Numeral classifiers in areal perspective: Khmer and Thai 'syntactic borrowing' revisited RIKKER DOCKUM, YALE UNIVERSITY AUSTROASIATIC SYNTAX IN AREAL AND DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE 5-7 SEPTEMBER 2016 Huffman 1973 Examines the following, in varying levels of detail (i) noun phrases, further divided into centered NPs and coordinate NPs (ii) verb phrases, including examples of adjectival verbs, transitive verbs, modal verbs, completive verbs, and directional verbs (iii) adverbs (iv) adverbials (v) relators, dealing with prepositions and conjunction (vi) polite particles (vii) final particles (viii) major sentence types General conclusion: both the synchronic and diachronic evidence indicates that Khmer has converged with Thai Huffman 1973 Huffman’s conclusion: both the synchronic and diachronic evidence indicates that Khmer has converged with Thai
It’s not clear that Huffman is wrong. But I also not obvious that he’s right
We have to rule out chance and coincidence, and we have to rule out common influence on both languages from an outside source. One thing we can definitely do, at least, is to cast a wider net Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
As is ever the case in linguistics, we have a terminology problem. This doesn’t mean that people are actually confused about the concept, but in both written and spoken discussion ambiguities arise, and of course the lack of standardization of the terminology acts as an impediment for finding relevant literature. Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn)
6. Sign language hand shapes (classify nouns and verbs) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
(identical to the headTo benoun) clear, what I’m 3. Repeater terms talking about in this talk is just this one category 4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn)
6. Sign language hand shapes (classify nouns and verbs) Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn) “Classifiers” is sometimes used for to mean this subset Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn)
“Numeral Classifiers” (Aikhenvald 2000) is this subset Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun) 4. MeasureQuantifiers terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water) 5. EnumeratingClassifiers terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn)
Others have used this distinction, also problematic Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn) Classifiers, Numeral Classifiers, Sortal Classifiers, Specifiers, Numeral Coefficients, Generics, Counter Words Classifier: unfortunately vague ‘Classifier’ has been used to mean:
1. Class terms (myna bird, jackfruit)
2. Collective nouns (deck of cards, gaggle of geese)
3. Repeater terms (identical to the head noun)
4. Measure terms (uncountable; sack of flour, cup of water)
5. Enumerating terms (countable; loaves of bread, ears of corn) All of these have been used over Classifiers, Numeral Classifiers, Sortal Classifiers, Specifiers, the decades just for this one Numeral Coefficients, Generics, Counter Words subcategory! Classifier: unfortunately vague
This is the type I am talking about today
Bon (2012) What is the range of variation?
Noun NUM CLF
Logical possibilities: Noun-NUM-CLF NUM-CLF-Noun Noun-CLF-NUM CLF-NUM-Noun NUM-Noun-CLF CLF-Noun-NUM What is the range of variation?
Noun NUM CLF
Logical possibilities: Noun-NUM-CLF NUM-CLF-Noun Noun-CLF-NUM CLF-NUM-Noun NUM-Noun-CLF CLF-Noun-NUM Found throughout East and Southeast Asia NUM-CLF form a cohesive unit, in that order, and the locus of variation is on where they fall with respect to the head noun What is the range of variation?
Noun NUM CLF
Logical possibilities: Noun-NUM-CLF NUM-CLF-Noun Noun-CLF-NUM CLF-NUM-Noun NUM-Noun-CLF CLF-Noun-NUM
Found elsewhere in the world (examples?) What is the range of variation?
