, and is soluble in alcohol as well as oil of turpentine, forming a rapidly-drying but alterable varnish, which becomes brittle and dark-coloured by age. Benzoin.—This is the produce of the American tree Laurus benzoin, and also of the Styrax benzoin of Sumatra, which is called "gum benjamin"; it is used in polishes and varnishes, and as a cosmetic, and is also burnt as incense in Catholic churches. Copal is one of the most valuable of gums, and is furnished by many countries in the districts of Africa explored by Mr. H. M. Stanley, the discoverer of Livingstone. Copal is found in a fossil state in very large quantities. The natives collect the gum by searching in the sandy soil, mostly in the hilly districts, the country being almost barren, with no large tree except the Adansonia, and occasionally a few thorny bushes. The gum is dug out of the earth by the copal gatherers at various depths, from two or three to ten or more feet, in a manner resembling gold-digging; and great excitement appears when a good amount is discovered. The gum is found in various shapes and sizes, resembling a hen's egg, a flat cake, a child's head, etc. There are three kinds, yellow, red, and whitish; and the first furnishes the best varnish and fetches the highest price from the dealers. Many of the natives assert that the copal still grows on different trees, and that it acquires its excellent qualities as a resin by dropping off and sinking several feet into the soil, whereby it is cleansed, and obtains, after a lapse of many years, its hardness, inflammability, and transparency. Dragon's Blood is the juice of certain tropical plants of a red colour, especially of the tree Pterocarpus draco. After the juice is extracted, it is reduced to a powder by evaporation. It is used for darkening mahogany, colouring varnishes or polishes, etc., and for staining marble. Chemists also use it in preparing tinctures and tooth powders. Shellac—or, more properly, gum-lac—is a resinous substance obtained from the Bihar-tree, and also from the Ficus Indica, or Banyan-tree. It exudes when the branches are pierced by an insect called the Coccus ficus. The twigs encrusted with the resin in its natural state is called Stick-lac. When the resin is broken off the twigs, powdered, and rubbed with water, a good deal of the red colouring matter is dissolved, and the granular resin left is called seed-lac; and when melted, strained, and spread into thin plates it is called shellac, and is prepared in various ways and known by the names of button, garnet, liver, orange, ruby, thread, etc., and is used for many purposes in the arts. Shellac forms the principal ingredient for polishes and spirit varnishes. Red sealing-wax is composed of shellac, Venice turpentine, and vermilion red; for the black sealing-wax ivory-black is used instead of the vermilion. Shellac is soluble in alcohol, and in many acids and alkalies. Lac-dye is the red colour from the stick-lac dissolved by water and evaporated to dryness. The dye, however, is principally from the shrivelled- up body of the insect of the Stick-lac. Shellac is produced in the largest quantity and the best quality in Bengal, Assam, and Burmah. The chief seat of manufacture is Calcutta, where the native manufacturers are accused of adulterating it with resin to a considerable extent. The best customers are Great Britain and the United States, though the demand in the Italian markets appears to be on the increase. Amber is a yellow, semi-transparent, fossil resin; hard but brittle, and easily cut with a knife; tasteless, and without smell, except when pounded or heated, and then it emits a fragrant odour. It has considerable lustre; becomes highly electric by friction; and will burn with a yellow flame. It is found in nodules of various sizes in alluvial soils, or on the seashore in many places, particularly on the shores of the Baltic. Amber is much employed for ornamental purposes, and is also used in the manufacture of amber-varnish. It will not dissolve in alcohol, but yields to the concentrated action of sulphuric acid, which will dissolve all resins except caramba wax. Pumice-stone.—This well-known light and spongy volcanic substance is extensively quarried in the small islands that lie off the coast of Sicily. Its porosity and smooth-cutting properties render it of great value to painters and polishers for levelling down first coatings. Ground pumice-stone is the best for cutting down bodies of polish or varnish that are more advanced towards completion. The best way to get a surface to a piece of lump pumice-stone is to rub it down on a flat York stone, or, better still, an old tile that has been well baked. Pumice-stone should not be allowed to stand in water; it causes the grain to contract and to harden, thereby deteriorating its cutting properties. Linseed-oil.—This valuable oil is obtained by pressure from the seed of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum). Linseed contains on an average about 33 per cent. of oil, though the amount varies materially, the percentage obtained fluctuating considerably, not being alike on any two successive days. This is partly due to the varying richness of the seed, and partly to the manner in which it is manipulated in extracting the oil, it being a very easy matter to lose a considerable percentage of the oil by a lack of skill in any of the processes, though they all seem so simple. The first thing done with the seed from which the oil is to be extracted is to pass it through a 9screen, to cleanse it from foreign substances. The seed is received in bags containing from three to four bushels, and pockets containing one-sixth of that amount. Having been screened it is passed through a mill, whose large iron-rollers, three in number, grind it to a coarse meal. Thence it is carried to what are known as the "mullers," which are two large stones, about eight feet in diameter and eighteen inches thick, weighing six tons each, standing on their edges, and rolling around on a stone bed. About five bushels of the meal are placed in the mullers, and about eight quarts of hot water are added. The meal is afterwards carried by machinery to the heaters, iron pans holding about a bushel each. These are heated to an even temperature by steam, and are partly filled with the meal, which for seven minutes is submitted to the heat, being carefully stirred in order that all parts may become evenly heated. At the end of that time the meal is placed in bags, which in turn are placed in hydraulic presses, iron plates being placed between the bags. Pressure is applied for about eight minutes, until, as is supposed, all the oil is pressed out, leaving a hard cake, known to the trade as oil-cake, or linseed-cake. The product of these various processes is known as "raw" oil, a considerable portion of which is sold without further labour being expended upon it. There is, however, a demand for "boiled" oil, for certain purposes where greater drying properties are needed. To supply this want oil is placed in large kettles, holding from five hundred to one thousand gallons, where it is heated to a temperature of about 500 degrees, being stirred continually. This process, when large kettles are used, requires nearly the entire day. While the boiling process is going on, oxide of manganese is added, which helps to give the boiled oil better drying properties. A considerable portion of the oil is bleached, for the use of manufacturers of white paints. Venice Turpentine.—This is obtained from the larch, and is said to be contained in peculiar sacs in the upper part of the stem, and to be obtained by puncturing them. It is a ropy liquid, colourless or brownish green, having a somewhat unpleasant odour and bitter taste. Oil of Turpentine is the most plentiful and useful of oils. It is obtained in America from a species of pine very plentiful in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, known as the long-leaved pine (pinus Australis), and found only where the original forest has not been removed. Methylated Spirits.—The methylated spirit of commerce usually consists of the ordinary mixed grain, or "plain" spirit, as produced by the large distillers in London and elsewhere, with which are blended, by simply mixing in various proportions, one part vegetable naphtha and three parts spirits of wine. The mixing takes place in presence of a revenue officer, and the spirits so "methylated" are allowed to be used duty free. The revenue authorities consider the admixture of naphtha, having so pungent and disagreeable a smell, a sufficient security against its sale and consumption as a beverage. No process has yet been discovered of getting rid of this odour. It is illegal for druggists to use it in the preparation of medicinal tinctures, unless they are for external use. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. Crosby Lockwood & Son's

LIST OF WORKS

ON TRADES AND MANUFACTURES, THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS, CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, COUNTING HOUSE WORK, Etc.

A Complete Catalogue of NEW and STANDARD BOOKS relating to CIVIL, MECHANICAL, MARINE and ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING; MINING, METALLURGY, and COLLIERY WORKING; ARCHITECTURE and BUILDING; AGRICULTURE and ESTATE MANAGEMENT, etc. Post Free on Application.

7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C., AND 121a, VICTORIA STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. 1910. LIST OF WORKS

ON

TRADES and MANUFACTURES, THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS, Etc.

ACETYLENE, LIGHTING BY. Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By William E. Gibbs, M.E. With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6 AIR GAS LIGHTING SYSTEMS. See Petrol Gas. ALCOHOL (INDUSTRIAL): ITS MANUFACTURE AND USES. A Practical Treatise based on Dr. Max Maercker's "Introduction to Distillation," as revised by Drs. Delbruck and Lange. By J. K. Brachvogel. 500 pages, engravings Net 16/6 The Industrial Value of Tax-Free Alcohol and what it means to Agricultural Interests — Summary of the Processes in Spirit Manufacture — Starch, How Formed, its Characteristics, and the Changes it Undergoes — Enzymes or Ferments — Products of Fermentation — Starchy and Sacchariferous Raw Materials — Preparation of the Malt — Steaming the Raw Material — The Mashing Process — Fermenting the Mash — Preparation of Artificial Yeast in the Distillery — Fermentation in Practice — Distillation and Rectification — Arrangement of the Distillery — The Spent Wash — Denaturing of Alcohol — Alcohol for the Production of Power, Heating and Illumination — Statistics. ALKALI TRADE MANUAL. Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. With 232 Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, cloth. £1 10s. BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.-Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 BOOT AND SHOE MAKING, including Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing and Making, with a Description of the most Approved Machinery employed. By J. B. Leno. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0 BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL. Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding, Turning, &c. By W. Graham. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0 BREAD & BISCUIT BAKER'S & SUGAR-BOILER'S ASSISTANT. Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. By Robert Wells. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/0 "A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker." —Saturday Review. BREAKFAST DISHES. For every Morning of Three Months. By Miss Allen (Mrs. A. Macaire). Author of "Savouries and Sweets," &c. Twenty-third Edition. F'cap 8vo. Sewed 1/0 Or, quarter bound, fancy boards 1/6 BREWERS, HANDY BOOK FOR. Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By H. E. Wright, M.A. Third Edition. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Large Crown 8vo, 578 pp., cloth Net 12/6 Barley, Malting and Malt — Water for Brewing — Hops and Sugars — The Brewing Room — Chemistry as Applied to Brewing — The Laboratory — Mashing, Sparging, and Boiling — Ferments in General — Fermentation With Commercial Yeast — Culture from a Single Cell with Yeasts — Treatment of Beer — The Brewery and Plants. "We have great pleasure in recommending this handy Book." —The Brewers' Guardian. CALCULATOR, NUMBER, WEIGHT AND FRACTIONAL. Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a Glance the Value at 422 Different Rates, ranging from 1/128th of a Penny to 20s. each, or per cwt., and £20 per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from 1 to 470. Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 cwt. to 470 cwts. Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 to 1,000 tons. By William Chadwick, Public Accountant. Fourth Edition, Revised and Improved. 8vo, strongly bound 18/0 "It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers as a dictionary. For making up accounts or estimates the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calculations involving price and measure in any combination to do." —Engineer. "The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." —Glasgow Herald. CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS. A Guide to the Manufacture and Application of Agglutinants for Workshop, Laboratory, or Office Use. With 900 Recipes and Formulæ. By H. C. Standage, Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0 "As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book will arouse an amount of curiosity among the large number of industries it touches." —Daily Chronicle. CHEMISTRY FOR ARMY AND MATRICULATION CANDIDATES. By Geoffrey Martin, B.Sc., Ph.D. Crown 8vo, cloth. With numerous Illustrations Net 2/0 Preparation and Use of Apparatus — Preparation and Properties of Certain Gases and Liquids — Simple Quantitative Experiments — Analytical Operations — Solubility — Water Crystallisation — Neutralisation of Acids by Bases, and Preparation of Simple Salts — Volumetric Analysis — Chemical Equivalents — Observation of Reaction — Melting and Boiling Points — Symbols and Atomic Weights of the Elements — Weights and Measures — Hints on Regulating Work in Practical Chemistry Classes. CLOCKS, WATCHES, & BELLS for PUBLIC PURPOSES. By Edmund Beckett, Lord Grimthorpe, LL.D., K.C., F.R.A.S. Eighth Edition, with new List of Great Bells and an Appendix on Weathercocks. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6; cloth boards, 5/6 "The only modern treatise on clock-making." —Horological Journal. COACH-BUILDING. A Practical Treatise, Historical and Descriptive. By J. W. Burgess. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 COKE—MODERN COKING PRACTICE. Including the Analysis of Materials and Products. A handbook for those engaged or interested in Coke Manufacture with recovery of By-Products. By T. H. Byrom, F.I.C., F.C.S., Mem. Soc. of Chem. Industry, Chief Chemist to the Wigan Coal and Iron Company. For fifteen years Lecturer at the Wigan Technical College. Author of "The Physics and Chemistry of Mining"; and J. E. Christopher, Mem. Soc. of Chem. Industry, Sub-manager of the Semet Solvay Coking Plant of the Wigan Coal and Iron Company. Lecturer on Coke Manufacture at the Wigan Technical College. 168 pages, with numerous illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published Net] 8/6 "The authors have succeeded in treating the subject in a clear and compact way, giving an easily comprehensible review of the different processes." —Mining Journal. "The book will be eagerly read, and the authors may be assured that their labour will be appreciated. We anticipate that the book will be a success; at any rate it possesses the necessary merit." —Science and Art of Mining. COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT, FOREIGN. Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages—English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Third Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6 "Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They consist not of entire specimen letters, but—what are far more useful—short passages, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea in various forms." —Athenæum. CONFECTIONER, MODERN FLOUR. Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By R. Wells 1/0 CONFECTIONERY, ORNAMENTAL. A Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and Pastrycooks; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. By Robert Wells. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 "A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The illustrative designs are worth treble the amount charged for the work." —Bakers' Times. COTTON MANUFACTURE. A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning, Methods of Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. By J. Lister. 8vo, cloth 7/6 DANGEROUS GOODS. Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. For the Use of Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, &c. By H. J. Phillips. Crown 8vo, cloth 9/0 DENTISTRY (MECHANICAL). A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of Artificial Dentures. By C. Hunter. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0 DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of Tables for the Use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and Others, by which may be ascertained the Exact Profit arising from any mode of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required Profit after allowing one or more Discounts: to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from 1¼ to 90 per cent., Tables of Discount from 1¼ to 98¾ per cent., and Tables of Commission, &c., from ⅛ to 10 per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant. New Edition, Corrected. Demy 8vo, half-bound £1 5s. "A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time means saving of money. The work must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders." —British Trade Journal. DRYING MACHINERY AND PRACTICE. A Handbook on the Theory and Practice of Drying and Desiccating, with Classified Description of Installations, Machinery, and Apparatus, including also a Glossary of Technical Terms and Bibliography. By Thomas G. Marlow, Grinding, Drying, and Separating Machinery Specialist. Medium 8vo. About 250 pages, with 150 Illustrations [In the Press, price about 12/6 net.] ELECTRICITY IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS: ITS COST AND CONVENIENCE. A Handbook for Power Producers and Power Users. By A. P. Haslam, M.I.E.E. 328 pages, with numerous illustrations. Large crown, 8vo, cloth Net 7/6 ELECTRO-METALLURGY. A Practical Treatise. By Alexander Watt. Tenth Edition, enlarged and revised. Including the most Recent Processes. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6 ELECTRO-PLATING. A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c., &c. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 ELECTRO-PLATING & ELECTRO-REFINING OF METALS Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's "Electro-Deposition." Revised and Rewritten by A. Philip, B.Sc., Principal Assistant to the Admiralty Chemist. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 12/6 PART I. ELECTRO-PLATING — Preliminary Considerations — Primary and Secondary Batteries — Thermopiles — Dynamos — Cost of Electrical Installations of Small Output for Electro-Plating — Historical Review of Electro Deposition — Electro Deposition of Copper — Deposition of Gold by Simple Immersion — Electro Deposition of Gold — Various Gilding Operations — Mercury Gilding — Electro Deposition of Silver — Imitation Antique Silver — Electro Deposition of Nickel, Tin, Iron and Zinc, Various Metals and Alloys — Recovery of Gold and Silver from Wash Solutions — Mechanical Operations connected with Electro Deposition — Materials Used in Electro Deposition. PART II. ELECTRO METALLURGY — Electro Metallurgy of Copper — Cost of Electrolytic Copper Refining — Current Density as a Factor in Profits — Some Important Details in Electrolytic Copper Refineries — Electrolytic Gold and Silver Bullion Refining — Electrolytic Treatment of Tin — Electrolytic Refining of Lead — Electrolytic Production of Aluminium and Electrolytic Refining of Nickel — Electro Galvanising. "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition." —Engineer. ELECTRO-TYPING. The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-Deposition of Metals. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. Phillips. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 420 pp., with Illustrations, cloth Net 10/6 EXPLOSIVES, MODERN, A HANDBOOK ON. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton. With Chapters on Explosives in Practical Application. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 12/6 "A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining, and blasting purposes." —Army and Navy Gazette. EXPLOSIVES: NITRO-EXPLOSIVES. The Properties, Manufacture, and Analysis of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and Celluloid. By P. G. Sanford, F.I.C., F.C.S., Public Analyst to the Borough of Penzance. Second Edition, enlarged. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 10/6 Nitro-Glycerine — Nitro-Cellulose, etc. — Dynamite — Nitro-Benzol, Roburite, Bellite, Picric Acid, etc. — The Fulminates — Smokeless Powders in General — Analysis of Explosives — Firing Point, Heat Tests, Determination of Relative Strength, etc. "One of the very few text-books in which can be found just what is wanted. Mr. Sanford goes steadily through the whole list of explosives commonly used, he names any given explosive, and tells of what it is composed and how it is manufactured. The book is excellent." —Engineer. FACTORY ACCOUNTS: THEIR PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the Nomenclature of Machine Details, the Income Tax Acts, the Rating of Factories, Fire and Boiler Insurance, the Factory and Workshop Acts, etc., including a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, cloth 7/6 "A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts.... The principle of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree with." —Accountants' Journal. FLOUR MANUFACTURE. A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition. By H. H. P. Powles, A.M.Inst.C.E. 400 pp., with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth £1 5s. "This invaluable work is the standard authority on the science of milling." —The Miller. FRENCH POLISHING AND ENAMELLING. Including numerous Recipes for making Polishes, Varnishes, Glaze, Lacquers, Revivers, &c. By R. Bitmead. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/6 GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK. Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By H. O'Connor, A.M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition. Revised. Crown 8vo, leather. Net 10/6 GENERAL CONSTRUCTING MEMORANDA — General Mathematical Tables — Unloading Materials and Storage — Retort House — Condensers — Boilers, Engines, Pumps, and Exhausters — Scrubbers and Washers — Purifiers — Gasholder Tanks — Gasholders — Workshop Notes — MANUFACTURING — Storing Materials — Retort House (Working) — Condensing Gas — Exhausters, etc. — Washing and Scrubbing — Purification — Gasholders (Care of) — Distributing Gas — Testing — Enriching Processes — Product Works — Supplementary. "The book contains a vast amount of information." —Gas World. GAS ENGINEERING. See Producer Gas Practice and Industrial Gas Engineering. GAS FITTING. A Practical Handbook. By John Black. Revised Edition. With 130 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 GAS LIGHTING. See Acetylene. GAS LIGHTING FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. See Petrol Air Gas. GAS MANUFACTURE, CHEMISTRY OF. A Practical Manual for the use of Gas Engineers, Gas Managers and Students. By Harold M. Royle, Chief Chemical Assistant at the Beckton Gas Works. Demy 8vo, cloth, 340 pages, with numerous Illustrations and Coloured Plate. Net 12/6 Preparation of Standard Solutions — Analysis of Coals — Description of Various Types of Furnaces — Products of Carbonisation at Various Temperatures — Analysis of Crude Gas — Analysis of Lime — Analysis of Ammoniacal Liquor — Analytical Valuation of Oxide of Iron — Estimation of Naphthalin — Analysis of Fire-Bricks and Fire-Clay — Art of Photometry — Carburetted Water Gas — Appendix containing Statutory and Official Regulations for Testing Gas. Valuable Excerpts from Various important papers on Gas Chemistry, Useful Tables, Memoranda, etc. GAS WORKS. Their Construction and Arrangement, and the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas. By S. Hughes, C.E. Ninth Edition. Revised by H. O'Connor, A.M.Inst.C.E. Crown 8vo 6/0 GOLD WORKING. JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By G. E. Gee. Crown 8vo 7/6 GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Colouring, Collecting, and Refining. Manipulation, Recovery of Waste, Chemical and Physical Properties; Solders, Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. By G. E. Gee, Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0 GOLDSMITH'S AND SILVERSMITH'S COMPLETE HANDBOOK. By G. E. Gee. Crown 8vo, half bound 7/0 HALL-MARKING OF JEWELLERY. Comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United Kingdom, with the Stamps at present employed; also the Laws relating to the Standards and Hall-marks at the various Assay Offices. By G. E. Gee. Crown 8vo 3/0 HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. By Paul N. Hasluck. See page 16. HOROLOGY, MODERN, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besançon Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2s. cloth; half-calf £2 10s. "There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this production of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and as a reference for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." —Horological Journal. ILLUMINATING AND MISSAL PAINTING ON PAPER AND VELLUM. A Practical Treatise on Manuscript Work, Testimonials, and Herald Painting, with Chapters on Lettering and Writing, and on Mediæval Burnished Gold. With two Coloured Plates. By Philip Whithard (First-class Diploma for Illumination and Herald Painting, Printing Trades Exhibition, 1906). 156 pages. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 4/0 INTEREST CALCULATOR. Containing Tables at 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3, 3½, 3¾, 4, 4½, 4¾ and 5 per cent. By A. M. Campbell, Author of "The Concise Calendar." Crown 8vo, cloth Net 2/6 IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. For Expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from 1s. per cwt. to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one shilling per pound. By Thomas Downie. Strongly bound in leather, 396 pp. 9/0 "A most useful set of tables. Nothing like them before existed." —Building News. IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES. For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from 1 ft. by 6 ins. by ¼ in. to 10 ft. by 5 ft. by 1 in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of iron of 1 in. in thickness. By H. Burlinson and W. H. Simpson. 4to, half bound £1 5s. LABOUR CONTRACTS. A Popular Handbook on the Law of Contracts or Works and Services. By David Gibbons. Fourth Edition, with Appendix of Statutes by T. F. Uttley; Solicitor. F'cap. 8vo, cloth 3/6 LAUNDRY MANAGEMENT. A Handbook for use in Private and Public Laundries. Cr. 8vo, cloth 2/0 LAW FOR MANUFACTURERS, EMPLOYERS AND OTHERS, ETC. See "Every Man's Own Lawyer." A Handy-book of the Principles of Law and Equity. By a Barrister. Forty-seventh (1910) Edition, including the Legislation of 1909. 830 pp. Large crown 8vo, cloth [Just Published.] Net 6/8 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS: Landlord and Tenant — Vendors and Purchasers — Contracts and Agreements — Conveyances and Mortgages — Joint-stock Companies — Partnership — Shipping Law — Dealings with Money — Suretiship — Cheques, Bills and Notes — Bills of Sale — Bankruptcy — Masters, Servants and Workmen — Insurance: Life, Accident, etc. — Copyright, Patents. Trade Marks — Husband and Wife, Divorce — Infancy, Custody of Children — Trustees and Executors — Taxes and Death Duties — Clergymen, Doctors, and Lawyers — Parliamentary Elections — Local Government — Libel and Slander — Nuisances — Criminal Law — Game Laws, Gaming, Innkeepers — Forms of Wills, Agreements, Notices, etc. "A useful and concise epitome of the law." —Law Magazine. "A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English law." —Globe. "A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one." —Spectator. LEATHER MANUFACTURE. A Practical Handbook of Tanning, Currying, and Chrome Leather Dressing. By A. Watt. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth Net 12/6 Chemical Theory of the Tanning Process — The Skin — Hides and Skins — Tannin or Tannic Acid — Gallic Acid — Gallic Fermentation — Tanning Materials — Estimation of Tannin — Preliminary Operations — Depilation or Unhairing Skins and Hides — Deliming or Bating — Tanning Butts for Sole Leather — Tanning Processes — Tanning by Pressure — Quick Tanning — Harness Leather Tanning — American Tanning — Hemlock Tanning — Tanning by Electricity — Chemical Tanning — Miscellaneous Processes — Cost of American Tanning — Manufacture of Light Leathers — Dyeing Leather — Manufacture of White Leather — Chrome Leather Manufacture — Box Calf Manufacture — Chamois or Oil Leather Manufacture — Currying — Machinery Employed in Leather Manufacture — Embossing Leather — Fellmongering — Parchment, Vellum, and Shagreen — Gut Dressing — Glue Boiling — Utilisation of Tanner's Waste. "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories." —Chemical Review. LEATHER MANUFACTURE. PRACTICAL TANNING: A Handbook of Modern Processes, Receipts and Suggestions for the Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of every description, including various Patents relating to Tanning, with specifications. By Louis A. Flemming, American Tanner. Second Edition, in great part re- written, thoroughly revised, and much enlarged. Illustrated by six full-page Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth, 630 pages [Just published.] Net 28/0 MAGNETOS FOR AUTOMOBILISTS, HOW MADE AND HOW USED. A Handbook of Practical Instruction in the Manufacture and Adaptation of the Magneto to the needs of the Motorist. By S. R. Bottone, late of the Collegio del Carmine, Turin, Author of "The Dynamo," "Ignition Devices," &c. Second Edition, enlarged. With 52 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 2/0 MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKING. 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A POCKET-BOOK containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Mant. Second Edition. 18mo, leather. 4/0 "Should be in the hands of every practical brewer." —Brewers' Journal. METRIC TABLES, A SERIES OF. In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, cloth 10/6 "Mr. Dowling's tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one system into the other." —Athenæum. METROLOGY, MODERN. A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lowis d'A. Jackson, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," etc. Large crown 8vo, cloth 12/6 "We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and measures." —Nature. MOTOR CAR, THE. 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Crown 8vo, cloth Net 5/0 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Various Fibres — Cutting and Boiling of Rags — Jute Boiling and Bleaching — Wet Picking — Washing, Breaking, and Bleaching — Electrolytic Bleaching — Antichlor — Cellulose from Wood — Mechanical Wood Pulp — Esparto and Straw — Beating — Loading — Starching — Colouring Matter — Resin, Size, and Sizing — The Fourdrinier Machine and its Management — Animal Sizing — Drying — Glazing and Burnishing — Cutting, Finishing — Microscopical Examination of Paper — Tests for Ingredients of Paper — Recovery of Soda — Testing of Chemicals — Testing Water for Impurities. "The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill hands, apprentices, etc., whilst his manual will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper-makers and mill-owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature." —The World's Paper Trade. PAPER-MAKING. A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By A. Watt. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo 7/6 PAPER MAKING, CHAPTERS ON. A Series of Volumes dealing in a practical manner with all the leading questions in connection with the Chemistry of Paper-Making and the Manufacture of Paper. By Clayton Beadle, Lecturer on Paper-Making before the Society of Arts, 1898 and 1902, and at the Battersea Polytechnic Institute, 1902, etc., etc. Each volume is published separately, at the price of 5/0 net per vol. Volume I, comprises a Series of Lectures delivered on behalf of the Battersea Polytechnic Institute in 1902. Crown 8vo. 151 pp. Net 5/0 Volume II. comprises Answers to Questions on Paper-Making Set by the Examiners to the City and Guilds of London Institute, 1901-1903. Crown 8vo, 182 pp. Net 5/0 Volume III. comprises a short practical Treatise in which Boiling, Bleaching, Loading, Colouring, and similar Questions are discussed. Crown 8vo, 142 pp. Net 5/0 CONTENTS: — "Brass" and "Steel" Beater Bars — The Size and Speed of Beater Rolls — The Fading of Prussian Blue Papers — The Effect of Lowering the Breast Roll — The Effect of "Loading" on the Transparency of Paper — "Terra Alba" as a Loading for Paper — The Use of Alum in Tub Sizing — The Influence of Temperature on Bleaching — The Use of Refining Engines — Agitation as an Auxiliary to Bleaching — The Heating of "Stuff" for the Paper Machine — The Comparative Results of Quadruple and Open Effect Evaporation — How to Prevent Electrification of Paper on the Machine — Transparency of Papers — The "Life" of Machine Wires — Edge Runners. Volume IV. contains discussions upon Water Supplies and the Management of the Paper Machine and its influence upon the Qualities of Papers. Crown 8vo, 164 pp. Net 5/0 CONTENTS: — The Bulking of Papers — Special Qualities of "Art" Papers — The "Ageing" and Storage of Papers — The Use of Lime in Boiling — Controlling the Mark of The "Dandy" — "Machine" and "Hand" Cut Rags — Froth on Paper Machine — Scum Spots in Paper — Consumption of Water in the Manufacture of Paper — The Management of Suction-boxes — The Shrinkage of Paper on the Machine — Paper that does not Shrink or Expand — The Production of Non-Stretchable Paper — The Connection between "Stretch" and "Expansion" of Papers — "Stretch" and "Breaking Strain" — Paper Testing Machines. Volume V. concerning The Theory and Practice of Beating. Crown 8vo. With photomicrographs and other Illustrations. Net 5/0 CONTENTS: — Early Beating Appliances — The Hollander — The Economy of Beating — Difficulties of arriving at Definite Results — Behaviour of different Fibres — "Refining" — Power Consumption — A Comparison of Two different kinds of Beaters — Power consumed in the "Breaking," "Beating," and "Refining" of different Materials — Dealing with the "Circulation" and "Agitation" in a Hollander — Comparisons of large and medium-sized Hollanders when beating "Hard" and "Soft" Stock — Trials to determine the Relative Merits of Stone and Metal Beater-Bars — Trials with Breakers, Reed Beaters, and Kingsland Refiners — A System of Beating combined with a System for Continuous Bleaching — Beaters and Refiners — Power consumed in grinding Wood-pulp — The Reduction in Length of Fibres at different Stages of Beating — Method for determining the "Wetness" of Beaten Stuff — The Position of Beaters in Old and Modern Paper-Mills — Appendix. PARA RUBBER. ITS CULTIVATION & PREPARATION. By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S., Ex-Director of Agriculture, Gold Coast Colony, West Africa, Director of Agriculture, Mozambique Company, East Africa, Commissioned by Government in 1902 to visit Ceylon to Study the Methods employed there in the Cultivation and Preparation of Para Rubber and other Agricultural Staples for Market, with a view to Introduce them into West Africa. Second Edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged, with numerous illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 7/6 The World's Production and Consumption of Rubber — The Para Rubber Tree at Home and Abroad — Propagation — Planting and Cultivating — Soils and Manures — Pests — Latex — Collecting the Latex — Rubber Manufacture — The Antisepticisation of Rubber — Drying and Packing Rubber for Export — Yield of Para Rubber from Cultivated Trees — Establishment and Maintenance of a Para Rubber Plantation — Commercial Value of the Oil in Hevea Seeds. PASTRYCOOK AND CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family Use. By R. Wells, Author of "The Bread and Biscuit Baker" 1/0 PETROL AIR GAS. A Practical Handbook on the Installation and Working of Air Gas Lighting Systems for Country Houses. By Henry O'Connor, F.R.S.E., A.M. Inst. C.E., &c., author of "The Gas Engineer's Pocket Book." 80 pages with illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 1/6 Description of Previous Plants and Systems for Country-House Lighting, Difficulties with, Objections and Prices — History of Petrol Gas, Comparative Costs — Petrol, its Nature, Dangers, and Storing, Notes on the Law regarding same — Burners, Description of same, Piping, Mantles — General Principles of Parts of Plants — Motive Power Meters — Weight-Driven Plants — Root's Blowers — Hot-Air Engines — Pelton Water- Wheels — Descriptions of Various Plants — Extract from an Act for the Safe-Keeping of Petroleum and Other Substances of a Like Nature — Appendix — Useful Notes. PETROLEUM. THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management of Russian Oil Properties, the Origin of Petroleum in Russia, the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel. By A. B. Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., F.G.S. 415 pp., with numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates. Second Edition Revised. Super-royal 8vo, cloth Net 21/0 PETROLEUM MINING AND OIL-FIELD DEVELOPMENT. A Guide to the Exploration of Petroleum Lands, and a Study of the Engineering Problems connected with the Winning of Petroleum. Including Statistical Data of important Oil Fields. Notes on the Origin and Distribution of Petroleum, and a description of the Methods of Utilizing Oil and Gas Fuels. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.Mech.E., F.G.S. Author of "The Oil Fields of Russia." 384 pages, 114 illustrations, including 22 full-page plates. Demy 8vo, cloth. [Just Published.] Net 15/0 "It is an admirable text-book by a competent authority on an interesting subject." —Mining Magazine. "The present effort is likely to receive a warm welcome in engineering circles, and it can be cordially commended for perusal. It will doubtless have that large sale to which its merits entitle it." —Mining World. "The general aspects of the Petroleum Industry are fully and ably laid out." —Engineer. PIGMENTS, ARTISTS' MANUAL OF. Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non- Permanency, and Adulterations, etc., with Tests of Purity. By H. C. Standage. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6 PORTLAND CEMENT, THE MODERN MANUFACTURE OF. By Percy C. H. West, Chemical Engineer and Consulting Chemist. In Three Volumes. Vol. I., dealing with "Machinery and Kilns." About 200 pages, Medium 8vo. With numerous Illustrations. [Nearly ready, price about] 10/6 PRODUCER GAS PRACTICE (AMERICAN) AND INDUSTRIAL GAS ENGINEERING. By Nisbet Latta, M.Amer.Soc.M.E., M.Amer.Gas Inst. 558 pages, with 247 illustrations. Demy 4to, cloth [Just Published.] Net 25/- Producer Operation—Cleaning the Gas—Works Details—Producer Types—Moving Gases—Solid Fuels— Physical Properties of Gases—Chemical Properties of Gases—Gas Analysis—Gas Power—Gas Engines— Industrial Gas Applications—Furnaces and Kilns—Burning Lime and Cement—Pre-Heating Air—Doherty Combustion Economiser—Combustion in Furnaces—Heat: Temperature, Radiation and Conduction—Heat Measurements: Pyrometry and Calorimetry—Pipes, Flues, and Chimneys—Materials: Fire Clay, Masonry, Weights and Rope—Useful Tables—Oil Fuel Producer Gas. RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES, TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox, M.E. Nearly 10,000 Scientific, Chemical, Technical, and Household Recipes, Formulas and Processes for Use in the Laboratory and the Office, the Workshop and the Home. Medium 8vo, 800 pp., cloth. Net 12/6 Selected List of Contents: — Absinthe — Acid Proofing — Adhesives — Alcohol — Alkali — Alloys — Aluminium — Ammonia — Aniline — Antidotes for Poison — Anchovy Preparations — Antiseptics — Antiques — Baking powders — Barometers — Beverages — Bleaching — Brass — Brick — Carbolic Acids — Casting — Celluloid — Cheese — Ceramics — Cigars — Coffee — Condiments — Copper — Cosmetics — Cotton — Diamond Tests — Donarite — Dyes — Electro Plating — Embalming — Enamelling — Engraving — Essences — Explosives — Fertilisers — Filters — Food Adulterants — Gelatine — Glass — Gold — Gums — Harness Dressings — Horn — Inks — Insecticides — Iron — Ivory — Jewellers' Formulas — Lacquers — Laundry Preparations — Leather — Linoleum — Lubricants — Matches — Metals — Music Boxes — Oils — Paints — Paper — Perfumes — Petroleum — Photography — Plaster — Plating — Polishes — Porcelain — Poultry — Putty — Rat Poisons — Refrigeration — Ropes — Rubber — Rust Preventives — Salt — Screws — Silk — Silver — Soaps — Solders — Spirit — Sponges — Steel — Stone — Thermometers — Tin — Valves — Varnishes — Veterinary Formulas — Watchmakers' Formulas — Waterproofing — Wax — Weights and Measures — Whitewash — Wood — Yeast. RUBBER HAND STAMPS. And the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Indiarubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of Indiarubber, The Hektograph, Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By T. O'Conor Sloane A.M., Ph.D. With numerous Illustrations. Square 8vo, cloth 5/0 SAVOURIES AND SWEETS. Suitable for Luncheons and Dinners. By Miss M. L. Allen (Mrs. A. Macaire), Author of "Breakfast Dishes," etc. Thirty-first Edition. F'cap 8vo, sewed 1/0 Or, quarter bound, fancy boards 1/6 SHEET METAL-WORKER'S GUIDE. A Practical Handbook for Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c., with 46 Diagrams and Working Patterns. By W. J. E. Crane. Crown 8vo, Cloth 1/6 SHEET METAL-WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR. Comprising Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules for Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers. By R. H. Warn. Third Edition. Revised and Further Enlarged by J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. 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Fully Illustrated. 706 pages Net 30/0 The Soap Industry — Raw Materials — Bleaching and Purification of Soap-stock — The Chemical Characteristics of Soap-stock and their Behaviour towards Saponifying Agents — Mechanical Equivalent of the Soap Factory — Cold Process and Semi-boiled Soap — Grained Soap — Settled Rosin Soap — Milled Soap- base — Floating Soap — Shaving Soap — Medicated Soap — Essential Oils and Soap Perfumery — Milled Soap — Candles — Glycerine — Examination of Raw Materials and Factory Products. SOLUBILITIES OF INORGANIC AND ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. A Hand-book of the most Reliable Quantitative Solubility Determinations. Recalculated and Compiled by Atherton Seidell, Ph.D., Chemist, Hygienic Laboratory, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D C. Medium 8vo, cloth, 377 pages Net 12/6 TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES. Describing the Mechanical Appliances required in the Cultivation and Preparation of Tea for the Market. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 218 Illustrations Net 25/0 "The subject of tea machinery is now one of the first interest to a large class of people, to whom we strongly commend the volume." —Chamber of Commerce Journal. WAGES TABLES. At 54, 52, 50, and 48 Hours per Week. Showing the Amounts of Wages from one quarter of an hour to sixty-four hours, in each case at Rates of Wages advancing by One Shilling from 4s. to 55s. per week. By Thos. Carbutt, Accountant. Square crown, 8vo, half-bound 6/0 WATCH REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING. A Practical Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used, and the Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds of English and Foreign Watches, Repeaters, Chronographs, and Marine Chronometers. By F. J. Garrard, Springer and Adjuster of Marine Chronometers and Deck Watches for the Admiralty. Second Edition. Revised. With over 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth Net 4/6 WATCHES AND OTHER TIMEKEEPERS, HISTORY OF. By J. F. Kendal, M.B.H. Inst. 1/6 boards; or cloth 2/6 WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, and enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Fourth Edition. Cr. 8vo, cloth 9/0 "Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker." —Engineering. WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at one Reference the Exact Value of any Weight from 1 1b. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from 1d. to 168s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers; the whole being calculated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry Harben, Accountant. Sixth edition, carefully corrected. Royal 8vo, strongly half bound £1 5s. "A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally." —Ironmonger. "Of priceless value to business men." —Sheffield Independent. WOOD ENGRAVING. A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study of the Art. By W. N. Brown. Crown 8vo, cloth. 1/6

HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. BY PAUL N. HASLUCK. Author of "Lathe Work," etc. Crown 8vo, 144 pp., price 1s. each. ☞ These Handybooks have been written to supply information for Workmen Students, and Amateurs in the several Handicrafts, on the actual Practice of the Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Technical Knowledge of the several Crafts. In describing the processes employed, and the manipulation of material, workshop terms are used; workshop practice is fully explained; and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances, and processes. METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With 100 Illustrations 1/0 "The book displays thorough knowledge of the subject." —Scotsman. WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe. With 100 Illustrations 1/0 "We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs." —Mechanical World. WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual of Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With 100 Illustrations 1/0 "All connected with the trade should acquire and study this work." —Clerkenwell Chronicle. PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Construction of Patterns. With 100 Illustrations 1/0 "A most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern-maker." —Knowledge. MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes. With Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects 1/0 "Should be found in every workshop, and in all technical Schools." —Saturday Review. MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines. With upwards of 100 Illustrations 1/0 "Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book." —Builder. CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With 100 Illustrations 1/0 "It is of inestimable service to those commencing the trade." —Coventry Standard. CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations 1/0 "Amongst the most practical guides for beginners in cabinet-work." —Saturday Review. WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK. Embracing information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations 1/0 "Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others." —Engineering. "Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete instructions." —Engineer. "Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what can be produced at a popular price." —Schoolmaster. "Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of experience." —Daily Chronicle. BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. (391.25.5.10.)

