ERIGFRTEFUTURE: THE FOR LEARNING LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE Changing the Culture of Math and Science
Changing Education To Ensure a Competitive Workforce the Culture of Math and Science Education to Ensure a Competitive Workforce CED A Statement by the Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE ChangingA SHARED the Culture ofFUTURE Math and Science Education to Ensure a Competitive Workforce REDUCING GLOBAL POVERTY
A Statement by the Research and Policy Committee A Statement by ofthe the Research Committee and Policy forCommittee Economic of the DevelopmentCommittee for Economic Development Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Learning for the future : changing the culture of math & science education to ensure a competitive workforce : a statement on national policy / by the Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-87186-147-X 1. Mathematics—Study and teaching—United States. 2. Science—Study and teaching—United States. I. Committee for Economic Development. Research and Policy Committee.
QA13.L39 2003 510'.71'073—dc21 2003043432
First printing in bound-book form: 2003 Paperback: $15.00 Printed in the United States of America Design: Rowe Design Group
COMMITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 261 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10016 (212) 688-2063 2000 L Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20036 (202) 296-5860 www.ced.org CONTENTS
RESPONSIBILITY FOR CED STATEMENTS ON NATIONAL POLICY v
PURPOSE OF THIS STATEMENT viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 Findings 1 Recommendations 3
CHAPTER 1: THE NEED TO IMPROVE MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION 5 The Importance of Science and Engineering: Growth, Citizenship, and Mobility 5 A Focus on Math and Science Education 7
CHAPTER 2: CHALLENGES IN K-12 MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION 10 K-12 Student Achievement in Math and Science: A National Perspective 10 K-12 Student Achievement in Math and Science: A State Perspective 13 K-12 Student Achievement in Math and Science: An International Perspective 16 What Might Account for Uneven Performance in K-12 Math and Science? 18
CHAPTER 3: UNDERGRADUATE AND LABOR MARKET ISSUES 23 Reductions in the Number of Undergraduates in Science and Engineering 23 Implications for the Professional Technical Labor Market 27 The Impact of Foreign-Born Students and Workers 29
CHAPTER 4: CHANGING THE CULTURE OF K-16 MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION AND INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 30 CHALLENGE ONE: Increasing Student Interest in Math and Science to Maintain the Pipeline 31 Ensuring Widespread Scientific and Quantitative Literacy 31 Increasing the Number of Students Completing Degrees in Mathematics, Science and Engineering Fields 33 Increasing the Interest and Success of Women and Minorities in Math and Science 34 CHALLENGE TWO: Demonstrating the Wonder of Discovery While Helping Students to Master Rigorous Content 35 Improving Math and Science Teacher Education 36 Providing Opportunities for Teachers to Work With Those in the Technical Labor Force 37 Expanding Effective Professional Development Programs 38 Promoting Local Experimentation in Math and Science Education 40 Promoting Science Education in the Era of No Child Left Behind 41 CHALLENGE THREE: Acknowledging the Professionalism of Teachers 42 Compensating Teachers to Promote Quality in the Math and Science Teaching Force 42 Establishing Alternative Paths to Certification 43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 45
iii ENDNOTES 46
MEMORANDUM OF COMMENT, RESERVATION, OR DISSENT 50
OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 51
iv RESPONSIBILITY FOR CED STATEMENTS ON NATIONAL POLICY
The Committee for Economic Develop- ing specific legislative proposals; its purpose is ment is an independent research and policy to urge careful consideration of the objectives organization of some 250 business leaders set forth in this statement and of the best means and educators. CED is nonprofit, nonparti- of accomplishing those objectives. san, and nonpolitical. Its purpose is to pro- Each statement is preceded by extensive pose policies that bring about steady eco- discussions, meetings, and exchange of memo- nomic growth at high employment and randa. The research is undertaken by a sub- reasonably stable prices, increased productiv- committee, assisted by advisors chosen for their ity and living standards, greater and more competence in the field under study. equal opportunity for every citizen, and an The full Research and Policy Committee improved quality of life for all. participates in the drafting of recommenda- All CED policy recommendations must tions. Likewise, the trustees on the drafting have the approval of trustees on the Research subcommittee vote to approve or disapprove a and Policy Committee. This committee is di- policy statement, and they share with the rected under the bylaws, which emphasize Research and Policy Committee the privilege that “all research is to be thoroughly objec- of submitting individual comments for publi- tive in character, and the approach in each cation. instance is to be from the standpoint of the general welfare and not from that of any The recommendations presented herein are special political or economic group.” The those of the trustee members of the Research and committee is aided by a Research Advisory Policy Committee and the responsible subcom- Board of leading social scientists and by a mittee. They are not necessarily endorsed by other small permanent professional staff. trustees or by nontrustee subcommittee members, The Research and Policy Committee does advisors, contributors, staff members, or others not attempt to pass judgment on any pend- associated with CED.