Noun NUM CLF
Logical possibilities: Noun-NUM-CLF NUM-CLF-Noun Noun-CLF-NUM CLF-NUM-Noun NUM-Noun-CLF CLF-Noun-NUM
‘Never’ found (Allan 1977, Greenberg 1972, 1975; but cf. Adams 1989:24, note 8, which I think is incorrect) Areal Overview
IAa. DEM | NUM-CLF-ADJ-Noun IAb. DEM | NUM-CLF | Noun-ADJ IBa. NUM-CLF | Noun-ADJ-DEM IIAa. DEM-Noun-ADJ | NUM-CLF IIBb. Noun-ADJ | NUM-CLF | DEM IICc. Noun-ADJ-DEM | NUM-CLF
Jones (1970) Areal Overview
Sino-Tibetan Mon-Khmer Tai-Kadai Hmong-Mien Austronesian IAa. Modern Cebuano Chinese IAb. Mien IBa. Vietnamese, White Tai, Hmong Malay, Brou, Sedang Black Tai, Nung Indonesian IIBb. Karen Palaung, Shan, Thai Javanese Khmer, Khmu IICc. Lisu IIAa. Ancient Chinese, Lolo, Burmese, Lahu, Maru Rawang Jones (1970) Areal Overview
Sino-Tibetan Mon-Khmer Tai-Kadai Hmong-Mien Austronesian IAa. Modern Cebuano Chinese IAb. Mien IBa. Vietnamese, White Tai, Hmong Malay, Brou, Sedang Black Tai, Nung Indonesian IIBb. Karen Palaung, Shan, Thai Javanese Khmer, Khmu IICc. Lisu IIAa. Ancient Chinese, Lolo, Burmese, Lahu, Maru Who innovated? Rawang Jones (1970) Dimensions of distance
Genetically Geographically Close Distant Close Distant
It’s not entirely clear who innovated. Consider two dimensions of distance between languages of a family: geographic distance and genetic distance Dimensions of distance
Thai Genetically Geographically Close Distant Close Lao --- Distant Khamti Kam
Lao and Khamti classifier phrases pattern with Thai Lao is both geographically and genetically close to Thai Khamti is geographically distant but genetically close Dimensions of distance
Thai Genetically Geographically Close Distant Close Lao --- Distant Khamti Kam
Kam on the other hand, is goth geographically distant and genetically distant from Thai, and so we see a different classifier phrase order And it’s not clear we have a good case of genetically distant but geographically close to Thai Dimensions of distance
Kam-Tai Mon-Khmer Branch Language Order Branch Language Order SWTai Thai NOUN NUM CLF Khmeric Khmer NOUN NUM CLF SWTai Lao NOUN NUM CLF Khmuic Khmu NOUN NUM CLF SWTai Ahom NOUN NUM CLF Mlabri NOUN NUM CLF SWTai Khamti NOUN NUM CLF Monic Mon NOUN NUM CLF NTai Zhuang NUM CLF NOUN Katuic Bru NUM CLF NOUN Kam Bru NUM CLF NOUN Pacoh NUM CLF NOUN Sui Jeh NUM CLF NOUN Bahnaric Jeh NUM CLF NOUN Sre NUM CLF NOUN Vietic Vietnamese NUM CLF NOUN Ruc NUM CLF NOUN So let’s step back and look at the subgroups that Thai and Khmer belong to in their respective families
(The black bars just divide up clades further within those subgroups) Ross (2007) – Syntax in contact
Lexical calquing → Grammatical Calquing → Metatypy
I asked earlier who innovated. So let’s stop now and ask ourselves how such innovation occurs. Ross has proposed a useful schema for considering the circumstances under which contact-induced syntactic change can occur. Ross (2007) – Syntax in contact Lexical calquing Unrelated forms come to cover the same range of meaning
(5) a. Thai: ton-maaj sɔɔŋ ton Khmer: daam-chəə pii daəm tree-wood two CLF.TREE ‘two trees’
b. Thai: phom sɨɨ kluaj mamuaŋ (lɛʔ) malakɔɔ pen-ton Khmer: kñom tɨñ ceik swaay (haəy-nɨŋ) lhong ciə-daəm 1SG buy banana mango (and) papaya COP-start ‘I bought bananas, mangos, (and) papayas, et cetera.’ Ross (2007) – Syntax in contact Grammatical calquing • Calquing grammatical (as opposed to lexical) words • Remodeling grammatical ‘ways of saying things’ • Falls shorts of wholesale adoption of syntactic structures Ross (2007) – Syntax in contact Metatypy • Requires bilingualism • ‘morphosyntactic constructions of one of the languages of a bilingual speech community are restructured on the model of the constructions of the speakers' other language, such that the constructions of the replica language come to more closely match those of the model language in both meaning and morphosyntax’ • Ex: Takia (Austronesian) has undergone metatypy, patterning after some unrelated Trans-New Guinea language Thai and Khmer
Lexical calquing Grammatical calquing ? Metatypy Thai and Khmer
Khmero-Thai (Wilaiwan 2001) Bilingualism in Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (1350-1550 CE)
Wilaiwan Khanittanan hypothesized about “Khmero-Thai” Thai and Khmer
Khmero-Thai (Wilaiwan 2001) Bilingualism in Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (1350-1550 CE)
❖Liturgical Buddhist texts in Khmer script ❖Vernacular Thai texts in Khmer script ❖Parallel and multilingual texts in Thai-Khmer-Pali (Mango Grove) ❖High-prestige Khmer loanwords of great age ❖Sanskrit loans passed through Khmer phonology en route to Thai Thai and Khmer
Khmero-Thai (Wilaiwan 2001) Bilingualism in Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (1350-1550 CE)
So what’s the problem? Directionality Location Thai and Khmer
Khmero-Thai (Wilaiwan 2001) Bilingualism in Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (1350-1550 CE)
Direction: If Khmer patterns after Thai, why, during the period of perhaps their most intense contact, was influence apparently unidirectional? No extant Khmer texts written in Thai script.