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THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY

WOOD-BLOCK PRINTING

A DESCRIPTION OF THE CRAFT OF WOODCUTTING & COLOUR PRINTING BASED ON THE JAPANESE PRACTICE BY F. MORLEY FLETCHER

WITH

DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR AND A. W. SEABY. ALSO COLLOTYPE REPRODUCTIONS OF VARIOUS EXAMPLES OF PRINTING, AND AN ORIGINAL PRINT DESIGNED AND CUT BY THE AUTHOR PRINTED BY HAND ON JAPANESE TAPER

LONDON SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2 BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK

Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. Bath, England EDITOR'S PREFACE In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims. In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of workshop practice, from the points of view of experts who have critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During the last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency to look on "design" as a mere matter of appearance. Such "ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought—that is, from design—inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool. In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent. can fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure of success. In the blending of hand-work and thought in such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. There are two common ways of studying old and foreign arts—the way of the connoisseur and the way of the craftsman. The collector may value such arts for their strangeness and scarcity, while the artist finds in them stimulus in his own work and hints for new developments. The following account of colour-printing from wood-blocks is based on a study of the methods which were lately only practised in Japan, but which at an earlier time were to some degree in use in Europe also. The main principles of the art, indeed, were well known in the West long before colour prints were produced in Japan, and there is some reason to suppose that the Japanese may have founded their methods in imitating the prints taken from Europe by missionaries. Major Strange says: "The European art of chiaroscuro engraving is in all essentials identical with that of Japanese colour-printing.... It seems, therefore, not vain to point out that the accidental sight of one of the Italian colour-prints may have suggested the process to the Japanese." The Italians aimed more at expressing "relief" and the Japanese at flat colour arrangements; the former used oily colours, and the latter fair distemper tints; these are the chief differences. Both in the West and the East the design was cut on the plank surface of the wood with a knife; not across the grain with a graver, as is done in most modern wood engraving, although large plank woodcuts were produced by Walter Crane and Herkomer, about thirty years ago, as posters. The old woodcuts of the fifteenth century were produced as pictures as well as for the illustration of books; frequently they were of considerable size. Often, too, they were coloured by stencil plates or freely by hand. At the same time the printing in colour of letters and other simple devices in books from wood-blocks was done, and a book printed at St. Albans in 1486 has many coats of arms printed in this way; some of the shields having two or three different colours.[1] About the year 1500 a method of printing woodcuts in several flat tones was invented in Germany and practised by Lucas Cranach and others. A fine print of Adam and Eve by Hans Baldung in the Victoria and Albert Museum has, besides the bold black "drawing," an over-tint printed in warm brown out of which sharp high lights are cut; the print is thus in three tones. Ugo da Carpo (c. 1480-1530) working in Venice, introduced this new type of tone woodcut into Italy; indeed, he claimed to be the inventor of the method. "This was called chiaroscuro, a name still given to it, and was, in fact, a simple form of our modern chromo printing." His woodcuts are in a simple, vigorous style; one of them after Raphael's "Death of Ananias," printed in brown, has a depth and brilliancy which may remind us of the mezzo-tints of Turner's Liber Studiorum. This is proudly signed, "Per Ugo da Carpo," and some copies are said to be dated 1518. Andrea Andreani (c. 1560-1623), a better known but not a better artist, produced a great number of these tone woodcuts. Several prints after Mantegna's "Triumphs of Caesar" have a special charm from the beauty of the originals; they are printed in three tints of grey besides the "drawing"; the palest of these tints covers the surface, except for high lights cut out of it. A fine print of a Holy Family, about 15×18 inches, has a middle tone of fair blue and a shadow tint of full rich green. Copies of two immense woodcuts at the Victoria and Albert Museum, of Biblical subjects, seem to have been seems to cramp the hand and injure the eyes of all but the most gifted draughtsmen. It is desirable to cultivate the ability to seize and record the "map-form" of any object rapidly and correctly. Some practice in elementary colour-printing would certainly be of general usefulness, and simpler exercises may be contrived by cutting out with scissors and laying down shapes in black or coloured papers unaided by any pattern. Finally, the hope may be expressed that the beautiful art of wood-cutting as developed in Western Europe and brought to such perfection only a generation ago is only temporarily in abeyance, and that it too may have another day. W. R. LETHABY. September 1916.

[1] See R. M. Burch, Colour Printing, 1900. AUTHOR'S NOTE This little book gives an account of one of the primitive crafts, in the practice of which only the simplest tools and materials are used. Their method of use may serve as a means of expression for artist-craftsmen, or may be studied in preparation for, or as a guide towards, more elaborate work in printing, of which the main principles may be seen most clearly in their application in the primitive craft. In these days the need for reference to primitive handicrafts has not ceased with the advent of the machine. The best achievements of hand-work will always be the standards for reference; and on their study must machine craft be based. The machine can only increase the power and scale of the crafts that have already been perfected by hand-work. Their principles, and the art of their design, do not alter under the machine. If the machine disregards these its work becomes base. And it is under the simple conditions of a handicraft that the principles of an art can be most clearly experienced. The best of all the wonderful and excellent work that is produced to-day by machinery is that which bears evidence in itself of its derivation from arts under the pure conditions of classic craftsmanship, and shows the influence of their study. The series of which this book is a part stands for the principles and the spirit of the classic examples. To be associated with those fellow-craftsmen who have been privileged to work for the Series is itself an honour of high estimation in the mind of the present writer. If the book contributes even a little toward the usefulness of the series the experiments which are recorded here will have been well worth while. To my friend Mr. J. D. Batten is due all the credit of the initial work. He began the search for a pure style of colour-printing, and most generously supported and encouraged my own experiments in the Japanese method. To my old colleague Mr. A. W. Seaby I would also express my indebtedness for his kind help and advice. F. M. F. Edinburgh College of Art, September 1916. CONTENTS

CHAPTER I PAGE

Introduction and Description of the Origins of Wood-block Printing—Its Uses for Personal Artistic Expression, for Reproduction of Decorative Designs, and as a Fundamental Training for Student of Printed Decoration 1

CHAPTER II

General Description of the Operation of Printing from a Set of Blocks 9

CHAPTER III

Description of the Materials and Tools required for Block Cutting 17

CHAPTER IV

Block Cutting and the Planning of Blocks 23

CHAPTER V

Preparation of Paper, Ink, Colour, and Paste for Printing 47

CHAPTER VI Detailed Method of Printing—The Printing

Tools, Baren and Brushes 61

CHAPTER VII

Principles and Main Considerations in Designing Wood-block Prints—Their Application to Modern Colour Printing 81

CHAPTER VIII

Co-operative Printing 89

APPENDIX

Prints and Collotype Plates 94 Books of Reference 129

INDEX 130 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 1. Plan of Work-table 11 Block Mounted with Cross Ends to prevent 2. 18 Warping 3. Drawing of the Knife 19 4. Sizes of Chisels 20 5. Short Chisel in Split Handle 21 6. Mallet 21 7. Position of the Hands in using the Knife 30 8. Another Position of the Hands in using the Knife 31 9. Knife Cuts in Section 33 10. Diagram of Knife Cuts 33 11. Method of Holding Gouge 35 12. Clearing of Wood between Knife Cuts 35 13. Position of Register Marks 37 14. Register Marks 37 15. Register Marks (Section of) 38 16. Section of Colour-block 42 17. Drawing of Sizing of Paper 49 18. Cork of Ink-bottle with Wad for Preservative 56 19. Method of Re-covering Baren 64 20. Drawing of Brushes 66 21. Manner of Holding the Paper 70 22. Manner of using the Baren 72 COLLOTYPE PLATES PAGE Meadowsweet. Reproduction of a Wood-block Print by the Frontispiec 1. Author e 2. Key-block of a Print Drawn and Cut by the Author 5 3. The Baren, or Printing Pad 12 Colour-block of a Print of which the Key-block is shown at 4. 23 p. 5 5. Impression (nearly actual size) or a portion of a Japanese Wood Block showing great Variety in the Character of the Lines and Spots 26 suggesting Form Reproduction of an Impression (reduced) of the Key-block 6. of a Japanese Print showing admirable Variety in the Means used to suggest 33 Form 7. Portion of Detail from a Japanese Wood Block 48

APPENDIX PAGE 8. Wood-block Print by the Author 95 9. First Printing (Collotype reproduction) 98 10. Second Printing " 100 11. Third Printing " 102 12. Fourth Printing " 104 13. Fifth Printing " 105 14. Sixth Printing " 107 15 Eighth Printing " 109 16. Collotype Reproduction of a Colour Print by Hiroshigé 111 17. Collotype Reproduction of a Portion of the Print shown on the preceding Page, actual Size, showing the Treatment of the Foliage and the Expressive Drawing of the Tree-trunk and Stems 114 18. Collotype Reproduction of another Portion of the Print shown on p. 111 Actual Size, showing the Expressive Use of Line in the Drawing of the distant Forms 116 19. Collotype Reproduction of a Colour Print by Hiroshigé 118 20. Collotype Reproduction of a Portion (actual Size) of the Print on the Preceding Page, showing Treatment of Tree Forms and Distance 120 21. Collotype Reproduction of a Colour Print by Hiroshigé 121 22. Collotype Reproduction of a Portion, actual Size, of the Print on the preceding Page, showing Treatment of Tree and Blossom 123 23. The Tiger. Collotype Reproduction of a Colour Print by J. D. Batten 125 24. Lapwings. Collotype Reproduction of a Colour Print by A. W. Seaby 127

ERRATA Page 62.—For "bamboo-sheath" read "bamboo leaf". Page 63.—In last paragraph, delete "the inside of". Page 64.—Third line from bottom, after "occasionally" insert "when printing". WOOD-BLOCK PRINTING

BY THE

JAPANESE METHOD

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Introduction and Description of the Origins of Wood-block Printing; its uses for personal artistic expression, for reproduction of decorative designs, and as a fundamental training for students of printed decoration. The few wood-block prints shown from time to time by the Society of Graver Printers in Colour, and the occasional appearance of a wood-block print in the Graver Section of the International Society's Exhibitions, or in those of the Society of Arts and Crafts, are the outcome of the experiments of a small group of English artists in making prints by the Japanese method, or by methods based on the Japanese practice. My interest was first drawn in 1897 to experiments that were being made by Mr. J. D. Batten, who for two years previously had attempted, and partially succeeded in making, a print from wood and metal blocks with colour mixed with glycerine and dextrine, the glycerine being afterwards removed by washing the prints in alcohol. As the Japanese method seemed to promise greater advantages and simplicity, we began experiments together, using as our text-book the pamphlet by T. Tokuno, published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and the dextrine and glycerine method was soon abandoned. The edition of prints, however, of Eve and the Serpent designed by J. D. Batten, printed by myself and published at that time, was produced partly by the earlier method and partly in the simpler Japanese way. Familiar as everyone is with Japanese prints, it is not generally known that they are produced by means of an extremely simple craft. No machinery is required, but only a few tools for cutting the designs on the surface of the planks of cherry wood from which the impressions are taken. No press is used, but a round flat pad, which is rubbed on the back of the print as it lies on the blocks. The colours are mixed with water and paste made from rice flour. The details of the craft and photographs of the tools were given in full in the Smithsonian Institution pamphlet already mentioned. It is slow and unsatisfactory work, however, learning manipulation from a book, and several technical difficulties that seemed insurmountable were made clear by the chance discovery in London of a Japanese printseller who, although not a printer, was sufficiently familiar with the work to give some invaluable hints and demonstrations. Further encouragement was given to the work by the institution, a little later, of a class in wood-cuts in colour under my charge, at the L.C.C. Central School of Arts and Crafts, which for several years became the chief centre of the movement. Such are the bare historical facts of the development in our country of this craft imported from the Far East. On a merely superficial acquaintance the Japanese craft of block-printing may appear to be no more than a primitive though delicate form of colour reproduction, which modern mechanical methods have long superseded, even in the land of its invention; and that to study so limited a mode of expression would be hardly of any practical value to an artist. Moreover, the craft is under the disadvantage that all the stages of the work, from making the first design to taking the final impressions, must be done by the artist himself—work which includes the delicate cutting of line and planning of colour blocks, and the preparation of colour and paper. In Japan there were trained craftsmen expert in each of these branches of the craft, and each carried out his part under the supervision of the artist. No part but the design was done by him. So that the very character of the work has an essential difference. Under our present conditions the artist must undertake the whole craft, with all its detail.

Plate II.—Key-block of the print shown on the frontispiece. (The portion of wood lying outside the points of the mass of foliage is left standing to support the paper, but is not inked in printing.) Simple as the process is, there is, from first to last, a long labour involved in planning, cutting and printing, before a satisfactory batch of prints is produced. After several attempts in delegating printing to well-trained pupils I have found it impossible to obtain the best results by that means, but the cutting of the colour-blocks and the clearing of the key-block after the first cutting of the line may well be done by assistant craftsmen. A larger demand for the prints might bring about a commercial development of the work, and the consequent employment of trained craftsmen or craftswomen, but the result would be a different one from that which has been obtained by the artists who are willing to undertake the whole production of their work. The actual value of wood-block prints for use as decoration is a matter of personal taste and experience. In my own opinion there is an element that always remains foreign in the prints of the Japanese masters, yet I know of no other kind of art that has the same telling value on a wall, or the same decorative charm in modern domestic rooms as the wood-block print. A single print well placed in a room of quiet colour will enrich and dominate a whole wall. The modern vogue still favours more expensive although less decorative forms of art, or works of reproduction without colour, yet here is an art available to all who care for expressive design and colour, and within the means of the large public to whom the cost of pictures is prohibitive. In its possibility as a decorative means of expression well suited to our modern needs and uses, and in the particular charm that colour has when printed from wood on a paper that is beautiful already by its own quality, there is no doubt of the scope and opportunity offered by this art. But as with new wine and old bottles, a new condition of simplicity in furniture and of pure colour in decoration must first be established. A wood-block print will not tell well amid a wilderness of bric-à-brac or on a gaudy wall-paper. From another and quite different point of view, the art of block-cutting and colour-printing has, however, a special and important value. To any student of pictorial art, especially to any who may wish to design for modern printed decoration, no work gives such instruction in economy of design, in the resources of line and its expressive development, and in the use and behaviour of colour. This has been the expressed opinion of many who have undertaken a course of wood-block printing for this object alone. The same opinion is emphatically stated by Professor Emil Orlik, whose prints are well known in modern exhibitions. On the occasion of a visit to the Kunstgewerbeschule of Berlin, I found him conducting a class for designers for printed decoration, in which the Japanese craft of block-printing was made the basis of their training. He held to the view that the primitive craft teaches the students the very economy and simplicity upon which the successful use of the great modern resources of colour-printing depend, yet which cannot be learnt except by recourse to simpler conditions and more narrow limitations before dealing with the greater scope of the machine. My own experience also convinces me that whatever may be the ultimate value of the Eastern craft to our artists as a mode of personal expression, there is no doubt of its effect and usefulness in training students to design with economy and simplicity for modern printing processes. CHAPTER II

General Description of the Operation of Printing from a Set of Blocks The early stages of any craft are more interesting when we are familiar with the final result. For this reason it is often an advantage to begin at the end. To see a few impressions taken from a set of blocks in colour printing, or to print them oneself, gives the best possible idea of the quality and essential character of print-making. So also in describing the work it will perhaps tend to make the various stages clearer if the final act of printing is first explained. The most striking characteristic of this craft is the primitive simplicity of the act of printing. No press is required, and no machinery. A block is laid flat on the table with its cut surface uppermost, and is kept steady by a small wad of damp paper placed under each corner. A pile of paper slightly damped ready for printing lies within reach just beyond the wood-block, so that the printer may easily lift the paper sheet by sheet on to the block as it is required. It is the practice in Japan to work squatting on the floor, with the blocks and tools also on the floor in front of the craftsman. Our own habit of working at a table is less simple, but has some advantages. One practice or habit of the Japanese is, however, to be followed with particular care. No description can give quite fully the sense of extreme orderliness and careful deliberation of their work. Everything is placed where it will be most convenient for use, and this orderliness is preserved throughout the day's work. Their shapely tools and vessels are handled with a deftness that shames our clumsy ways, and everything that they use is kept quite clean. This skilful orderliness is essential to fine craftmanship, and is a sign of mastery. The arrangement of tools and vessels on a work-table may be as the accompanying plan shows: Fig. 1.—Plan of work-table.

A. Block. B. Sheets of damped paper lying on a board. C. Second board lifted from B. D. Brushes lying on a strip of wood. E. White plate or dish containing colour. F. Saucer containing paste of rice-flour. G. Baren, or printing pad, lying on a sheet of paper slightly oiled with sweet oil and tacked to the table. H. Deep bowl of water and brush for moistening the damping sheets. I. Saucer of water for use in printing. J. Sponge.

When printing on a table arranged in this way the board lying on the sheets of damped paper at B is first lifted off and placed at C to receive the sheets as they are done. If the block A is quite dry, it is thoroughly moistened with a damp sponge and wiped. The colour from a saucer, E, is then brushed over the printing surface thinly, and a trace of paste taken from F is also brushed into the colour. (This is best done after the colour is roughly spread on the block.) The brush is laid down in its place, D, and the top sheet of paper from the pile is immediately lifted to its register marks (notches to keep the paper in its place) on the block. The manner of holding the paper is shown on page 70. This must be done deftly, and it is important to waste no time, as the colour would soon dry on the exposed block and print badly. Pressure is then applied to the back of the paper as it lies on the wet block. This is done by a round pad called the baren by the Japanese. It is made of a coil of cord covered by bamboo sheath as shown later on page 62. The pad is rubbed by hand with considerable pressure, moving transversely forwards and backwards across the block, working from the left to the right. Once all over the block should be enough. The paper is then lifted off and laid face upwards on the board at C. The block is then re-charged with colour for another impression, and the whole operation repeated as many times as there are sheets to be printed.

Plate III. The Baren, or printing pad. (The pad is actually 5 inches in diameter.) When this is done all the sheets will have received a single impression, which may be either a patch of colour or an impression in line of part of the design of the print. The block A is then removed, cleaned, and put away; and the block for the second impression put in its place. It is usual to print the line or key-block of a design first, as one is then able to detect faulty registering or imperfect fitting of the blocks and to correct them at once. But there are cases in which a gradated tone, such as a sky, may need to be printed before the line block. The complete design of a print may require several blocks for colour as well as the key block which prints the line. The impressions from all these blocks may be printed one after another without waiting for the colour on the paper to dry. As soon as the batch of damped sheets has been passed over the first block, the sheets are replaced at B between boards, and, if necessary, damped again by means of damping sheets (as described later in Chapter V) ready for the next impression, which may be proceeded with at once without fear of the colour running. It is a remarkable fact that patches of wet colour which touch one another do not run if properly printed. For the second printing fresh colour is prepared and clean paste, and the printing proceeds as already described, care being taken to watch the proper registering or fitting of each impression to its place in the design. There are many niceties and details to be observed in the printing of both line and colour blocks. These are given in special chapters following. This description of the main action of printing will be of use in giving a general idea of the final operation before the details of the preliminary stages are described. CHAPTER III

Description of the Materials and Tools required for Block-cutting The wood most commonly used by the Japanese for their printing-blocks is a cherry wood very similar to that grown in England. The Canadian cherry wood, which is more easily obtained than English cherry, is of too open a grain to be of use. The more slowly grown English wood has a closer grain and is the best for all the purposes of block cutting and printing. Well-seasoned planks should be obtained and kept ready for cutting up as may be required. When a set of blocks is to be cut for a given design, the size of the printing surface of each block should be made equal to the size of the design plus 1 inch or, for large prints, 1½ inch in addition long ways, and ¼ or ½ inch crossways. The thickness of the plank need not be more than ⅝ or ¾ inch. It is best for the protection of the surfaces of the printing blocks and to prevent warping, also for convenience in storing and handling them, to fix across each end a piece of wood slightly thicker than the plank itself. These cross-ends should be mounted as shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2.—Block mounted with cross ends to prevent warping. Both surfaces of the plank should be planed smooth and then finished with a steel scraper, but not touched with sand-paper. It is understood that the face of the plank is used for the printing surface, and not the end of the grain as in blocks for modern wood engraving. The tools needed for cutting the blocks are the following:

1. THE KNIFE

Fig. 3.—Drawing of the knife. With this knife the most important and delicate work is done. All the lines of the key-block as well as the boundaries of the colour masses are cut with it, before the removal of intervening spaces. The blade lies in a slot and is held tight by the tapered ferrule. This can be pulled off by hand and the blade lengthened by pulling it forward in the slot.

2. CHISELS These are used for removing the wood between the cut lines or colour masses, and should be ordinary carvers' chisels of the following sizes:

Fig. 4.—Sizes of chisels. except those under No. 9, which are short-handled chisels for small work. The Japanese toolmakers fit these small chisels into a split handle as shown in fig. 5. The blade is held tightly in its place by the tapered ferrule when the handle is closed, or can be lengthened by opening the handle and pulling forward the blade in its slot. In this way the blade can be used down to its last inch. 3. MALLET This is needed for driving the larger chisels.

Fig. 5.—Short chisel in split handle. These are all the tools that are needed for block cutting. For keeping them in order it is well to have oilstones of three grades:

Fig. 6.—Mallet. 1. A carborundum stone for rapidly re-covering the shape of a chipped or blunt tool. 2. A good ordinary oil stone. 3. A hard stone for keeping a fine edge on the knife in cutting line blocks. The American "Washita" stone is good for this purpose. Plate IV. Colour block of a print of which the key-block is shown on page 5. CHAPTER IV

Block Cutting and the Planning of Blocks The cutting of a line block needs patience and care and skill, but it is not the most difficult part of print making, nor is it so hopeless an enterprise as it seems at first to one who has not tried to use the block-cutter's knife. In Japan this work is a highly specialised craft, never undertaken by the artist himself, but carried out by skilled craftsmen who only do this part of the work of making colour prints. Even the clearing of the spaces between the cut lines is done by assistant craftsmen or craftswomen. The exquisite perfection of the cutting of the lines in the finest of the Japanese prints, as, for instance, the profile of a face in a design by Outamaro, has required the special training and tradition of generations of craftsmen. The knife, however, is not a difficult weapon to an artist who has hands and a trained sense of form. In carrying out his own work, moreover, he may express a quality that is of greater value even than technical perfection. At present we have no craftsmen ready for this work—nor could our designs be safely trusted to the interpretation of Japanese block-cutters. Until we train craftsmen among ourselves we must therefore continue to cut our own blocks.

CUTTING A set of blocks consists of a key-block and several colour blocks. The block that must be cut first is that which prints the line or "key" of the design. By means of impressions from this key-block the various other blocks for printing the coloured portions of the design are cut. The key-block is the most important of the set of blocks and contains the essential part of the design. A drawing of that part of the design which is to be cut on the key-block should first be made. This is done on the thinnest of Japanese tissue paper in black indelible ink. The drawing is then pasted face downward on the prepared first block with good starch paste. It is best to lay the drawing flat on its back upon a pad of a few sheets of paper of about the same size, and to rub the paste on the surface of the block, not on the paper. The block is now laid down firmly with its pasted side on the drawing, which at once adheres to the block. Next turn the block over and lay a dry sheet of paper over the damp drawing so as to protect it, and with the baren, or printing rubber, rub the drawing flat, and well on to the block all over. The drawing should then be allowed to dry thoroughly on the block. With regard to the design of the key block, it is a common mistake to treat this as a drawing only of outlines of the forms of the print. Much modern so-called decorative printing has been weak in this respect. A flat, characterless line, with no more expression than a bent gaspipe, is often printed round the forms of a design, followed by printings of flat colour, the whole resulting in a travesty of "flat" decorative treatment. The key design should be a skeleton of all the forms of a print, expressing much more than mere exterior boundaries. It may so suggest form that although the colour be printed by a flat tint the result is not flat. When one is unconscious of any flatness in the final effect, though the result is obtained by flat printing, then the proper use of flat treatment has been made. The affectation of flatness in inferior colour printing and poster work is due to a misapprehension of the true principle of flat treatment. Plate V. Impression (nearly actual size) of a portion of a Japanese wood block showing great variety in the character of the lines and spots suggesting form. As an illustration of the great variety of form that may be expressed by the key-block, a reproduction is given (page 33) of an impression from a Japanese key-block. It will be seen that the lines and spots express much more than boundaries of form. In the case of the lighter tree foliage the boundaries are left to be determined entirely by the subsequent colour blocks, and only the interior form or character of the foliage is suggested. The quality or kind of line, too, varies with the thing expressed, whether tree, rock, sea, or the little ship. The design, too, is in itself beautiful and gives the essential form of the entire print. The study of the drawing of any of the key-blocks of the Japanese masters will reveal their wonderful power and resource in the suggestion of essential form by black lines, spots, and masses of one uniform tint of black or grey. The development of this kind of expressive drawing is most important to the designer of printed decoration, whether by wood blocks, or lithography, or any other printing process. Other good types of drawing for the purposes of key-blocks in wood are given on Plate V facing page 26 and Plate XVI p. 110 in Appendix. When the key-block with its design pasted upon it is thoroughly dry, a little sweet oil should be rubbed with the finger at that part where the cutting is to begin, so as to make the paper transparent and the black line quite clear. In order to keep the block from moving on the work-table, there should be fixed one or two strips of wood screwed down, to act as stops in case the block tends to slip, but the block should lie freely on the table, so that it may be easily turned round during the cutting when necessary. One should, however, learn to use the cutting knife in all directions, and to move the block as little as possible. The knife is held and guided by the right hand, but is pushed along by the middle finger of the left hand placed at the back of the blade, close down near the point. The left hand should be generally flat on the work-table, palm down, and the nail of the middle finger must be kept short. This position is shown (fig. 7) on p. 30. The flat side of the knife should always be against the line to be cut. Sometimes it is convenient to drive the knife from right to left, but in this case the pressure is given by the right hand, and the left middle finger is used to check and steady the knife, the finger being pressed against the knife just above the cutting edge. A good position for cutting a long straight line towards oneself on the block is shown below (fig. 8). The left hand is on its side, and the middle finger is hooked round and pulls the knife while the right hand guides it. In all cases the middle finger of the left hand pushes or steadies the knife, or acts as a fulcrum.

Fig. 7.—Position of the hands in using the knife. A beginner with the knife usually applies too much pressure or is apt to put the left finger at a point too high up on the blade, where it loses its control. The finger should be as close down to the wood as possible, where its control is most effective. A small piece of india-rubber tubing round the knife blade helps to protect the finger. Fig. 8.—Another position of the hands in using the knife. With practice the knife soon becomes an easy and a very precise tool, capable of great expressiveness in drawing. Bear in mind that both sides of a line are drawn by the knife. The special power of developing the expressive form of line on both sides is a resource tending to great development of drawing in designs for wood-block prints. The line may be of varying form, changing from silhouette to pure line as may best serve to express the design. It should never be a mere diagram. Plate VI. Reproduction of an impression (reduced) of the key-block of a Japanese print showing admirable variety in the means used to suggest form. Fig. 9.—Knife cuts in section.

Fig. 10.—Diagram of knife cuts. The actual cutting proceeds as follows: Starting at some point where the surface of the key-block design has been oiled and made distinct, a shallow cut is made along one side of any form in the design, with the knife held slanting so that the cut slants away from the edge of the form. A second outer parallel cut is then made with the knife held slanting in the opposite direction from the first, so that the two cuts together make a V- shaped trench all along the line of the form. The little strip of wood cut out should detach itself as the second cut is made, and should not need any picking out or further cutting if the first two cuts are cleanly made. This shallow V-shaped trench is continued all round the masses and along both sides of all the lines of the design. No clearing of the intervening spaces should be attempted until this is done. It will be seen at once that the V- shaped cuts give great strength to the printing lines, so that a quite fine line between two cuts may have a strong, broad base (fig. 9). The depth of the cut would be slightly shallower than that shown in this diagram. In cutting fine line work a cut is first made a little beyond the line, then the cut is made on the line itself (fig. 10). Where a very fine line is to be cut, especially if it is on a curve, the outer cut of the V trench should be made first, and then that which touches the line: there is thus less disturbance of the wood, and less danger of injuring the edge of the line. When the V cut has been made outside all the lines, one proceeds to clear the intervening spaces between the lines of the design by taking tool No. 1 (fig. 5). The large spaces should be cleared first. The safest and quickest way is to make a small gouge cut with No. 1 round all the large spaces close up to the first cut, then, with one of the shallower chisels, Nos. 5, 6, or 7 (fig. 5), and the mallet, clear out the wood between the gouge cuts. For all shallow cuts where the mallet is not needed, the Japanese hold the chisels as shown in fig. 11. With practice this will be found a very convenient and steady grip for the right hand. It has also the advantage that the chisel can be held against the centre of the body and exactly under one's eyes.

Fig. 11.—Method of holding gouge. In the diagram (fig. 12), if the wood from A to A1 is to be cleared away, gouge cuts are made at b and b1, then the space between b and b1 may be quickly cleared without risk to the edge of the form at A. When this rough work is done the little ridge between A and b may be cleared with small round or flat tools, as is most convenient. But this final clearing should not be done until all the large spaces are roughed out.

Fig. 12.—Clearing of wood between knife cuts. The depth to which the spaces must be cleared will depend on their width, as, in printing, the paper will sag more deeply in a wide space than in a narrow one. In spaces of half an inch the depth of the first V-cuts is sufficient, but the proportionate depth is about that of the diagram above. The small spaces are cleared by means of small flat or round chisels without the mallet or the preliminary gouge cut: this is only needed where a large space has to be cleared. There remain now only the placing and cutting of the two register marks or notches for controlling the position of the paper in printing. These are placed relatively to the design as shown in fig. 13. The corner of the print fits into the notch at A, and one edge of the print lies against the straight notch at B. The register marks may be even closer to the space covered by the design, but must not actually touch it, as some margin of paper is necessary in printing: they should also be cut always on the long side of the printing block. It will be seen from the drawing on page 70 that these register marks correspond to the position of the thumb of each hand in laying the paper on the block for printing.

Fig. 13.—Position of register marks.

Fig. 14. Register marks. Fig. 14. Register marks. The corner mark, ABC, is made by cutting from A to B and B to C, with the knife held perpendicularly, and its flat side against the line, then the shaded portion is cut with a flat chisel, sloping from the surface of the block at AC to a depth of about 1/16 inch along AB and BC. The straight notch, EF, is similarly cut, first with a perpendicular knife along EF, and then the shaded portion is chiselled sloping down to the line EF.