v RESEARCH AND POLICY COMMITTEE
Co-Chairmen PATRICK W. GROSS GEORGE H. CONRADES CHARLES R. LEE Founder and Senior Advisor Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Chairman American Management Systems, Inc. Akamai Technologies, Inc. Verizon Communications BRUCE K. MACLAURY RONALD R. DAVENPORT ALONZO L. MCDONALD President Emeritus Chairman of the Board Chairman and Chief Executive Officer The Brookings Institution Sheridan Broadcasting Corporation Avenir Group, Inc. JOHN DIEBOLD NICHOLAS G. MOORE Vice Chairmen Chairman Chairman Emeritus IAN ARNOF John Diebold Incorporated PricewaterhouseCoopers Retired Chairman FRANK P. DOYLE STEFFEN E. PALKO Bank One, Louisiana, N.A. Retired Executive Vice President Vice Chairman and President CLIFTON R. WHARTON, JR. General Electric XTO Energy Inc. Former Chairman and Chief Executive T.J. DERMOT DUNPHY CAROL J. PARRY Officer Chairman President TIAA-CREF Kildare Enterprises, LLC Corporate Social Responsibility CHRISTOPHER D. EARL Associates Managing Director VICTOR A. PELSON Perseus Capital, LLC Senior Advisor W. D. EBERLE UBS Warburg LLC REX D. ADAMS Chairman PETER G. PETERSON Professor of Business Administration Manchester Associates, Ltd. Chairman The Fuqua School of Business EDMUND B. FITZGERALD The Blackstone Group Duke University Managing Director NED REGAN ALAN BELZER Woodmont Associates President Retired President and Chief Operating HARRY L. FREEMAN Baruch College Officer Chair JAMES Q. RIORDAN AlliedSignal Inc. The Mark Twain Institute Chairman * PETER A. BENOLIEL BARBARA B. GROGAN Quentin Partners Co. Chairman, Executive Committee President LANDON H. ROWLAND Quaker Chemical Corporation Western Industrial Contractors Chairman ROY J. BOSTOCK RICHARD W. HANSELMAN Janus Capital Group Chairman Emeritus, Executive Committee Chairman GEORGE RUPP 3 Bcom Group, Inc. Health Net Inc. President FLETCHER L. BYROM RODERICK M. HILLS International Rescue Committee President and Chief Executive Officer Chairman ROCCO C. SICILIANO MICASU Corporation Hills Enterprises, Ltd. Beverly Hills, California DONALD R. CALDWELL MATINA S. HORNER MATTHEW J. STOVER Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Executive Vice President President Cross Atlantic Capital Partners TIAA-CREF LKM Ventures JOHN B. CAVE H.V. JONES ARNOLD R. WEBER Principal Managing Director President Emeritus Avenir Group, Inc. Korn/Ferry International Northwestern University CAROLYN CHIN EDWARD A. KANGAS JOSH S. WESTON Chairman Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Honorary Chairman Commtouch/C3 Partners Retired Automatic Data Processing, Inc. A. W. CLAUSEN Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu DOLORES D. WHARTON Retired Chairman and Chief Executive JOSEPH E. KASPUTYS Former Chairman and Chief Officer Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer BankAmerica Corporation Executive Officer The Fund for Corporate Initiatives, Inc. JOHN L. CLENDENIN Global Insight, Inc. MARTIN B. ZIMMERMAN Retired Chairman CHARLES E.M. KOLB Group Vice President, Corporate Affairs BellSouth Corporation President Ford Motor Company Committee for Economic Development
*Voted to approve the policy statement but submitted memorandum of comment, reservation, or dissent. See page 50.