Location: Thai was never a prestige language in Cambodia. If there was significant bilingualism, how far did it reach beyond Sukhothai and Ayutthaya? It’s unclear. Despite the fall of the Khmer Empire and the rise of the Thai polity in the region, it’s not clear that we have the right social conditions for Khmer to be unidirectionally patterning after Thai. Epigraphic sources
Khmer Jenner Corpus of Khmer Inscriptions (6th-14th centuries CE) http://sealang.net/ok/corpus.htm
Thai Corpus of Sukhothai inscriptions (13th-16th centuries CE) (personally digitized from published sources) Epigraphic sources ‘Numeral coefficients’ (encompasses sortal and mensural classifiers), as cited by Jacob (1993) Old Khmer (7th-12th centuries C.E.) ◦ krapi 4 “4 buffalo” ◦ kon 2 “2 children” ◦ toṅ teṃ 1 “1 coconut tree” ◦ ku moy ’nak “1 female serf” (unexpected order) ◦ Many others, but they are all mensural caṃmreṅ ptau ’añ | ku juṅ vaḥ | ku vrahey | ku moy ’nak | ku moy ’nak sin | (10) ku tāṅ ’tā16 | ku ’alaṅ | ku trapāc | ku kep | ku saṃmreṅ | ku panlas | ku yi naṅ | Singers: Ptau ’Añ; ku Juṅ Vaḥ; ku Vrahey; ku Moy ’Nak; another ku Moy ’Nak; ku Tāṅ ’Tā; ku ’Alaṅ; ku Trapāc; ku Kep; kuSaṃreṅ; ku Panlas; ku yi Naṅ. (Jenner, K.137, 7thC) No sortal classifiers in Old Khmer
It is unlikely Old Khmer had grammaticalized sortal classifiers at all We see abundant use of nouns with bare numerals in Old Khmer ◦ e.g. krapi and kon Two exceptions: for tree toṅ and for person ’nak At best, classifiers were extremely nascent in Old Khmer If they did exist, it predates the arrival of Tai speaking groups by centuries, so we would have to posit some other influence Epigraphic sources Compare to the Sukhothai corpus (post Old Khmer) lūk – classifier for round or spherical objects: braḥ-mahā-dhātu sạṅ lūk (T.2, face 2, line 75; ca. 1345 C.E.) PFX.holy-great-relic 2 CLF.ROUND ‘two great relics’ (Griswold and Prasert 1992:402) duaṅ – classifier for circular objects: pariban lek sip duaṅ (T.14, face 1, line 19; 1536 C.E.) bowl small 10 CLF.CIRCLE ‘ten small accessory bowls (Griswold and Prasert 1992:649)
We clearly have fully grammaticalized classifiers in Thai at this point Epigraphic sources Mango Grove Inscription (Sukhothai, 1361 C.E.) ◦ Tri-lingual set of inscription (Middle Khmer, Thai, Pali)
Khmer text (K.413, face B, lines 34-35): …mās jyaṅ 10 | prāk jyaṅ 10 | khvad lār 10 | slā lār2 | cibara kse 4… …gold unit 10 | silver unit 10 | unkn. million 10 | areca million 2| habit bundle 4… ‘…ten jyaṅ of gold, ten jyaṅ of silver, ten million khvad, two million areca-nuts, four bundles of monk’s habits…’ (Jenner) Thai text (T.5, face 3, lines 14-16): …dạŋ mən nīṅ| ṅən mən nīṅ| pīya sip lān | mā[k si]p lān | phā cībara sī rạy… …gold 10,000 1 | silver 10,000 1 | cowry 10 million | areca 10 million | cloth habit 4 hundred… ‘…ten thousand of gold, ten thousand of silver, ten million cowries, ten million areca nuts, four hundred [sets of] robes…’ (Griswold and Prasert 1992) Epigraphic sources • Did they exist in Old and Middle Khmer at all? • Was Khmer in the process of losing or gaining classifiers? Or were they already optional, like modern Khmer? • There was certainly a word order change from OK to modern Khmer • Could optional introduction of classifiers in the Noun-NUM-CLF order caused mensural classifiers to come along for the ride, or was it a larger syntactic change? • Thai could easily be the primary influence on this reordering, and the source of the (re-?)introduction of optional sortal classifiers order; but were there other Tai languages Khmer was in contact with? What was the regional ‘syntactic milieu’, both within and outside of AA? • I don’t know the answers yet! But this line of examination gives us a clearer picture of the diachronic processes at work, even if in the end we decide on the same conclusion as Huffman. Why is this all so difficult?