Fig. 15.—Register marks (section of). In section the two register marks would be as above. The register marks must be smoothly and evenly cut so that the paper, in printing, may slide easily home to its exact place. When the design of the key-block and the two register marks have been cut and cleared, the trace of paper and paste on the uncut parts of the wood should be carefully washed off with a piece of sponge and warm water. The block is then finished and ready for use. The key-block, however, is only one of the set of blocks required for a print in colour, but the colour blocks are simpler and require, as a rule, far less labour. The colour blocks are planned and established by means of impressions taken from the key-block. For this purpose the register marks are inked[2] for printing as well as the design on the block, and the impressions must include both. These impressions are taken on thin Japanese paper, but not necessarily the thinnest tissue. If the thinnest is used, it should be pasted at the corners to a sheet of stiffer paper for convenience in handling. It is then a fairly simple matter to take one of these key-block impressions and to make a plan of the various colour-blocks that will be required. These should obviously be as few as possible. It is not necessary to provide an entire block for each patch of colour, but only the extent of surface required for each coloured portion of the print, as well as for its pair of register marks. Patches of different colour that are not adjacent to one another on the design of the print may be cut on the same block, provided they are not too close for free colouring of the block in printing. Each block also may be cut on both sides, so that there is considerable scope for economy in the arranging and planning of the colour blocks. When the arrangement of the plan of colour has been simplified as far as possible, a new block is prepared as described above, and a sheet of thin Japanese paper (unsized) is cut large enough to cover the print design and its register marks. The clean surface of the new block is covered thinly with starch paste well rubbed into the grain, and while this is still wet an impression on the sheet of thin Japanese paper is taken of the entire key- block, including its register marks in black, and laid before it is dry face downward on the pasted surface of the new block. This should be done as already described on page 25. It should be rubbed flat with the printing pad and left to dry. This operation requires careful handling, but it should be done easily and methodically, without any hurry. Each side of the set of colour planks should be treated in the same way—a thin impression of the key-block and its register marks being laid upon each. It is advisable to paste down a freshly taken impression, each time, while the ink is still moist, for if these are allowed to dry, the shrinking of the paper causes errors of register. When these new blocks are dry, the patch of colour to be cut on each surface should be clearly indicated by a thin wash of diluted ink or colour, but not so as to hide the printed key line. The blocks may then be cut. A V-shaped cut is made round each form, as in the case of the key-block, and the clearing proceeds in the same way, but it is only necessary to clear a space of about an inch round each form: the rest of the wood should be left standing. A section of the printing surface of a colour block would be as follows:

Fig. 16.—Section of colour-block. A. Colour mass. B. Depression. C. Surface of Plank. When the register marks corresponding to these colour forms have also been cut, and the paper washed off the blocks, the clear spaces may be used for pasting down new key impressions for the smaller colour patches and their corresponding register marks. In this way one side of a colour plank may contain several different colour forms and sets of register marks. As a rule the different colour patches would be printed separately, though in some cases two colours may be printed at one impression if they are small and have the same register marks. When the blocks have been cut and cleared it is advisable to smooth with sand-paper the edge of the depression where it meets the uncut surface of the wood, otherwise this edge, if at all sharp, will mark the print. For any particulars about which one may be in doubt, the sets of blocks at South Kensington Museum or in the Print Room at the British Museum are available for examination. In one of the sets at the British Museum it is interesting to see the temporary corrections that have been made in the register marks during printing by means of little wooden plugs stuck into the register notches. In nearly all cases the Japanese blocks were made of cherry wood, but planks of box are said to have been occasionally used for very fine work. ERRORS OF REGISTER However exactly the register marks may be cut in a new set of blocks, very puzzling errors occasionally arise while printing, especially if the planks are of thin wood. Some of the blocks are necessarily printed drier than others. For instance, the key-block is printed with a very small amount of ink and paste. Other blocks may be even drier, such as the blocks which print small forms or details in a design. The blocks, however, which are used for large masses of colour, or for gradated tones, are moistened over the whole or a large part of the surface of the block, and if the wood is thin, and not well mounted across the ends, the block soon expands sufficiently to throw the register out. If the block is not mounted across the ends there will also be a tendency to warp, and this will add to the errors of register. But if the blocks are of fairly thick wood, and well mounted, the register will remain very exact indeed. Usually the key-block is printed first. If the subsequent blocks are not in exact register the error is noticeable at once, and slight adjustments may be made for its correction. But in cases where the key-block is printed last (as sometimes is necessary) each colour block must be tested before a batch of prints is passed over it. For this purpose the first few prints of every batch should receive a faint impression of the key-block, so that the register of the colour impression may be verified before proceeding with the whole batch. If these precautions are taken, and the entire set of blocks kept as nearly as possible in the same conditions of dryness or moisture, all difficulties of register in printing will be easily overcome. When cutting a new set of blocks there is another possible source of error which needs to be carefully guarded against. Most of the work in designing a new print is necessarily spent in planning and cutting the key-block, which may occupy a considerable time, especially if other work has to be carried on as well. If new wood is used, or wood that has not been seasoned long indoors, it will dry and contract considerably across the grain before the work is finished. Then, if newer planks are prepared and cut up for the colour blocks, and impressions from the key-block are pasted down on them for cutting, it will be found that, as the newer wood of the colour-blocks goes on drying, it will shrink out of register, and the colour impressions will not fit the line perfectly. It is easy to fall into this difficulty, but there is no danger of it if the planks from which the key-block and the colour-blocks are cut are all equally seasoned and are in the same condition. CHAPTER V

Preparation of Paper, Ink, Colour, and Paste for Printing

PAPER The paper made by the Japanese from the inner bark of young shoots of the mulberry and certain other plants of similar fibre is beyond all others the best for wood-block printing. It is in itself a very remarkable material, and is used in Japan for a great variety of purposes, on account of the strength and toughness due to its long silky fibre. Paper of good quality for printing may be obtained directly from Japan, or through trading agents dealing with Japan. A case of five reams would be the smallest quantity obtainable directly, but it is by far the cheapest and most satisfactory way of buying it. In smaller quantities the paper is obtainable through many of the dealers in artists' materials. Several kinds of this paper are made, but unsized sheets of a quality similar to the print on page 95, and a thin Japanese tissue paper are the two kinds required for printing in colour. In its unsized state the paper is too absorbent for use, and it should be sized freshly as needed for work. This is done by brushing a thin solution of gelatine over the smooth surface of the sheets of paper. A drawing-board rather larger than the sheets of paper, placed as shown in fig. 17, with its lower edge resting on a basin of warm size, will be found a convenient arrangement. Plate VII. Impression of a portion of detail from a Japanese woodblock (very nearly actual size). The sheet gelatine sold by grocers for cooking makes an excellent size. Six of the thin sheets to a pint of water is a good strength.[3] The gelatine is dissolved in hot water, but should not be boiled, as that partially destroys the size. When dissolved, a little powdered alum is also stirred in, about as much as will lie on a shilling to a pint of water. The addition of the alum is important, as it acts as a mordant and helps to make a better colour impression. Fig. 17.—Drawing of sizing of paper. In applying the size to the paper a four-inch broad flat paste brush is used. The paper is laid on the slanting board and the size brushed backward and forward across the paper from the upper end downward. Care must be taken not to make creases in the paper, as these become permanent. To avoid this the lower end of the sheet may be held with the left hand and raised when necessary as the brush passes downwards. The waste size will run down to the basin, but the paper need not be flooded, nor should its surface be brushed unnecessarily, but it must be fully and evenly charged with size. The sheet is then picked up by the two upper corners (which may conveniently be kept unsized) and pinned at each corner over a cord stretched across the workroom. The sheets are left hanging until they are dry. The Japanese lay the paper on the cord, letting the two halves of the sheet hang down equally on either side. The process of sizing and drying the sheets of paper is illustrated in a print shown in the collection at the South Kensington Museum. When the paper is quite dry it is taken down, and if required at once for printing should be cut up into sheets of the size required, with sufficient margin allowed to reach the register marks. It is best to cut a gauge or pattern in cardboard for use in cutting the sheets to a uniform size. A few sheets of unsized paper are needed as damping sheets, one being used to every three printing sheets. The damping sheets should be cut at least an inch wider and longer than the printing sheets. Two wooden boards are also required. The sheets of printing paper are kept between these while damping before work. To prepare for work, a damping sheet is taken and brushed over evenly with water with a broad brush (like that used for sizing). The sheet must not be soaked, but made thoroughly moist, evenly all over. It is then laid on one of the two boards, and on it, with the printing side (the smoother side) downward, are laid three of the sized sheets of printing paper. On these another moist damping sheet is laid, and again three dry sheets of printing paper, face downwards, and so on alternately to the number of sheets of the batch to be printed. A board is placed on the top of the pile. The number of prints to be attempted at one printing will vary with the kind of work and with the printer's experience. The printing may be continued during three days, but if the paper is kept damp longer, there is danger of mould and spotting. With work requiring delicate gradation of colour and many separate block impressions twenty or thirty sheets will be found sufficient for three days' hard work. The professional printers of Japan, however, print batches of two hundred and three hundred prints at a time, but in that case the work must become largely mechanical.[4] The batch of paper and damping sheets should remain between the boards for at least half an hour when new sheets are being damped for the first time. The damping sheets, all but the top and bottom ones, should then be removed and the printing sheets left together between the boards for some time before printing. An hour improves their condition very much, the moisture spreading equally throughout the batch of sheets. Before printing they should be quite flat and soft, but scarcely moist to the touch. If the sheets are new, they may even be left standing all night after the first damping, and will be in perfect condition for printing in the morning without further damping. No weight should be placed on the boards. Although no paper has hitherto been found that will take so perfect an impression from colour-blocks as the long-fibred Japanese paper, yet it should be the aim of all craftsmen to become independent of foreign materials as far as possible. There is no doubt that our paper-makers should be able to produce a paper of good quality sufficiently absorbent to take colour from the wet block and yet tough enough to bear handling when slightly damp. If a short-fibred paper is made without size, it comes to pieces when it is damped for printing. But the amount of absorbency required is not so great as to preclude the use of size altogether. It is a problem which our paper- makers could surely solve. A soft, slightly absorbent, white paper is required. At present nothing has been produced to take the place of the long mulberry fibre of the Japanese, which prints perfectly, but it is far from being pure white in colour. A white paper would have a great advantage in printing high and delicate colour schemes.

INK Next in importance is the preparation of the ink for printing the key-block or any black or grey parts of a design. As a rule the key-block is printed black, more or less diluted with paste; indeed the key-block is often printed very faintly by means of paste only just tinged with a trace of black.

Fig. 18. Cork of ink-bottle with wad for preservative. The use of colour for the key-block is treated in Chapter VII. The ink is prepared as follows. Take a stick of solid Chinese ink of good quality, and break it with a hammer into fragments; put these to soak in a pot with water for three or four days. (The quality of the sticks of Chinese ink varies greatly. The cheap sticks make a coarse and gritty ink which does not print well.) Day by day pour off the water, adding fresh, so that the glue that soaks out of the softened black fragments is removed. Three days is usually long enough for this. If left too long the whole mass goes bad and is spoiled. When the black mass is soft and clean drain off the water and rub the ink smooth in a dish with a bone palette knife. It is then ready for use, but would rapidly go bad if not used up at once, so that a preservative is necessary to keep a stock of ink in good condition. An effective method is to put the ink at once into a well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle. To the under side of the cork is nailed a little wad of unsized paper soaked with creosote. By this means ink can be kept in perfect condition for weeks or months. A drop of fresh creosote should occasionally be put on the wad fixed to the cork. Fresh ink may at any time be obtained rapidly in small quantities by rubbing down a stick of Chinese ink on a slab in the ordinary way, but this is very laborious, and is only worth while if one needs a small quantity of a glossy black, for which the rubbed-down ink containing all its glue is the best.

COLOUR Any colour that can be obtained in a fine dry powder may be used in wood-block printing. Some artists have succeeded in using ordinary water colours sold in tubes, by mixing the colour with the rice paste before printing; but the best results are obtained by the use of pure, finely ground dry colour mixed only with water, the rice paste being added actually on the block. Most of the artists' colour merchants supply colour by weight in the form of dry powder: any colour that is commonly used in oil or water-colour painting may be obtained in this state. A stock of useful colours should be kept in wide-necked bottles. A few shallow plates or small dishes are needed to hold colour and a bone or horn palette knife for mixing and rubbing the colour into a smooth paste in the dishes. Small bone paper knives are useful for taking colour from the bottles. When the colour scheme of a print is made certain—and this is best done by printing small experimental batches—it is a good plan to have a number of covered pots equal to the number of the different colour impressions, and to fill these with a quantity of each tint, the colour or colours being mixed smoothly with water to the consistency of stiff cream. Some colours will be found to print more smoothly and easily than others. Yellow ochre, for instance, prints with perfect smoothness and ease, while heavier or more gritty colours tend to separate and are more difficult. In the case of a very heavy colour such as vermilion, a drop of glue solution will keep the colour smooth for printing, and less paste is necessary. But most colours will give good impressions by means of rice paste alone. It is essential, however, that only very finely ground colours of good quality should be used. PASTE A paste must be used with the colour in order to hold it on to the surface of the paper and to give brilliancy. The colour, if printed without paste, would dry to powder again. The paste also preserves the matt quality which is characteristic of the Japanese prints. Finely ground rice flour may be obtained from grocery dealers. An excellent French preparation of rice sold in packets as Crême de Riz is perfect for the purpose of making paste for printing. It should be carefully made as follows: While half a pint of water is put to boil in a saucepan over a small spirit lamp or gas burner, mix in a cup about two teaspoonfuls of rice flour with water, added little by little until a smooth cream is made with no lumps in it. A bone spoon is good for this purpose. Pour this mixture into the boiling water in the saucepan all at once, and stir well till it boils again, after which it should be left simmering over a small flame for five minutes. When the paste has cooled it should be smooth and almost fluid enough to pour: not stiff like a pudding. While printing, a little paste is put out in a saucer and replenished from time to time. Fresh paste should be made every day. CHAPTER VI

Detailed Method of Printing Success in printing depends very much on care and orderliness. It is necessary to keep to a fixed arrangement of the position of everything on the work-table and to have all kept as clean as possible. To see the deft and unhurried work of a Japanese craftsman at printing is a great lesson, and a reproach to Western clumsiness. The positions indicated by the diagram on page 11 will be found to be practical and convenient. The special tools used in printing are the "baren" or printing pad, which is the only instrument of pressure used, and the printing brushes.

THE BAREN OR PRINTING PAD As made by the Japanese, the baren is about five inches in diameter, and consists of a circular board upon which a flat coil of cord or twisted fibre is laid. This is held in place by a covering made of a strip of bamboo- sheath, the two ends of which are twisted and brought together at the back of the board so as to form a handle. The flat surface of the bamboo-sheath is on the under side of the pad when the handle is uppermost. The ribbed bamboo-sheath is impervious to the dampness of the paper in printing, and the pad may be used to rub and press directly on the back of the damp paper as it lies on the block without any protective backing sheet. The collotype reproduction facing page 12 shows the shape and character of the baren. Japanese printing pads may be obtained from some of the artists' colour-men, or from Japan through various agencies. They are by far the best instrument for the purpose. A pad lasts a considerable time, and when the bamboo sheath wears through may be re-covered as described below. If the new bamboo sheath is unobtainable, the baren may be re-covered by a sheet of vegetable parchment (of the kind used for covering pots of jam), laid on when wet, and twisted and bound at the end like the original bamboo covering. A baren used and re-covered when worn will last for an indefinite time in this way.

TO RE-COVER A WORN BAREN WITH BAMBOO SHEATH Damp the new leaf in water with a brush on both sides thoroughly. Wipe dry both sides. Lay it on a flat surface and stretch wider with the fingers on the inside, keeping the leaf flat with the palm of the hand. Rub the inside of the leaf with something hard and smooth across the width on both sides. 1. Cut AG, BG with leaf folded. 2. Place the round pad in position on the flat leaf. 3. Stretch the leaf to lap at sides EF. 4. Turn in EA and BF fold by fold, first one side and then the other. 5. Pull hard before beginning the other end. Fig. 19.—Method of re-covering baren. 6. Cut away CH, DH, holding down firmly the end done. 7. Twist up the ends tightly, pull over to the centre, and tie tightly together; cut off ends. 8. Polish on board and oil slightly. Twist the inside part of the baren occasionally to save wear by changing its position within the sheath. Several substitutes have been tried in place of the Japanese baren, with coverings of leather, shark's skin, celluloid, and various other materials, but these necessitate the use of a backing sheet to protect the paper from their harsh surfaces. An ingenious rubber of ribbed glass which works directly on the paper has been devised by Mr. William Giles, who has produced beautiful results by its means. If one is using the Japanese baren, its surface needs to be kept very slightly oiled to enable it to run freely over the damp paper. A pad of paper with a drop of sweet oil suffices for this, and may lie on the right of the printing block where the baren is put after each impression is taken. An even simpler method is that of the Japanese craftsman who rubs the baren from time to time on the back of his head.

BRUSHES Japanese printing brushes are sold by some artists' colour dealers, but these are not essential, nor have they any practical superiority over well-made Western brushes. Fig. 20.—Drawing of brushes. An excellent type of brush is that made of black Siberian bear hair for fine varnishing. These can be had from good brush-makers with the hair fixed so that it will stand soaking in water. Drawings of the type of brush are given above. Three or four are sufficient; one broad brush, about three inches, for large spaces, one two-inch, and two one- inch, will do nearly all that is needed. Occasionally a smaller brush may be of use.

PRINTING To begin printing, one takes first the key-block, laying it upon a wet sheet of unsized paper, or upon wads of wet paper under each corner of the block, which will keep it quite steady on the work-table. A batch of sheets of printing paper, prepared and damped as described in Chapter V, lies between boards just beyond the block. The pad lies close to the block at the right on oily paper pinned to the table. To the right also are a dish or plate on which a little ink is spread, the printing brush (broad for the key-block), a saucer containing fresh paste, a bowl of water, a small sponge, and a cloth. Nothing else is needed, and it is best to keep the table clear of unnecessary pots or colour bottles. When these things are ready one should see that the paper is in a good state. It should be rather drier for a key- block than for other blocks, as a fine line will print thickly if the paper is too damp and soft. In fact, it can scarcely be too dry for the key-block, provided that it has become perfectly smooth, and is still flexible enough for complete contact with the block. But it must not be either dry or damp in patches. If the paper is all right, one lifts off the upper board and top damping sheet, placing them on the left, ready to receive the sheets when printed. The key-block, if quite dry, must be moistened with a damp sponge and then brushed over with the broad printing brush and ink. If a grey line is wanted the brush should be dipped in a little of the paste and scarcely touched with ink. For a pale grey line the key-block also must be well washed before printing. Even if the line is to be black a little paste should be used. This is best added after one has brushed the black ink on to the block, not mixed with it beforehand. The ink and paste are then broken together smoothly and completely over the whole surface of the block. The last few brush strokes should be of the full length or breadth of the block and be given lightly with the brush held upright. The inking of the block must be thoroughly done, but with no more brushing than is necessary to spread the colour equally. When properly charged with ink the block should not be at all wet, but just covered with a very thin and nearly dry film of ink and paste. No time should be wasted in lifting the top sheet of printing paper on to the block, placing first its right corner in the register notch, and holding it there with the thumb, then the edge of the paper to the other notch, to be held with the left thumb while the right hand is released to take up the baren (fig. 21). Beginning at the left, the baren is rubbed backwards and forwards, a full stroke each time, to the outside limits of the block, with a moderate, even pressure, moving the stroke in a zigzag towards the right end of the block (fig. 22). Once over should be enough. A second rub makes heavy printing of the finer lines. Then the paper is lifted from the block and placed on the board to the left.

Fig. 21.—Manner of holding the paper. Particular attention must be given to the careful placing of the paper home in the register notches, and to holding it there until the rubber has gripped the paper on the block. Sheet by sheet all the printing paper is passed in this way over the key-block, and piled together. There is no fear of the ink offsetting or marking the print placed above it. As the work proceeds the block will give better and better impressions. Spoiled or defective impressions should be put together at the top of the pile when it lies ready for the next printing, for the first few impressions are always uncertain, and it is well to use the defective prints as pioneers, so as not to spoil good ones.

Fig. 22.—Manner of using the baren. When the block has been printed on the whole batch, the sheets should be replaced at once between the boards before one prepares for the colour impressions. Usually the paper will be too dry for colour by this time: if this is so, the damping sheets should be moistened and put in again as before; one to each three printing sheets. In a minute or two they will have damped the paper sufficiently and must be taken out, leaving the printing sheets to stand, between the boards, ready for the first colour-block.

PRINTING FROM COLOUR-BLOCKS In printing colour the paper may be slightly damper than it should be for key-block impressions, and a heavier pressure is necessary on the baren if the colour masses are large. If the baren is pressed lightly the colour will not completely cover the paper, but will leave a dry, granular texture. Occasionally this quality may be useful, but as a rule a smooth, evenly printed surface is best. It will be found that smooth, even printing is not obtained by loading the block with colour or paste, but by using the least possible quantity of both, and nearly dry paper. In beginning to print from a colour-block, care should be taken to moisten the block fully before printing, or it will not yield the colour from its surface; but the block must be wiped, and not used while actually wet. The printing proceeds exactly as in the case of the key-block, except for the heavier use of the baren. The paste should be added after the colour has been roughly brushed on to the block, and then the two are smoothly brushed together. The Japanese printers put the paste on to the block by means of a little stick kept in the dish of paste. Experience will soon show the amount of paste needed. It is important neither to add too much nor to stint the paste, as the colour when dry depends on the paste for its quality. Too little paste gives a dead effect. Some of the colours print more easily than others. With a sticky colour it is well to wipe the block with a nearly dry sponge between each impression, so that the wood gives up its colour more readily. In the case of a very heavy colour such as vermilion a drop of glue and water may help; but with practically all the colours that are generally used the rice paste and careful printing are enough. The amount of size in the paper is another important factor in the printing of colour. If the paper is too lightly sized the fibres will detach themselves and stick to the damp block. Or if too heavily sized the paper will not take up the colour cleanly from the block, and will look hard when dry. One very soon feels instinctively the right quality and condition of the block, colour, and paper which are essential to good printing; and to print well one must become sensitive to them.

PRINTING OF GRADATIONS Beside the printing of flat masses of colour, one of the great resources of block printing is in the power of delicate gradation in printing. The simplest way of making a gradation from strong to pale colour is to dip one corner of a broad brush into the colour and the other corner into water so that the water just runs into the colour: then, by squeezing the whole width of the brush broadly between the thumb and forefinger so that most of the water is squeezed out, the brush is left charged with a tint gradated from side to side. The brush is then dipped lightly into paste along its whole edge, and brushed a few times to and fro across the block where the gradation is needed. It is easy in this way to print a very delicately gradated tint from full colour to white. If the pale edge of the tint is to disappear, the block should be moistened along the surface with a sponge where the colour is to cease. A soft edge may be given to a tint with a brush ordinarily charged if the block is moistened with a clean sponge at the part where the tint is to cease. This effect is often seen at the top of the sky in a Japanese landscape print where a dark blue band of colour is printed with a soft edge suddenly gradated to white, or sometimes the plumage of birds is printed with sudden gradations. In fact, the method may be developed in all kinds of ways. Often it is an advantage to print a gradation and then a flat tone over the gradation in a second printing.

OFFSETTING No care need be taken to prevent "offsetting" of the colour while printing. The prints may be piled on the top of each other immediately as they are lifted from the block, without fear of offsetting or marking each other. Only an excessive use of colour, or the leaving of heavy ridges of colour at the edges of the block by careless brushing, will sometimes mark the next print on the pile. As in printing the key-block, it is well to hold the brush quite upright for the last strokes across the block, and always to give a full stroke across the whole length or width of the form to be coloured. As soon as one colour-block has been printed, the next may be taken and printed at once, without fear of the colour running, even though the fresh colour touches the parts already printed. One by one each colour-block is printed in this way until the batch of paper has been passed over the whole set of blocks composing the design of the print. There may sometimes be an advantage in not printing the key- block first, though as a rule it should come first for the sake of keeping the later blocks in proper register. If the key-block is not printed one cannot see how the colour-blocks are fitting. But in the case of a sky with perhaps two or even three printings—a gradation and a flat tone or two gradations—there is danger of blurring the lines of the key-block, so that in such a case the sky should be printed first, and then the key-block followed by the remaining colour-blocks. At the end of a day's printing the prints may quite safely be left standing together between the boards until the next day. For three days the damp paper comes to no harm, except in hot weather, but on the fourth day little red spots of mould begin to show and spread. It should be remembered that freshly boiled paste is to be used each day.

DRYING OF PRINTS When the prints are finished they should be put to dry as soon as possible. If they are spread out and left exposed to the air they will soon dry, but in drying will cockle, and cannot then be easily pressed flat. It is better to have a number of mill-boards or absorbent "pulp" boards rather larger than the prints, and to pile the prints and boards alternately one by one, placing a weight on the top of the pile. The absorbent boards will rapidly dry the prints and keep them quite flat. Finished prints should be numbered for reference, and should, if printed by the artist himself, also bear his signature —or some printed sign to that effect. The number of prints obtainable from a set of blocks is difficult to estimate. The Japanese printers are said to have made editions of several thousands from single sets of blocks. The actual wear in printing even of a fine line block is imperceptible, for the pressure is very slight. Certainly hundreds of prints can be made without any deterioration. But an artist who is both designing and producing his own work will not be inclined to print large editions.[5] CHAPTER VII

Principles and Main Considerations in designing Wood-block Prints—Their Application to Modern Colour Printing Until one has become quite familiar with the craft of wood-block printing it is not possible to make a satisfactory design for a print, or to understand either the full resources that are available or the limits that are fixed. In beginning it is well to undertake only a small design, so that no great amount of material or time need be consumed in gaining the first experience, but this small piece of work should be carried through to the end, however defective it may become at any stage. A small key-block and two or three colour patches may all be cut on the two sides of one plank for this purpose. There is great diversity of opinion as to the conventions that are appropriate to the designing of colour prints. In the work of the Japanese masters the convention does not vary. A descriptive black or grey line is used throughout the design, outlining all forms or used as flat spots or patches. The line is not always uniform, but is developed with great subtlety to suggest the character of the form expressed, so that the subsequent flat mass of colour printed within the line appears to be modelled. This treatment of the line is one of the great resources of the work, and is special to this kind of design, in which the line has to be cut with the knife on both sides, and is for this reason capable of unusual development in its power of expressing form. Indeed the knife is the final instrument in the drawing of the design. Typical examples of key-block impressions are given on pages 26 and 33: they show the variety of character and quality possible in the lines and black masses of key-blocks. The designing of a print depends most of all upon this development of line and black mass in the key-block. The colour pattern of the print is held together by it, and the form suggested. In the Japanese prints the key- block is invariably printed black or grey. Masses intended to be dense black in the finished print are printed first a flat grey by the key-block, and are then printed a full black from a colour-block like any other patch of colour, the double printing being necessary to give the intensity of the black. Although several modern prints have been designed on other principles, and sometimes a coloured key-block is successfully used, yet the convention adopted by the Japanese is the simplest and most fundamental of all. Outside its safe limitations the technical difficulties are increased, and one is led to make compromises that strain the proper resources of block printing and are of doubtful advantage. The temptation to use colour with the key-block comes when one attempts to use the key-block for rendering light and shadow. Its use by the Japanese masters was generally for the descriptive expression of the contours of objects, ignoring entirely their shadows, or any effects of light and shade, unless a shadow happened occasionally to be an important part of the pattern of the design. Generally, as in nearly all the landscape prints by Hiroshigé, the line is descriptive or suggestive of essential form, not of effects in light and shade. If the key-block is used for light and shade, the question of relative tones and values of shadows arises, and these will be falsified unless a key-block is made for each separate plane or part of the design, and then there is danger of confusion or of compromises that are beyond the true scope of the work. It is generally safest to print the key-block in a tone that blends with the general tone of the print, and not to use it as a part of the colour pattern. It serves mainly to control the form, leaving the colour-blocks to give the colour pattern. There are cases, of course, where no rule holds good, and sometimes a design may successfully omit the key-block altogether, using only a few silhouettes of colour, one of which controls the main form of the print, and serves as key-block. Frequently, also, the key-block may be used to give the interior form or character of part of a design, leaving the shape of a colour-block to express the outside shape or contour; as in the spots suggesting foliage in the print on page 114. The shapes of the tree forms are partly left to the colour- block to complete, the key only giving the suggestion of the general broken character of the foliage, not the outside limits of the branches. The outer shape of a tree or branch is rarely expressed by an enclosing line in any of the Japanese prints. The key-block is often used to describe interior form when a silhouette of colour is all that is needed for the contour. The expressive rendering of the rough surface of tree trunks and of forms of rock, or the articulation of plants and the suggestion of objects in atmospheric distance or mist, should be studied in good prints by the Japanese masters. In printed work by modern masters—as, for example, the work of the great French designers of poster advertisements—much may be learnt in the use and development of expressive line. The Japanese system of training is well described in a book by Henry P. Bowie on "The Laws of Japanese Painting," in which many useful suggestions are given with reference to graphic brush drawing and the suggestive use of line and brush marks. As part of the training of a designer for modern decorative printing, the experience and sense of economy that are to be gained from the study of wood-block printing are very great. Perhaps no work goes so directly to the essentials of the art of decorative designing for printed work of all kinds. The wood blocks not only compel economy of design, but also lead one to it. Even as a means of general training in the elements of decorative pictorial composition the wood blocks have great possibilities as an adjunct to the courses of work followed by art students. The same problems that arise in all decoration may be dealt with by their means on a small scale, but under conditions that are essentially instructive. Colour schemes may be studied and worked out with entire freedom by printing and reprinting until a problem is thoroughly solved. A colour design may be studied and worked out as fully by means of a small set of blocks, and with more freedom for experiment and alteration than is possible by the usual methods of study, such as painting and repainting on paper or canvas or wall; for the form being once established by the blocks, the colour may be reconstructed again and again without limit. The craft has thus not only its special interest as a means of personal expression, but also a more general use as a means of training and preparation for the wider scope and almost unlimited resources of modern printing. The best use of those resources will be made by artists who have been trained under simpler conditions, and have found their way gradually to an understanding of the secrets of æsthetic economy in printing. One of the many paths to that experience is by way of the craft of the wood-block printer. CHAPTER VIII

Co-operative Printing A print is shown at the end of this book (page 95) as an example of a first experiment in co-operative printing. An actual print was needed to illustrate the method of block printing, and the number required was too great for a single printer to undertake. So the work was divided between four printers (of whom the writer was one), working together. Each of us had been accustomed to print our own prints in small batches of a dozen or two at a time, giving individual care to each print. The printing of 2000 prints to a fixed type was a very different matter, and proved an instructive and valuable experience. It was found that the printing of a large number of successive impressions gave one an increasingly delicate control of a block, and a high percentage of perfect impressions. After the initial experiments and practice, the failures in the later batches of the print were reduced to only 4 or 5 per cent. of the completed prints. The work was done in batches of 250 prints, each print receiving eight impressions, as shown on pages 98-109. Each of the four printers took charge of a particular series of the blocks, which were printed in a regular order. It was found most convenient to print the key-block last of all, as the heavy blacks in it were inclined to offset under the pressure of the baren and slightly soil the colour-blocks, if the key-block was printed first, as is usually the practice. The colour-blocks were printed in the order in which they are placed in the Appendix. The best quality of work was done on nearly dry paper. The damping sheets were placed among the new paper at the end of the day's work and removed after ten or fifteen minutes, the printing paper then was left standing over night between boards, ready for work in the morning, and was not damped again until after receiving several impressions. Then it was very slightly damped again by means of a damping sheet to every ten or twelve prints placed there for a very few minutes. As one printer finished the impressions from one of his blocks, the batch of papers was passed on to the others, each in turn. In this way three batches of 250 were printed without haste in one week, working eight hours a day for five and a half days. The chief difficulty experienced was in keeping to the exact colour and quality of the type print, each printer being inclined to vary according to individual preferences. To counteract this tendency, it is necessary for one individual to watch and control the others in these respects. Otherwise the work proceeded easily and made very clear the possibilities of the craft for the printing of large numbers of prints for special purposes where the qualities required are not obtainable by machine printing. Obviously the best results will always be obtained by the individual printing of his own work by an artist. This can only be done, however, in comparatively small numbers, yet the blocks are capable of printing very large quantities without deterioration. The set of blocks used for the example given here showed very little deterioration after 4000 impressions had been taken. The key-block was less worn than any, the pressure being very slight for this block, and the ink perfectly smooth. The impression of which a reproduction is given on page 109 was taken after 4000 had been printed from the key-block. Block No. 2 was much more worn by the gritty nature of the burnt sienna used in its printing. It would be an easy matter, however, to replace any particular colour-block that might show signs of wear in a long course of printing. Other examples given in the Appendix show qualities and methods of treatment that are instructive or suggestive. No. 6 is the key impression of a Japanese print in which an admirable variety of resource is shown by its design; the character of each kind of form being rendered by such simple yet so expressive indications. It is instructive to study the means by which this is done, and to notice how interior form is sometimes suggested by groups of spots or black marks of varied shape while the indication of the external form is left entirely to the shape of the colour-block subsequently to be printed. Plate XVI is a reproduction of a print by Hiroshigé and shows the suggestive use of the key-block in rendering tree forms. Plates XVII and XVIII show in greater detail this kind of treatment. Plates XXIII-XXIV are key-blocks of modern print designs. APPENDIX Transcriber's Note: The note stating (actual size) is no longer correct. An original print in colour, designed and cut by the author and printed by hand on Japanese paper, followed by collotype reproductions showing the separate impressions of the colour blocks used for this print, and other collotype reproductions of various examples of printing and design.

The particulars given in Chapter VIII on co-operative printing refer specially to the original print included in the first edition. In this edition an entirely new print is shown, and only 1,000 copies of it are being published.

Plate VIII.—An original Print designed and cut by the Author, printed by hand on Japanese paper. Plates originally printed in collotype are now produced in half-tone Plate IX.—First printing. Key block. Black. Plate X.—Second printing. Dull Red. Printed lightly at the top. Plate XI.—Third printing. Deep Blue. Strong at the bottom, paler at the top. Plate XII.—Fifth printing. Bright Orange. (The fourth printing, not shown, is a similar small block, printing a faint tone over the road in the foreground.) Plate XIII.—Sixth printing. Indian Red. Gradation. Plate XIV.—Seventh printing. Green. Printed flat. Plate XV.—Eighth printing. Bluish green. Gradation. Plate XVI.—Reproduction of a colour print by Hiroshigé. Plate XVII.—Reproduction of a portion of the print shown on the preceding page, actual size, showing the treatment of the foliage and the expressive drawing of the tree trunk and stems. Plate XVIII.—Reproduction of another portion of the print shown on page 111 (actual size), showing the expressive use of line in the drawing of the distant forms. Plate XIX.—Reproduction of a colour print by Hiroshigé. Plate XX.—Reproduction of a portion (actual size) of the print on the preceding page, showing treatment of tree forms and distance. Plate XXI.—Reproduction of a colour print by Hiroshigé. Plate XXII.—Reproduction of a portion (actual size) of the print on the preceding page, showing treatment of tree and blossom. Plate XXIII.—The Tiger. Reproduction of a colour print by J. D. Batten. Plate XXIV.—Lapwings. Reproduction of a colour print by A. W. Seaby. BOOKS OF REFERENCE "Tools and Materials illustrating the Japanese Method of Colour Printing." A descriptive catalogue of a collection exhibited in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Price Twopence. Victoria and Albert Museum Catalogues. 1913. "The Colour Prints of Japan." By Edward F. Strange. The Langham Series of Art Monographs. London. "Japanese Colour Prints." By Edward F. Strange. (3rd Edition.) Victoria and Albert Museum Handbooks. London. "Japanese Wood Engravings." By William Anderson, F. R. C. S. London, Seeley & Co., Ltd. New York, Macmillan & Co. 1895. "Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut Printing." By T. Tokuno. Edited and annotated by S. R. Kochler. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for the year ending June 30, 1892. Issued in pamphlet form by the U.S.A. National Museum, Washington. 1893. Other works containing descriptions and references to the craft of wood-block printing in the Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, are the following:— "The Industries of Japan." By J. J. Rein. (Paper, pp. 389.) London. 1889. "Bungei Ruisan," By Yoshino Sakakibara. Essays on Japanese literature, with additional chapters describing the manufacture of paper and the processes of printing and engraving. (The Museum copy has MS. translations of the portion relating to engraving.) Tokyo. 1878. [2] The preparation of the ink for printing is described on p. 54. [3] See also p. 75. [4] See CHAPTER VIII for further experience on this point. [5] Further experience on this point is given in CHAPTER VIII on Co-operative Printing.