vi SUBCOMMITTEE ON THE SUPPLY OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
Co-Chairs JEROME GROSSMAN Ex-Officio Members Senior Fellow CHRISTOPHER D. EARL John F. Kennedy School of Government PATRICK W. GROSS Managing Director Harvard University Founder and Chairman, Perseus Capital, LLC Executive Committee MATT NIMETZ American Management Systems, Inc. SHIRLEY ANN JACKSON Partner President Cross Atlantic Partners, Inc. CHARLES E.M. KOLB Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute President STEFFEN PALKO Committee for Economic Development Vice Chairman and President XTO Energy, Inc. BRUCE K. MACLAURY President Emeritus Trustees JERRY PARROTT The Brookings Institution Vice President, ROBERT B. CHESS Corporate Communications Chairman Human Genome Sciences, Inc. Guest Inhale Therapeutic Systems, Inc. GEORGE RUPP CAROLYN CHIN President CARLO PARRAVANO Chairman International Rescue Committee Executive Director Merck Institute for Science Education Commtouch/C3 Partners MICHAEL SEARS DAVID M. COTE Senior Vice President and President and Chief Executive Officer Chief Financial Officer Advisor Honeywell International, Inc. The Boeing Company LINDA ROSEN THOMAS M. CULLIGAN RUTH SIMMONS Education Policy Advisor Executive Vice President President Raytheon Company Brown University Chief Executive Officer JAMES THOMSON Project Directors Raytheon International President and Chief Executive Officer EVERETT EHRLICH JOHN DIEBOLD RAND Senior Vice President and Director of Chairman HERMINE WARREN Research The Diebold Institute President Committee for Economic Development LINDA M. DISTLERATH Hermine Warren Associates, Inc. JEFF LOESEL Vice President JOSH S. WESTON Research Associate Merck & Co., Inc. Honorary Chairman Committee for Economic Development IRWIN DORROS Automatic Data Processing President KURT YEAGER Dorros Associates President and Chief Executive Officer E. GORDON GEE Electric Power Research Institute Chancellor Vanderbilt University
vii PURPOSE OF THIS STATEMENT
Continued innovation and growth in our ACKNOWLEDGMENTS economy depend substantially on the quality We would like to thank the dedicated and size of the professional technical labor group of CED Trustees, special guests, and force. The increasing complexity of daily life advisors who comprised CED’s Subcommit- also requires a citizenry that is scientifically tee on the Supply of Scientists and Engineers literate. Improving the quality of math and (see page vii). Special thanks go to the science education in America is a critical first subcommittee’s co-chairs Christopher D. step toward both of those goals. Inspiring Earl, Managing Director of Perseus Capital, widespread student interest in math and LLC, and Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, President science can also be a way to address the need of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, for their for diversity in the technical labor force. In leadership and guidance. We are also in- this report, we document the importance of debted to Jeff Loesel, CED Research Associ- quality math and science education to the ate and Project Director. Thanks are also economy, society, and to individual entrants due to Everett Ehrlich, CED’s Senior Vice into the labor force. President and Director of Research, and Learning for the Future: Changing the Culture Linda Rosen, education policy advisor, for of Math and Science Education to Ensure a Com- their substantial contributions to the project. petitive Workforce builds on a long history of CED reports on education and labor market Patrick W. Gross, Co-Chair issues. CED last examined math and science Research and Policy Committee education directly in Connecting Students to Founder and Senior Advisor a Changing World: A Technology Strategy for American Management Systems, Inc. Improving Mathematics and Science Education (1995). More recent reports on education Bruce K. MacLaury, Co-Chair policy include Measuring What Matters: Using Research and Policy Committee Assessment and Accountability to Improve Student President Emeritus Learning (2001) and Preschool for All: Investing The Brookings Institution in a Productive and Just Society (2002). Other recent reports on the requirement for a well- qualified technical labor force include America’s Basic Research: Prosperity Through Discovery (1998) and Reforming Immigration: Helping Meet America’s Need for a Skilled Workforce (2001).
viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Improving the math and science skills of our young people is an important step FINDINGS towards maintaining innovation-led economic growth in the coming decades. While produc- K-12 Math and Science Education ing a more scientifically proficient citizenry, 1. Most national measures of K-12 student widespread math and science achievement achievement in math and science yield will also widen the pipeline of scientists and generally disappointing results, despite engineers who drive innovation. some small positive signs. This report investigates the challenges confronting math and science education 2. States that have adopted standards-based from the perspective of culture change. assessment for promotion or graduation The culture surrounding math and science have seen scores and proficiency levels achievement is often negative: students who climb. These examples show that reform is succeed in these fields are often dismissed by possible. their peers, while a culture of low expecta- tions burdens other groups, perpetuating 3. The international performance of their underrepresentation in the professional America’s youngsters remains consistently technical labor force. To address these issues, mediocre. Though fourth graders perform CED calls for the implementation of a strate- well in both math and science in interna- gic plan that will increase student “demand” tional comparisons, American twelfth for and achievement in mathematics and sci- graders finish towards, or at, the bottom ence. CED believes that all stakeholders in of these surveys. math and science education policy, including 4. Student interest in math and science top- state and local governments, school districts, ics has declined. Fewer children respond and business, must be proactive in addressing positively on surveys to such basic state- the problems of math and science education. ments as “I like math.” This trend is especially prevalent among high school seniors. 5. Challenging courses are not readily avail- able for some students, while others may be discouraged from taking them. Minority students also face differential expectations, and often lack the support and encouragement to succeed in higher- level courses.
1 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
6. Teachers in math and science courses are 3. The expansion of the economy and the often teaching out-of-field. Almost a third retirement of the baby boomers will leave of high school math classes are taught by a gap in professional technical labor teachers who do not have a major or market. Projections suggest that a strong minor in mathematics. In biology, it is 45 economic expansion will create approxi- percent and in the life sciences the num- mately 2.1 million jobs in these fields over ber reaches 60 percent. For middle school the next decade, with a total of 2.7 million students, especially those in underprivi- job openings, including retirements. leged areas, the problem is yet worse. 4. Both the private and public sector will face 7. Teacher retention is a serious problem, problems if the pipeline for scientists and especially among math and science teach- engineers is not widened. The private ers; this problem will become more sector employs three-quarters of the pro- critical as baby boomer teachers near fessional technical workforce and will drive retirement age. Of new math and science the expansion of the economy. The public teachers, about a third will leave the field sector, which often struggles to compete within their first three years. This turnover for talent with the private sector, will need is expensive and leads to other staffing to replace retiring scientists and engineers, problems. while being constrained by the fact that many public sector jobs must be held by Undergraduate and Labor American citizens. Market Issues 5. There will also be a continuing need for 1. The percentage of college students seek- math and science teachers. Many districts ing degrees in science and engineering already face shortages (leading to the continues to fall. Aside from a gain in the problem of out-of-field teachers), while biological sciences, all other science and enrollment is expected to continue to engineering disciplines have seen an expand. Two hundred thousand additional absolute decline in the number of degrees secondary math and science teachers will conferred annually since 1985. be needed in the next decade. 2. While women and minorities have 6. Foreign workers are not a long-term solu- increased their participation in science tion to labor market shortages. National and engineering, they are still proportion- security concerns will likely limit the num- ally underrepresented. Women and ber of H1-B visas allowed, and previous minorities do not participate in science increases in the visa limits are unlikely to and engineering at the postsecondary level be renewed. As other economies continue at a rate equal to that of white men, and to develop, they will be better able to many high achieving women and minori- retain talented young people who have ties have intentionally directed themselves studied in the United States. away from these fields. Accordingly, their participation in the professional technical labor force is disproportionately low.
2 Executive Summary
mathematics) classes for accuracy and fair- RECOMMENDATIONS ness, to ensure alignment with other Improving the culture of math and department courses in the institution.* science, in CED’s view, requires addressing Additionally, articulation between higher three challenges aimed at changing the education and K-12 should be increased to culture of math and science education. better prepare students for the rigors of higher education. CHALLENGE ONE: 5. Scientifically-based businesses should Increasing Student Interest in Math collaborate with institutions of higher and Science to Sustain the Pipeline education to highlight the professional opportunities that are available to those 1. Local school districts should review their with a background in STEM fields. adopted curricula to ensure that they adequately engage students, promote 6. Programs with proven effectiveness to sup- active learning, and align to state and port high achievement among traditionally local standards of student performance underrepresented groups of students in and knowledge. K-12 STEM courses should be replicated; businesses must redouble their efforts to 2. Businesses should collaborate with school provide support to traditionally under- districts to develop enhancements to the represented groups of undergraduate district-adopted math and science curricu- students in the STEM pipeline. la that integrate state-of-the-art applica- tions of mathematical and scientific princi- CHALLENGE TWO: ples into the classroom setting and provide an insight into the work scientists and Demonstrating the Wonder of engineers perform every day. Discovery While Helping Students to Master Rigorous Content 3. Business should provide financial and logistical support to extracurricular math 1. Colleges and universities that educate and science activities, as well as the time future and current teachers must ensure and talents of their employees, to enrich that their courses of study emphasize the learning experiences of students. acquisition of content knowledge, an Educators should organize student groups understanding of the place of that knowl- to participate in such activities, if they do edge in society, as well as the pedagogical not already exist, and work to integrate training to deliver that knowledge to stu- business support into these programs. dents of all backgrounds and abilities. 4. Colleges and universities should pay close 2. Businesses should partner with local attention to the number of graduates they school districts to establish programs yield each year when evaluating the effec- that provide scientists and engineers as tiveness of their science and engineering resources for schools. These forums programs. Experienced professors should should facilitate direct contact between be assigned to introductory classes, among teachers and scientists and engineers, and their teaching responsibilities. Grading as appropriate, direct contact between policies should be monitored in STEM scientists and students. (science, technology, engineering, and *See memorandum by PETER A. BENOLIEL (page 50).
