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The Role of the Iraq Levies in Shaping Aspects of Iraqi Nationalism Under the British Mandate of Iraq (1921-1933)

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The Role of the Iraq Levies in Shaping Aspects of Iraqi Nationalism Under the British Mandate of Iraq (1921-1933) ALIENS IN UNIFORMS AND CONTESTED NATIONALISMS: THE ROLE OF THE IRAQ LEVIES IN SHAPING ASPECTS OF IRAQI NATIONALISM UNDER THE BRITISH MANDATE OF IRAQ (1921-1933) A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Science of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Arab Studies By Sopanit Angsusingha, B.A. Washington, DC April 23, 2018 Copyright 2018 by Sopanit Angsusingha All Rights Reserved ii ALIENS IN UNIFORMS AND CONTESTED NATIONALISMS: THE ROLE OF THE IRAQ LEVIES IN SHAPING ASPECTS OF IRAQI NATIONALISM UNDER THE BRITISH MANDATE OF IRAQ (1921-1933) Sopanit Angsusingha, B.A. Thesis Advisor: Judith Tucker, Ph.D. Abstract The Iraq Levies were formed by the British authorities to secure imperial order and maintain stability in the British Mandate of Iraq (1921-1932). The social composition of the Iraq Levies which consisted mainly of Assyrian recruits and its association with the British not only generated competition with the Iraqi army, but also instigated communal tension between the Assyrians and the rest of the Iraqi population. Based on archival research, this study examines the recruitment and operations of the Iraq Levies in order to understand how they led to the Assyrian massacre in 1933 and shaped Iraqi nationalism as militant and exclusionary. The main research questions are: How did British colonial policy and the Iraq Levies alienate the Assyrians from the rest of the Iraqi population? How did the deployment of the Iraq Levies cause communal conflicts with other ethnic communities in Iraq? And how did the Iraq Levies promote an exclusive definition of Iraqi nationalism that led to the massacre of the Assyrians in 1933? I argue that British use of the Iraq Levies as a tool of “divide and rule” in Iraq shaped the role of the Iraq Levies in producing the Assyrian as “other,” causing communal conflicts and shaping aspects of Iraqi nationalism in the following ways. First, the “martial race theory” used to form an Assyrian Levy force made the Assyrians appear as alien in Iraqi society. Secondly, the class regimental system that deployed the Assyrian forces against Kurdish rebellions generated inter-communal conflicts and generated suspicion of the Assyrian community. Thirdly, a symbiotic relationship between the British and the Assyrians, through the Iraq Levies, promoted the Assyrian nationalist movement iii that challenged the integrity of the Iraqi state. Consequently, the Iraq Levies aroused anger and hatred of the Iraqi state toward the Assyrians, and resulted in the 1933 Assyrian massacre by the Iraqi army that shaped Iraqi nationalism as exclusive, militaristic and anti-minority. Keywords: Assyrians, The Iraq Levies, British Mandate of Iraq, Iraqi nationalism iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are several people who have supported and driven me in the past year towards the completion of this work. First and foremost, I am incredibly grateful to my thesis advisor, Dr. Judith Tucker, for her support and helpful advice on writing history, for introducing me to myriad themes of historical research, and for trusting my potential to succeed even at times of great challenge for me. I am also very grateful to Dr. Joseph Sassoon for his class on History and Politics of Iraq that allowed me to read, write and share my thoughts in class on the Assyrians. I also appreciate his continuous support, and insightful comments on Iraqi history and contemporary politics. I also extend special thanks to Dr. Noureddine Jebnoun for his class on Comparative Arab Civil-Military Relations in which I have learned multiple themes and conceptualization of military studies. I also thank Dr. Amir Khnifess for his class on Ethnic and Religious Minorities where I found various literatures and frameworks for analyzing state-minority relations in the Middle East. Lastly, I thank Dr. Yvonne Haddad for accepting me to be her research assistant and encouraging me to continue exploring the history of the Assyrians. The day to day mental stress and challenging work of this thesis would have been untenable, without the warm support and constant feedback of Vicki Valosik and my thesis colloquium classmates Samah Asfour, Mahdi Zaidan, and Ada Mullol who showed invaluable solidarity throughout this process. I also owe an incredible thank you to Justin Dalrymple, Idun Hauge, Sarah Slingluff for reading my drafts and editing my thesis presentation. Finally, to my mother and father, who never failed to be my moral support, my greatest encouragers, and above all my everlasting inspiration. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1 Literature Review...........................................................................................................................12 Sources and Methodology..............................................................................................................34 Sources ...............................................................................................................................34 Methodology ......................................................................................................................38 Textual and Discourse Analysis.........................................................................................41 Theoretical Frameworks ....................................................................................................46 Chapter I: The Assyrians and Their Discontents ...........................................................................49 Who were the Assyrians? .................................................................................................. 50 The Assyrians under the Ottoman Empire .........................................................................52 The Plight of the Assyrians in the First World War ..........................................................55 The Baqubah Refugee Camp: the Breakdown of the Assyrian Community .....................59 From Versailles 1919 to Lausanne 1923: Unattainable Autonomy ...................................65 The Arab and Kurdish Levies: Ethnicization and Discipline ............................................69 The Birth of the Iraq Levies ...............................................................................................80 Chapter II: The Martial Race Theory and the Class Regimental System: The Otherizing of the Assyrians ....................................................................................................87 Ethnicity and State Security ...............................................................................................89 The Martial Race Theory ...................................................................................................90 The Class Regimental System ...........................................................................................93 The Martial Race Theory and the Class Regimental System in the Deployment of the Iraq Levies.....................................................................................97 The Otherizing of the Assyrians and Inter-Communal Tension and Conflicts ...............100 vi Mosul and Kirkuk Disturbances 1923-24 ........................................................................104 The Iraq Levies and the Barrier to the Assyrian Refugee Settlement ..............................110 The Assyrians in Turkey - Iraq’s Battle for Mosul ..........................................................112 The Emergence of a Minority Discourse .........................................................................116 The Problem of Settling the Assyrians among the Kurds ................................................119 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................122 Chapter III: From the Assyrian Nationalist Movement to the 1933 Assyrian Massacre .............124 Contested Nationalisms ...................................................................................................124 The Assyrians’ Concern at the End of the British Mandate ............................................126 The Assyrian Nationalist Movement ...............................................................................128 The Assyrian Mutiny 1932 ..............................................................................................130 The Assyrian Community’s Internal Division .................................................................132 British Reaction to the Petition ........................................................................................133 The Final Attempt to Establish a Homogenous Homeland at the End of the Mandate ...134 To Stay or To Leave ........................................................................................................136 The Battles at Faishkhabur and Dairabun ........................................................................141 The Rise of Iraqi Nationalism against the Assyrians .......................................................145 The Exclusion of the Assyrian in Post-Independent Iraq ................................................147 The Systematic and Indiscriminate Massacre ..................................................................151 The Simel Massacre on August 11, 1933 ........................................................................152 The Popular
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