INDEX Block cutting, materials, 17 Alum, 50 Blocks, cutting of, 17, 23 Andreani, Andrea, xi Blocks, mounting of, 18

Baldung, Hans, x Blocks, planning of, 23

Bamboo-sheath, 62 Books of reference, 129

Baren, 11, 61, 62 Bowie, Henry P., 86

Baren, manner of using, 72 British Museum Print Room, 43

Baren, to re-cover, 63, 64 Brushes, 65

Baren, to re-cover (diagram), 64 Brushes, drawing of, 66

Batches, size of, 89 Carborundum stone, 21 Batten, J. D., 2 Cherry wood, 17 Commercial development, 5

Chiaroscuro, x Conventions of design, 82

Chinese ink, 55 Co-operative printing, 89

Chisel, grip of, 34, 35 Craft in Japan, 61

Chisels, 20 Craftsmen, training of, 24

Clearing of spaces, 33 Cranach, Lucas, x

Clearing of wood between knife cuts, 35 Crane, Walter, ix

Colour, 56 Creasote, 56

Colour block, diagram of section, 42 Cutting, 25

Colour blocks, plan of, 39 Da Carpo, Ugo, x Colour blocks, planning, 40, 41 Damping, 14 Colour blocks, printing from, 73 Damping sheets, 51 Colour design, 87 Design, 27 Gelatine, 48 Design, conventions in, 82 Giles, William, 65 Designing, 81 Glue solution with colour, 58, 75 Designing wood-block prints, principles of, 81 Gouge, method of holding, 35 Design of key-block, 26 Gradations, printing of, 75 Diagram of knife cuts, 33 Grip of chisel, 34, 35 Drying of colour, 77

Drying of prints, 79 Hands, position of, in cutting, 30, 31

Herkomer, ix Errors of register, 43 Hiroshigé, 84 Eve and the Serpent, print of, 2

Impressions, possible number of, 92 Flat treatment, 26, 27 Ink, 54 Foliage, 85 Inking of block, 69 Ink, preservative for, 56 Key-block, 25, 27, 84, 85

Italian woodcuts, ix Key-block impressions, 5, 26, 33

Knife, 19 Jackson, T. B., xii Knife, drawing of, 19 Japan, craft in, 4, 23 Knife, use of, 24 Japanese blocks, 43 Knife cuts, diagram of, 33 Japanese craftsmen, 61

Japanese drawing, 27 "Laws of Japanese Painting," 86

Japanese key-block, 33 Light and shade, 85

"Japanese Painting, The Laws of," 86 Line block, cutting of, 32

Japanese paper, 54 Line, development of, 32

Japanese printers, 52, 80 Line of key-block, 26

Japanese prints, 83 Mallet, 21 Mallet, drawing of, 21 Outamaro, 24

Mantegna, xi Pad, 61 Millboards for drying, 79 Paper, 47 Modern prints, 83 Paper, damping of, 51 Mordant, alum as, 50 Paper, manner of holding, 70 Mould, 79 Paper, mould in, 79 Mulberry fibre, 47 Paper, need of white, 54 Museums, sets of blocks at, 43 Paper, sizing of, 48

Number of impressions, 92 Paper, sizing of (drawing), 49

Paste, 58 Offsetting, 71, 77 Paste, amount used in printing, 74 Oilstones, 21 Paste, preparation of, 59 Orlik, Prof. Emil, 7 Plank, preparation of, 18 Register, 71, 78 Planning of blocks, 24 Register, errors of, 41, 43 Position of hands, 30, 31 Register marks, 36, 37, 42 Posters, 86, 87 Register marks, position of, 37 Printing, 67 Register marks, section of, 38 Printing, co-operative, 89 Rice flour, 59 Printing, detailed method of, 61 Rice paste, 58 Printing from colour blocks, 73 Rubber, glass, 65 Printing, general description of, 9 Rubber, printing, 61 Printing of gradations, 75, 76, 77

Printing pad, 62 Shadows, treatment of, 85

Prints, designing, 81 Shallow cuts, 34

Prints, drying of, 79 Shrinking of paper, 41

Siberian bear hair brushes, 66 Size, amount of, in paper, 75 Training of designers, 86

Size, excess of, 75 Treatment of form, 93

Sizing of paper, 48, 49 Tree-forms, 85, 93

Smithsonian Institution pamphlet, 2 Variety of line, 82, 83 South Kensington Museum, 43

Spots in paper, 79 Washita oilstone, 22

Wood, 17 Table, plan of, 11 Woodcuts, Italian, ix. Tokuno, T., 2 Work-table, plan of, 11 Tools for block-cutting, 19 ARTISTS INTERESTED IN THE :: :: PERMANENCE OF :: :: THEIR WOOD BLOCK PRINTS now use the CAMBRIDGE COLOURS only, because (1) Only Pigments of the HIGHEST ORDER OF PERMANENCE are included in the Cambridge Palette (2) All the Pigments may be SAFELY MIXED TOGETHER without danger of their acting injuriously on each other (3) All the Pigments are PURE and free from injurious impurities

SOLE MAKERS

MADDERTON & CO., LTD., Loughton, Essex ENGLAND

(ESTABLISHED 1891)

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"MADDERTON, LOUGHTON," ESSEX 63 LOUGHTON All Tools and Materials for

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THE PRACTICAL DISTILLER:

OR

AN INTRODUCTION TO MAKING WHISKEY, GIN, BRANDY, SPIRITS, &c. &c. OF BETTER QUALITY, AND IN LARGER QUANTITIES, THAN PRODUCED BY THE PRESENT MODE OF DISTILLING, FROM THE PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES:

SUCH AS RYE, CORN, BUCK-WHEAT, APPLES, PEACHES, POTATOES, PUMPIONS AND TURNIPS.

WITH DIRECTIONS HOW TO CONDUCT AND IMPROVE THE PRACTICAL PART OF DISTILLING IN ALL ITS BRANCHES.

TOGETHER WITH DIRECTIONS FOR PURIFYING, CLEARING AND COLOURING WHISKEY, MAKING SPIRITS SIMILAR TO FRENCH BRANDY, &c. FROM THE SPIRITS OF RYE, CORN, APPLES, POTATOES, &c. &c.

AND SUNDRY EXTRACTS OF APPROVED RECEIPTS FOR MAKING CIDER, DOMESTIC WINES, AND BEER. BY SAMUEL McHARRY, OF LANCASTER COUNTY, PENN.

PUBLISHED AT HARRISBURGH, (PENN.) BY JOHN WYETH. —1809.— DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA,

TO WIT:

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twenty fourth day of November, in the thirty-third year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1808, Samuel McHarry, of the said district, hath deposited in this Office, the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit: The Practical Distiller: or an introduction to making Whiskey, Gin, Brandy, Spirits, &c. &c. of better quality, and in larger quantities, than produced by the present mode of distilling, from the produce of the United States: such as Rye, Corn, Buckwheat, Apples, Peaches, Potatoes, Pumpions and Turnips. With directions how to conduct and improve the practical part of distilling in all its branches. Together with directions for purifying, clearing and colouring Whiskey, making Spirits similar to French Brandy, &c. from the Spirits of Rye, Corn, Apples, Potatoes &c. &c. and sundry extracts of approved receipts for making Cider, domestic Wines, and Beer. By Samuel McHarry, of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania. In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, "An act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned." And also to the act, entitled, "An act supplementary to an act, entitled, 'An act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the time therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the district of Pennsylvania. DI. CONTENTS • Page • SECTION I • Observations on Yeast. 25 • Receipt for making stock Yeast. 27 • Vessel most proper for preserving -do-.30 • To ascertain the quality of -do-.31 • To renew -do-. 32 • Observations on the mode in which distillers generally work -do-.33 • How stock Yeast may be kept good for years. 34 • To make best Yeast for daily use. 36 • • SECTION II • Observations on the best wood for hogsheads.39 • To sweeten by scalding -ditto-. 41 • Ditto, burning -do-. 42 • • SECTION III • To mash rye in the common mode. 44 • Best method of distilling rye. 45 • To mash one-third rye with two-thirds corn.47 • -Do-. an equal quantity of rye and corn. 49 • -Do-. two-thirds rye and one-third corn. 51 • -Do-. corn. 54 • To make four gallons to the bushel. 55 • To know when grain is sufficiently scalded.58 • Directions for cooling off. 59 • To ascertain when rye works well. 61 • To prevent hogsheads from working over.62 • • SECTION IV • Observations on the quality of rye. 63 • Mode of chopping rye. 64 • -Do-. or grinding indian corn. 65 • -Do-. malt. 66 • To choose malt. 67 • To build a malt-kiln. 67 • To make malt for stilling. 69 • Of hops. 69 • • SECTION V • How to order and fill the singling still. 69 • Mode of managing the doubling still. 71 • On the advantages of making good whiskey. 73 • Distilling buckwheat. 77 • Distilling potatoes, with observations. 78 • Receipt to prepare potatoes for distilling. 82 • Distilling pumpions. 83 • -Do-. turnips. 83 • -Do-. apples. 84 • To order do. in the hogsheads. 85 • To work do. fast or slow. 86 • To know when apples are ready for distilling. 87 • To fill and order the singling still for apples. 88 • To double apple-brandy. 90 • To prepare peaches. 91 • To double and single -do-. 92 • • SECTION VI • Best mode of setting stills. 93 • To prevent the planter from cracking. 98 • Method of boiling more than one still by a single fire.99 • To set a doubling still. 100 • To prevent the singling still from rusting. 101 • • SECTION VII • How to clarify whiskey. 102 • To make a brandy, from rye, spirits or • • whiskey, to resemble French Brandy.103 • To make a spirit from ditto, to resemble • Jamaica spirits. 104 • -Do-. Holland gin. 105 • -Do-. country gin, and clarifying same.107 • On fining liquors. 110 • On coloring liquors. 111 • To correct the taste of singed whiskey. 112 • To give an aged flavor. 113 • • SECTION VIII • Observations on weather. 115 • -Do-. water. 117 • Precautions against fire. 119 • • SECTION IX • Duty of the owner of a distillery. 120 • -Do-. of a hired distiller. 123 • • SECTION X • The profits arising from a common distillery. 125 • -Do-. from a patent distillery. 127 • Of hogs. 129 • Diseases of hogs. 133 • Feeding cattle and milk cows. 134 • • SECTION XI • Observations on erecting distilleries. 135 • • SECTION XII • On Wines. 139 • Receipt for making ditto, from the autumn blue grape. 140 • -Ditto-, from currants. 142 • -Do-. for making cider, British mode. 143 • -Do-. -do-. American mode.145 • -Do-. for an excellent American wine. 150 • -Do-. -do-. honey wine. 153 • To make elderberry wine. 156 • -Do-. -do-. cordial. 157 • • SECTION XIII • Of brewing beer. 160 • Of the brewing vessels. 160 • Of cleaning and sweetening casks and brewing vessels.161 • Of mashing or raking liquors. 163 • Of working the liquor. 167 • Of fining malt liquors. 170 • Season for brewing. 172 • To make elderberry beer or ebulum. 173 • To make improved purl. 174 • To brew strong beer. 175 • To make china ale. 176 • To make any new liquor drink as stale. 177 • To recover sour ale. 177 • To recover liquor that is turned bad. 178 • Directions for bottling. 178 • To make ale or beer of cooked malt. 179 • To make treacle (or molasses) beer. 181 PREFACE. When I first entered on the business of Distilling, I was totally unacquainted with it. I was even so ignorant of the process, as not to know that fermentation was necessary, in producing spirits from grain. I had no idea that fire being put under a still, which, when hot enough, would raise a vapour; or that vapour when raised, could be condensed by a worm or tube passing through water into a liquid state. In short, my impressions were, that chop-rye mixed with water in a hogshead, and let stand for two or three days; and then put into a still, and fire being put under her, would produce the spirit by boiling up into the worm, and to pass through the water in order to cool it, and render it palatable for immediate use—and was certain the whole art and mystery could be learned in two or three weeks, or months at farthest, as I had frequently met with persons who professed a knowledge of the business, which they had acquired in two or three months, and tho' those men were esteemed distillers, and in possession of all the necessary art, in this very abstruse science; I soon found them to be ignorant blockheads, without natural genius, and often, without principle. Thus benighted, and with only the above light and knowledge, I entered into the dark, mysterious and abstruse science of distilling, a business professed to be perfectly understood by many, but in fact not sufficiently understood by any. For it presents a field for the learned, and man of science, for contemplation—that by a judicious and systematic appropriation and exercise of certain elements, valuable and salutary spirits and beverages may be produced in great perfection, and at a small expense, and little inconvenience, on almost every farm in our country. The professed chymist, and profound theorist may smile at my ideas, but should any one of them ever venture to soil a finger in the practical part of distilling, I venture to say, he would find more difficulty in producing good yeast, than in the process of creating oxygen or hydrogen gas. Scientific men generally look down on us, and that is principally owing to the circumstance of so many knaves, blockheads and conceited characters being engaged in the business.—If then, the subject could be improved, I fancy our country would yield all the necessary liquors, and in a state of perfection, to gratify the opulent, and please the epicure. I had no difficulty in finding out a reputed great distiller, whose directions I followed in procuring every necessary ingredient and material for distilling, &c. He was industrious and attentive, and produced tolerable yield, but I soon found the quantity of the runs to vary, and the yield scarcely two days alike. I enquired into the cause, of him, but his answers were, he could not tell; I also enquired of other distillers, and could procure no more satisfactory answer—some attributed it to the water, others to witchcraft, &c. &c. I found them all ignorant—I was equally so, and wandered in the dark; but having commenced the business, I determined to have light on the subject; I thought there must be books containing instructions, but to my surprise, after a diligent search of all the book-stores and catalogues in Pennsylvania, I found there was no American work extant, treating on this science—and those of foreign production, so at variance with our habits, customs, and mode of economy, that I was compelled to abandon all hope of scientific or systematic aid, and move on under the instructions of those distillers of our neighborhood, who were little better informed than myself, but who cheerfully informed me of their experiments, and the results, and freely communicated their opinions and obligingly gave me their receipts. In the course of my progress, I purchased many receipts, and hesitated not to procure information of all who appeared to possess it, and sometimes at a heavy expense, and duly noted down all such discoveries and communications—made my experiments from time to time, and in various seasons, carefully noting down the results. Having made the business my constant and only study, carefully attending to the important branch of making yeast, and studying the cause and progress of fermentation, proceeding with numerous experiments, and always studying to discover the cause of every failure, or change, or difference in the yield. I could, after four years attention, tell the cause of such change, whether in the water, yeast, fermentation, quality of the grain, chopping the grain, or in mashing, and carefully corrected it immediately. By a thus close and indefatigable attention, I brought it to a system, in my mind, and to a degree of perfection, that I am convinced nothing but a long series of practice could have effected. From my record of most improved experiments, I cheerfully gave receipts to those who applied, and after their adoption obtaining some celebrity, I found applications so numerous, as to be troublesome, and to be impossible for me to furnish the demands gratis, of consequence, I was compelled to furnish to some, and refuse others; a conduct so pregnant with partiality, and a degree of illiberality naturally gave rise to murmurs. My friends strongly recommended a publication of them, the plan requiring the exercise of talents, order and method, with which I presumed myself not sufficiently versed, I for sometime obstinately refused, but at length and after reiterated solicitation, I consented to enter on the talk, under a flattering hope of affording useful information to those of my country engaged in the distillation of spirits from the growth of our native soil, which together with the following reasons, I offer as the only apology. 1st. I observed many distillers making fortunes, whilst others exercising an equal share of industry, and of equal merit were sinking money, owing to a want of knowledge in the business. 2d. In taverns I often observed foreign liquors drank in preference to those of domestic manufacture, though really of bad quality, possessing pernicious properties acquired from ingredients used by those in our commercial towns, who brew and compose brandies, spirits, and wines, often from materials most injurious to health, and this owing to so much bad liquor being made in our country, from which the reputation of domestic spirit has sunk. Whilst, in fact, we can make domestic spirits of various materials, which with a little management and age, will be superior to any of foreign produce. 3d. By making gin, &c. as good if not better, we might in a few years, meet those foreign merchants in their own markets, and undersell them; which we certainly could do, by making our liquors good, and giving them the same age. The transportation would of consequence improve them in an equal degree, for the only advantage their liquors of the same age have over our good liquors, is the mildness acquired by the friction in the warm hold of the ship in crossing the ocean. And moreover as liquors will be drank by people of all standings in society, I flattered myself I could improve our liquors, render them more wholesome to those whose unhappy habits compel a too free use of ardent spirits, and whose constitutions may have been doubly injured from the pernicious qualities of such as they were compelled to use. For there are in all societies and of both sexes, who will drink and use those beverages to excess, even when there exists a moral certainty, that they will sustain injury from such indulgence, and as an evidence of my hypothesis, I offer the free use of coffee, tea, &c. so universally introduced at the tables of people of every grade. The wise Disposer of worlds, very happily for mankind, permits the exhibition of genius, mind and talents, from the peasant and lower order, as well as from the monarch, the lord, and the opulent. To Europe they of course are not confined—Genius has already figured in our hemisphere—The arts and sciences are becoming familiar, they rise spontaneously from our native soil, and bid fair to vie with, if not out-shine accomplished Europe. In possession, then, of all the necessary materials, ingredients and requisites, I would ask why we cannot afford ardent spirits and wines equal to those imported; and thus raise our character to a standing with other countries, and retain those millions of dollars at home, which are yearly shipped abroad for those foreign liquors, so common, so universally in use, and much of which so adulterated, as to be followed, when freely used, with unhappy consequences. Would men of capital and science, turn their attention to distillations, from the produce of our own country, preserve the liquor until age and management would render it equal, if not superior to any imported; is it not probable that it would become an article of export, and most sensibly benefit our country at large. Considerations such as those have combined to determine a publication of my work; fully apprised of the scoffs of pedants, kicks, bites and bruises of critics—but I hope they will find latitude for the exercise of a share of compassion, when I inform them candidly, that a mill and distillery, or still house, were substituted for, and the only college and academy in which I ever studied, and those studies were broken, and during the exercise of my business, as a miller and distiller. That it contains errors in the diction and perspicuity, I will readily confess—but that it is in substance true, and contains much useful information, I must declare as an indisputable fact. And though the road I travelled was a new one, without compass, chart, or even star to steer by, not even a book to assist me in thinking, or cheer me in my gloomy passage—seeking from those springs of nature, and inherent endowments for consolatory aid— pressing on a frequently exhausted mind, for resources and funds, to accomplish the objects of my pursuits— not denying but that I met many of my fellow-beings, who cheerfully aided me with all the information in their power, and to whom I now present my thanks—I must acknowledge, I think my labors and exertions will prove useful to those of less experience than mine, in which event I shall feel a more ample remuneration for my exertions, than the price asked for one of those volumes. Could I have witnessed the publication of a similar work by a man of science and education, mine should never have appeared. But it would seem the learned and scientific have never considered a work of the kind as meriting their attention; a circumstance deeply to be regretted, as a finer colouring to a work of the same properties and value often procures celebrity, demand and currency. My object is to be useful, my style plain, and only laboured to be rendered easy to be understood, and convey the necessary instruction to those who may honor this work with a perusal, or resort to it for information, and that it may be useful to my countrymen, is the sincere wish of The Author. INTRODUCTION. It is not more than twenty years since whiskey was first offered for sale in the seaport towns in large quantities; and then, owing to its badness, at a very low price. Since that period it has been gaining ground yearly, and at this time, it is the second great article of commerce, in the states of Pennsylvania and Maryland. In the interior of these states, it has nearly excluded the use of foreign distilled spirits, and I fancy might be made so perfectly pure and nice, as to ultimately supersede the use of any other throughout the United States. To assist in effecting this, the greatest attention should be paid to cleanliness, which in a distillery is absolutely necessary, the want of which admits of no excuse, where water is had without price. If a distiller does not by a most industrious well-timed care and attention, preserve every utensil perfectly sweet and clean, he may expect, notwithstanding he has well attended to the other branches, but indifferent whiskey and not much of it. If, for instance, every article, or only one article in the composition of yeast be sour or dirty, that one article will most assuredly injure the whole; which being put into a hogshead of mashed grain, soon imparts its acidity or filth to the whole mass, and of course will reduce the quantity and quality of the spirit yielded from that hogshead. Cleanliness in every matter and thing, in and about a distillery becomes an indispensable requisite, without a strict observance of which the undertaker will find the establishment unproductive and injurious to his interest. Purity cannot exist without cleanliness. Cleanliness in the human system will destroy an obstinate itch, of consequence, it is the active handmaid of health and comfort, and without which, decency does not exist. Care is another important and necessary consideration, and a basis necessary, on which to erect a distillery, in order to ensure it productive of wealth and reputation. Care and industry will ensure cleanliness; an eye of care must be extended to everything, that nothing be lost, that every thing be in its proper place and order, that every thing be done in due time; the business must be well timed, and time well economised, as it ranks in this, as in every other business very high. Let a judicious attention be paid to care, cleanliness, and industry, and when united with a competent knowledge of the different branches of the distilling business, the character of a compleat practical distiller is perfect. With such a distiller, and a complete still-house, furnished with every necessary utensil for carrying on the business—it cannot fail to prove a very productive establishment, and present to the world, from the materials of our own farms, a spirit as wholesome, and well flavored and as healthy as any spirit whatever—the produce or yield of any country, provided it be permitted to acquire the same age. What a grand and great idea strikes the thinking scientific mind, on entering a complete and clean distillery, with an intelligent cleanly distiller, performing his duty in it. To see the four elements, each combining to produce (with the assistance of man) an article of commerce and luxury, and at the same time, a necessary beverage to man. The earth producing the grain, hops and utensils, which a combination of fire and water reduces into a liquid by fermentation, and when placed in the still to see air engaging fire to assist her in reducing the liquid that fire and water had produced, into a vapour, or air, and afterwards to see fire abandoning air, and assisting water to reduce it into a liquid by means of the condensing tubes, and then to consider the number of hands employed in keeping the distillery a going, will present one other patriotic idea. The farmer with all his domestics and people, engaged in the cultivation of the rye, corn, &c. The wood choppers—the haling—the coopers engaged in making casks—the hands engaged in feeding cattle and the pork—haling, barrelling and selling the whiskey, spirits, pork, &c. The produce of the distillery, presenting subject for commerce, and employ for the merchant, mechanic and mariner—and all from our own farms. After seeing the distillery afford employment for so many hands, bread to their families, and yielding the means of an extensive revenue and increase of commerce—with a flattering prospect of completely annihilating the use of foreign liquors in our country, and thereby saving the expenditure of millions of dollars; and ultimately rendering our liquors an article of export and source of wealth—I presume every mind will be struck with the propriety of encouraging a branch of business so promising in wealth and comfort. The following receipts are intended to convey all the instruction necessary in the science of distilling, and producing from the growth of our own farms, the best spirits of every description, and such as I flatter myself will supersede the use of all imported liquors, and thereby fulfil the views and wishes of The Author. PRACTICAL DISTILLER.

SECTION I.

Observations on Yeast.

That yeast is the main spring in distilling, is acknowledged by all distillers, tho' but few if them understand it, either in its nature or operation; tho' many pretend a knowledge of the grand subject of fermentation, and affect to understand the best mode of making stock yeast, and to know a secret mode unknown to all others—when it is my belief they know very little about it; but, by holding out the idea of adding some drug, not to be procured at every house, which has a hard name, and that is little known to people of common capacities: Such as Dragons blood, &c. frequently retailing their secret, as the best possible mode of making stock yeast, at ten, twenty, and in some instances one hundred dollars. Confessing it a subject, abstruse, and a science little understood in Pennsylvania, and notwithstanding the numerous experiments I have made with care and close observation, yet from a consciousness of not understanding it, too well, I have in several instances purchased receipts, and made faithful experiments; but have never yet met the man of science, theory, or practice, whose mode of making stock yeast, yielded a better preparation for promoting fermentation, than the simple mode pursued by myself for some years, and which I have uniformly found to be the best and most productive. In making yeast, all drugs and witchcraft are unnecessary—Cleanliness, in preserving the vessels perfectly sweet, good malt, and hops, and an industrious distiller, capable of observation, and attention to the following receipt, which will be assuredly found to contain the essence and spirit of the ways and art of making that composition, a knowledge of which I have acquired, by purchases—consultations with the most eminent brewers, bakers, and distillers in this commonwealth, and above all, from a long practice and experience, proving its utility and superior merits to my most perfect satisfaction; and which I with pleasure offer to my fellow-citizens, as meriting a preference—notwithstanding the proud and scientific chymist, and the flowery declarations or treatises of the profound theorist, may disapprove this simple mode, and offer those which they presume to be better, tho' they never soiled a finger in making a practical experiment, or perhaps witnessed a process of any description. ARTICLE II.

Receipt for Stock Yeast.

For a stock yeast vessel of two gallons, the size best adapted for that purpose. Take one gallon good barley malt, (be sure it be of good quality) put it into a clean, well scalded vessel, (which take care shall be perfectly sweet) pour thereon four gallons scalding water, (be careful your water be clean) stir the malt and water with a well scalded stick, until thoroughly mixed together, then cover the vessel close with a clean cloth, for half an hour; then uncover it and set it in some convenient place to settle, after three or four hours, or when you are sure the sediment of the malt is settled to the bottom, then pour off the top, or thin part that remains on the top, into a clean well scoured iron pot, (be careful not to disturb the thick sediment in the bottom, and that none of it goes into the pot); then add four ounces good hops, and cover the pot close with a clean scalded iron cover, and set it on a hot fire of coals to boil—boil it down one third, or rather more, then strain all that is in the pot through a thin hair sieve, (that is perfectly clean) into a clean well scalded earthen crock that is glazed—then stir into it, with a clean stirring stick, as much superfine flour as will make it about half thick, that is neither thick nor thin, but between the two, stirring it effectually until there be no lumps left in it. If lumps are left, you will readily perceive that the heart or inside of those lumps will not be scalded, and of course, when the yeast begins to work, those lumps will sour very soon, and of course sour the yeast—stir it then till those lumps are all broken, and mixed up, then cover it close for half an hour, to let the flour stirred therein, be properly scalded, after which uncover and stir it frequently until it is a little colder than milk warm, (to be ascertained by holding your finger therein for ten minutes, but beware your finger is clean) then add half a pint of genuine good yeast,[1] (be certain it is good, for you had better use none, than bad yeast) and stir it effectually, until you are sure the yeast is perfectly incorporated with the ingredients in the pot—after which cover it, and set it in a moderately cool place in summer, until you perceive it begin to work, or ferment—then be careful to stir it two or three times at intervals of half an hour—then set it past to work—in the winter, place it in a moderately warm part of the still-house—and in summer, choose a spring house, almost up to the brim of the crock in water—avoiding extremes of heat or cold, which are equally prejudicial to the spirit of fermentation—of consequence, it should be placed in a moderately warm situation in the winter, and moderately cool in the summer. This yeast ought to be renewed every four or five days in the summer, and eight or ten days in the winter—but it is safer to renew it oftener, or at shorter intervals, than suffering it to stand longer. In twenty-four hours after it begins to work, it is fit for use. Between a pint and half a pint of the foregoing stock yeast, is sufficient to raise the yeast for the daily use of three hogsheads.

ART. III. The most proper vessel for preserving stock yeast is an earthen crock, that will hold three gallons at least, with a cover of the same, well glazed—as it will contract no acid from the fermentation, and is easily scalded and sweetened. There ought to be two of the same size, that when one is in use, the other may be sweetening— which is effected by exposing them to frost or fire. ART. IV.

To know when Yeast is good or bad.

When you perceive your yeast working, observe if it works quick, sharp and strong, and increasing in bulk nearly double what it was before it began to work, with a sweet sharp taste, and smell, with the appearance of a honey comb, with pores, and always changing place, with a bright lively colour, then you may pronounce your yeast good; on the contrary, if it is dead, or flat and blue looking, with a sour taste, and smell, (if any at all,) then you may pronounce it bad, and unfit for use, and of course must be renewed.

ART. V.

How to renew Yeast when sour.

About two hours before you begin to make your beer, take one pint of the sour yeast, put it into a clean dish or vessel, and pour clean cold water over it—changing the water every fifteen minutes, until the acid be extracted, have it then in readiness to mix with the beer, which is to be prepared, in the following manner, viz. Take one pint malt, and scald it well in a clean vessel, with a gallon of boiling water, let it stand half an hour closely covered—then pour it into a pot with plenty of hops—then strain it into a well scalded earthen jug, when milk warm—add then a small quantity of the yeast, (sweetened as directed in the first part of this receipt,) with two or three table spoon fulls of molasses ... set it past for twenty four hours to ferment ... then pour off the top, or beer that is in the jug, leaving about a quart in the bottom ... then that which remains in the bottom will be yeast with which to start your stock yeast.

ART. VI.

The method of procuring and keeping stock yeast, by the generality of distillers, merits in the mind of the author of this work, most decided disapprobation. They generally procure yeast once a week, or month, from brewers, and if not convenient to be had in this way, they often use such as is used by country women, for baking bread, without paying any regard to the quality, or whether sour; with such, tho' generally bad, they proceed to make their daily yeast, and often continue the use of it, until the grain will no longer yield a gallon of whiskey to the bushel, and so often proceed in this miserable and indolent mode of procuring and renewing yeast, to the great prejudice of their own, and employer's interest ... attributing the small yield of liquor to the badness of the grain ... the manner in which it is chopped, or some other equally false cause. Then to the idle and careless habits of distillers, must be attributed any yield short of three gallons to the bushel of rye.... To ensure this quantity at least from the bushel, the author discovers the anxiety expressed, and the care recommended in the foregoing pages, on the subject of preserving and keeping good yeast, and recommends the following as the best mode of preparing. ART. VII.

Stock Yeast good for years. When the weather is moderately warm in autumn or the spring, take of your best stock yeast that has fermented about twenty four hours, and stir it thick with the coarsest middlings of wheat flour, add small quantity of whiskey, in which, previously dissolve a little salt, when you have stirred the middlings with a stick, rub it between your hands until it becomes pretty dry, then spread it out thin, on a board to dry in the sun ... rubbing once or twice in the day between your hands until it is perfectly dry, which will be in three or four good days— taking it in at night before the dew falls—when it is properly dried, put it up in a paper and keep it in a dry airy place for use. Thus yeast will keep good, if free from moisture, for any length of time, and it is the only effectual mode of preserving stock yeast pure and sweet ... when put up conformably to the foregoing instructions, the distiller may always rely on having it good, and depend on a good turn out of his grain, provided he manages the other parts of his distilling equally well. About two hours before you mean to use the dried yeast, the mode is to take two gills, place it in any convenient vessel, and pour thereon milk-warm water, stir and mix it well with the yeast, and in two or three hours good working yeast will be produced. In the spring every distiller ought to make as much as would serve 'till fall, and every fall as much as will serve thro' the winter, reckoning on the use of one pint per week, three gills being sufficient to start as much stock yeast as will serve a common distillery one week. ART. VIII.

To make the best Yeast for daily use. For three hogsheads take two handfuls of hops, put them into an iron pot, and pour thereon three gallons boiling water out of your boiler, set the pot on the fire closely covered half an hour, to extract the strength from the hops, then strain it into your yeast vessel, thicken it with chopped rye, from which the bran has been sifted ... stir it with a clean stick until the lumps are all well broken and mixed ... cover it close with a cloth for half an hour, adding at the time of putting in the chopped rye, one pint of good malt when the rye is sufficiently scalded, uncover and stir it well until it is milk-warm, then add one pint good stock yeast, stirring until you are sure it is well mixed with the new yeast. If your stock yeast is good, this method will serve you ... observing always, that your water and vessels are clean, and the ingredients of a good quality; as soon as you have cooled off and emptied your yeast vessel, scald and scour, and expose it to the night air to purify. Tin makes the best yeast vessel for yeast made daily, in the above mode. In the course of my long practice in distilling I fully discovered that a nice attention to yeast is absolutely necessary, and altho' I have in the foregoing pages said a great deal on the subject, yet from the importance justly to be attached to this ingredient in distilling, and to shew more fully the advantages and disadvantages arising from the use of good and bad yeast, I submit the following statement for the consideration of my readers. Advantages in using good yeast for one month, at 5 bushels per day; 30 days at 5 bushels, is 150 $ 90 00 bushels at 60 cents, costs Contra 150 bushels yield 3 gallons per bushel, at 50 cents per gallon—450 gallons, 225 00 Profit $ 135 00

Disadvantages sustained during the above period. 150 bushels at 60 cents, 90 00 Contra 150 bushes yielding 1-1/2 gallons to the bushel—225 gallons at 50 cents, 112 50 Profit 21 50

Thus the owner or distiller frequently sustains in the distillation of his produce, a loss, equal and in proportion to the foregoing—from the use of indifferent yeast, and often without knowing to what cause to attribute it. This statement will shew more forcibly, than any other mode—and is made very moderate on the side of indifferent yeast, for with bad sour yeast the yield will be oftener under one gallon to the bushel than above one and an half—whereas with good yeast the yield will rarely be so low as three gallons to the bushel. It is therefore, I endeavor so strongly to persuade the distiller to pay every possible attention to the foregoing instructions, and the constant use of good yeast only, to the total rejection of all which may be of doubtful quality.

SECTION II.

ARTICLE I.

Observations on Wood for Hogsheads. The cheapest and easiest wrought wood is generally most used for making mashing tubs, or hogsheads, and very often for dispatch or from necessity, any wood that is most convenient is taken, as pine or chesnut; indeed I have seen poplar tubs in use for mashing, which is very wrong, as a distiller by not having his hogsheads of good wood, may lose perhaps the price of two sets of hogsheads in one season. For instance, a farmer is about to erect a distillery, and is convenient to a mountain, abounding in chesnut or pine, which from its softness and the ease with which it may be worked, its convenience for dispatch sake, is readily chosen for his mashing hogsheads.—To such selection of wood, I offer my most decided disapprobation, from my long experience, I know that any kind of soft wood will not do in warm weather. Soft porus wood made up into mashing tubs when full of beer and under fermentation, will contract, receive or soak in so much acid, as to penetrate nearly thro' the stave, and sour the vessel to such a degree, in warm weather, that no scalding will take it out—nor can it be completely sweetened until filled with cold water for two or three days, and then scalded; I therefore strongly recommend the use of, as most proper

White Oak. Disapproving of black, tho' next in order to white oak staves for all the vessels about the distillery ... as being the most durable of close texture, easily sweetened ... and hard to be penetrated by acids of any kind, tho' sometimes the best white oak hogsheads may sour, but two or three scaldings will render them perfectly sweet ... if white oak cannot be had, black oak being of the next best in quality may be used ... and again I enter my protest against pine, chesnut, poplar, and every kind of soft porus wood. If possible, or if at all convenient, have the vessels iron bound and painted, to prevent worms and the weather from injuring them, using one good wood hoop on the bottom to save the chine.

ART. II.

To sweeten Hogsheads by scalding. When you turn your vessels out of doors (for it is esteemed slothful and a lazy mode to scald them in the still house,) you must wash them clean with your scrubbing brush, then put in sixteen or twenty gallons boiling water—cover it close for about twenty minutes, then scrub it out effectually with your scrubbing broom, then rinse your vessel well with a couple buckets clean cold water, and set them out to receive the air—this method will do in the winter, provided they are left out in the frost over night—but in summer, and especially during the months of July and August, this mode will not do—it is during those extreme warm months in our latitude, that the vessels are liable to contract putrid particles, which may be corrected by the following mode of making

Hogsheads perfectly sweet. Scald them twice, as above directed, then light a brimstone match, flick it on the ground, turn your hogshead down over it, let it stand until the match quits burning, this operation is necessary once a week—a method I have found effectual. ART. III.

To sweeten Hogsheads by burning. When you have scalded your hogsheads well, put into each, a large handful of oat or rye straw, set it on fire, and stir it till it is in a blaze, then turn the mouth of the hogshead down; the smoke will purify and sweeten the cask. This process should be repeated every other day, especially during summer—it will afford you good working casks, provided your yeast be good, and your hogsheads are well mashed. There ought always to be in a distillery more vessels than are necessary for immediate use, that they may alternately be exposed to the frost and air one night at least before brought into service, always bearing in mind that the utmost attention to cleanliness is necessary, in order to afford such yield from the grain, or fruit, as may be requisite to compensate for the expense and labor of extracting spirits—and moreover, that the exercise of the finest genius possessed by man is scarcely capable of taking from small grain, all the spirit it contains:.... good materials will not suffice ... the most marked attention is indispensably necessary to yeast; a mind capable of judging of fermentation in all its stages ... a close adherence to the manner of using the ingredients ... preparing them, and the use of sweet vessels, with great industry and a knowledge to apply it at the proper moment, are all necessary to enable the accomplishment of the desired end.