3 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
3. Businesses, colleges and universities, and CHALLENGE THREE: school districts should jointly develop Acknowledging the Professionalism effective programs to provide summer of Teachers experiences for teachers. Businesses should create mechanisms within their 1. State governments should work with local firms that allow the fruitful participation school districts to increase starting teacher of teacher/interns in their work. salaries to better reflect local labor market conditions. The salary structure should 4. Business, higher education, and K-12 take note of the many highly remunerative school districts should collaborate to pro- opportunities open to skilled math and vide staff development to enrich and science graduates apart from teaching. expand teacher knowledge and talent. 2. State governments and boards of educa- 5. Local school districts should be encour- tion should implement high quality aged to seek innovative and promising programs for teacher certification of solutions to improve math and science professional scientists, mathematicians, teaching and learning. or engineers who seek to enter teaching. 6. The scientifically-based business communi- 3. State governments should partner ty should expand efforts to work with state together to develop systems of license and governments and boards of education in pension reciprocity. the ongoing process of reviewing and revising state standards for science education.
4 Chapter 1
THE NEED TO IMPROVE MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION
A skilled workforce is crucial to a growing ously support better-qualified math and economy. America’s rising standard of living science teachers.”2 CED also cited the need depends upon invention and innovation, for “substantial investment in infrastructure driven by fresh ideas created by enterprising improvements” and recommended that scientists and engineers. But American col- “businesses, universities, and schools work leges and universities are not now graduating together to place more professional enough scientists and engineers to meet the scientists and engineers in the classroom...”3 expected needs of our future economic CED’s report, Reforming Immigration: growth. Helping to Meet America’s Need for a Skilled The issue is not solely one of producing Workforce, noted that the shortage of these the next generation of Nobel Prize winners. skilled workers was so pronounced that immi- The increasing complexity of civil discourse gration policy would have to be managed to in the 21st century — issues from cloning to take this shortage into account. That report’s homeland security — requires that all citizens first and most pressing finding was that “the attain scientific proficiency. Moreover, the markets for skilled workers have been very nation’s level of scientific proficiency will tight in recent years, and the demand for become more important as women and peo- skilled workers will grow rapidly.” 4 Although ple of color, who generally score lower than there has been a temporary abatement of this their white counterparts on math and science problem due to the slowing economy, the assessments, form a growing percentage of problem is sure to reemerge when strong the labor force. economic growth resumes. CED has often stressed the importance But immigration is not a solution to the of these labor market factors. Our recent problem of long-term shortages of skilled report, Basic Research: Prosperity Through workers in the American economy; there is Discovery, discussed the roles of both the no substitute for an indigenous supply of public and private sectors in the innovation scientists and engineers in a competitive process.1 In that Policy Statement, we noted economy. the pivotal role of technological workers and expressed concerns as to whether the econo- my was supplying scientists and engineers in THE IMPORTANCE OF sufficient numbers. Specifically, CED recom- SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: mended that the nation embrace “high GROWTH, CITIZENSHIP, achievement standards at the national level in all core academic subjects, with particular AND MOBILITY emphasis on mathematics and science,” and While science and technology have always that the nation’s schools, particularly its mid- played a central role in our nation’s develop- dle and high schools, “attract and continu- ment, the public attention given to them has