• The double-edged sword of specialization • We need meetings like this to broaden horizons and collaborate • Terminology obscures discovery of relevant literature • True both across eras, languages, countries, and families • We need more and better literature discovery • So far: SALA, Pacific Linguistics archive, etc • But we also need better cross-linguistic discovery • Much documentation done in other countries and languages Chulalongkorn University “The construction and selection of identity by the Lawa working in Chiang Mai: a case study of Lawa from Ban Ho, Panghinfon sub- “Causativization in Nyah Kur” 1982 district, Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai province, Thailand” 2011 “A Comparative Study of Kui, Bruu and So Phonology from a Genetic Point of View” 1985 “A Phonological Study of Palaung Dialects Spoken in Thailand and Myanmar, with Focuses on Vowels and Final Nasals” 2012 “Phonological variation and change in Kuai-Kui (Suai)” 2003 Naresuan University “System of kinship terms in Suai (Kui-Kuai) spoken by different age groups in Sisaket province” 2009 “Lexical geography of minority languages in Nan province: Pray and Mal dialects” 1993 Mahidol University Payap University “Clauses and Phrases in Bruu” 1981 “A Comparative Study of Kuy Varieties in Cambodia” 2005 “A Relational Grammar Analysis of the Buriram Dialect of Northern Khmer,” 1984 “Grammatical Studies of Man Noi Plang” 2008 “The Phonology of So at Amphoe Dongluang, Mukdahan Province” 1986 “Discourse Functions of Right-Dislocated Repetition and Other Repetition Structures in Khmu Oral Narratives” 2008 “The Phonological Study of Northern Khmer: Prakhonchai District, Buriram Province,” 1986 “Phonological Descriptions of Plang Spoken in Man Noi, La Gang, and Bang Deng Villages (in China)” 2009 “The Phonology of Plang as Spoken in Banhuaynamkhum Chiengrai Province,” 1986 “Who’s Who in Kmhmu’: Referring Expressions and Participant Identification in Selected Kmhmu’ Narrative Texts” 2009 “A Phonological Description of Nyah Kur at Ban Nam Lat, Chaiyaphum Province,” 1986 “Aspects of Bru Kok Sa-at Grammar Based on Narrative Texts” 2010 “Clauses in So (Bru) of Dong Luang, Mukdahan Province” 1986 “An Analysis of Participant Reference in Bru Narrative Texts as Spoken in Khok Sa-at Village” 2010 “Phonological Reduplication in Vietnamese” 1987 “A Descriptive Grammar of Wa” 2012 “A phonological comparison of spoken Central Khmer (Phnom Penh) and Northern Khmer (Surin)” 1987 “A Descriptive Grammar of Eastern Lawa” 2013 “Phonological Interference between Kuay and Northeastern Thai in Surin” 1988 “A Phonological Description of Meung Yum and Phonological Comparison of Meung Yum with Three Wa Dialects In China” 2013 “Morphemes to Clauses in Northern Khmer (Surin)” 1989 “A Sociolinguistic Survey of Selected Meung Yum and Savaiq Varieties” 2013 “Pray Grammar at Ban Pae Klang, Thung Chang District, Nan Province” 1989 “The West Katuic Languages: Comparative Phonology and Diagnostic Tools” 2016 “Morphemes to Clauses in Northern Khmer (Surin)” 1989 Silpakorn University “Anthropological Linguistics in Mlabri” 1990 “Dvaravati Inscriptions” 1972 “A Phonology of Nyah Kur at Ban Tha Duang, Petchabun Province” 1990 “Khmer-Thai Dictionary” 1973 “Expressives in Northern Khmer” 1991 “Relations between Mon state, Burma, and Sukhodaya in the 13th-14th centuries A.D” 1976 “Nam Sod Khmu