Note ... In scalding your hogshead I would recommend the use of a shovel full of ashes, which will scald more sharply. SECTION III.

ARTICLE I.

To Mash Rye in the common mode. Take four gallons cold water to each hogshead, add one gallon malt, stir it well with your mashing stick, until the malt is thoroughly wet—when your still boils, put in about sixteen gallons boiling water, then put in one and an half bushels of chopped rye, stirring it effectually, until there is no lumps in it, then cover it close until the still boils, then put in each hogshead, three buckets or twelve gallons boiling water, stirring it well at the same time—cover it close—stir it at intervals until you perceive your rye is scalded enough, which you will know by putting in your mashing stick, and lifting thereon some of the scalded rye, you will perceive the heart or seed of the rye, like a grain of timothy seed sticking to the stick, and no appearance of mush, when I presume it will be sufficiently scalded—it must then be stirred until the water is cold enough to cool off, or you may add one bucket or four gallons of cold water to each hogshead, to stop the scalding. I have known this process succeed well with an attentive distiller. ART. II.

The best method of distilling Rye. Take four gallons boiling, and two gallons cold water—put it into a hogshead, then stir in one and a half bushels chopped rye, let it stand five minutes, then add two gallons cold water, and one gallon malt, stir it effectually— let it stand till your still boils, then add sixteen gallons boiling water, stirring it well, or until you break all the lumps—then put into each hogshead, so prepared, one pint coarse salt, and one shovel full of hot coals out of your furnace. (The coals and salt have a tendency to absorb all sourness and bad smell, that may be in the hogshead or grain;) if there be a small quantity of hot ashes in the coals, it is an improvement—stir your hogsheads effectually every fifteen minutes, keeping them close covered until you perceive the grain scalded enough—when you may uncover, if the above sixteen gallons boiling water did not scald it sufficiently, water must be added until scalded enough—as some water will scald quicker than others—it is necessary to mark this attentively, and in mashing two or three times, it may be correctly ascertained what quantity of the kind of water used will scald effectually—after taking off the covers, they must be stirred effectually, every fifteen minutes, till you cool off—for which operation, see "Cooling off." To those who distill all rye, I recommend this method, as I have found it to answer every kind of water, with one or two exceptions. Distillers will doubtless make experiments of the various modes recommended and use that which may prove most advantageous and convenient. ART. III.

To Mash two thirds Rye and one third Corn in Summer. This I have found to be the nicest process belonging to distilling—the small proportion of corn, and the large quantity of scalding water, together with the easy scalding of rye, and the difficulty of scalding corn, makes it no easy matter to exactly hit the scald of both; but as some distillers continue to practice it, (altho' not a good method in my mind, owing to the extreme nice attention necessary in performing it.) In the following receipt I offer the best mode within my knowledge, and which I deem the most beneficial, and in which I shew the process and mode pursued by other distillers. Take four gallons cold water, put it into a hogshead, then stir half a bushel corn into it, let it stand uncovered thirty minutes, then add sixteen gallons boiling water, stir it well, cover it close for fifteen minutes, then put in your rye and malt and stir it until there be no lumps, then cover it and stir it at intervals until your still boils, then add, eight, twelve, or sixteen gallons boiling water, or such quantity as you find from experience, to answer best—(but with most water, twelve gallons will be found to answer) stirring it well every fifteen minutes until you perceive it is scalded enough, then uncover and stir it effectually until you cool off; keeping in mind always that the more effectually you stir it, the more whiskey will be yielded. This method I have found to answer best, however, I have known it to do very well, by soaking the corn in the first place, with two gallons warm, and two gallons cold water, instead of the four gallons of cold water, mentioned above—others put in the rye, when all the boiling water is in the hogshead, but I never found it to answer a good purpose, nor indeed did I ever find much profit in distilling rye and corn in this proportion. ART. IV.

To distill one half Rye and one half Corn. This method of distilling equal quantities of rye and corn, is more in practice, and is much better than to distill unequal proportions, for reason you can scald your corn and rye to a certainty, and the produce is equal if not more, and better whiskey, than all rye. The indian corn is cheaper, and the seed is better than if all rye. I would recommend this, as the smallest quantity of corn to be mixed with rye for distillation, as being most productive, and profitable. The following receipt I have found to answer all waters—yet there may be places where the distiller cannot follow this receipt exactly, owing to hard or soft water, (as it is generally termed) or hard flint or soft floury corn, that will either scald too much or too little—but this the attentive distiller will soon determine by experience. Have your hogshead perfectly sweet, put into each, three gallons of cold and three of boiling water, or more or less of each, as you find will answer best—then stir in your corn—fill up your boiler, bring it briskly to a boil— then put to each hogshead twelve gallons boiling water, giving each hogshead one hundred stirs, with your mashing stick, then cover close, fill up your boiler and keep a good fire under her, to produce a speedy boil; before you add the last water, put into each hogshead one pint of salt, and a shovel full of hot coals and ashes from under your still, stir the salt and coals well, to mix it with your corn, the coal will remove any bad smell which may be in the hogshead—Should you find on trial, that rye don't scald enough, by putting it in after your last water, you may in that case put in your rye before the last water—but this should be ascertained from several experiments. I have found it to answer best to put in the rye after all the water is in the hogshead, especially if you always bring the still briskly to a boil—then on your corn put twelve or sixteen gallons boiling water, (for the last water,) then if you have not already mashed in your rye, put it in with one gallon good malt to each hogshead, carefully stirring it immediately very briskly, for fear of the water loosing its heat, and until the lumps are all broken, which you will discover by looking at your mashing stick; lumps generally stick to it. When done stirring, cover the hogshead close for half an hour, then stir it to ascertain whether your grain be sufficiently scalded, and when nearly scalded enough, uncover and stir steady until you have it cool enough to stop scalding; when you see it is scalded enough, and by stirring that the scalding is stopped, uncover your hogsheads, and stir them effectually, every fifteen minutes, until they are fit to cool off—remembering that sweet good yeast, clean sweet hogsheads, with this mode of mashing carefully, will produce you a good turn out of your grain. The quantity of corn and rye is generally two stroked half bushels of each, and one gallon malt.

ART. V.

To Mash one third Rye and two thirds Corn. This I deem the most profitable mashing that a distiller can work, and if he can get completely in the way of working corn and rye in this proportion, he will find it the easiest process of mashing. That corn has as much and as good whiskey as rye or any other grain, cannot be disputed, and the slop or pot ale is much superior to that of any other grain, for feeding or fattening either horned cattle or hogs—one gallon of corn pot ale being esteemed worth three of rye, and cattle will always eat it better—and moreover, corn is always from one to two shillings per bushel cheaper than rye, and in many places much plentier—so that by adopting this method and performing it well, the distiller will find at the close of the year, it has advantages over all other processes and mixtures of rye and corn, yielding more profit, and sustaining the flock better. Hogs fatted on this pot ale, will be found decidedly better than any fatted on the slops of any other kind of mashing. Mash as follows. Have sweet hogsheads, good yeast and clean water in your boiler; when the water is sharp, warm, or half boiling, put into every hogshead you mean to mash at the same time, six, eight or as many gallons of the half boiling water, as will completely wet one bushel corn meal—add then one bushel chopped corn, stir it with your mashing stick till your corn is all wet; it is better to put in a less quantity of water first, and so add as you may find necessary, until completely wet (be careful in all mashings, that your mashing stick be clean), this is called soaking the corn. Then fill up your boiler, bring her quickly to a boil, when effectually boiling, put into every hogshead, twelve gallons boiling water, stirring it well after putting in each bucket, until the lumps are quite broken—cover the hogsheads close, after a complete stirring—fill up your boiler, bring her quickly to boil for the last mashing—stir the corn in the hogshead every fifteen minutes, till your last water is boiling—put into each hogshead one pint salt, and a shovel full of red hot coals, stirring it well—then put in each hogshead sixteen gallons of boiling water, stir it well—cover it close for twenty-five minutes—then put into each hogshead one half bushel rye meal, and one gallon good chopped malt, stirring it until the lumps are all broken, then cover it close, stir it every half hour, until you perceive it sufficiently scalded—then uncover it and stir it as often as your other business will permit, until ready to cool off. In this and every other mashing you must use sweet vessels only and good yeast, or your labor will be in vain; and in all kinds of mashing you cannot stir too much. ART. VI.

To Mash Corn. This is an unprofitable and unproductive mode of mashing, but there may be some times when the distiller is out of rye, on account of the mill being stopped, bad roads, bad weather, or some other cause; and to avoid the necessity of feeding raw grain to the hogs or cattle, (presuming every distillery to be depended on for supplying a stock of some kind, and often as a great reliance for a large stock of cattle and hogs,) in cold weather I have found it answer very well, but in warm weather it will not do. Those who may be compelled then from the above causes, or led to it by fancy, may try the following method. To one hogshead, put twelve gallons boiling water, and one and an half bushels corn, stir it well, then when your water boils, add twelve gallons more, (boiling hot,) stir it well, and cover it close, until the still boils the third time, then put in each hogshead, one quart of salt, and sixteen gallons boiling water, stir it effectually, cover it close until you perceive it nearly scalded enough, then put in two, or three gallons cold water, (as you will find to answer best,) and two gallons malt, or more if it can be spared—stir it well, then cover it for half an hour, then uncover and stir it well, until cold enough to cool off.

ART. VII.

To make four gallons from the bushel. This is a method of mashing that I much approve of, and recommend to all whiskey distillers to try it—it is easy in process, and is very little more trouble than the common method, and may be done in every way of mashing, as well with corn or rye, as also a mixture of each, for eight months in the year; and for the other four is worth the trouble of following. I do not mean to say that the quantity of four gallons can be made at an average, in every distillery, with every sort of grain, and water, or during every vicissitude of weather, and by every distiller, but this far I will venture to say, that a still house that is kept in complete order, with good water, grain well chopped, good malt, hops, and above all good yeast; together with an apt, careful and industrious distiller, cannot fail to produce at an average for eight months in the year, three and three quarter gallons from the bushel at a moderate calculation. I have known it sometimes produce four and an half gallons to the bushel, for two or three days, and sometimes for as many weeks, when perhaps, the third or fourth day, or week, it would scarcely yield three gallons; a change we must account for, in a change of weather, the water or the neglect or ignorance of the distiller. For instance, we know that four gallons of whiskey is in the bushel of rye or corn—certain, that this quantity has been made from the bushel; then why not always? Because, is the answer, there is something wrong, sour yeast or hogsheads, neglect of duty in the distiller, change of grain, or change of weather—then of course it is the duty of the distiller to guard against all these causes as near as he can. The following method, if it does not produce in every distillery the quantity above mentioned, will certainly produce more whiskey from the bushel, than any other mode I have ever known pursued. Mash your grain in the method that you find will yield you most whiskey—the day before you intend mashing, have a clean hogshead set in a convenient part of the distillery; when your singling still is run off, take the head off and fill her up with clean water, let her stand half an hour, to let the thick part settle to the bottom, which it will do when settled, dip out with a gallon or pail, and fill the clean hogshead half full, let the hogshead stand until it cools a little, so that when you fill it up with cool water, it will be about milk-warm, then yeast it off with the yeast for making 4 gallons to the bushel, then cover it close, and let it work or ferment until the day following, when you are going to cool off; when the cold water is running into your hogshead of mashed stuff, take the one third of this hogshead to every hogshead, (the above being calculated for three hogsheads) to be mashed every day, stirring the hogsheads well before you yeast them off. This process is simple, and I flatter myself will be found worthy of the trouble. ART. VIII.

To know when Grain is scalded enough. Put your mashing stick into your hogshead and stir it round two or three times gently, then lift it out and give it a gentle stroke on the edge of your hogshead—if you perceive the batter or musky part fall off your stick, and there remains the heart of the grain on your mashing stick, like grains of timothy seed, then be assured that it is sufficiently scalded, if not too much, this hint will suffice to the new beginner, but experience and observation will enable the most correct judgment.

ART. IX.

Directions for cooling off. Much observation is necessary to enable the distiller to cool off with judgment—which necessity is increased by the versatility of our climate, the seasons of the year, and the kinds of water used. These circumstances prevent a strict adherence to any particular or specific mode; I however submit a few observations for the guidance of distillers in this branch.—If in summer you go to cool off with cold spring water, then of course the mashed stuff in your hogsheads must be much warmer, than if you intended cooling off with creek or river water, both of which are generally near milk warm, which is the proper heat for cooling off—In summer a little cooler, and in winter a little warmer. It will be found that a hogshead of mashed grain will always get warmer, after it begins to work or ferment. When the mashed stuff in your hogsheads is brought to a certain degree of heat, by stirring, which in summer will feel sharp warm, or so warm, that you can hardly bear your hand in it for any length of time, will do for common water, but for very cold or very warm water to cool off with, the stuff in the hogsheads must be left colder or warmer, as the distiller may think most expedient, or to best suit the cooling off water. When you think it is time to cool off, have a trough or conveyance to bring the water to your hogsheads ready —let the hogsheads be well stirred, then let the water run into them slowly, stirring them all the time the water is running in, until they are milk warm, then stop the water, and after stirring them perfectly, put in the yeast and stir it until completely incorporated with the mashed stuff, then cover your hogshead until it begins to ferment or work, then uncover it.

ART. X.

To ascertain when Rye works well in the Hogshead. When mashed rye begins to work or ferment in the hogsheads, either in a heavy, thick, or light bubbly top, both of which are unfavorable; when it rises in a thick heavy top, you may be sure there is something wrong, either in the grain, yeast, or cooling off. When the top (as called by distillers) appear, with bubbles about the size of a nutmeg, rising and falling alternately, with the top not too thick nor too thin, and with the appearance of waves, mixed with the grain in the hogshead, rising and falling in succession, and when you put your head over the steam, and it flying into your nose, will have a suffocating effect, or when it will instantly extinguish a candle when held over it, you may feel assured, it is working well. From these hints and the experience of the distiller, a judgment may be formed of the state of fermentation and the quality.

ART. XI.

To prevent Hogsheads from working over. If the stuff is cooled off too warm, or too much yeast is put in the hogsheads, they will work over, and of course lose a great deal of spirit, to prevent which, take tallow and rub round the chine of the hogsheads a little higher than they ought to work; it will generally prevent them from rising any higher, but if they will work over in spite of this remedy, then drop a little tallow into the stuff, it will immediately sink the stuff to a proper height. SECTION IV.

ARTICLE I.

Observations on the quality of Rye for distilling. The best rye for distilling is that which is thoroughly ripe, before it is cut, and kept dry till threshed; if it has grown on high or hilly ground, it is therefore to be preferred, being then sounder and the grain fuller, than that produced on low level land—but very often the distiller has no choice, but must take that which is most convenient;—great care however ought to be observed in selecting sound rye, that has been kept dry, is clean and free from cockle, and all kind of dirt, advantages will result from fanning it, or running it through a windmill before it is chopped.

ART. II.

Mode of chopping Rye and the proper size. The mill stones ought to be burrs, and kept very sharp for chopping rye for distillation; and the miller ought to be careful not to draw more water on the wheel than just sufficient to do it well, and avoid feeding the stones plentifully; because in drawing a plentiful supply of water, the wheel will compel a too rapid movement of the stones, of course render it necessary they should be more abundantly fed, which causes part to be ground dead, or too fine, whilst part thereof will be too coarse, and not sufficiently broken, so that a difficulty arises in scalding—for in this state it will not scald equally, and of consequence, the fermentation cannot be so good or regular; and moreover as part of it will merely be flattened, a greater difficulty will arise in breaking the lumps, when you mash and stir your hogsheads. If burr stones are very sharp, I recommend the rye to be chopped very fine, but to guard against over-seeding, or pressing too much on them; but if the stones are not sharp, I would recommend the rye should be chopped about half fine. Distillers in general sustain a loss from having their rye chopped so coarse as I have observed it done in common.

ART. III.

Chopping or Grinding Indian Corn. Indian corn cannot be ground too fine for distilling.

ART. IV.

Malt Cannot be ground too coarse, provided it is done even—there ought to be no fine nor coarse grains in malt, but ground perfectly alike, and of the same grade. If ground too fine, it will be apt to be scalded too much in mashing. Malt does not require half the scalding necessary in rye. Let the distiller try the experiment of coarse and then of fine ground malt and judge for himself. ART. V.

How to choose Malt. Malt is chosen by its sweet smell, mellow taste, full flower, round body and thin skin. There are two kinds used, the pale and the brown—the pale is the best.

ART. VI.

How to build a Malt kiln in every Distillery. When setting up your stills, leave a space of about nine inches for a small furnace between the large ones, extend it to your chimney and carry up a funnel, there-from to the loft, then stop it—here build the kiln on the loft, about 4 or 5 feet square, the walls to be composed of single brick, 3 feet high—lay the bottom with brick, cover it with a plaster of mortar, to prevent the floor from taking fire. Turn the funnel of the chimney into, and extend it to the centre of the kiln, cover the top, leaving vent holes at the sides for the heat to escape thro'— Place on the top of the kiln, sheet iron or tin punched full of small holes, too small to admit the passage of malt; lay the malt on the top of the tin, when ready for drying. Put coals from under the still furnace into the small furnace leading to the kiln, which will heat the kiln and dry the malt above, by adding to or diminishing the quantity of coals, the heat may be increased or decreased, as may be found necessary. Malt for distilling ought to be dried without smoke. ART. VII.

Hops. Give a preference to hops of a bright green colour, sweet smell, and have a gummy or clammy effect when rubbed between the hands or fingers. SECTION V.

ARTICLE I.

How to order and fill the Singling still when distilling Rye. Scrape, clean, and grease the singling still, fill her up with beer, and keep a good fire under her, till she be warm enough to head, stirring her constantly with a broom, to prevent the grain from sticking to the bottom or sides, and burning, which it is very apt to do when the beer is cold, but when it comes to boil there is little danger, prevented by the motion of boiling; have the head washed clean—when she is ready for the head, clap it on and paste it; keep up a brisk fire, until she begins to drop from the worm, then put in the damper in the chimney, and if the fire be very strong, moderate it a little, by throwing ashes or water on it, to prevent her throwing the head, which she will be very apt to do if very full, and coming round under a strong fire, (should the head come, or be thrown off, the spirit remaining will scarcely be worth running off). When fairly round and running moderately, watch her for half an hour; after which, unless the fire is very strong all danger is over. Should she happen to throw the head, it is the duty of the distiller to take and (wash the head and worm—the latter will be found full of stuff) clean, clap on the head, and paste it—but the moment the head is thrown off, the fire should be drowned out, and water thrown into the still to prevent her boiling over. It is important that after every run, or rather before you commence a run, the distiller should carefully clean out the still, wipe the bottom dry, and grease her well, to prevent her from burning and singeing the liquor. ART. II.

Mode of managing the doubling Still when making Whiskey. Let the doubling still be carefully cleaned and washed out, then be filled with singlings and low wines left from the run preceding, add thereto half a pint of salt and one quart of clean ashes, which will help to clear the whiskey, and a handful of Indian meal to prevent the still from leaking at the cock, or elsewhere—clean the head and worm, put on the head, paste it well; put fire under and bring her round slowly, and run the spirit off as slow as possible, and preserve the water in the cooling tub as cold as in your power. Let the liquor as it runs from the worm pass thro' a flannel to prevent the overjuice from the copper, and the oil of the grain from mixing with the spirit. The first being poisonous, and the latter injurious to the liquor. The doubling still cannot be run too slow for making good whiskey ... observe when the proof leaves the worm, that is when there is no proof on the liquor as it comes from the worm, if there be ten gallons in your doubling keg, if so, run out three more, which will make in all thirteen gallons first proof whiskey. If the proof leaves the worm at eight gallons, then run till eleven gallons and so on in proportion, to the larger or smaller quantity in your keg at the time of the ceasing of the proof.

ART. III.

Observations on the advantages of making strong and good Whiskey with stalement, &c. The distiller who makes whiskey for a market under the government of inspection laws, too weak, sustains a loss of a cent for each degree it may be under proof ... and the disadvantages are increased in proportion to the extent of land carriage. If a distance of seventy miles, the price of carriage per gallon will be about six cents, paying the same price for weak or strong ... not only the disadvantage of paying for the carriage of feints or water, but the loss in the casks, which tho' small apparently at first view, yet if nicely attended to, will amount in the course of the year to a sum of moment to every distiller or proprietor. To convey my ideas, or render a more compleat exposition of my impressions as to the actual loss on one waggon load (predicated on a distance of seventy miles land carriage) of first proof whiskey, and that nine degrees under proof. I give the following statement. 300 gallons good first proof whiskey at 50 cents, $ 150 haling at six cents, 18 ______$ 132 00 300 gallons whiskey nine degrees under proof at 41 cents, $ 123 haling 18 ______$ 105 00 ______difference $ 27 00 This difference of twenty-seven dollars in favor of the distiller, who sends first proof whiskey, is not the only advantage, but he saves in barrels or casks, what will contain fifty four gallons, nearly two barrels; which together with the time saved, or gained in running good whiskey only, of filling and measuring it out, loading, &c. will leave an advantage of I presume, three dollars in each load. Or to verify more satisfactorily, and I hope my readers will not think me too prolix, as economy cannot be too much attended to in this business, I add a statement predicated on a year's work, and on the foregoing principles: The distiller of weak whiskey, in twelve months, or one year, distils at the rate of 100 gallons per week, or say in the year, he prepares for a market at the above distance, 5000 $ 2,500 gallons, which ought to command But he sustains a loss or deduction of 9 cents, 450 Then the first loss may safely be computed at $ 450 150 empty barrels necessary to contain 5000 gallons, at 33-⅓ gallons to the barrel, $ 150 estimating the barrel at 7s and 6d, is This quantity of whiskey, when reduced to proof, is 4,100 gals. which would have occupied 123 only 123 barrels, 27

Then the second loss may be estimated at $ 27 He ought to have made this quantity of 4100 gallons in nine months and three weeks, but we will say 10 months, sustaining a loss of two months in the year 3d item of loss. Hire of distiller for 2 months at $12 24 00 4th do. Rent of distillery do. at £15 per annum. 6 66 5th do. One sixth of the wood consumed, (at the rate of 100 cords per annum,) 16 cords, 20 00 6th do. One sixth of the Malt, do. say 90 bushels, 90 00 7th do. Is the wear and tear of stills, vessels, &c. 12 34 $ 630

Showing hereby a total annual loss to the careless distiller, of six hundred and thirty dollars, and a weekly loss of twelve dollars and three cents in the whiskey of nine degrees below proof—our ninth part of which is seventy dollars, which is the sum of loss sustained on each degree in this quantity of whiskey. The foregoing I flatter myself will not only show the necessity of care, cleanliness, industry and judgment, in the business of distilling; a business professed to be known, by almost every body—but in reality quite a science, and so abstruse as to be but too imperfectly understood; and moreover, the value of time, so inestimable in itself, the economy of which is so rarely attended to.

ART. IV.

Distilling of Buckwheat. Buckwheat is an unprofitable grain for the distillers when distilled by itself, but when mixed with rye, it will yield nearly as much as rye; but I would by no means recommend the use of it when it can be avoided. Tho' sometimes necessity requires that a distiller should mash it for a day or two, when any thing is the matter, or that grain cannot be procured. In such event, the directions for distilling rye, or rye and corn may be followed, but it requires a much larger quantity of boiling water and if distilled by itself; it is necessary some wheat bran be mixed with it to raise it to the top of the hogshead: but by no means use buckwheat meal in making yeast. ART. V.

Distilling of Potatoes. This is a branch of distilling that I cannot too highly recommend to the attention of every American—nor can the cultivation of this valuable vegetable be carried to a too great extent, the value of which ought to be known to every planter and it some times has awakened my surprise that they are not more cultivated, as it is notorious that they will sustain, and be a tolerable food for every thing possessing life on this earth—and as they produce a brandy, if properly made, of fine flavour. I hope yet to see the day when it will take precedence of French brandy and West-India spirits, and thereby retain in our own country, the immense sums at present expended on those foreign liquors; which, tho' benefitted by the sea voyage, yet often reaches us in a most pernicious state, and is frequently adulterated here. Could the American farmer be brought to raise a larger quantity of potatoes than necessary for his consumption at home, the price would be lowered, and the distiller might commence the distillation of them with greater propriety. That they contain a great deal and a very good spirit, I am certain, and moreover, after distillation will yield as great a quantity of good wholesome food for cattle or hogs, as rye or any other grain. If distillers could be brought to try the experiment of distilling ten or twelve bushels annually, I venture to predict that it would soon become a source of profit to themselves, encouragement to the farmer, and be of benefit to our country at large. One acre of ground, if well farmed, will produce from fifty to one hundred bushels of potatoes, but say sixty on an average. One hundred farmers each planting one acre, would yield six thousand bushels, which will yield at least two gallons of spirit to each bushel; thus, twelve thousand gallons of wholesome spirit may be produced, and with care, as good as necessary to be drank. Each farmer proceeding in this way, would have one hundred and twenty gallons spirit, as much as he may have occasion to use in the year, which would save the price of some acres of wheat or one hundred and twenty gallons rye whiskey. Each acre worked in potatoes will be in better order to receive a crop of wheat, barley, rye, or any kind of grain, than from any other culture. The farmer often receiving the advantage of a double crop, at the expense of seed and labor. They grow equally well in every soil and climate, in poor as well as rich ground—provided the thin soil be manured, and the potatoes plastered with plaster of Paris; and moreover, they are easier prepared for distilling than either apples, rye or corn, as I shall show hereafter when I come to treat of the mode of preparation; and in order to demonstrate the advantages that would arise to the farmer and distiller; I add a statement of the probable profits of ten acres of potatoes, and that of a like number of acres of rye, to shew which offers the greatest advantages. Potatoes DR. Ten acres at 60 bushels is 600 bushels at 33 cents $ 198 00 Rye. Ten acres of Rye, at 30 bushels per acre, is 300 bushels at 60 cents $ 180 00 CR. 600 bushels yielding 2 gallons to the bushel, 1200 gallons at 50 600 cents $ 402 CR. 300 bushels yielding 3 gallons to the bushel, 900 gallons at 50 cents 450 $ 270 Balance in favor of Potatoes $ 132

Thus a balance of one hundred and thirty two dollars would appear in favor of the yield of potatoes. I would not pretend to say that ten acres of Potatoes will not take more labor than ten acres of rye, but this far I will venture to say, that the profits arising from the sale of this brandy, will more than double pay the additional expense of raising them, besides the ground will be in much better condition to receive a crop of wheat, than the rye ground, nay, will be enriched from the crop, whilst the rye ground will be greatly impoverished.

ART. VI.

Receipt to prepare Potatoes for Distilling. Wash them clean, and grind them in an apple mill, and if there be no apple mill convenient, they may be scalded and then pounded—then put two or three bushels into a hogshead and fill the hogshead nearly full of boiling water, and stir it well for half an hour, then cover it close until the potatoes are scalded quite soft, then stir them often until they are quite cold—then put into each hogshead about two quarts of good yeast and let them ferment, which will require eight or ten days—the beer then may be drawn off and distilled, or put the pulp and all into the still, and distill them as you do apples. I have known potatoes distilled in this way to yield upwards of three gallons to the bushel. ART. VII.

Pumpions

May be prepared by the same process used in preparing potatoes, with the exception of not scalding them so high, nor do they require so much yeast.

ART. VIII.

Turnips Will produce nearly as much spirit as potatoes, but not so good. They must be prepared in the same manner.

ART. IX.

How to distil Apples. Apples ought to be perfectly ripe for distillation, as it has been ascertained from repeated trials, that they produce more and better spirit, (as well as cider), when fully ripe than if taken green, or the ripe and unripe mixed—if taken mixed it will not be found practicable to grind them evenly, or equally fine; those fully ripe will be well ground, whilst those hard and unripe will be little more than broken or slightly bruised—and when this coarse and fine mixture is put into a hogshead to work or ferment, that fully ripe and fine ground, will immediately begin, and will be nearly if not quite done working before the other begins, and of course nearly all the spirit contained in the unripe fruit will be lost—and if it is left standing until the ill ground unripe fruit is thoroughly fermented, and done working, you will perceive that a large portion of the spirit contained in the ripe well ground fruit is evaporated and of course lost. But if the fruit be all ripe and evenly ground, of course then it will work regularly and can be distilled in due and right order, and will produce the greatest quantity of spirit, and much superior to that produced from uneven, ill-ground or unripe fruit. Apples cannot be ground too fine.

ART. X.

How to order Apples in the Hogsheads. When the apples are ground put them into open hogsheads to ferment, taking care not to fill them too full, or they will work over; set them under cover, as the sun will sour them too soon, if permitted to operate on them, and by his heat extract a considerable quantity of the spirit, if the weather be warm they will work fast enough, provided you have a sufficient supply of hogsheads to keep your stills agoing in due time and order; about twenty hogsheads are sufficient to keep one singling still of one hundred and ten gallons agoing, if you distil the pumice with the juice, but if you press off the apples after they are done working, you must have three times that number. In warm weather five or six days is long enough for apples to work, as it is always better to distil them before they are quite done working, then to let them stand one hour after the fermentation ceases. ART. XI.

How to work Apples slow or fast. If the hogsheads ripens too fast for your stills, add every day to each hogshead four gallons cold spring water, putting it into a hole made in the centre of the apples, with a large round stick of wood; by thus putting it into the centre of the hogshead, it will chill the fermentation, and thereby prevent the fruit from becoming ripe sooner than it may suit the convenience of the distiller. But I think it advisable that distillers should take in no more apples than they can properly manage in due time. If the weather be cold, and the apples do not ripen so fast as you wish, then add every twelve hours, four gallons boiling, or warm water, which will ripen them if the weather be not too cold in four days at farthest.

ART. XII.

How to judge when Apples are ready for distilling. Put your hand down into the hogsheads amongst the apples as far as you can, and bring out a handful of pugs— squeeze them in your hand, through your fingers, observe if there be any core, or lumps of apples un-digested, if none, you may consider them as sufficiently fermented and quite ready for distilling. It may also be ascertained by tasting and smelling the cider or juice, which rises in the hole placed in the centre; if it tastes sweet and smells strong, it is not yet ready, but when quite fermented, the taste will be sour, and smell strong, which is the proper taste for distilling. A nice discriminating attention is necessary to ascertain precisely, when the fermentation ceases, which is the proper moment for distillation, and I would recommend, rather to anticipate, than delay one hour after this period. ART. XIII.

How to fill and order the singling Still, when running Apple singlings. When you perceive your apples ready for distilling, fill the singling still with apples and water; using about half a hogshead apples in a still of 110 gallons, the residue water, first having cleaned the still well, and greased her previous to filling—put fire under her and bring her ready to head, as quick as possible, stirring the contents well with a broom until ready to head, of which you can judge by the warmth of the apples and water, which must be rather warm to bear your hand in it any length of time. Wash the still head and worm clean, put on the head, paste it, keeping a good fire until she runs at the worm; run off 14 gallons briskly, and catch the feints in a bucket to throw into the next still full, if the singling still too fast, provided she does not smoke at the worm. When the first still full is off, and before you go to fill her the second time, draw or spread the coals that may be under her, in the furnace, and fill the furnace with wood. Shut up your furnace door and put in your damper; by proceeding thus, you cool the still and avoid burning her; this plan I deem preferable to watering out the fire. When empty, rinse the still round with cold water, scrape and grease her, then she will be ready to receive a second charge. Care is necessary in scraping and greasing your still every time she is emptied, if this is neglected, the brandy may be burnt and the still injured.

ART. XIV.

How to double Apple Brandy. Fill the doubling still with singlings, and add a quart of lime, (which will clear it) put fire under her and bring her to a run briskly—after she runs, lessen the fire and run her as slow as possible. Slow running will prevent any of the spirit from escaping, and make more and better brandy, than fast running.—Let the liquor filter thro a flannel cloth from the worm.

ART. XV.

How to prepare Peaches. Peaches like apples ought to be equally ripe, in order to insure an equal and regular fermentation—for where ripe and unripe fruit are thrown into the same hogshead, and ordered for distillation in this way a disadvantage is sustained. I therefore recommend to farmers and distillers, when picking the peaches to assort them when putting them in hogsheads, all soft ripe peaches may go together, as also those which are hard and less ripe— this will enable a more regular fermentation, and though the hard and less ripe, will take a longer time, than the soft and ripe to ferment, and yield less, yet the disadvantage will not be so great, as if mixed. They ought to be ground in a mill with metal nuts, that the stone and kernel may be well broken. The kernel when thus broken will give a finer flavor to the brandy, and increase the quantity. When they are ground they must be placed in hogsheads and worked in the same way with apples, but distilled sooner or they will lose much more spirit by standing any time after fermentation than apples. It is therefore better to distil them a short time before they are done working than at any period after.

ART. XVI.

How to double and single Peach Brandy. The same process must be observed in running off peaches as in apples, except that the singling still ought not to be run so fast, nor so much fire kept under her, and more water used to prevent burning. SECTION VI.

ARTICLE I.

The best method of setting Stills. If stills are not set right, great injury may accrue to them, in burning and damaging the sides, singeing the whiskey, and wasting of fuel too, are not the only disadvantages; but more damage may be done in six months, than would pay a man of judgment for putting up twenty pair. If they are set with their bottoms to the fire, they are very apt to burn, without the utmost care of the distiller, in stirring her when newly filled with cold beer, until she is warm, and by previously greasing the bottom well when empty. If wood be plenty, stills ought to be set on an arch, but if scarce, the bottom ought to be set to the fire. The following method is calculated for a furnace of either two or four feet long, and with the bottoms exposed, or on an arch as the distiller may fancy. Make up a quantity of well worked mortar, composed of the greater proportion of good clay, a little lime and cut straw. Lay the bottom of the furnace with flag stones, or good brick, from two to four feet long, as may be deemed most proper, let it be from twelve to sixteen inches wide, and from twelve to fourteen high. Then if it is designed to turn an arch, set the end of a brick on each wall of the furnace, leaning them over the furnace, till they meet in the middle—so continue the range on each side, until the furnace is completely covered in, leaving a small hole for the flue leading to the chimney behind, leaning towards the side, from which the flue is to be started, to proceed round the bilge of the still, which passage must be ten by four inches wide. After completing the arch as described, lay thereon a complete bed of mortar, well mixed with cut straw, set the still thereon, levelling her so that she will nearly empty her self by the stoop towards the cock; then fill up all round her with mortar to the lower rivets, carefully preventing any stone or brick from touching her, (as they would tend to burn her) ... then build the fender or fenders; being a wall composed of brickbats and clay well mixed with cut straw, build it from the commencement of the flue, and continue it about half round the still ... this is to prevent the flames from striking the still sides, in its hot state, immediately after it leaves the furnace, presuming that it will terminate before it reaches the end of this little wall or fender, between which, and the still, a space of two inches ought to be left for the action of the heat, which space preserves, and prevents the wall or fender, from burning the still; the mode in common practice, being to place it against the still, which will certainly singe or burn her. When this defender is finished, commence a wall, which continue round, laying a brick for a foundation, about four inches from the lower rivets; thus raising this wall for the flue, continuing it at an equal distance from the still, leaving a concave to correspond with the bilge of the still, and to be of precisely the same width and height all round the still. This precaution is absolutely necessary in building the wall of the flue exactly to correspond with the form of the still, and equally distant all round, for reasons 1st. The fire acts with equal force on every part of the still, and a greater heat may be applied to her, without burning. 2d. It has a great tendency to prevent the still house from smoking. When the wall of the flue is completed round the still, and raised so high, that a brick when laid on the top of the wall will extend to the rivets in the breast of the still or upper rivets, then completely plaster very smooth and even, the inside of the flue, and then cover the flue with a layer of brick, with a slight fall, or leaning a little from the still outwards, so that if water were dropped thereon, it would run off outwardly, carefully laying a layer of clay on the top of the wall, on which the brick may rest, and thereby prevent the brick from burning the still; carefully forming the brick with the trowel, so as to fit the wall and rest more safely—cautiously covering them well with clay, &c. and closing every crevice or aperture, to prevent smoak from coming thro' or the heat from deserting the flue till it passes to the chimney from the flue; then fill the still with water, and put a flow fire under her to dry the work. When the wall begins to dry, lay on a coat of mortar, (such as the next receipt directs), about two inches thick, when this begins to dry, lay a white coat of lime and sand-mortar, smoothing well with a trowel; rubbing it constantly and pressing it severely with the trowel to prevent it from cracking. There are many modes of setting stills and bringing the fire up by flues variously constructed, but I have found the foregoing plan to afford as great a saving of fuel, and bringing the still to a boil as early as any other.