5 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE come in cycles. The launch of Sputnik five learn about new innovations and adapt them decades ago led the United States to give sci- to their organizations, or as they move from ence and engineering a greater emphasis, firm to firm, taking their knowledge and culminating in the success of the Apollo experience with them. Program. Part of that emphasis was When we think about the prospects for increased funding for efforts in math and growth in the years ahead, we think of them science at all levels. in technological terms — new wonders from The explosion in the fields of science and microprocessors and information technology, engineering helped to fuel America’s post-war advances in biotechnology and their applica- growth. The greater supply of scientists and tion not only to health but to industrial engineers allowed technology to move processes, materials science, energy produc- forward dramatically, and was a major contrib- tion and environmental management, and utor to advances in computer engineering, many others. Indeed, as other nations in the microelectronics, health research, materials world economy gain advantage as low-cost science, and other disciplines. But more manufacturers, America’s global economic recently, that attention has waned. position will evermore depend on our com- Paradoxically, much of the decreased popular mand of science and technology as a means enthusiasm for science and engineering to add value to production and to develop occurred just as the Internet was entering original goods and services. Thus, the econo- popular use. Perhaps this was due to the my fundamentally depends on a scientifically remarkably sophisticated technology that skilled workforce. made the Internet appear effortless; perhaps But beyond the economy’s needs, scientific it was due to the fortunes that apparently awareness is an important aspect of modern could be made through financial engineering citizenship and an increasingly significant and business prowess during the technology part of daily life. Doctrines of “creationism” bubble. But as we will argue in later chapters, crowd current scientific teaching out of class- some of this decrease in interest reflects a rooms; biological advances, from genetic larger deterioration in the culture of math engineering in agriculture to medical break- and science education, at both the K-12 and throughs, require a public discussion of safety, postsecondary level. risk, and ethics; concerns about privacy and An understanding of science and mathe- security accompany the information revolu- matics remains at the core of our economy tion; man-made global climate change threat- and society. The driving force behind eco- ens the way of life of many on the planet over nomic growth is technological innovation. the long-term. All of these issues require a Absent a long history of technological thorough public discussion, but such a discus- change, our country would be a nation of arti- sion can only take place among an informed sans and mule drivers, with a commensurate citizenry. (And this “scientific proficiency” standard of living. Technological innovation should not be confused with “computer allows workers to become more productive by literacy.” An accompanying box describes giving them improved tools and skills, which the difference.) in turn increases our income and well-being. Science and technology employments are The nation’s science and engineering workers important for a third reason — they provide play important roles in this process. First, they an important avenue for social mobility. are a source of new ideas, the driving force Diverse ethnic and immigrant groups have behind invention. Second, they are a means embraced scientific education as a means to of disseminating those ideas, either as they contribute to American culture and to
6 The Need to Improve Math and Science Education
“COMPUTER LITERACY” IS NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR MATH AND SCIENCE PROFICIENCY The increased use of computers in the classroom is an important step in improving the math and science skills of young students. This knowledge is essential, as most jobs in the current (and future) economy (will) require the use of a computer at some level, and numerous studies show that students who use computers regularly in the classroom score better on proficiency tests. However, a students’ proficiency with a computer should not be mistaken for a basic understanding of the scientific principles behind the computation or the computer. CED warned of this problem in our 1995 report, Connecting Students to a Changing World: A Technology Strategy for Improving Mathematics and Science Education, remind- ing people that “our support for technology should not be equated with adulation. Technology has meaning and purpose only in the way it is used by people.” The ability to use a computer is not a substitute for a knowledge base in math and science that will ulti- mately help the student to understand weather patterns, instructions from a doctor, or to determine which long distance calling plan will save the most money.