Syntactic Structure: A Study in Tagmemics, Transformational and Case Grammar” 1993 “Khmer Script Used to Write Thai Language” 1980 “A Phonological Study of the Khmer Spoken at Ban Nawattai, Tambon Dongnoi, Ratchasan Sub-District, Chachoengsaw Province” “Pre-Angkorian Scripts” 1981 1996 “Angkorian Khmer Scripts” 1981 “A Phonological Study of Vietnamese in Aranyaprathet District, Sa-Kaeo Province” 1996 “Dvaravati Votive Tablets at Nakhon Pathom” 1981 “The Relationship between Language Use and Language Attitude in Kuy Community in Uthumphornphisai, Srisaket” 1996 “A Description of Mon Language of Bangkhanmak, Lopburi: An Austroasiatic Language in Thailand” 1982 “A Phonological Study of Vietnamese at Tambon Khlung, Khlung District, Chanthaburi Province” 1998 “The Kuay Language of Suphanburi” 1982 “A Phonological Study of Vietnamese at Chumchon Watsritheppradittharam, Muang District, Nakhonphanom Province” 1998 “Mon Grammar” 1983 “Thavung Phonology at Muang Khamkert, Bolkhamxai Province, Lao P.D.R” 1998 “A Description of Mon Language of Cetrew, Samutsakhorn: An Austroasiatic Language in Thailand” 1985 “A Phonological Study of Wa at Ban Santisuk Moo 19, Tambol Patung, Mae-Chan District, Chiengrai Province” 1998 “A Phonological Study of Middle Khmer [Post-Angkorean]” 1986 “Addressing terms in northern Khmer: a sociolinguistics analysis: a case study at Tambol Krasang Ampoe Krasang Burirum province” “A Description of the Mon Language of Salui, Chumphorn: An Austroasiatic Language in Thailand” 1987 1998 “A Description of the Chong Language of Thung-Ta-In, Chanthaburi, an Austroasiatic Language in Thailand” 1987 “A Grammar of So: A Mon-Khmer Language of Northeast Thailand” 1998 “Phonology of Sakai Taen-Aen in Palian Village, Palian District, Trang Province” 1989 “A Study of the Numeral Classifiers in Present Standard Khmer” 1999 “A Comparison of Mon Phonology and Orthography: From Ancient to Modern Mon” 1990 “A Morphological Study of Northern Khmer” 1999 “Seminar Report: The Influence of Khmer Culture in the Ayuthaya Period” 1991 “Mapping Dialects of Chong in Chanthaburi Province, Thailand: An Application of Geographical Information System (GIS)” 2002 “Lexical Study of Mon Spoken in Nonthaburi, Lopburi and Kanchanaburi” 1991 “Lexical Variations of Khmu Spoken by People of Different Age Groups at Hintum Village, Banrai District, Uthaithani Province” 2002 “Description of the Chong Language, Namkhun 1 Village, Khlongphu Subdistrict, Makham District, Chanthaburi Province” 1991 “A Phonological and Lexicon Study in Food and Consumption of Vietnemese in Sukhaphiban Thabo District, Nongkhai Province” “The Kuy Language of Yoeyprasat Subdistrict, Nong Ki District, Buriram” 1992 2002 “Lexical Study of Mon Spoken in Pathum Thani, Samut Sakhon and Ratchaburi” 1994 “Lexical Variations of Khmu Spoken by People of Different Age Groups at Hintum Village, Banrai District, Uthaithani Province” 2002 “Lexical Usage and Syntax in Mon” 1996 “Kasong Syntax” 2002 “A Description of the Chong Language in Klong Seng Village, Borrai District, Trat Province” 1996 “The Phonology of Kasong at Khlong Saeng Village, Danchumphon Sub-District, Bo Rai District, Trat Province” 2003 “Computer-Assisted Instruction of Khmer-Thai Script” 1999 “A Phonological Study of the Vietnamese Dialect as Spoken at Najok Village, Nongyat Subdistrict, Muang District, Nakhornphanom “Dvaravati inscriptions: a palaeographical study” 1999 Province” 2003 “Comparative Lexicon of the So Language in Sakon Nakhon, Nakhon Phanom and Mukdahan Provinces” 1999 “Language Use and Language Attitude of Plang Ethnic Group in Ban Huay Nam Khun, Chiang-Rai Province” 2003 “Lexical Study of So in Dondaeng Village, Thachampa Subdistrict, Tha-Uthen District, Nakhon Phanom Province” 2000 “The Hidden Language: A Case Study of Kasong Language Attitudes, Useds and Abilities in Three Villages in Trat Province, Thailand” “Lexical Usage of Mon by Three Generations in Bang-Kra-Dee at Bang Khun Tian District, Bangkok” 2004 2003 “Comparative Study of Khmer Script in Palm Leaf Manuscripts in Northeastern and Southern Thailand” 2005 “A study of the linguistic and cultural context of Mon names: a case study of the Mon people at Wangka village, Nonglu subdistrict, “Pali-Sanskrit Loanwords in Khmer Language” 2005 Sangkhlaburi district, Kanchanaburi province” 2004 “A Description of Kuy at Saway Village, Saway Sub-District, Prangku District, Sisaket Province” 2005 “A Comparative Study of Lexical Items and Attitudes of Kuy, Kuay and Nyeu Speakers in Sisaket Province” 2004 “A Literary Analysis of the Sdok Kok Thom Inscription” 2006 “A comparative study of lexical items and attitudes of Kuy, Kuay and Nyeu speakers in Sisaket province” 2004 “Evidence of Ancient Khmer Culture in Nakhon Pathom Province” 2007 “A Comparative Study of Lexical Items and Attitudes of Kuy, Kuay and Nyeu Speakers in Sisaket Province” 2004 “An Analytical Study of Merit Making in Inscriptions Moderns d’Angkor (IMA)” 2008 “A comparative study of lexical items and attitudes of Kuy, Kuay and Nyeu speakers in Sisaket province” 2004 “A Comparative Study of Temporal Expressions in Bangkok Thai and Sakai Taenaen at Pa Bon District, Phatthalung Province” 2010 “Plang Grammar as Spoken in Huay Namkhun Village, Chiang Rai Province” 2004 “Color Terms and Attitude toward Color of Thai, Pwo Karen, Mon and Khmu in Amphoe Si Sawat, Kanchanaburi Province” 2011 “The Analysis of Lavia ? Oral Poetry” 2007 “Color Terms and Attitude toward Color of Thai, Pwo Karen, Mon and Khmu in Amphoe Si Sawat, Kanchanaburi Province” 2011 “Investigating Contact-Induced Language Change: Cases of Chung (Saoch) in Thailand and Cambodia” 2007 Thaksin University “So (Thavung) Grammar” 2008 “Word-classes comparison study between Chong language and standard Thai language” 1999 “Chong Syntax” 2009 “A Componential Analysis of Kinship Terms in Dara-Ang Language, Ban Nor-Lae, Monpin Subdistrict, Fang District Chiangmai Province” 2010 References
• Adams, Karen L. The Influence of Non-Austroasiatic Languages on doi:10.2307/600168. Numeral Classification in Austroasiatic. Journal of the American • Jacob, Judith. 1965. Note on the Numerals and Numeral Coefficients in Oriental Society 111(1): 62–81. Old, Middle, and Modern Khmer. Indo-Pacific Linguistic Studies II: 143- • Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2000. Classifiers: A Typology of Noun 162. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. Categorization Devices: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices. • Jenner, Philip N. 2009. A Dictionary of Angkorian Khmer. Canberra: Oxford University Press. Pacific Linguistics. • Alves, Mark J. 2008. Noun Phrase Structure in Mon-Khmer Languages. • Jenner, Philip N. n.d. Corpus of Khmer Inscriptions. Web. Unpublished manuscript.