ART. II.

How to prevent the Plastering round Stills from cracking. This method of making water proof plastering on stills, is done entirely in making the mortar, and putting it on, in making which, good clay and lime are absolutely necessary. When the mortar for the first coat is thoroughly worked, put as much brock of rye straw into it, as can be worked in, so that when the coat is put on, it may have a greater appearance of straw than mortar, when dry, and covered with the second coat composed of lime mortar, well rubbed and pressed with the trowel until it be dry. A covering put on of those materials, will be found to continue firm and compact without cracking, as in the common mode.

The best method of boiling two, three or more Stills or Kettles with one fire or furnace. This method has been found to answer in some instances, and may perhaps do generally if properly managed. I will here give the result of my own experiments. I set a singling still holding 180 gallons on a furnace of 18 by 14 inches, and 4 feet six inches long, with the bottom to the fire, she had a common head and worm with scrapers and chains in her. I extended the flue, (or after passing it round her), to the doubling still which it likewise went round—but to prevent too much heat from passing to the doubling still, I fixed a shutter in the flue of the singling still, immediately above the intersection of the flue of the doubling still, to turn all the heat round her, and another shutter in the flue of the doubling still at the intersection of the flue of the singling still, to shut the heat off from the doubling still if necessary. With this fixture I run six hogsheads off in every twenty four hours and doubled the same, with the same heat and fire. I likewise had a boiler under which I kept another fire, which two fires consumed about three cords and an half of wood per week, distilling at the rate of sixty-five bushels of grain per week, and making about one hundred and ninety gallons in the same time. Before I adopted this method I kept four fires agoing, and made about the same quantity of whiskey, consuming about four and an half cords of wood per week, and was obliged to have the assistance of an additional distiller per week. I have since heard of the adoption of this plan with more success than I experienced.

ART. III.

To set a doubling Still. As spirits can hardly be burned or singed in a doubling still, if not before done in singling, all the precaution necessary is to set them in the best method for saving fuel, and preserving the still. The instructions given for setting a singling still, is presumed to be adequate to setting a doubling still.

How to prevent the singling Still from burning. If the singling still be well set, and is carefully greased with a piece of bacon, tallow or hard soap, every time she is filled, she will seldom burn, but if she does burn or singe notwithstanding these precautions, it will be advisable to take her down and set her up a new ten times, rather than have her burned. SECTION VII.

ARTICLE I.

How to clarify Whiskey, &c. Take any vessel of convenient size, take one end out and make it clean, by scalding or otherwise; bore the bottom full of holes, a quarter of an inch in diameter—lay thereon three folds of flannel, over which spread ground maple charcoal and burnt brick-dust, made to the consistence of mortar, with whiskey, about two inches thick, pour your whiskey or brandy thereon, and let it filter thro' the charcoal, flannel, &c. after which you will find the spirit to have scarcely any taste or smell of whiskey.—Elevate the filtering cask so as to leave room to place a vessel to receive the spirit under it.

ART. II.

How to make a Brandy resembling French Brandy, from Rye Whiskey or Apple Brandy. Clarify the whiskey as the above receipt directs, after thus purifying, add one third or one fourth of French brandy, and it will be then found strongly to resemble the French brandy in taste and smell—and if kept a few years, will be found more salutary and healthful than French brandy alone. This mode of clarifying rids the spirit of any unpleasant flavour received in the process of distillation or from bad materials, and moreover, from all those vicious, poisonous properties contracted in the still or worm from copper; such as foetid oil from the malt, which frequently unites with the verdigris, and combines so effectually with whiskey, that it may possible require a frequent repetition of this mode of clarifying, to rid it completely of any unpleasant taste or property contracted as above stated.

ART. III.

How to make a Spirit resemble Jamaica Spirit out of Rye Whiskey. This is done precisely in the manner laid down in the receipt for French brandy.

ART. IV.

How to make a resemblance of Holland Gin out of Rye Whiskey. Put clarified whiskey, with an equal quantity of water, into your doubling still, together with a sufficient quantity of juniper berries, prepared; take a pound of unflacked lime, immerse it in three pints of water, stir it well—then let it stand three hours, until the lime sinks to the bottom, then pour off the clear lime water, with which boil half an ounce of isinglass cut small, until the latter is dissolved—then pour it into your doubling still with a handful of hops, and a handful of common salt, put on the head and set her a running; when she begins to run, take the first half gallon (which is not so good), and reserve it for the next still you fill—as the first shot generally contains something that will give an unpleasant taste and colour to the gin. When it looses proof at the worm, take the keg away that contains the gin, and bring it down to a proper strength with rain water, which must previously have been prepared, by having been evaporated and condensed in the doubling still and cooling tub. This gin when fined, and two years old, will be equal, if not superior to Holland gin. The isinglass, lime water and salt, helps to refine it in the still, and the juniper berries gives the flavor or taste of Holland gin. About thirteen pounds of good berries, are sufficient for one barrel. Be careful to let the gin as it runs from the worm, pass thro' a flannel cloth, which will prevent many unpleasant particles from passing into the liquor, which are contracted in the condensation, and the overjuice imbibed in its passage thro' the worm.

ART. V.

The best method of making common country Gin. Take of singlings a sufficient quantity to fill the doubling still, put therein ten or twelve pounds of juniper berries, with one shovel full of ashes, and two ounces alum—put on the bead, and run her off, as is done in making whiskey. This is the common mode of making country gin; but is in this state little superior to whiskey, save as to smell and flavor. It is therefore in my mind, that the mode of clarifying, prescribed, ought to be pursued in all distilleries, so far as necessary to make a sufficient quantity of good spirit for any market convenient—the supply of respectable neighbors, who may prefer giving a trifle more per gallon, than for common stuff and for domestic use. And moreover, I think the distiller will meet a generous price for such clarified, and pure spirit, as he may send to a large mercantile town for sale—as brewers and others, frequently desire such for mixing, brewing, making brandies in the French and Spanish mode, and spirits after the Jamaica custom. And after the establishment of a filtering tub or hopper, prepared as before described, with holes, flannel or woollen cloth, and plenty of maple charcoal, and burnt brick-dust, a distiller may always find leisure to attend to the filtration; indeed it will be found as simple and easy, as the process for making ley from ashes in the country for soap. But I would suggest that spirit prepared and clarified in this way, should be put into the sweetest and perfectly pure casks. New barrels will most certainly impart color, and perhaps some taste, which would injure the sale, if intended for a commercial town market, and for brewing, or mixing with spirits, from which it is to receive its flavor. For my own use, I would put this spirit into a nice sweet cask, and to each barrel I would add a pint of regularly, and well browned wheat, not burned but roasted as much as coffee. The taste of peach brandy may be imparted to it by a quantity of peach stone kernels, dried, pounded and stirred into the cask; in this way, those who are fond of the peach brandy flavor, may drink it without becoming subject to the pernicious consequences that arise from the constant use of peach brandy. Peach brandy, unless cleansed of its gross and cloying properties, or is suffered to acquire some years of age, has a cloying effect on the stomach, which it vitiates, by destroying the effect of the salival and gastric juices, which have an effect on aliment, similar to that of yeast on bread, and by its singular properties prevents those juices from the performance of their usual functions in the fermentation of the food taken into the stomach—producing acid and acrimonious matter, which in warm climates generates fevers and agues. Apple brandy has not quite a similar but equally pernicious effect, which age generally removes—indeed, age renders it a very fine liquor, and when diluted with water, makes a very happy beverage, gives life and animation to the digesting powers, and rarely leaves the stomach heavy, languid and cloyed. Then both those, (indeed, all liquors,) ought to be avoided when new, by persons of delicate habit, and those who do not exercise freely. A severe exercise and rough life, generally enables the stomach to digest the most coarse food, by liquor, however new.

On fining Liquors.

Isinglass is almost universally used in fining liquors. Take about half an ounce to the barrel—beat it fine with a hammer, lay it in a convenient vessel, pour thereon two gallons whiskey, or a like quantity of the liquor you are about to fine, let it soak two or three days, or till it becomes soft enough to mix—then stir it effectually, and add the white and shells of half a dozen eggs—beat them up together and pour them into the cask that is to be fined, then stir it in the cask, bung it slightly, after standing three or four days it will be sufficiently fine, and may be drawn off into a clean cask.

ART. VI.

On colouring Liquors. One pound of brown sugar burnt in a skillet almost to a cinder, add a quart of water, which when stirred, will dissolve the sugar—when dissolved, this quantity will color three barrels. A pint of well parched wheat put into a barrel will colour it, and give more the appearance of a naturally acquired colour, and an aged taste or flavor.

ART. VII.

To correct the taste of singed Whiskey. Altho' this cannot be done effectually without clarifying, as prescribed, but Bohea tea will in a great measure correct a slight singe—a quarter of a pound may be tried to the barrel. ART. VIII.

To give an aged flavor to Whiskey. This process ought to be attended to by every distiller, and with all whiskey, and if carefully done, would raise the character, and add to the wholesomeness of domestic spirits. It may be done by clarifying the singlings as it runs from the still—let the funnel be a little broader than usual, cover it with two or more layers of flannel, on which place a quantity of finely beaten maple charcoal, thro' which let the singlings filter into your usual receiving cask. When doubling, put some lime and charcoal in the still, and run the liquor thro' a flannel—when it loses proof at the worm, take away the cask, and bring it to proof with rain water that has been distilled. To each hogshead of whiskey, use a pound of Bohea tea, and set it in the sun for two weeks or more, then remove it to a cool cellar, and when cold it will have the taste and flavor of old whiskey. If this method was pursued by distillers and spirits made 2d and 3d proof, it would not only benefit the seller, but would be an advantage to the buyer and consumer—and was any particular distiller to pursue this mode and brand his casks, it would raise the character of his liquor, and give it such an ascendancy as to preclude the sale of any other, beyond what scarcity or an emergency might impel in a commercial city. If distillers could conveniently place their liquor in a high loft, and suffer it to fall to the cellar by a pipe, it would be greatly improved by the friction and ebullition occasioned in the descent and fall. SECTION VIII.

ARTICLE I.

Observations on Weather. Some seasons are better for fermentation than others. Should a hail storm occur in the summer, the distiller should guard against cooling off with water in which hail is dissolved, for it will not work well. If a thundergust happens when the hogsheads are in the highest state of fermentation, the working will nearly cease, and the stuff begin to contract an acidity. And when in the spring the frost is coming out of the ground, it is unfortunate when the distiller is obliged to use water impregnated with the fusions of the frost, such being very injurious to fermentation—Those changes and occurrences ought to be marked well, to enable a provision against their effects. This will be found difficult without the assistance of a barometer, to determine the changes of the weather—a thermometer, to ascertain correctly the heat of the atmosphere, and to enable a medium and temperature of the air to be kept up in the distillery; and from observation to acquire a knowledge of the degree of heat or warmth, in which the mashing in the hogsheads ferments to the greatest advantage, and when this is ascertained, a distiller may in a close house sufficiently ventilated, and provided with convenient windows, always keep up the degree or temperature in the air, most adapted to the promotion of fermentation, by opening his windows or doors to admit air, as a corrective; or by keeping them closed in proportion to the coldness of the weather:—And a hydrometer, useful in measuring and ascertaining the extent of water. Instructions for the management of those instruments generally attend them, it is therefore unnecessary for me to go into a detail on this subject.—But it is absolutely necessary that the careful and scientific distiller should possess them, especially the two former, to guard against the changes of the weather, and preserve the atmosphere in the distillery, always equally warm. ART. II.

Observations on Water. Distillers cannot be too particular in selecting good water for distilling, when about to erect distilleries. Any water will do for the use of the condensing tubs or coolers, but there are many kinds of water that will not answer the purpose of mashing or fermenting to advantage; among which are snow and limestone water, either of which possess such properties, as to require one fifth more of grain to yield the same quantity of liquor, that would be produced while using river water. Any water will answer the distillers purpose, that will dissolve soap, or will wash well with soap, or make a good lather for shaving. River or creek water is the best for distilling except when mixed with snow or land water from clay or ploughed ground. If no river or creek water can be procured, that from a pond, supplied by a spring, if the bottom be not very muddy will do, as the exposure to the sun, will generally have corrected those properties inimical to fermentation. Very hard water drawn from a deep well, and thrown into a cistern, or reservoir and exposed to the sun and air for two or three days, has been used in mashing with success, with a small addition of chop grain or malt. I consider rain water as next in order to that from the river, for mashing and fermentation. Mountain, slate, gravel and running water, are all preferable to limestone, unless impregnated with minerals— many of which are utterly at variance with fermentation. With few exceptions, I have found limestone, and all spring water too hard for mashing, scalding or fermenting. ART. III.

Precautions against Fire Cannot be too closely attended to. The store house, or cellar for keeping whiskey in, ought to be some distance from the distillery, and the liquor deposited, and all work necessary in it done by day, to avoid all possible danger arising from candles or lamps, from which many serious calamities have occurred. Suppose the cellar or place of deposit to be entered at night by a person carrying a lamp or candle, and a leaking cask takes his attention, in correcting the leak, he may set his lamp on the ground covered with whiskey, or he may drop by chance one drop of burning oil on a small stream of whiskey, which will communicate like gun powder, and may cause an explosion, which may in all likelihood destroy the stock on hand, the house, and the life of the individual.—On this subject it is not necessary I should say much, as every individual employed about a distillery must have some knowledge of the value of life and property. SECTION IX.

ARTICLE I.

The duty of the owner of a Distillery. The main and first object of the proprietor of a distillery, is gain or profit—and the second, it is natural, should be the acquiring a character or reputation for his liquor, and a desire to excel neighboring distilleries—in both of which, neglect and sloth will insure disappointment. The active, cleanly, industrious and attentive proprietor uses the following means. First. He provides his distillery with good sound grain, hogsheads, barrels, kegs, funnels, brooms, malt, hops, wood, &c. of all of which he has in plenty, nicely handled, and in good order. He also provides an hydrometer, thermometer, and particularly a barometer, duly observing the instructions accompanying each, their utility and particular uses. Secondly. He is careful that his distiller does his duty, of which he can be assured only, by rising at four o'clock, winter and summer, to see if the distiller is up and at his business, and that every thing is going well—and to prepare every thing and article necessary—to attend and see the hogs fed, and that the potale or slop be cold when given, and that the cattle be slopped—that the stills are not burning, nor the casks leaking, &c. &c. He observes the barometer, points out any changes in the weather, and pays an unremitted attention, seeing that all things are in perfect order, and enforcing any changes he may deem necessary. On the other hand, indolence begets indolence—The proprietor who sleeps till after sun rise, sets an example to his distiller and people, which is too often followed—the distillery becomes cold from the want of a regular fire being kept up in her—the hogsheads cease to work or ferment, of consequence, they will not turn out so much whiskey—and there is a general injury sustained. And it may often occur, that during one, two or three days in the week, the distiller may want grain, wood, malt, hops or some necessary—and perhaps all those things may be wanting during the same day ... and of course, the distiller stands idle. The cattle, hogs, &c. suffer; and from this irregular mode of managing, I have known the proprietor to sink money, sink in reputation, and rarely ever to attribute the effect to the right cause.

System and Method. A well timed observance of system and method are necessary in all the various branches of business pursued, and without which none succeeds so well. And whilst the industrious, attentive and cleanly proprietor, may with certainty, calculate on a handsome profit and certain advantages to result from this business. He who conducts carelessly, may as certainly reckon on sustaining a general loss.

ART. II.

The duty of an hired Distiller Is to rise at four o'clock every morning. Wash and clean out the boiler, fill her up with clean water, put fire under her, and to clean, fill and put fire under the singling still—to collect and put in order for mashing, his hogsheads—and as soon as the water is warm enough in the boiler to begin mashing, which he ought to finish as early in the day as possible; for when the mashing is done, he will have time to scald and clean his vessels, to attend his doubling and singling still, to get in wood for next day, and to make his stock yeast, if new yeast is wanting. In short, the distiller ought to have his mashing finished by twelve o'clock every day, to see and have every thing in the still house, under his eye at the same time; but he ought never to attempt doing more than one thing at once—a distiller ought never to be in a hurry, but always busy. I have always remarked that the bustling unsteady distiller attempts doing two or three things at once, and rarely ever has his business in the same state of forwardness with the steady methodical character. SECTION X.

ARTICLE I.

Profits of a Common Distillery. Profits arising from a distillery with two common stills, one containing 110 gallons, and one containing 65 gallons that is well conducted for 10 months. The calculations predicated on a site, distant about 60 miles from market. Due regard is paid to the rising and falling markets in the following statement. The selling price of whiskey will always regulate the price of grain, the distiller's wages, the prices of malt, hops, hauling, &c. is rather above than below par. Distillery, Dr. To 1077 bushels corn, at 50 cents $ 538 50 per bushel, is 533 bushels rye, at 60 cents 309 80 96 bushels malt, at 70 ditto 67 20 1706 bushels total.

60 pounds hops at 25 cents per pound 15 100 cords of wood, at 2 dollars 200 Distiller's wages per year and 204 70 boarding Hauling whiskey, at 4 cents per gallon 204 70 50 poor hogs at 4 dollars each 200 $ 1739 90

Contra Cr. By 5118 gallons whiskey, at 59 cents $ 2559 per gallon 50 fat hogs at 7 dollars each 350 $ 2939 Leaving a balance of $ 1143 10

I have charged nothing for hauling of grain, &c. as the feed or slop for milk cows, young cattle, and fatting cattle, will more than pay that expense. An estimate of the profits arising from a patent distillery, (col. Anderson's patent improved) 1 still of 110 with a patent head, 1 still of 85 gallons for a doubling still, and a boiler of metal, holding 110 gallons.

Distillery, Dr. To 2454 bushels corn, at 50 1227 cents per bushel 1216 do. rye, at 60 cents do. 729 60 200 do. malt at 70 cents do. 140 3870 120 pounds hops, at 25 cents 30 per pound 100 cords wood, at 2 dollars 200 per cord 2 distillers wages, boarding, &c. 400 Hauling whiskey, per gallon at 4 cents 464 40 120 poor hogs at 4 dolls. each 480 Total expense $ 3671 Contra, Cr. By 11610 gallons whiskey, at 50 cents per $ 5805 50 gallon 120 fat hogs, at 7 dolls. each 840 $ 6645 50 Clear profit, $ 2974 50 Profit of a common distillery 1148 10 Balance in favor of a patent distillery $ 1826 40

To do the business of a patent distillery or to carry her on to advantage, requires a little more capital to start with—but either the patent or common distillery, when they have run two or three months, managed by an attentive and brisk dealing man, will maintain, or keep themselves agoing. Where wood is scarce and money plenty, the patent distillery is certainly to be recommended, indeed, in all cases, I would recommend it, where the proprietor has money enough. It is by far the most profitable, and will sooner or later become in general use in this country.

ART. III.

Of Hogs. Raising, feeding and fattening hogs on potale, a business pursued and highly spoken of, but from my experience I have discovered that few good pigs can be raised entirely on potale—as it has a tendency to gripe and scour too much; but after they are weaned and a little used with slop, they will thrive well. If a hog in a cold morning comes running to a trough full of slop, that is almost boiling, and is very hungry— their nature is so gluttonous & voracious, that it will take several mouthfuls before it feels the effects of the heat, and endangers the scalding of the mouth, throat and entrails—and which may be followed by mortification and death;—moreover, hot feeding is the cause of so many deaths, and ill-looking unhealthy pigs, about some distilleries—which inconvenience might be avoided by taking care to feed or fill the troughs before the boiling slop is let out from the still. A distiller cannot be too careful of his hogs—as with care, they will be found the most productive stock he can raise—and without care unproductive. The offals of distilleries and mills cannot be more advantageously appropriated than in raising of hogs—they are prolific, arrive at maturity in a short period, always in demand. Pork generally sells for more than beef, and the lard commands a higher price than tallow; of the value of pork and every part of this animal, it is unnecessary for me to enter into detail; of their great value and utility, almost every person is well acquainted. The hog pens and troughs ought to be kept clean and in good order, the still slop salted two or three times a week; when fattening, hogs should be kept in a close pen, and in the summer a place provided to wallow in water. Hogs that are fed on potale, ought not to lie out at night, as dew, rain and snow injures them—indeed such is their aversion to bad weather, that when it comes on, or only a heavy shower of rain, away they run, full speed, each endeavoring to be foremost, all continually crying out, until they reach their stye or place of shelter. At the age of nine months, this animal copulates first, and frequently earlier, but it is better engendering should be prevented, till the age of eighteen months—for at an earlier age, the litter is uniformly small, and weakly, and frequently do not survive, besides the growth is injured. It is therefore better not to turn a sow to breeding, till from 18 to 24 months old. The sow goes four months with pig, and yields her litter at the commencement of the fifth; soon after encourages and receives the boar, and thus produces two litters in the year. I have known an instance of three litters having been produced in the year from one female. A sow ought not to be permitted to suckle her pigs more than two or three weeks, after which eight or nine only should be left with her, the rest sold, or sent to market, or killed for use—at the age of three weeks they are fit for eating, if the sow is well fed. A few sows will serve, and those kept for breeding, well selected from the litter, the residue, cut and splayed. Care and pains is due in the choice of the breed of hogs—the breeder had then better procure good ones, and of a good race at once, tho' the expense and trouble may seem material in the outset, yet the keeping will be the same, and the produce perhaps fifty per cent more. After the pigs are weaned, they ought to be fed for the first two weeks on milk, water and bran, after which potale may be used in the room of milk. I would recommend a little mixed potale from an early period, and increase it, so as to render them accustomed to the slop gradually.

ART. IV.

Of the Diseases of Hogs. The only disease that I know of which seems to be peculiar to hogs, is a kind of leprosy, commonly called measles, when it seizes them, they become dull and sleepy, if the tongue is pulled out, the palate and throat will be found full of blackish spots, which appear also on the head, neck, and on the whole body—the creature is scarce able to stand, and the roots of its bristles are bloody. As this disorder proceeds chiefly from their gluttony and filth, and hot drinking of potale and slop; to remedy which, it would be commendable to feed on cold potale, or scarcely milk warm, to keep them clean, to mix salt occasionally with the potale—tar their trough once a month, and give them a little ground antimony. In fattening hogs I have known them improve rapidly, after eating the warm ashes from a fresh burned brush heap. Hickory or willow ashes will have an effect to destroy worms, and I think ought to be used, they will eat it dry, when put in their troughs.

ART. V.

On feeding Cattle and Milch Cows. Potale is a great creator of milk, and will increase the quantity greatly in cows yielding milk, but no so good. Young cattle thrive very well, that get hay or straw during the night. To fatten cattle there ought to be mixed with the slop, a little oil meal, or chopped flaxseed, or chopped corn. The cattle kept on still slop ought to get plenty of salt. Warm potale injures their teeth. SECTION XI.

ARTICLE I.

Observations on erecting Distilleries. Those who are about to erect distilleries, have a handsome subject for consideration; the advantages, and the probable disadvantages that may arise from building on a particular site, or seat. The contiguity to a chopping mill is a material consideration—Wood forming an important article, should be taken into view—Grain merits also a great share of attention. The water which forms, by no means, the least important ingredient should be well analyzed; and a share of thought is due to the subject of a market for the whiskey, spirits and pork, produced from the establishment.—And should the water then prove good, soft and proper for fermentation, can be bro't over head, and the chopping mill is not very inconvenient, and wood convenient and cheap, and grain plenty and at reasonable prices, and a market within one hundred miles, I have little doubt but that with proper economy and observance of system, the establishment will prove very productive; and may be progressed in with cheerfulness, and a reasonable hope of a fair retribution to the owner. A proper seat being fixed on, with sufficient fall to bring the water over head, for it is very material, and an immense saving of labor—material, because it prevents a loss, in running the stills, from pumping or want of water in the cooling tubs. The size of the house follows, as requiring some more than usual calculation—houses are generally made too small, giving great inconvenience, and preventing that nice attention to cleanliness, which forms a very important item in the process of distilling. I would recommend a size sufficiently large for three stills, and to mash six hogsheads per day—one of col. Anderson's patent improved stills, I would consider, in many situations, as most desirable; at all events, I would recommend the preparation of room enough for three stills, if even it should be the intention of the owner to erect but two—for it is very probable, that after some experience, he may determine to pursue the business more extensively, and add the patent still. The size then established, I would recommend the lower story to be 10 feet high, this will leave room for the heated, or rarefied air to ascend in the summer above the cooler, and more necessary air in the warm season of the year, and prevent the unpleasant effect of a too warm air on the mashing hogsheads, and the sowing of the stuff in fermentation—and moreover, prevent the unpleasant effects of smoak on the distillers eyes. But it is important that the house should be erected on level ground with doors opposite each other, with plenty of windows to afford a draft and recourse of air, at pleasure, during the warm season; and so that in the winter it may be closed and preserved perfectly warm—to which end it is most expedient the lower story should be well built with stone and lime, and neatly plastered—the windows well glazed, with shutters &c. Thus provided, and a thermometer placed in the centre of the house, a proper temperature may be kept up in the air of the house— for there is a certain degree of warmth which exceeds for fermentation—this degree of heat, then correctly ascertained by the distiller, he may by a close attention to his duties, fires and the thermometer, always keep the air of the house in nearly that same and most approved state; and even by a well timed observation guard against storms and casualties. To effectuate this grand and important object, some have divided the stills, placing the boiler at one end, and a singling and doubling still at the other; this mode will ensure, in cold weather, the success of the measure more fully—others have placed all the stills in the centre of the building—a plan that will do better in the winter than in the summer, and one I think less favourably of than that of dividing them. During the winter, the north or northwest side of the house should be kept quite close, permitting the house to be lighted from the more temperate southward exposure. To calculate the window sashes to open by hinges, or to be taken entirely out in the summer, at pleasure, is in my mind advisable. SECTION XII.

ARTICLE I.

On Wines. Presuming this work may be rendered more desirable to farmers, from the introduction of some receipts for making domestic wine from the common hedge grapes, or such as are common on fence rows and on high rich grounds, and which are pleasantly flavored after receiving frost, and also for making cider in the best mode for preservation. I have extracted a few from various author's.

Receipt for making Domestic Wine from the Autumn Blue Grape. About the latter end of September or about the first white frosts, gather the grapes which with us grow along old fences and hedges—pick all the grapes from the stems that are juicy, allowing two bushels thus picked a little heaped, to the barrel. Mash them well between your hands in small parcels, either in earthen pans, or some convenient small vessels—put them when mashed into a tub together, and add a little water so as to soak the pumice.... After stirring them well together, squeeze the pumice out from the liquor with your hands, as clean as you can—then strain the juice through a hair sieve. If the juice seems not all extracted from the pumice at one soaking and squeezing, put water to the pumice and squeeze them over again; take care not to add too much water, lest there should be more than the cask will hold. If after all the ingredients are added, the cask is not full, it may then be filled up with water. To the liquor thus prepared, add two pounds of good, clean, rich low priced brown sugar, per gallon, stirring it in the tub till all the sugar be dissolved; let it remain in the tub, and in a day or two it will ferment, and the scum rise to the top, which must be carefully skimmed off—then put the wine into a clean nice barrel—do not bung it up tight. There is generally a fermentation in it the spring following, when the grape vines are in blossom, but racking it off just before that season will prevent its working too much. If it is wanted to be soon ripe for use, put a quart of good old brandy after it is racked off, to the barrel, and give it air by leaving the bung quite loose. This mode of manufacturing wine for domestic use, is convenient and not expensive to those who have it in their power to manufacture maple sugar. But the nice housewife or husbandmen of ingenuity, will, I fancy, devise some more neat mode of compressing the juice from the grape—as pressing it by the hand, would seem less cleanly, though the fermentation generally cleanses sufficiently.

Currant Wine Is managed in the same way. The same quantity of sugar is presumed to answer—The juice is generally well strained thro' cloths, and when well stirred, &c. with the sugar, and neatly racked off, is put by in a loft to ripen, in sweet casks.

ART. II.

Directions for making Cider, British mode. The apples after being thrown into a heap should always be covered from the weather. The later the cider is made the better, as the juice is then more perfectly ripened, and less danger to be feared from fermentation. Nothing does more harm to cider than a mixture of rotten apples with the sound. The apples ought to be ground so close as to break the seeds which gives the liquor an agreeable bitter. The pumice should be pressed through hair bags, and the juice strained through two sieves, the uppermost of hair, the lower of muslin. After this the cider should be put into open casks, when great attention is necessary to discover the exact time in which the pumice still remaining in the juice, rises on the top, which happens from the third to the tenth day, according as the weather is more or less warm. This body does not remain on top more than two hours; consequently, care should be taken to draw off the cider before it sinks, which may be done by means of a plug. When drawn off, the cider is put into casks. Particular attention is again required to prevent the fermentation, when the least inclination towards it is discovered. This may be done by a small quantity of cider spirits, about one gallon to the hogshead. In March the cider should be again drawn off, when all risque of fermentation ceases. Then it should be put into good sweet casks, and in three years from that time, it will be fit for bottling. Old wine casks are to be preferred; those which contain rum are ruinous to cider. Large earthen vessels might be made with or without glazing, which would be preferable to any wooden vessel whatever. When we compare this with the hasty American mode of making cider, it is not to be wondered at that the English cider so infinitely excels ours.

ART. III.

The following is a very highly approved American mode of making Cider. Take care to have every necessary utensil to be made use of in the whole process, perfectly clean and free from every foreign smell. For this purpose, before you begin your work, let your mill, trough and press be made perfectly clean, by thoroughly washing, and if necessary, with scalding water. The casks are another material object, and if musty, or any other bad smell, one end should be taken out, and with shavings burn the inside; then scrub them clean, and put in the head, scald them well afterwards, and drain them perfectly; when dry, bung them tight and keep them in a cool shady place until wanted for use.—The apples should be quite ripe, and all the unripe and rotten ones, leaves, and every other thing that can tend to give the cider any disagreeable taste, carefully separated from them. I have found from careful attention and many experiments, that it is a great advantage to the cider to be separated from the gross parts as soon as possible; for this purpose, I tried several methods: that which I found succeeded the best, I shall now relate, as by following it, I was able to preserve my cider in a sound state, though made in the early part of the season. I took a large pipe, of about 150 gallons, had one of the heads taken out, and on the inside of the other laid on edge, four strips of boards, two inches wide, and on these strips placed a false bottom, filled with gimlet holes, three inches a part. On this false bottom, I put a hair cloth, (old blanket or swingline tow will do) so as to prevent any sand from washing into the space between the true and false bottoms; I procured a quantity of coarse sand, which was carefully washed in repeated waters, until it would not discolor the clean water—then dried the sand, put it in the pipe, on the hair cloth, (coarse blanket or swingline tow,) about 9 inches thick. Thus having every thing in readiness, I went through the process of making, as quick as possible, by having the apples ground fine early in the morning, putting them in the press as fast as they were ground; and then in sufficient quantities pressed out the juice, and put it over the sand in the cask, (having previously bored a gimlet hole in the side of the cask), between the true and false bottoms, in which I introduced a large goose-quill, stopped with another. The pipe was placed so high, as to admit of a cask under it, to receive the liquor as it ran from the quill, which, if rightly managed, will be perfectly fine, and being put away in a cool cellar, and stopped close, will keep well, and prove of an excellent quality. This process is easy, and in every person's power to execute, as the liquor, by being cleared, from its gross feculences, will not run into that violent fermentation, so destructive to the fine vinous flavor, which renders good cider so pleasing a drink. Query. Would not a quart of good apple brandy to each barrel of cider, made in this way, prevent any fermentation? But it is generally believed that cider is the better for having undergone a fermentation, becoming then more active and light; cider that has undergone condensation, or has been boiled down until strong, has been found to keep sound some length of time, but it is too heavy and destructive to the appetite, cloying the digesting powers.—And by too frequent use, I fancy, will ultimately produce ague and fevers; and I fear, cider made according to the foregoing receipt, would have a similar effect, but in a lesser degree. I would recommend after a due attention to cleanliness, in the apple mill, trough, press and casks, that the apples be assorted, and having been exposed to the air, under a roof or shed some time, selecting the sound only, that they be ground fine, and let stand soaking in the pumice twelve hours, and then pressed off, through a clean rye straw cheese (being the most common and convenient in the country,) and when flowing from the press, a vessel should be provided, with the bottom full of gimlet holes, in the style of a riddle, on which lay a coarse cloth, then a layer of clean sand, over which a parcel of coarse rye straw, and suffer it to filter thro' this vessel into the large receiving tub; the rye straw will intercept the coarser pieces of pumice, and may be changed frequently—This mode will rid the liquor of all the coarser pieces of pumice—then I would recommend that the cider should be placed in open hogsheads, such as are used for mashing grain in distilleries; those being raised about two feet and an half high on logs or a scaffolding, under a shade or covering—a spile hole bored near the bottom of each, so as to admit a barrel to stand under the spile—in this state, I would recommend it to stand until it undergoes a fermentation, carefully watching the top, and when the pumice is found to have risen, to skim it off carefully, then having previously provided sweet barrels, draw it off by the spile hole, adding from a pint to a quart of apple brandy to each barrel of strong cider, bung it up tight, and store it where the frost will not injure it. In this way, I presume it will keep well—and if the party be so disposed, I would recommend any bottling to be done in April, and during clear weather, though it is safe to bottle immediately after having undergone a thorough fermentation.