improve the social and economic standing of their families. Technical workers trained in A FOCUS ON MATH AND the post-Sputnik rush were often the first SCIENCE EDUCATION people in their families to go to college — A variety of factors determine our society’s scientific training was an important route to scientific proficiency. In recent years, many their economic betterment. Math and young people, the “best and brightest,” have science education have historically con- been attracted to careers in finance or other tributed to the meritocratic society America business activities, eschewing options in math aspires to. Moreover, as the majority popula- and science that failed to capture their inter- tion grows more slowly than people of color, est. For this reason, CED has chosen to focus the nation’s corps of scientists and engineers on the factor it views most important in the will progressively need to be drawn from this long term — the quality of math and science latter, more diverse, group. This is all the education in both K-12 and postsecondary more important when the aging of the math education. All of the functions of science in and science workforce is observed. Many gov- society — the availability of skilled workers, ernment agencies rely on technical work- the competence of scientific “citizenship,” forces that are close to retirement age. The and the availability of science and math as a same may be said of the nation’s schoolteach- tool for mobility — are drawn from this ers. The cohort that entered teaching as the common well. Baby Boom graduated from college in the The K-12 system is entrusted with building 1970s is now reaching the age and level of science and mathematics competence in our service that will allow them to retire. It is not young people. It must capture and maintain clear how the hundreds of thousands of their interest in these subjects, and teach teachers who are somehow involved in math them not only the “facts” of science, but the and science education throughout the K-12 underlying concepts of scientific inquiry, system will be replaced, particularly with the experimentation, and empiricism. Moreover, high turnover rates already experienced in the K-12 system is responsible for producing a this field. group of young people who will be interested
7 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE in pursuing math, science, and engineering in popular culture persist in portraying scien- coursework in their undergraduate careers. tists as unfashionable, absent-minded, The postsecondary system is charged with obsessed, or socially backward. Despite best producing these highly skilled workers, but intentions, the education system can rein- also has great bearing on the K-12 system. It force these views, by presenting math and sci- produces the teachers who will staff the K-12 ence as “hard” compared to other subjects system. It sets expectations for math and and rationing good grades in those topics. science education that compel a response by This Policy Statement will emphasize ways the K-12 system. And it offers students a path to link both “supply” and “demand” side poli- to careers in science and engineering, which cies together to change the culture of math in turn creates interest among young people. and science in the education system and in Thus, neither the K-12 nor the postsecondary society. By culture change, we mean the way segments can be seen in isolation; together, students, teachers at all levels, educators at they comprise a continuous “system” that all levels, and the business community think determines the long-term supply of our about math and science education. nation’s scientifically skilled workforce. Culture change cannot be mandated or Many organizations have examined this decreed. Instead, it is the product of a broad system and recommended ways to improve it. range of actions by a diverse set of actors. As a An accompanying box summarizes a few of result, CED’s report is aimed at several audi- these efforts. Their common theme has been ences. Business leaders have the ability to work the shortage of resources going to math and with school systems to provide resources and science education, or, the “supply side” of the expertise otherwise unavailable; many busi- equation. nesses, as discussed throughout our recom- CED supports these efforts and their mendations, do so already. State governments, point of view. Improving the nation’s now charged with directing efforts to measure math and science education will take more school performance and hold individual sys- resources, and more well-spent resources. We tems accountable, have an obvious role. So do should be concerned about the costs and local governments, which define the roles and quality of the math and science education expectations of the teachers they employ. infrastructure, about the costs and quality of Our recommendations also affect teachers professional development for math and sci- themselves. The recommendations sometimes ence teachers, and about the overall level of call for changes in the way teaching is struc- compensation for teachers. Moreover, the tured or what occurs in classrooms. These manner in which these resources are brought recommendations, however, are not intended to bear could often be improved as well. to be critical of the teaching profession. But these are all about the supply of math America’s teachers are undervalued; few if and science education. CED also believes that any people enter teaching for reasons other improving the nation’s math and science edu- than a commitment to the job. Our recom- cation will require change on the demand side mendations, ultimately, are designed to give as well, that is, the way our nation’s young teachers the tools and environment that will people regard these disciplines. Too often, let them do their jobs as they prepare the they are dismissed as too hard, too inaccessi- next generation of our nation’s young people ble, too elitist, too boring, or too unfashion- for the challenges of a complex technological able. In turn, the young people who do society. express interest in these subjects are, in many CED’s effort and perspective are meant as schools, disdained by their peers. Stereotypes a complement to the efforts that have pre-
8 The Need to Improve Math and Science Education
A REVIEW OF OTHER REPORTS ON MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION AND THE TECHNICAL LABOR FORCE A number of reports have been written over the years that highlight certain aspects of the problems facing math and science education and its workforce implications. Here are the conclusions of a few prominent reports. Building Engineering & Science Talent (BEST), The Quiet Crisis (2002) Following up on the report Land of Plenty: Diversity as America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering, and Technology (2000), this report investigates the problem of the underrepresen- tation of minority groups in the technical labor force. The Quiet Crisis calls for increased recruitment of teachers, an increase in federal investment in education and other strategies to promote inclusiveness in the professional technical labor force. Educational Testing Service, Meeting the Need (2002) Meeting the Need outlines the problems facing the technical labor force, finding part of the solution in the preK-12 math and science education spectrum. A special emphasis is also placed on the achievement levels of underrepresented minorities and efforts to recruit them into the technical labor force. National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, the “Glenn Commission,” Before It’s Too Late (2000) Improving the quality of the math and science teaching force is the focus of this report. Emphasizing better preparation and professional development for teachers and a more competitive wage structure, the report sought to attract more teachers into the field, as well as retain them, while providing mechanisms to provide for continued growth and development.