The following Receipt to make an excellent American Wine, was communicated to the Burlington Society for promoting domestic manufactures, by Joseph Cooper, Esq. of Gloucester county, state of New Jersey, and ordered to be published;—which, from its extreme simplicity, and economy, shewing the convenience with which a very pleasant, healthful beverage, may be kept by every family in our country, is published in this work. And moreover, as it may have, in some degree, the happy effects of correcting the baneful and pernicious effects of coffee, which is so commonly used for breakfast in our state at present. Coffee, when first introduced, was used as a medicine only, and given only in a well clarified state, and sparingly—both from its soothing and pleasant effect, it become common, and now it is almost the only beverage used at breakfast by the farmers of Pennsylvania, and indeed, people suppose the morning repast is not genteel, unless the board is decorated with this foreign beverage. If it was used in a moderately strong well clarified state, it would be less injurious, but it is too frequently set down in a non descript state, difficult to be named, mixed with the grounds, and so far from clear, as to be entitled to the epithet of muddy, and sweetened with bad sugar, carrying with it to the simply ignorant family, using it in this state, the cause in a great measure of destroying the tone of the stomach, overloading it, and by and by, the introduction of a kind of dumb ague, or chill, followed with a fever, and often creating intermitting and remitting fevers—consequences arising out of the free use of bad provisions—which diseases are oftentimes kept up by the use of this infamously prepared coffee, for when the country people get sick, coffee is too frequently used as the only diet. It is particularly injurious to bilious habits—souring on the stomach, becoming acid, creating acidity, and preventing the glandular juicy supplies from producing the usual fermentation of the food in the stomach— rendering the chyle vitiated, which in its usual route, imparts from the intestines, nourishment to the blood. Thus conveying its baneful properties by this active vehicle, chyle to the blood, rendering it foetid, discoloured and by and by, often as difficult to be named in its adulterated state as the composition which gave rise to it. Had we not very many instances of new diseases—complaints which the most eminent of the medical faculty can with difficulty name, or treat with judgment, without first having made many essays and experiments fatal to the lives of hundreds, which are increasing with every approaching season, and all since the adoption of coffee. (True, the free use of ardent spirits and other luxuries operating on the effects of indolence—of habits, produced by the wealth and independence of our agricultural and commercial people, and growing out of an imitation of the elevated, affluent of society, born to fortune, and the successful professional characters;) a doubt might present itself as to the propriety of attributing many of those new complaints to coffee ... but to a too plentiful use of bad provisions, and an indulgence of bad habits, we must attribute to them. And as badly made coffee is among the most pernicious kinds of food, and particularly when taken in the morning on an empty stomach, and that too made from very green coffee, (dreadfully poisonous when used too frequently before it acquires age and a whiter colour,) it may be condemned with greater propriety. And whilst this beverage is condemned and so highly to be disapproved of, it is well if we can invent a light, pure, active and healthful beverage to be taken freely, between or at meals, calculated in its nature to correct in some degree, the unhappy effects of bad provisions—it is therefore I mention the

Receipt for making Honey Wine. I put a quantity of the comb from which the honey had been drained, into a tub, to which I add a barrel of cider, immediately from the press; this mixture was well stirred, and left to soak for one night. It was then strained before a fermentation took place, and honey was added until the weight of the liquor was sufficient to bear an egg. It was then put into a barrel, and after the fermentation commenced, the cask was filled every day for three or four days, with water, that the filth might work out of the bung hole. When the fermentation moderated, I put the bung in loosely, lest stopping it tight, might cause the cask to burst.—At the end of five or six weeks the liquor was drawn off into a tub, and the white of eight eggs well beaten up, with a pint of clean sand, were put into it—I then added a gallon of cider spirit, and after mixing the whole well together, I returned it into the cask, which was well cleaned, bunged it tight and placed it in a proper situation for racking it off when fine. In the month of April following, I drew it off for use, and found it equal in my opinion, to almost any foreign wine —in the opinion of many good judges it was superior. This success has induced me to repeat the experiments for three years, and I am persuaded that by using the clean honey, instead of the comb, as above described; such an improvement might be made as would enable the citizens of the United States, to supply themselves with a truly federal and wholesome wine, which would not cost more than twenty cents per gallon, were all the ingredients procured at the market prices, and would have the peculiar advantage over all other wines, hitherto attempted in this country, that it contains no foreign mixture whatever, but is made from ingredients produced on our own farms. Columbian Magazine, November 1790. Doubtless the foregoing wine will be found strong, and if not well clarified, or rather fined, may be heavy—and therefore will be found excellent when diluted freely with water, and when about to be drank, two thirds of water will be found necessary, and an improvement. Bottling the foregoing wine in April, will certainly render it more excellent, and I fancy it ought to be drank mixed with water, during warm weather, and between meals, as in its pure state it may be found heavy. The gentleman who made the foregoing experiments, drew it off in kegs—this we presume was done to prevent its souring—as cider will suffer, and become hard after broaching the cask, whereas whilst full it remained sound. All American vinous liquors are liable to sour, because we rarely understand or practice the proper mode of manufacturing. Complete cleansing and fermentation is absolutely necessary—and when fermented, it must be well fined, and then drawn off in nice casks, or bottled—bottling is certainly the most effectual, and if a farmer procures as many as three dozen of black bottles, they with three kegs of seven and an half gallons each, will hold the barrel.—The kegs well bunged, will preserve the wine sound, and when a keg is broached, it must be immediately drawn off and bottled. The bottles when emptied, ought to be rinsed and stood up in an airy closet to drain.

To make Elderberry Wine. The editor is happy in introducing the following receipts which he is confident is hardly known in America. The great quantities of the Elderberry, which yearly goes to waste, might with very little trouble be manufactured into one of the most wholesome and agreeable wines ever introduced into America. To every two quarts of berries, add one gallon of water, boil it half an hour, then strain it, and add to every gallon of liquor, two and an half pounds of sugar, then boil it together for half an hour, and skim it well; when cool (not cold) put in a piece of toasted bread, spread thick with brewer's yeast, to ferment. When you put this liquor into the barrel, which must be done the next day, add to every gallon of liquor, one pound of raisins, chopped, and stir all together in the barrel, once every day, for a week, then stop it close. It will not be fit to tap 'till the spring following the making; and the older the better. To make Elderberry Wine, to drink, made warm, as a Cordial. Equal quantities of berries and water boiled together, till the berries break, then strain off the liquor, and to every gallon thereof, put three pounds of sugar, and spice, to your palate, boil all up together, let it stand till it becomes cool, (not cold); then put in a piece of toasted bread, spread thick with brewer's yeast, to ferment, and in two or three days, it will be fit to put in the barrel, then stop it close. This will be fit to drink at Christmas, but the older the better. SECTION XIII.

ARTICLE I.

To make Rye Malt for Stilling. Steep it twenty four hours in warm weather, in cold, forty eight, so in proportion as the weather is hot or cold; drain off the water, lay it in your malt cellar, about fifteen inches thick, for twelve hours; then spread it out half that thickness, sprinkling water on it at the same time; after that, it is to be turned three times a day with care, sprinkling water on as before. The thickness of the bed in this stage, must depend on the weather; work it in this way till the sprout is half as long as the grain, then throw it on your withering floor, wither it there for forty eight hours; then put it on your kiln to dry.

ART. II.

Of Brewing Beer. As the following is intended principally for the use of private families, it will be necessary to begin with directions how to choose good Malt; for which, see page 67.

Of the Brewing Vessels. To a copper that holds 36 gallons, the mash-tub ought to be at least big enough to contain six bushels of malt, and the copper of liquor, and room for mashing or stirring it: The under back, coolers and working tubs, may be rather fitted for the conveniency of the room, than to a particular size; for if one vessel be not sufficient to hold your liquor, you may take a second.

Of cleaning and sweetening Casks & Brewing Vessels. If a cask, after the beer is drank out, be well stopt to keep out the air, and the lees remaining in it till you want to use it again, you will need only to scald it well, and take care of the hoops before you fill it; but if air gets into a foul empty cask, it will contract an ill scent in spight of scalding. A handful of bruised pepper boiled in the water you scald with, will take out a little musty smell; but the surest way is to take out the head of the cask, and let the cooper shave and burn it a little, and then scald it for use; if you cannot conveniently have a cooper to the cask, get some stone lime, and put about three pound into a barrel, (and proportionally to smaller or bigger vessels) and put to it about six gallons of cold water, bung it up, and shake it about for some time, and afterwards scald it well; or for want of lime, take a linen rag, and dip it in melted brimstone, and fasten one end to the bung, and light the other, and let it hang on the cask. You must give it a little air, else it will not burn; but keep in as much of the sulphur as you can. Scald it afterwards, and you will find no ill smell. If you have new casks, before you fill them, dig places in the earth, and lay them half their depth with their bung holes downward, for a week; and after well scalding them, you may venture to fill them. Another way to proceed, if your brewing vessels are tinged with any ill smell, is to take unflacked lime and water, and with an old broom scrub the vessel whilst the water is hissing, with the lime; and afterwards take all this lime and water away, and put fresh water into the vessel, and throw some bay or common salt into each, and let it stand a day or two; and when you come to brew, scald your vessels, throw into them a little malt-dust or bran; and this will not only finish their sweetening, but stop them from leaking. But since there is so much trouble in getting vessels sweet after they have been neglected, you ought to make all thorough clean after brewing, and once a month to fill your vessels with fair water, and let it off again in two or three days. Of mashing or raking your Liquors. Suppose you take six bushels of malt, and two pounds of hops, and would make of it one barrel of strong, and two barrels of small beer. Heat your first copper of liquor for mashing, and strew over it a double handful of bran or malt; by which you will see when it begins to boil; for it will break and curl, and then it is fit to be let off into the mash tub, where it must remain till the steam is quite spent, and you can see your face in it, before you put in your malt; and then you begin to mash, stirring it all the while you are putting in the malt: but keep out about half a bushel dry, which you are to strew over the rest, when you have done stirring it, which will be as soon as you have well mixed it with the liquor, and prevented it from clodding. After the dry malt is laid on, cover your mash tub with cloths, to prevent losing any spirit of the malt, and let it so remain for two hours. Meanwhile have another copper of liquor hot; and at two hours end begin to let off your first wort into the under-back. Receive a pailful of the first running, and throw it again upon the malt.— You will find that the malt has sucked up half of your first copper of liquor; and therefore to make up your quantity of wort for your strong beer, you must gradually lade out of the second copper, and strew bowl after bowl over the malt, giving it time to soak thro', and keeping it running by an easy stream, till you perceive you have about forty gallons, which in boiling and working will be reduced to thirty-six. If you throw into the under-back (whilst you are letting off) about half a pound of hops, it will preserve it from foxing, or growing sour or ropy. Your first wort being all run off, you must soften the tap of the mash tub; and take a copper of hot liquor for your second mashing, stirring up the malt as you did at first, and then cover it close for two hours more. Meanwhile you fill your copper with the first wort, and boil it with the remainder of the two pounds of hops, for an hour and an half, and then lade it off into the coolers. Contrive to receive the hops in a sieve, basket, or thin woolen bag that is sweet and clean; then immediately fill your copper with cold liquor, renew your fire under it, and begin to let off your second wort, throw a handful of hops into the under-back, for the same reason as before: you will want to lade a few bowls full of liquor over the malt to make up the copper full of second wort; and when you have enough, fasten the tap and mash a third time after the same manner, and cover it close for another two hours; and then charge your copper with the second wort, boiling it for an hour with the same hops. By this time you may shift your first wort out of the coolers into a working tub, to make room for the second wort to come into the coolers; and then your copper being empty, you may heat as much liquor as will serve you to lade over the malt, or, by this time, rather grains, to make up your third and last copper of wort, which must be bottled with the same hops over again; and then your coolers are discharged of your second wort, to make room for the third; and when they are both of a proper coolness, they may be put together before you set them a working. During the time of shifting your liquors out of the copper, it is of consequence to take care to preserve it from receiving damage by burning: you should always contrive to have the fire low, or else to damp it at the time of emptying, and be very expeditious to put in fresh liquor.

Of working the Liquor. In this, regard must be had to the water: liquor naturally grows warm in working; therefore, in mild weather, it should be cold before it be set on, but a little warm in cold weather. The manner of doing it, is to put some good sweet yeast into a hand-bowl or piggin, with a little warm wort; then put the hand-bowl to swim upon the wort in the working tub, and in a little while it will work out, and leisurely mix with the wort, and when you find the yeast is gotten hold of the wort, you must look after it frequently; and if you perceive it begins to heat and ferment too fast, lade some of it out into another tub; and when grown cold, it may be put back again; or if you reserve some of the raw wort, you may check it leisurely, by stirring it in with a hand-bowl. The cooler you work your liquor, the better, provided it does but work well. If you happen to check it too much, you may forward its working, by filling a gallon stone bottle with boiling water, cork it close and put the bottle into the working tub.—An ounce or two of powdered ginger will have the same effect. There are a variety of methods in managing liquors whilst they are working.—Some people beat the yeast of strong beer and ale, once in two or three hours, for two or three days together. This they reckon makes the drink more heady, but withal hardens it so as to be drinkable in two or three days; the last day of beating it in, (stirring the yeast and beer together) the yeast, as it rises, will thicken; and then they take off part of the yeast, and beat in the rest, which they repeat as often as it rises thick; and when it has done working, they tun it up, so as it may just work out of the barrel. Others again do not beat it in at all, but let their strong drink work about two days, or till they see the ferment is over; and then they take off the top yeast, and either by a tap near the bottom, let it off sine, or else lade it out gently, to leave the sediment and yeast at the bottom. This way is proper for liquor that is to be drank soon: but if it be to keep, it will want the sediment to feed upon, and may probably grow stale, unless you make artificial lees: This you may make of a quart of brandy, and as much flour of wheat as will make it into dough; put them in lumps into the bung hole as soon as it has done working. Or else take a pound of the powder of oyster shells and mix it with a pound of treacle or honey, and put it in soon after it has done working. It would add to the goodness, as well as sining of your malt liquor, if you took two quarts of wheat, and make them very dry and crisp in an oven, or before the fire, and boil them in your first copper of wort.—They would strain off with your hops, and might be put with them into the second copper. Of the fining of Malt Liquors. It is most desirable to have beer fine of itself, which it seldom fails to do in due time, if rightly brewed and worked; but as disappointments some times happen, it will be necessary to know what to do in such cases. Ivory shavings boiled in your wort, or hartshorn shavings put into your cask just before you bung it down, will do much towards fining and keeping your liquor from growing stale. Isinglass is the most common thing made use of in fining all sorts of liquors; they first beat it well with a hammer or mallet, and lay it in a pail, and then draw off about two gallons of the liquor to be fined upon it, and let it soak two or three days; and when it is soft enough to mix with the liquor, they take a whisk, and stir it about till it is all of a ferment, and white froth; and they frequently add the whites and shells of about a dozen of eggs, which they beat in with it, and put altogether into the cask; then with a clean mop-stick, or some such thing, stir the whole together; and then lay a cloth, or piece of paper over the bung-hole, till the ferment is over; and then bung it up close, in a few days it will fall fine. But if you want to fine only a small quantity, take half an ounce of unflacked lime, and put it into a pint of water, and stir it well together, and let it stand for two or three hours, or till the lime settle to the bottom; then pour the water off clear, and throw away the sediment; then take half an ounce of isinglass cut small, and boil it in the lime water till it dissolves; then let it cool, and pour it into the vessel, &c.

Of the season for Brewing. The season for brewing keeping-beer is certainly best before Christmas, for then your malt is in perfection, not having time to contract either a musty smell, dust or weavels, (an insect that eats out the heart of the malt) and the waters are then seldom mixed with snow; and then four pounds of hops will go as far as five in the spring of the year: For you must increase in the quantity of hops as you draw towards summer. But, in short, chuse moderate weather as much as you can for brewing, and if you have a kindly cellar besides to keep your liquor in, that will not be much affected by extremity of heat or cold, you may reasonably expect great satisfaction in your brewery. Avoid as much as possible brewing in hot weather; but if you are necessitated to brew, make no more than present drinking, for it will not keep.

To make Elderberry-Beer or Ebulum. Take a hogshead of the first and strong wort, and boil in the same one bushel of picked Elderberries, full ripe; strain off, and when cold, work the liquor in the hogshead, and not in an open tun or tub; and after it has lain in the cask about a year, bottle it; and it will be a good rich drink, which they call ebulum; and has often been preferred to portwine, for its pleasant taste, and healthful quality. N. B. There is no occasion for the use of sugar in this operation; because the wort has strength and sweetness enough in itself to answer that end; but there should be an infusion of hops added to the liquor, by way of preservation and relish. Some likewise hang a small bag of bruised spices in the vessel.

To make improved and excellent wholesome Purl. Take Roman wormwood two dozen, gentian-root six pounds; calamus aromatics (or the sweet flag root) two pounds; a pound or two of the galen gale-root; horse radish one bunch; orange peal dried, and juniper berries, each two pounds; seeds or kernels of Seville oranges cleaned and dried, two pounds. These being cut and bruised, put them into a clean butt, and start your mild brown, or pale beer upon them, so as to fill up the vessel, about the beginning of November, and let it stand till the next season; and make it thus annually. To brew Strong Beer. To a barrel of beer take two bushels of wheat just cracked in the mill, and some of the flour sifted out of it; when your water is scalding hot, put it into your mash-vat, there let it stand till you can see your face in it; then put your malt upon that, and do not stir it; let it stand two hours and an half; then let it run into a tub that has two pounds of hops in it, and a handful of rosemary flowers; and when it is all run, put it into the copper, and boil it two hours; then strain it off, setting it a cooling very thin, and setting it a working very cool; clear it very well before you put it a working; put a little yeast to it; when the yeast begins to fall, put it into your vessel, put in a pint of whole grain, and six eggs, then stop it; Let it stand a year, and then bottle it. A good table-beer may be made, by mashing again, after the preceding is drawn off; then let it stand two hours, and let that run, and mash again, and stir it as before; be sure to cover your mashing-vat well; mix the first and second running together.

To make China Ale. To six gallons of ale, take a quarter of a pound or more of China root, thin sliced, and a quarter of a pound of coriander seeds, bruised—hang these in a tiffany, or coarse linen bag, in the vessel, till it has done working; and let it stand fourteen days before you bottle.

To make Ale, or any other liquor, that is too new, or sweet, drink stale.

To do this to the advantage of health, put to every quart of ale, or other liquor, 10 or 12 drops of the true spirit of salt, and let them be well mixed together, which they will soon do it by the subtile spirits penetrating into all parts, and have proper effect. To recover sour Ale. Scrape fine chalk a pound, or as the quantity of liquor requires, more; put it into a thin bag into the ale.

To recover Liquor that is turned bad.

If any liquor be pricked or fading, put to it a little syrup of clay, and let it ferment with a little barm, which will recover it; and when it is well settled, bottle it up, put in a clove or two, with a lump of loaf sugar.

Directions for Bottling. You must have firm corks, boiled in wort, or grounds of beer; fill within an inch of the cork's reach, and beat it in with a mallet; then, with a small brass wire, bind the neck of the bottle, bring up the ends, and twist them over with a pair of pincers.

To make a quarter of a hogshead of Ale, and a hogshead of Beer, of cooked Malt.

Take five strike of malt not ground too small; put in some boiling water, to cover the bottom of your mashing- vat before you put in your malt; mash it with more boiling water, putting in your malt at several times, that it may be sure to be all wet alike; cover it with a peck of wheat bran, then let it stand thus mashed four hours, then draw off three gallons of wort, and pour it upon that you have mashed, so let it stand half an hour more, till it runs clear, then draw of all that will run, and take two quarts of it to begin to work up with the barm, which must be about a pint and a half—put in the two quarts of wort at three times to the barm; you need not stir it till you begin to put in the boiled wort. You will not have enough to fill your vessel at first; wherefore you must pour on more boiling water, immediately after the other has done running, till you have enough to fill a quarter of a hogshead, and then pour on water for a hogshead of beer. As soon as the ale wort has run off, put a third part into the boiler—when it boils up, take off the scum, which you may put upon the grains for the small beer—when it is skimmed, put in a pound and an half of hops, having first sifted out the seeds, then put in all the wort, and let it boil two hours and an half, afterwards strain into two coolers, and let it stand to cool and settle, then put it to cool a little at a time, to the barm, and two quarts of wort, and beat it well together: every time you put the wort in, be sure you keep the settling out. Suppose you brew early on Thursday morning, you may tun it at 9 or 10 on Saturday morning. Do not fill your vessel quite full, but keep about three gallons to put in, when it has worked 24 hours, which will make it work again. As soon as it hath done working, stop it up, put the drink as cool as you can together; thus it will work well.

To make Treacle Beer. Boil two quarts of water, put into it one pound of treacle or molasses, stir them together till they are well mixed; then put six or eight quarts of cold water to it, and about a tea cup full of yeast or barm, put it up in a clean cask or stein, cover it over with a coarse cloth, two or three times double, it will be fit to drink in two or three days. The second and third time of making, the bottom of the first beer will do instead of yeast. If you make a large quantity, or intend it for keeping, you must put in a handful of hops and another of malt, for it to feed on, and when done working, stop it up close. The above is the best and cheapest way of making treacle beer, tho' some people add raisins, bran, wormwood, spices, such fruit, &c. as are in season, but that is just as you fancy. Indeed many pleasant, cheap, and wholesome drinks may be made from fruits, &c. if they are bruised and boiled in water, before the treacle is added. The plan of manufacturing domestic wines, mead and small beer, once established and understood in a family, becomes easy—is considered a duty—and the females prepare as regularly for renewing them, as for baking, and doing every other branch of business. Many families amidst plenty of ingredients and means, rarely have a comfortable beverage under their roof—this is attributable to indolence, stupidity and want of knowledge.—A little well timed, planning and system, with little more than usual labour, by the intelligent housewife, will cause comfort and plenty to reign throughout, and prove a fine and salutary example to society. Besides, the pleasure a lady derives from presenting a glass of good wine, in a nice clean glass to her welcome visitants, will always amply compensate for the trouble of manufacturing, and preparing it; but when the more intelligent pass a handsome and well merited compliment on the neatness and quality of her fare—she derives happiness from her industry, and a degree of pleasure approaching to exquisite. She may be esteemed one "who hath used her active faculties for the benefit of her family and society, and not only deserves well of society, but of heaven, for the judicious and liberal exercise of the mind, that god-like intellect, among the finest gifts of the munificent creator of worlds." But of her, who sitteth still and inactive, and doth not exercise those intellectual powers, it may be said "she is of an estrayed soul," and "hath buried her talent." And neither merits the attention of society, or the grateful love of her husband and family—and throws herself on the mercy of her God for forgiveness, for her numerous omissions, in withholding the exercise of her active faculties—presuming the being or individual, who is capable of the neglect of one duty, is capable of neglecting all—and tho' some little appearance may be kept up, yet conviction is eternally in the eye of the great judge—and not to be evaded. Thus then the laws of society, morality and religion, requiring the active exercise of our person and faculties— offering the finest and most inducing rewards, the words of our language are capable of describing, in the health afforded from exercise; the example, from which society is benefitted; the pleasure derived from the approbation of our neighbors, and a conscientiousness of having performed our duties here, and living by the exercise of a proper system of economy, in a constant state of independence, always in possession of the means of alleviating the condition of the indigent and unfortunate in society—and relieving the wants of our friends— and above all, the hope of eternal happiness in the approbation of heaven hereafter. [1] If none can be obtained that is good, the following is a receipt to make it, viz. Procure three wooden vessels of different sizes and apertures, one capable of holding two quarts, the other three or four, and the third five or six; boil a quarter of a peck of malt for about eight or ten minutes in three pints of water; and when a quart is poured off from the grains, let it stand in a cool place till not quite cold, but retaining that degree of heat which the brewers usually find to be proper when they begin to work their liquor. Then remove the vessel into some warm situation near a fire, where the thermometer stands between 70 and 80 degrees (Fahrenheit,) and here let it remain till the fermentation begins, which will be plainly perceived within thirty hours; add then two quarts more of a like decoction of malt, when cool, as the first was; and mix the whole in the larger sized vessel, and stir it well in, which must be repeated in the usual way, as it rises in a common vat: then add a still greater quantity of the same decoction, to be worked in the largest vessel, which will produce yeast enough for a brewing of forty gallons.

FINIS

THE ART OF MAKING WHISKEY,

SO AS TO OBTAIN A BETTER, PURER, CHEAPER AND GREATER QUANTITY OF SPIRIT,

FROM A GIVEN QUANTITY OF GRAIN.

ALSO,

THE ART OF CONVERTING IT INTO GIN.

AFTER THE PROCESS OF THE HOLLAND DISTILLERS, WITHOUT ANY AUGMENTATION OF PRICE.

By ANTHONY BOUCHERIE, OF LEXINGTON, KY.

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH By C. M*******

LEXINGTON, KY. PRINTED BY WORSLEY & SMITH. 1819 CONTENTS • PREFACE. 5 • CHAPTER I. 7 • CHAPTER II. 8 • CHAPTER III. 11 • CHAPTER IV. 13 • CHAPTER V. 17 • CHAPTER VI 18 • CHAPTER VII. 21 • CHAPTER VIII. 22 • CHAPTER IX. 24 • CHAPTER X. 25 • CHAPTER XI. 26 • CHAPTER XII. 29 • CHAPTER XIII. 32 • CHAPTER XIV. 33 • CHAPTER XV. 36 • THE ART OF MAKING GIN 39 •

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, District of Kentucky, to wit: Be it remembered, That on the 10th day of December, in the year of our Lord, 1818, and the forty-third year of the Independence of the United States of America, came Anthony Boucherie, of the said district, and deposited in this office, a copy of the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as author and proprietor, in the words and figures following, viz: "The Art of making Whiskey, so as to obtain a better, purer, cheaper and greater quantity of Spirit from a given quantity of Grain: Also, the art of converting it into Gin, after the process of the Holland Distillers, without any augmentation in the price.—By Anthony Boucherie:" In conformity to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned." And also to an act, entitled "An act supplementary to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing and etching historical and other prints." JOHN H. HANNA,

Clerk of the District of Kentucky.

TO THE HONOURABLE LEGISLATURE

OF THE

STATE OF KENTUCKY.

Gentlemen of the Senate, and of the House of Representatives,

An immense and most fertile country, a republic where every individual enjoys the most unbounded freedom; such are the advantages which characterise the United States of America, and render them the asylum of the oppressed Europeans. I was one of the number, and as early as January, 1808, congress enacted a law dispensing me with the usual term of two years residence, for obtaining a patent.

It is the duty of every citizen to contribute to the progress of useful knowledge, for the benefit and prosperity of his native or adopted country. It is under that point of view that I now publish The Art of Making Whiskey, so as to obtain a greater quantity of Spirit from a given quantity of Grain; the spirit thus obtained being purer and cheaper. Also, the Art of converting it into Gin, according to the process of the Holland Distillers, without making it dearer.

This next paragraph is incomplete

Give me leave, gentlemen, to publish this little work under the patronage of the enlightened Legislature of the state which I have chosen for my residence is undoubtedly of a general utility fo — [Pg 4] but more particularly an agricultural state, such as this, where every thing that contributes to the success of agriculture, adds to the welfare of the commonwealth. It is therefore to promote that desirable end, that I hereby renounce all the privileges granted me eight years ago, for the distiller's apparatus, of which I give here a description. I invite all distillers to use it the more confidently, as a long experience has proved to me its utility. In describing the art of converting Whiskey into Gin, according to the process of the Holland Distillers, I flatter myself, that I give a greater value to a national production usually neglected throughout the continent, and which will be the principle of a considerable produce. Henceforth the Gin of the United States will be an important article of exportation for their outward trade, as well as for home consumption.

Receive, gentlemen, the Assurances of my Profound Respect, A. BOUCHERIE.

PREFACE. The most usual drink in the United States, is whiskey; other spirituous liquors, such as peach and apple brandy, are only secondary, and from their high price and their scarcity, they are not sufficient for the wants of an already immense and increasing population. As to wine, in spite of all the efforts and repeated trials made to propagate the grape-vine, there is as yet no hopes, that it may in time become the principal drink of the Americans. To turn our enquiries towards the means of bringing the art of making whiskey to greater perfection, is therefore, to contribute to the welfare of the United States, and even to the health of the Americans, and to the prosperity of the distiller, as I will prove in the sequel. The arts and sciences have made great progress; my aim is to diffuse new light on every thing that relates to the formation of spirituous liquors that may be obtained from grains. Most arts and trades are practised without principles, perhaps from the want of the means of information. For the advantage of the distillers of whiskey, I will collect and offer them the means of obtaining from a given quantity of grain, the greatest possible quantity of spirit, purer and cheaper than by the usual methods. I shall then proceed to indicate the methods of converting whiskey into gin, according to the process of the Holland Distillers, without heightening its price. If the principles hereafter developed are followed, the trade of distiller will acquire great advantages, that will spread their influence on agriculture, and consequently on commerce in general. THE ART OF MAKING WHISKEY, &c.

CHAPTER I.

OF SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS, OR SPIRITS. Spirituous liquors are the produce of vinous ones, obtained by the distillation of these last. The art of making wine is of the remotest antiquity, since it is attributed to Noah; but that of distilling it, so as to extract its most spirituous part, dates only from the year 1300. Arnand de Villeneuve was the inventor of it, and the produce of his Still appeared so marvellous, that it was named Aqua-Vitæ, or Water of Life, and has ever since continued under that denomination in France; Voltaire and reason say that it might, with far more propriety, be called Aqua-Mortis, or Water of Death. This liquor, called in English, Brandy, received from the learned the name of Spirit of Wine; time improved the art of making it still stronger by concentration, and in that state it is called Alcohol. All spirit is the distilled result of a wine, either of grapes, other fruits, or grains; it is therefore necessary to have either wine, or any vinous liquor, in order to obtain spirits. CHAPTER II.

OF THE FORMATION OF VINOUS LIQUORS WITH GRAINS, IN ORDER TO MAKE SPIRITS. The art of extracting wine from the juice of the grape, not being the object of this book, I shall confine myself to what is necessary and useful to the distillers of whiskey; it is therefore of the vinous liquor extracted from grains, that I am going to speak. The formation of that kind of liquor is founded upon a faculty peculiar to grains, which the learned chymist, Fourcroy, has called saccharine fermentation. Sugar itself does not exist in gramineous substances; they only contain its elements, or first principles, which produce it. The saccharine fermentation converts those elements into sugar, or at least into a saccharine matter; and when this is developed, it yields the eminent principle of fermentation, without which there exists no wine, and consequently no spirit. Grains yield two kinds of vinous liquors, of which the distiller makes spirit, and the brewer a sort of wine, called beer. From a comparison of the processes employed to obtain these two results, it will be found that the brewer's art has attained a higher degree of perfection than that of the distiller. They both have for their object to obtain a vinous liquor; but that of the brewer is, in reality, a sort of wine to which he gives, at pleasure, different degrees of strength; while that of the distiller is scarcely vinous, and cannot be made richer. I will give a succinct exposition of their two processes in order that they may be compared. OF THE ART OF BREWING. The art of brewing consists: 1st. In the sprouting of a proportion of grain, chiefly barley. This operation converts into a saccharine matter, the elements of that same substance already existing in grains. 2dly. In preparing the wort. For that operation, the grain, having been previously ground, is put into a vat, which is half filled up with water; the rest is filled up at three different times with hot water—the first at 100°, the second at 150°, and the third at 212°, which is boiling water. The mixture is strongly stirred each time that it is immersed. By this infusion, the water lays hold of the sweet principles contained in the grain. 3dly. The wort thus prepared, the liquor is filtrated, in order to separate it from the grain, and then boiled until reduced to one half, in order to concentrate it to the degree of strength desired. In that state, 40 gallons of wort contain the saccharine principles of 200 wt. of grain. 4thly. The wort, thus concentrated, is drawn off in barrels, which are kept in a temperature of 80° or 85°. The yeast is thrown into it to establish the fermentation, and in a short time beer is made, more or less strong, according to the degree of concentration, and more or less bitter, according to the greater or lesser proportion of hops put into it. Such are, in a concise view, the proceedings of the brewer. Let us proceed to those of the distiller of whiskey. OF THE DISTILLER OF WHISKEY. Whiskey is made either with rye, barley, or Indian corn. One, or all those kinds of grains is used, as they are more or less abundant in the country. I do not know how far they are mixed in Kentucky; but Indian corn is here in general the basis of whiskey, and more often employed alone. I have ascertained, in the different distilleries which I have visited in the United States— 1stly. That, in general, the grain is not sprouted. I have, however, seen some distillers who put 10lbs. of malt into a hogshead of fermentation containing 100 gallons, which reduces it to almost nothing. 2dly. That they put two bushels of ground grain into a hogshead of fermentation containing 100 gallons, filled up with water. 3dly. They had a ferment to determine the fermentation, which, when finished, yields two gallons of whiskey per bushel of grain, and sometimes ten quarts, but very seldom. I do not know whether those results are exact; but, supposing them to be so, they must be subject to great variations, according to the quality of the grain, the season, the degree of heat, of the atmosphere, and the manner of conducting the fermentation. From my analysing the different sorts of grains, I know that Indian corn must yield the most spirit. From the above proportions, it results, that 100 gallons of the vinous liquor of distillers yield only 4 gallons of whiskey, and very seldom 5; that is, from a 25th to a 20th. It is easy to conceive how weak a mixture, 25 parts of water to one of whiskey, must be; thus the produce of the first distillation is only at 11° or 12° by the areometer, the water being at 10°. It is only by several subsequent distillations, that the necessary concentration is obtained, to make saleable whiskey. These repeated operations are attended with an increased expense of fuel, labor, and time. Such are the usual methods of the whiskey distillers. Before we compare them with those of the brewer, let us examine the nature of fermentation, and what are the elements the most proper to form a good vinous liquor: thence we shall judge with certainty, of those two ways of operating. CHAPTER III.

OF FERMENTATION. "Fermentation is a spontaneous and intestine motion, which takes place amongst the principles of organic substance deprived of life, the maximum of which always tends to change the nature of bodies, and gives rise to the formation of new productions." Bouillon la Grange.—Manual of a Course of Chymistry. Fermentation has long since been divided into spirituous, acid, and putrid. It is only since the revival or new epoch of chymistry, that the learned have been occupied in researches on fermentation. I was the first who gave a new hint on this important part of natural philosophy, in 1785. It was then held as certain, that the saccharine substance was the principle of spirituous fermentation. A series of experiments enabled me to demonstrate the contrary, for I obtained a well crystallized sugar by the fermentation of a substance which produces none by any other means. In September, 1785, I read a memoir to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris. In that memoir I developed my theory. That learned body nominated four commissioners, for the purpose of examining my operations, and sanctioned my discovery by a report, in which it was acknowledged that I had discovered a new truth, and ordered the insertion of my memoir in the collection of those of the Foreign Associates. I attributed the principle of the spirituous fermentation to the mucilaginous substance. This has been since demonstrated, by attentively observing that it always begins with a motion of acid fermentation, which is produced by the mucilaginous substance. The European chymists have since reasoned upon fermentation; each of them has produced a new system; none have been able to bring it to a regular demonstration; and the learned Gay Lussac has said, that fermentation is one of the most mysterious operations of chymistry. Be that as it may, there are facts that are ascertained: let us endeavor to investigate them, that we may derive from them all the information which is necessary to us. It is incontestable that spirits are produced by the saccharine substance. Grains, however, supply it, although they are not sensibly sweet. This has made me suspect that the fermentation is at first saccharine, which produces the sweet substance that is necessary for the formation of spirit. It is thus that, by a series of internal motions, the fermentation causes the formation of the spirit to be preceded by a slight production of acid; that it transforms the vinous liquor into vinegar, which the same fermentation changes in time into an animal substance, destroyed in its turn by the putrid fermentation. Such are the progressive changes operated by this all-disorganizing phenomenon, and the unerring march of nature to bring back all substances to their respective elements. The necessary conditions for the formation of vinous fermentation, are— • 1st. The presence of the saccharine substance. • 2dly. That of a vegeto-animal substance, commonly called ferment, and soluble in water. • 3dly. A certain quantity of water. • 4thly. A temperature of 70° to 75°. • 5thly. A sufficient mass. When these are obtained, in a short time the liquor becomes turbid; it bubbles, from the disengaging of the carbonic acid gaz, and the heat increases considerably. After some days, these impetuous motions subside; the fermentation ceases by degrees; the liquor clears up; then it emits a vinous smell and taste. As soon as it ferments no more, it must be distilled. However, some distillers have asserted that a greater quantity of spirit is obtained when the liquor has acquired a certain degree of acidity. Others are of opinion that it must be distilled as soon as it is calm. I am of this opinion, because the acid can only be formed at the expense of a little of the spirit, which is one of the principles of the acetous acid. Besides, the longer the liquor remains in a mass, the more spirit is wasted by evaporation. CHAPTER IV.

OF THE PROPORTIONS OF THE ELEMENTS NECESSARY TO FORM A GOOD VINOUS LIQUOR. What are the proportions of the elements necessary to form a good vinous liquor? We owe the important knowledge of those proportions to the celebrated and unfortunate Lavoisier, who has proved, by the most accurate experiments, that there must be 100 parts of dry sweet substance, or sugar 400 parts of water parts of ferment, or liquid yeast, which is 10 reduced —— to 8 7-10ths of dry matter. 510 parts in the whole, which produce 57 parts of dry alcohol; that is, containing no more water than is necessary to its formation, and consequently as strong as it can be. Let us dwell for a moment upon the proportions just pointed out, and especially upon their result, which exceeds any thing that has ever been obtained. Supposing the weight of each of those parts to be one pound, we shall have 100 lbs. of dry sweet Substance, or sugar 400 do. of water 10 do. of liquid ferment — — 510 pounds in the whole. of sugar is the quantity required to make 12½ gallons of sirup, composed of 8lbs. of 12 100 lbs. galls. sugar and 8lbs. of water per gallon, ½ 400 lbs. of water, at 8lbs. per gall. make 50 " The produce will be 57lbs. of dry alcohol. TR: Poor quality made it difficult to verify the above numbers and so noted with an asterisk A vessel containing one ounce of water, filled up with this alcohol, weighs only 16dwts. and 16grs. From this report, it appears that the specific weight of the alcohol is, to the weight of the water, as 20 to 24; that is, that water weighs 1/5 more than alcohol. If the 57lbs. thus obtained were only water, it would only represent 7-1/8* gallons; but being alcohol, it weighs 1/6* less, and consequently gives 7-1/8 gallons more, the sixth of this quantity, (to wit:) 1-1/6* gallons, which, added to 7-1/8*, make 8-7/24 gallons. But 1 gallon of dry alcohol, extended in 2 gallons of water, gives 3 gallons of liquor at 19°, which is called Holland, or first proof; a produce surpassing all what has been hitherto known to the distillers. I will prove it by an example: 1 gallon of molasses yields only 1 gallon of rum, at 19°, to the rum distiller; still, molasses is a true sirup, composed of 8lbs. of sugar, or sweet matter, more fermentable than sugar. 12½ gallons of molasses, representing 100lbs. of dry sweet matter yield consequently 12½ galls. of rum, Holland proof, which is only half the produce obtained by Lavoisier; an immense difference capable of exciting the emulation of all distillers, as it proves the imperfection of the art. What are the causes of such a dissimilarity of product? We must seek for them. 1st. In the difference of the strength of the vinous liquor. Lavoisier employed only 4 parts of water to 1 part of dry sugar. The rum distiller usually puts 10 gallons of molasses to 90 gallons of water, or the residue of the preceding distillations. 10 galls. molasses contain 80 lbs. of sweet matter. 90 gallons of water weigh 720lbs.; therefore the proportion is, one part of sweet matter to 9 parts of water— whilst that indicated by Lavoisier is only 4 parts of water to 1 part of sugar.[a] It is obvious how much richer this last must be, and that the fermentation thus produced has an energy far superior to the other. Thence results a rapid production of spirit, operated in a short time; whilst that of the rum distiller languishes more or less, and a slow fermentation wastes part of the spirit which it produces, even as it is forming. 2dly. Bodies evaporate in proportion to the extent of their surface. One hogshead of 100 gallons, should contain, according to Lavoisier's composition, the elements of 50 gallons of spirit, at 19°; whilst that of the rum distiller contains only 12. Now, as every fermentable liquor requires open vessels, the hogshead of the rum distiller loses as much spirit as that of Lavoisier: hence it is plain how far the above proportion operates to the disadvantage of the fermer. 3dly. Another source of loss arises in the distilling vessels themselves. Nothing is more imperfect than the stills of a whiskey distillery. Lavoisier's were so perfect, that he made the analysis and the synthesis in the most delicate operations. [b] The vessels of the whiskey distillers, far from being hermetically closed, allow the spirit to evaporate through every joint. And this is not all: corroded by the acetous acid, they are full of small holes, particularly in the cap, where all the vapors collect themselves, as in a reservoir. It is easy to conceive with what rapidity they escape, which occasions a considerable waste of liquor. In proof of the truth of this observation, we may refer to the smell of whiskey, so strongly perceivable on the roads leading to a distillery, and preceeding from no other cause than that liquor wasting out of bad vessels, to the great loss of the distiller. 4thly. A fourth cause of loss arises from the worm of the still. However careful in keeping the surrounding water cool, there is always one portion of vapor not condensed. This is made more sensible in the winter, when the cold of the atmosphere makes every vapor visible; upon examination, it will be seen that the running stream of liquor is surrounded with it. In my description of my apparatus, I give the means of obviating that evil. To these several causes, may we not add another? May not the production of spirit be in a ratio to the richness of the fermenting liquor? It is certain, that in every spirituous fermentation there is a portion of the sweet matter which remains undecomposed and in its original state. Lavoisier found that it was 4.940; that is, nearly 5 parts in 100. It may possibly be the same in a weaker liquor; which would increase the loss, in the inverse ratio of the density of the liquor. Such are the causes to which I attribute the great superiority of Lavoisier's products; and from those observations I thought I could establish the fabrication of whiskey upon new principles. CHAPTER V.

A COMPARISON OF THE PROCESSES OF THE BREWER WITH THOSE OF THE WHISKEY DISTILLER. From the experiments of one of the most learned chymists of Europe, it has been demonstrated, that the proportions the most advantageous to the formation of a good vinous liquor, are, one part of dry sweet substance to four parts of water; that is, that the sugar must form one fifth of the whole. We have, moreover, seen that 100lbs. of dry sweet matter gave 25 gallons of spirit 19°, which comes to 4lbs. of sugar per gallon. We shall make use of that scale in comparing the processes of the brewer with those of the whiskey distiller. Supposing the bushel of grain to weigh 50 pounds, and that it gives 2 gallons of whiskey at 19°, each of which gallons is the product of 4lbs. of sugar; then the strong beer which contains in 40 gallons the sweet matter of 200lbs. of grain, contains the elements of 8 gallons of spirit, or 32lbs. of dry sweet substance; and as the 40 gallons of this beer weigh 320lbs. the 32lbs. of sugar form only one-tenth of it, which is one half of Lavoisier's proportions. Those of the distiller of whiskey are 100lbs. of grain to 100 gallons of water, or thereabouts: 100lbs. of grain contain only 16lbs. of dry sweet matter: therefore, as the 100 gallons of vinous liquor weigh 800lbs. the 16lbs. of sugar form only its fiftieth part. Thence is seen how inferior the proportions of the whiskey distiller are to those of the brewer, and how far they are from good theory. But the brewer aims only at producing a sort of wine, and succeeds; while, the distiller wants to make spirit, and only obtains it in the manner the most expensive, and opposed to his own interest. CHAPTER VI

DEFECTS IN THE USUAL METHOD OF MAKING WHISKEY. 1st. The most hurtful of all for the interests of the distillers, is undoubtedly the weakness of the vinous liquor. We have seen that the proportion of spirit is in a ratio to the richness of the fermenting liquor; that Lavoisier, by putting one-fifth of the mass of dry sugar, obtained twice as much spirit as the rum distiller, who puts in the same quantity, but drowns it in water. From those principles, which are not contested, the distiller, whose vinous liquor contains only one-fiftieth part of sweet matter, obtains the less spirit, and loses as much of it as he gets. 2dly. Another defect is joined to this: bodies are dissolved by reason of their affinity with the dissolving principle; the mucilaginous substance is as soluble in water as the saccharine substance. A mass of 100 gallons of water having only 16lbs. of sugar to dissolve, exerts it's dissolving powers upon the mucilaginous part which abounds in grains, and dissolves a great quantity of it. There results from that mixture, a fermentation partaking of the spirit and the acid, and if the temperature of the atmosphere is moderate, the acid invades the spirit, which is one of its principles: nothing remains but vinegar, and the hopes of the distiller are deceived. Some distillers have been induced, by the smallness of their products, to put in their stills, not only the fluid of the liquor, but the flour itself. Hence result two important defects. 1st. The solid matter precipitates itself to the bottom of the still, where it burns, and gives a very bad taste to the whiskey. In order to remedy this inconvenience, it has been imagined to stir the flour incessantly, by means of a chain dragged at the bottom of the still, and put in motion by an axis passing through the cap, and turned by a workman until the ebullition takes place. This axis, however well fitted to the aperture, leaves an empty space, and gives an issue to the spirituous vapors, which escaping with rapidity, thereby occasion a considerable loss of spirit. 3dly. The presence of the grain in the still, converted into meal, is not otherwise indifferent. It contains a kind of essential oil, more or less disagreeable, according to its nature; which distils with the spirit. That of Indian corn, in particular, is more noxious than that of any other grain; and it is the presence of meal in the stills, which causes the liquors obtained from grains to be so much inferior to that of fruits. 4thly. There is a fourth defect, at which humanity shudders, and which the laws ought to repress. Vinous liquors are more or less accompanied with acetone acid, or vinegar; but those proceeding from grain contain still more of this acid. The stills are generally made of naked copper; the acid works upon that metal, and forms with it the acetate of copper, or verdigrise, part of which passes with the whiskey. There is no distiller, who, with a little attention, has not observed it. I have always discovered it in my numerous rectifications, and at the end of the operation, when nothing more comes from the still but what is called the sweet oil of wine. An incontestable proof of this truth is, that as the stills of the distillers are of a green color in their interior part; that they are corroded with the acid, and pierced with numberless little holes, which render them unfit for use in a very short time. It is easy to conceive how hurtful must be the presence of verdigrise to those who make use of whiskey as a constant drink: even those who use it soberly, swallow a slow poison, destructive of their stomach; while to those who abuse it, it produces a rapid death, which would still be the consequence of abuse, if the liquor was pure, but is doubly accelerated by the poison contained in the whiskey. It is easy to remedy so terrible an evil. The acetous acid has no action upon tin. By tinning the stills, the purity of the liquor will be augmented, and the distilling vessels, already so expensive, will be longer preserved. This operation must be renewed every year. The worms must likewise be tinned, if they are copper; but they are better of tin, or of the purest pewter. Such are the defects of the present method of distilling whiskey. Having exposed them, I must present the means of bringing to perfection the fabrication of a liquor of such general use. CHAPTER VII.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS THE MOST ADVANTAGEOUS TO MAKE WHISKEY. TR: The next 2 paragraphs were cut short, noted with [*] As it is demonstrated that the spirit is the more abundant in proportion to the richness of the vinous liquor,* it is therefore necessary to enrich that of the distillery* which is so deficient in that respect. An exposition of* my processes will point out the means I employ to attain* that end. A large whiskey distillery should be* able to make 100 gallons per day, or three barrels* making altogether that quantity. One gallon of spirit being the produce of 4 pounds* of dry saccharine matter, we must therefore have 400 pounds of this substance for the 100 gallons we wish to obtain. If 1 bushel of grain gives 2 gallons of whiskey, there must be 50 to obtain a daily result of 100 gallons. I take Indian corn as the basis of the fabrication, as that of all the grains which yields the most. For, from my method, whatever grain is employed, the spirit is equally pure. I divide the still house into three different rooms, to wit: One for Infusion; One for Fermentation; One for Distillation. CHAPTER VIII.

THE ROOM OF INFUSION. It is here that the liquor destined to make whiskey, should be prepared, and made rich enough to procure a good fermentation. To this effect, there must be a mill with a vertical stone, moved by a horse, or any other means of motion. Those mills are too well known for me to describe them more amply. The corn must be coarsely ground, so as scarcely to be broke into three or four pieces: consequently the stone must not be too heavy, for, at all events, the grain had better be too coarse than too fine. That mill should be placed in the infusion room, so as not to keep it dirty, nor to be too much in the way. It must grind, or rather break, 50 bushels per day. There must be a square kettle, 4 feet broad, 5 feet long, 1 foot deep. The kettle must be made in sheets of copper, one line thick, at least: the bottom, although flat, should have a slight swell inside, so as to avoid the expansion of the metal outside, from the action of the fire. This kettle must be placed upon a brick furnace, so that the longest parts should bear forwards, and the other against the chimney, from which it must be separated by a brick wall eight or nine inches. The sides, around which there must be a space to walk freely, should be supported by a wall 1½ feet deep; the fore part upon such a wall, in the middle of which is an iron door, fifteen inches square, in an iron frame, through which the fuel is introduced. The kettle is mounted upon the furnace, so as to bear upon the four walls about 4 inches, and rests upon a bed of clay, which must leave no passage to the action of the fire; it is lined externally with bricks, and must have a pipe on one of its sides, to draw off the liquor. Under the kettle, 15 inches from the bottom, is a flue for the heat, running through all its length. It is 2½ feet wide at bottom, extending like a fan at the top, about 6 inches on each side, so that the flame may circulate in all the breadth of the kettle. On the fore part of this flue, facing the door, is a hearth, occupying all its breadth, and 2 feet long. The rest of the flue is paved with bricks, and rises insensibly 4 inches towards the chimney, in which it opens by two holes, 1½ inches wide, 8 or 9 inches high. Immediately under the hearth, is a mash hole 4 feet deep, occupying all its capacity, and projecting 2 feet forward. This opening is necessary to keep up a free circulation of air, and to take up the ashes. It should be covered with strong boards, not to hinder the service of the kettle. The hearth is made with an iron grate, more or less close, according to the nature of the fuel; if for wood, the bars must be about two inches apart; if for coals, half an inch is sufficient. The furnace must be built with care. The parts most exposed to the action of the fire must be built with soft bricks and potters' clay: soap stone would be preferable, if easy to procure. The brick separating the kettle and chimney, must be supported with flat bars of iron, as well as the part over the door. CHAPTER IX.

USE OF THE KETTLE. The kettle is destined to make the infusion of the grain, and boil it so as to convert it into wort. By that operation I make the liquor richer, which I intend for fermentation, and bring it to divers degrees of strength. I put into the kettle 100 gallons of water, and 4 bushels of corn, broken, as I said before, at the mill. I light a small fire, which I increase gradually, until the water begins to boil; during that time, the grain is stirred with a paddle. As soon as the ebullition is established, the grain is taken up with a large skimmer, and put to drain into a large basket hanging over the kettle; and when the grain has been totally taken up, the fire is increased so as to bring the water to boil again, until reduced to two-fifths, which degree of concentration is not rigorous, and the distiller may augment it as his experience shall direct. When thus concentrated, the liquor is drawn off through the pipe, and received into a tub or vat containing 130 or 140 galls. 100 gallons more of water are put into the kettle, with 4 bushels of corn; the fire conducted slowly, as before, until the degree of ebullition; the corn is taken off, and the liquor concentrated in the same proportions; then drawn off as above, in the same tub. The same operation is repeated for the third time; the three united liquors are slightly stirred, and, still warm, transported into one of the hogsheads of fermentation, which it nearly fills up. As there must be four of these hogsheads filled up daily, the work at the kettle must be kept going on, without interruption, until that quantity is obtained, which may be done in about twelve hours. The grain which has been drained is carried to dry, either in the open air, or in a granary, and spread thin. When dry, it is excellent food for cattle, and highly preferable to the acid and fermented mash, usually used by distillers to feed cattle and hogs: they eat the corn dried in the above manner as if it had lost nothing of its primitive qualities and flavor. CHAPTER X.

THE ROOM FOR FERMENTATION. The room destined to the fermentation must be close, lighted by two or three windows, and large enough to contain a number of hogsheads sufficient for the distillery. It may be determined by the number of days necessary for the fermentation; 30 or 40 hogsheads may suffice, each of 120 or 130 gallons. In the middle of the room must be a stove, large enough to keep up a heat of 75° to 80°, even in winter. A thermometer placed at one end of the room, serves to regulate the heat. As soon as the liquor is in the hogshead, the yeast, or fermenting principle, is put into it, stirred for some moments, and then left to itself. A liquor as rich as the above described ferments with force, and runs with rapidity through all the periods of fermentation. It is fit to distil as soon as that tumultuous state has subsided and the liquor is calm. The essential character of the spirituous fermentation, is to exhale the carbonic acid gaz in great quantity. This gaz is mortal to mankind, and to all the living creation. Thirty hogsheads of fermenting liquor producing a great deal of this gaz, the room should be purified of it by opening two opposite windows several times a day. This is the more essential, as the pure air, or oxigen, contributes to the formation of the spirit, of which it is one of the constituting principles. A short time, however, suffices to renew the air of the room. It is useless to remark, that the hogsheads must be open at one end, and rest upon pieces of wood elevating them some inches from the ground. They must remain uncovered during the fermentation; and afterwards be covered with a flying lid, when the liquor is calm. CHAPTER XI.

OF THE ROOM FOR DISTILLATION. We have hitherto considered the liquor as containing only principles upon which the air has no action, and from which it can only extract some watery vapors; and, in fact, all those principles contained in the liquor are fixed. The action of the fire may concentrate, but not volatilize them. The liquor is now changed by the fermentation; it contains no longer the same principles, but has acquired those which it had not, which are volatile, and evaporate easily. They must therefore be managed carefully, in order not to lose the fruits of an already tedious labor. The spirit already created in the fermented liquor, must be collected by the distillation; but in transporting it to the still, the action of the external air must be carefully avoided, as it would cause the evaporation of some of the spirit. A pump to empty the hogsheads, and covered pipes to conduct the liquor into the still, is what has been found to answer that purpose. A good distilling apparatus is undoubtedly the most important part of a distillery. It must unite solidity, perfection in its joints, economy of fuel, rapidity of distillation, to the faculty of concentrating the spirit. Such are the ends I have proposed to myself in the following apparatus. The usual shape of stills is defective; they are too deep, and do not present enough of surface for their contents. They require a violent fire to bring them to ebullition; the liquor at bottom burns before it is warm at the top. My still is made upon different principles, and composed of two pieces, viz. the kettle, and its lid. The kettle, forming a long square, is like the kettle of infusion, already described, and only differs from it in being one foot deeper. The lid is in shape like an ancient bed tester; that is to say, its four corners rise into a sharp angle, and come to support a circle 16 inches diameter, bearing a vertical collar of about two inches. This collar comes to the middle of the kettle, and is elevated about 4 feet from the bottom. The lid is fastened to the kettle. The collar receives a pewter cap, to which is joined a pipe of the same metal, the diameter of which decreases progressively to a little less than 3 inches: this pipe, the direction of which is almost horizontal, is 5 feet long. My still, thus constructed, is established upon a furnace like that of the infusion room. I observe that the side walls are only raised to the half of the height of the kettle. A vertical pipe is placed on the side opposite to the pewter one, and serves to fill up the still: it is almost at the height of the fastening of the lid, but a little above. On the same side, on a level with the bottom, is a pipe of discharge, passing across the furnace: this pipe must project enough to help to receive or to direct the fluid residue of the distillation; its diameter must be such as to operate a prompt discharge of the still. OF THE URNS. These are copper vessels, thus called from their resembling those funeral vases of the ancients. Mine have a bottom of about 18 inches diameter; they are two feet high, have a bulge of 6 inches near the top, and then draw in to form an overture of about 8 inches. On one side, towards the top, there is a copper pipe 2 inches diameter, projecting externally 2 or 3 inches, and bent in an elbow: it enters the internal part of the urn, and descends towards the bottom, without touching it; there it is only a slight curve, and remains open. The external part of that pipe is fitted to receive the pewter pipe of the still; they are made so as to enter into one another, and must fit exactly. The round opening at the top of the urn receives a cap with a pewter pipe, made like that of the still. It is likewise five feet long, and its size in proportion to the opening: this goes and joins itself to the second urn, as the still does to the first. The pipe of this second goes to a third, and the pipe of this last to the worm. The three urns bear each a small pipe of discharge towards the bottom. This apparatus must be made with the greatest care. Neither the joints, the different pipes of communication, nor the nailings, must leave the smallest passage to the vapors. The workman must pay the greatest attention to his work, and the distiller must lute exactly all the parts of the apparatus that are susceptible of it: he must be the more careful as to luting it, as this operation is only performed once a week, when the apparatus is cleaned. At the moment of the distillation, the master or his foreman must carefully observe whether there is any waste of vapors, and remedy it instantly. The still and urns ought to be well tinned. CHAPTER XII.

EFFECTS OF THIS APPARATUS. Although the still might contain 400 gallons, there must be only 200 gallons put into it: the rest remaining empty, the vapors develops themselves, and rise. In that state, the vinous liquor is about one foot deep, on a surface of 20 feet square: hence two advantages—the first, that being so shallow, it requires but little fuel to boil; the second, that the extent of surface gives rise to a rapid evaporation, which accelerates the work. This acceleration is such, that six distillations might be obtained in one day. The spirit contained in the vinous liquor rises in vapors to the lid of the still, there find the cap and its pipe, through which they escape into the first urn, by the side pipe above described, which conducts them to the bottom, where they are condensed immediately. But the vapors, continuing to come into the urn, heat it progressively: the spirituous liquor that it contains rises anew into vapors, escapes through the cap and pipe, and arrives into the second urn, where it is condensed as in the first. Here again, the same cause produces the same effect: the affluence of the heat drawn with the vapors, carries them successively into the third urn, and from thence into the worm, which condenses them by the effects of the cold water in which it is immersed. The urns, receiving no other heat than that which the vapors coming out of the still can transmit to them, raise the spirit; the water, at least the greatest part of it, remains at the bottom: hence, what runs from the worm is alcohol; that is, spirit at 35°. It is easily understood how the vapors coming out of the still are rectified in the urns, and that three successive rectifications bring the spirit to a high degree of concentration: it gets lower only when the vinous liquor draws towards the end of the distillation. As soon as it yields no more spirit, the fire is stopped, and the still is emptied in order to fill it up again, to begin a new distillation. Each time that the vinous liquor is renewed in the still, the water contained in the urns must be emptied, through the pipes of discharge at the bottom. Metals are conductors of the caloric. The heat accumulated in the still, rises to the cap, from whence it runs into the urns: with this difference—that the pewter, of which the cap and pipes are made, transmits less caloric than copper, because it is less dense: and that bodies are only heated in reason of their density. However, a great deal of heat is still communicated to the worm, and heats the water in which it is immersed. I diminish this inconvenience by putting a wooden pipe between the worm and the pipe of the third urn. Wood being a bad conductor of caloric, produces a solution of continuity, or interruption between the metals. The wood of this pipe must be soft and porous, and not apt to work by the action of the fire: however, to avoid its splitting, I wrap it up in two or three doubles of good paper, well pasted, and dried slowly. This pipe is one foot long, and hollowed in its length, so as to receive the pewter pipe of the third urn at one end, and to enter the worm at the other; thereby the worm is not as hot, since it only receives the heat of the vapors which it condenses. Notwithstanding all these precautions, it heats the water in which it is immersed after a length of time; and whatever care may be taken to renew it, all the vapors are not condensed, and this occasions a loss of spirit. I obviate this accident, by adding a second worm to the first: they communicate by means of a wooden pipe like the above. The effect of this second worm, rather smaller than the first, is such, that the water in which it is plunged remains cold, while that of the first must be renewed very often. By these means, no portion of vapors escape condensation. The liquor running from the worm is received into a small barrel, care being taken that it may not lose by the contact of the air producing evaporation. CHAPTER XIII.

OF FERMENTS. They are of two kinds; the very putrescent bodies, and those supplied by the oxigen. Animal substances are of the first kind: acids, neutral salts, rancid oils, and metallic oxids, are of the second. Were I obliged to make use of a ferment of the first class, I would choose the glutinous part of wheat flour. This vegeto-animal substance is formed in the following manner:—A certain quantity of flour is made into a solid dough, with a little water. It is then taken into the hands, and water slowly poured over it, while it is kneaded again. The water runs white, because it carries off the starchy part of the flour; it runs clear after it is washed sufficiently. There remains in the hands of the operator a dough, compact, solid, elastic, and reduced to nearly the half of the flour employed. This dough, a little diluted with water, and kept in the temperature indicated for the room of fermentation, passes to the putrid state, and contracts the smell of spoiled meat. Four pounds of this dough per hogshead, seem to me to be sufficient to establish a good fermentation. A small quantity of good vinegar would answer the same purpose, and is a ferment of the second class. But are those means indispensable with my process? I do not think so. 1st. The richness of my vinous liquor, and the degree of heat to which I keep it, tend strongly to make it ferment. In fact, the infusion of the grain, by taking from it its saccharine part, takes likewise part of its mucilaginous substance, which is the principle of the spirituous fermentation, which it establishes whenever it meets with the other substance. 2dly. The hogsheads themselves are soon impregnated with a fermenting principle, and communicate it to the liquor that is put into them. 3dly. The rum distiller employs advantageously the residue of his preceding distillation, to give a fermentation to his new molasses: this residue has within itself enough of acidity for that purpose. Might not the residue of the distillation of my vinous liquor have the same acidity? It contains only the mucilaginous substance already acidulated. Some gallons of that residue to every hogshead, would, I think, be a very good ferment. Lastly. Here is another means which will certainly succeed: it is to leave at the bottom of each hogshead three or four inches of the vinous liquor, when transported into the still for distilling. This rising, which will rapidly turn sour, will form a ferment sufficient to establish a good fermentation. The intelligent manager of a distillery must conduct the means I indicate, towards the end which he proposes to himself, and must carefully avoid to employ as ferments, those disgusting substances which cannot fail to bring a discredit on the liquor in which they are known to be employed. CHAPTER XIV.

OF THE AREOMETER, OR PROOF BOTTLE. This instrument is indispensable to the distiller: it ascertains the value of his spirits, since it shows the result of their different degrees of concentration. I will give the theory of this useful instrument, as it may be acceptable to those who do not know it. Bodies sink in fluids, in a compound ratio to the volume and the density of those fluids, which they displace. It is from that law of nature, that a ship sinks 20 feet in fresh water, while it sinks only about 18 feet in sea water, which has more density on account of the salt dissolved therein. The reverse of this effect takes place in fluids lighter than water, as bodies floating in them sink the more, as the liquor has less density. Upon those principles are made two kinds of areometers—one for fluids denser than water; the other for those that are lighter: the first are called salt proof; the second spirit proof. Distilled water is the basis of those two scales: it is at the top for the salt proof, and at the bottom for the spirit proof; because the first is ascending, and the other descending; but by a useless singularity, the distilled water has been graduated at 10° for the spirit proof bottle, and at 0 for the salt proof. We shall only dwell upon the first, because it is the only one interesting to the distiller. Water being graduated at 10° in the areometer, it results from thence that the spirit going to 20°, is in reality only 10° lighter than water; and the alcohol graduated at 35°, is only 25° above distilled water. The areometer can only be just, when the atmosphere is temperate; that is, at 55° Fahrenheit, or 10° Reaumur. The variations in cold or heat influence liquors; they acquire density in the cold, and lose it in the heat: hence follows that the areometer does not sink enough in the winter, and sinks too much in the summer. Naturalists have observed that variation, and regulated it. They have ascertained that 1° of heat above temperate, according to the scale of Reaumur, sinks the areometer 1/8 of a degree more; and that 1° less of heat, had the contrary effect: thus the heat being at 18° of Reaumur, the spirit marking 21° by the areometer, is really only at 20°. The cold being at 8° below temperate, the spirit marking only 19° by the areometer, is in reality at 20°. 2¼ of Fahrenheit corresponding to 1° of Reaumur, occasion in like manner a variation of 1/8 of a degree: thus, the heat being at 78½°, the spirit thus marking 21°, is only at 20; and the cold being at 87°, the spirit marking only 19° by the areometer, is in reality at 20°. It is easily conceived, that extreme cold or extreme heat occasion important variations. For that reason, there are in Europe inspectors, whose duty it is to weigh spirits, particularly brandy: for that purpose they make use of the areometer and the thermometer. An areometer, to be good, must be proved with distilled water, at the temperature of 55°. Areometers, being made of glass, are brittle, and must be used with great care. This inconvenience might be remedied, by making them of silver; I have seen several of this metal. A good silversmith could easily make them; I invite those artists to attend to that branch of business; it might become valuable, as the distillers will be more enlightened. CHAPTER XV.

ADVANTAGES OF MY METHOD. The first of all, is derived from the composition of a vinous liquor, richer, and more proper to raise a vigorous fermentation, than that which is obtained by the usual method. Now, as it is proved that the quantity of spirit is in proportion to the richness of the fermenting liquor, mine therefore yields a great deal more spirit than any other. 2dly. We have seen that a heat of 75° or 80° must be kept up in the fermenting room: this being summer heat, proves that such a rich vinous liquor runs no risk of passing to the acid state with as much rapidity as that of the common distillers; and, consequently, that he who will follow my method can work all the year round without fear of losing the fruits of his labor, as it often happens—an advantage precious for him who makes it his sole business. The only change he has to make, is to suppress the heat of the stove, when the temperature of the atmosphere is sufficient to keep up a good fermentation in the liquor. As to my distilling apparatus, this is not a new idea. I present it to the public under the sanction of experience. I had it executed in Philadelphia eight years ago, after having obtained a patent. It was made for a rum distillery, where they still continue to use it. It presents the greatest advantages. The first is, that with a single fire, and a single workman, I distil and rectify the spirit three times, and bring it to the degree of alcohol; that is, to the greatest purity, and almost to the highest degree of concentration. 2dly. It lowers the cost of transportation, by two-thirds; because one gallon at 35° represents three gallons at the usual degree. The merchant, being arrived at the place of his destination, has only to add 2 gallons of water to 1 gallon of this alcohol, in order to have 3 gallons of whiskey; which is of a considerable advantage, either for land or sea carriage. 3dly. As the price of spirits is, in trade, in proportion to their degree of concentration, those made with my apparatus being at a very high degree, need no more rectifying, either for the retailer, the apothecary, or the painter; and the considerable expenses of that operation turn entirely to the profit of the distiller, as they are totally suppressed. Distillers may hereafter sell spirits of all degrees of concentration. Such are the advantages of my processes. I offer them the more willingly to the public, as they are founded upon the most approved principles of natural philosophy: by reflecting upon them, distillers will be easily convinced of it.

However perfect the description of a new thing may be, our ideas of it are always defective, until we have seen it put into practical use. Few men have the means of establishing a distillery on a new plan, and even the most enlightened may make notable errors. Few, besides, are bold enough to undertake, at their own risks, the trial of a new fabrication: they are afraid of losing, and of being blamed for having too lightly yielded to the persuasion of new projectors. Hence it follows that a useful discovery falls into oblivion, instead of doing any good.[Pg 38] But no discovery of general utility ought to experience that fate in a republic. Government itself ought to promote the first undertaking, or a certain number of citizens ought to join in order to give it a start. It is the more easy in this case, as my apparatus requires very little expense. If a distillery according to my directions, was established in some of the principal towns of the state, my method would then make rapid progress, and thus prove the truth of the principle which I have advanced; and the distillers, after having meditated upon my method in this book, would come and satisfy themselves of its goodness, by seeing it put into practice, and yielding the most perfect results, with all the advantages for trade that may be expected: hence would naturally ensue the rapid increase of distillation, and consequently that of agriculture and commerce. THE ART OF MAKING GIN, AFTER THE PROCESS OF THE HOLLAND DISTILLERS. Having indicated the most proper means of obtaining spirits, I will now offer to the public the manner of making Gin, according to the methods used by the distillers in Holland. It may be more properly joined to the art of making whiskey, as it adds only to the price of the liquor, that of the juniper berries, the product of which will amply repay its cost. Many distillers in the United States have tried to imitate the excellent liquor coming from Holland, under the name gin. They have imagined different methods of proceeding, and have more or less attained their end. I have myself tried it, and my method is consigned in a patent. But those imitations are far from the degree of perfection of the Holland gin: they want that unity of taste, which is the result of a single creation; they are visibly compounds, more or less well combined, and not the result of a spontaneous production. To this capital defect, which makes those imitations so widely different from their original, is joined their high price, which prevents its general consumption. In fact, it is made at a considerable expense: the whiskey must be purchased, rectified and distilled over again with the berries. These expenses are increased by the waste of spirit occasioned by those reiterated distillations. This brings the price of this false gin to three times that of the whiskey: consequently the poorer sort of people, whose number is always considerable, are deprived of the benefits of a wholesome liquor, and restrained to whiskey, which is commonly not so. The methods used in Holland, have reduced gin to the lowest price; that of the juniper berries being there very trifling, and increasing but little the price of whiskey: still that small addition is almost reduced to nothing, as will be seen hereafter. The United States are, in some parts, almost covered with the tree called here cedar; which tree is no other than the juniper, and grows almost every where, and bears yearly a berry, which is in reality the juniper berry. Some Hollanders knew it at Boston, collected considerable quantities of it in Massachusetts, and shipping it to some of the eastern harbors, sold it as coming from Holland. I have seen some at Philadelphia ten years ago, at the house of a Hollander, who received it from Massachusetts in hogsheads of about ten hundred weight, and sold as the produce of his own country, what was really that of the United States. I collected myself a great quantity of those berries, at Norfolk, Va. by means of negroes, to whom I paid one dollar per bushel of 40 lbs. being 2½ cts. per pound. Two years ago, it sold for 6 cents in Philadelphia, and bore the same price at Pittsburgh. There is a great deal of cedar in Kentucky, and consequently of berries. I have seen them at Blue Licks, and they abound near the Kentucky river. Although an incredible number of those trees is cut down daily, there is still a greater number standing, in the United States; and millions of bushels of berries are lost every year, while only skilful hands are wanted, to make them useful to mankind. The juniper berry has many medical properties: it is a delightful aromatic, and contains an oil essential, and a sweet extract, which by the fermentation yields a vinous liquor, made into a sort of wine in some countries; that is called wine for the poor: it strengthens the stomach, when debilitated by bad food or too hard labor. The Hollanders, who have long had the art of trading upon every thing, have constantly turned even their poverty to account. They have immense fabrications of gin, and scarcely any juniper trees. They only collect the berry in those countries where it is neglected as useless, as in France and Tyrol, which produce a great deal of it. The United States need have no recourse to Europe, in order to get the juniper berries: they have in abundance at home, what the Hollanders can only procure with trouble and money. They can therefore rival them with great advantage; but they must follow the same methods employed in the Holland distilleries. The juniper berry contains the sweet mucous extract, in a great proportion: it has therefore the principle necessary to the spirituous fermentation; and, indeed, it ferments spontaneously. When fresh, and heaped up, it acquires a degree of heat, but not enough to burn, as I have ascertained: it is therefore safely transported in hogsheads. From that facility of fermenting, it must be considered as a good ferment, and as increasing the quantity of spirit, when joined to a fermentable liquor. A distiller may at pleasure convert his whiskey into gin. He needs only to perfume the wort which he puts in fermentation, by adding a certain quantity of the berries, slightly broken: the fermentation is then common to both; their sweet mucosity enriches that of the wort, and increases the spirit, while at the same time the soapy extract, which is the proximate principle of vegetation, yields the essential oil, which perfumes the liquor.[c] The fermentation being common to both substances, unites them intimately; and when, by the distillation, the spirit is separated from the water, there remains an homogenous liquor, resulting from a single creation, and having that unity of taste, and all the properties of Holland gin, because obtained by the same means. One single and same distillation can therefore yield to the distiller either gin or whiskey, as it requires no more labor, and its conversion into gin costs only the price of the berries, which repays him amply, either by the spirit it yields, or by its essential oil, which, floating on the surface, may be easily collected. This oil bears a great price, and the Hollanders sell much of it. We have seen, in the 10th chapter of this work, that my hogsheads for the fermentation, contain about 120 gallons of wort, being the production of the saccharine extract of 12 bushels of grain. The intelligent distiller will himself determine the quantity of berries necessary for each hogshead to have a good aromatic perfume. He may begin with 10 lbs. per hogshead; and will, upon trial, judge whether or not this quantity is sufficient, or must be increased. At any rate, economy should not be consulted in the use of the berries, since their price does not increase that of the whiskey. This low price must naturally become the principle of an immense fabrication of gin; and henceforth it will be an important article of exportation for the United States, as well as a considerable and wholesome object of home consumption. Footnotes: [a] Some rum distillers make a stronger vinous liquor, but it is still very far from Lavoisier's proportions. Others add successively new molasses to their vinous liquor, and thus prolong their fermentation, without making their liquor stronger, and consequently without obtaining more spirit. This is absolutely contrary to the true principles of distillation. [b] See his beautified operation on the decomposition of water. [c] I must here observe, that the juniper berry, as well as several other fruits, contains two kinds of essential oil: one is the proximate principle of vegetation, and the other is the superabundant oil: the first is combined with the soapy extract, and dissolves in water; while the second does not unite with it, and floats on the surface.

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