ceded it, and are in no way meant to detract districts, and institutions of higher learning from those previous efforts’ importance. around the country, people are now strug- In this report, we examine issues such as gling to address these issues. Businesses teacher compensation and accreditation that already have undertaken innovative programs have been examined before, but with an eye to bring their unique abilities and resources to how they might make mathematics and to local school districts; school districts and science more appealing to young people. systems are already experimenting with fresh We identify emerging issues that might ways to train teachers of math and science; all directly affect the way both young people of these groups have come together to offer and society at large perceive math and exciting programs that complement school, science. In either event, our focus is on or that redefine school itself. Our mission, in improving the nation’s math and science large part, is to support these experiments, education, as measured by the overall level help to scale them up, and to encourage the of math and science competence in society business community to be a fully-fledged part- as well as the number of skilled workers the ner in these efforts. school system produces. Moreover, we offer our recommendations while being aware that in classrooms, school
9 Chapter 2
CHALLENGES IN K-12 MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION
There is continuing concern about the components. The first, developed in the early need to improve student achievement in 1970s and called “long-term trend NAEP,” is math and science. Indeed, the very title of the designed to measure progress over time. The 2002 federal legislation for K-12 education — second, developed in the early 1990s and No Child Left Behind — captures the called “main NAEP,” measures current curric- urgency felt by policymakers and the public ula and reflects the latest assessment method- to place a new emphasis on quality public ology. While results from the two components education. But the title also suggests a funda- can not be directly compared, together they mental truth: averages and generalities, while provide a rich database of information on stu- illuminating, can obscure important facts that dent achievement nationwide. may point to solutions. The U.S. Department of Education admin- The data presented in this chapter should isters NAEP to a representative sample of be familiar to those who work in the field of American students at ages 9, 13, and 17 — math and science education.† While the pic- corresponding to fourth, eighth, and twelfth ture of K-12 math and science education in grade — about every four years. Long-term America is bleak in many ways, there are areas NAEP (measuring long-term progress) is in which we are beginning to see some reported by age whereas main NAEP encouraging signs. Accordingly, this chapter (measuring proficiency) is reported by will present both a general and specific look grade level. The two components generally at math and science education. It will provide are not given in the same year. data about student achievement and other measures and offer some possible explana- Long-Term Trend NAEP Results tions for disappointing levels of student The long-term math assessment measures performance. students’ knowledge of basic facts and basic measurement formulas, ability to carry out numerical procedures, and ability to apply K-12 STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT mathematics to skills of daily life.5 The science IN MATH AND SCIENCE: assessment focuses on students’ ability A NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE to conduct inquiries and solve problems and their knowledge of science content.6 The National Assessment of Educational The most recent long-term mathematics Progress (NAEP) — known as the “Nation’s and science NAEP assessment was adminis- Report Card” — measures student proficiency tered in 1999. Results show that math and in mathematics and science. NAEP has two science scores have followed similar trajecto- ries: declines in the 1970s, increases in the † References to “math and science education” throughout this report reflect ideas that are applicable to science, technolo- 1980s and early 1990s, followed by a leveling gy, engineering, and mathematics, or STEM, courses at large. off for the remainder of the 1990s. Students
10 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education in all age groups showed improvement in whereas the gap between Hispanic and white, mathematics, with the 9-year-old cohort mak- non-Hispanic students was unchanged. ing the greatest strides. Results for science Analysis by gender yielded some promising varied with age; 9-year-old students showed results: in 1999, males and females performed improvement in science scores, yet the scores at comparable levels in math for the first time of their 13-year-old ‘siblings’ were unchanged since the long-term testing began. Although over time and the scores of their 17-year-old 13- and 17-year-old males outperformed ‘siblings’ decreased. (See Figures 1 and females in science, the gap among the older 2 for the results.) students also narrowed for the first time. Male Analysis of long-term NAEP also yields and female 9-year-old scores in science were information about a persistent achievement statistically comparable.7 gap between minority and white students. Thus, while there are important general Black students continue to achieve at lower concerns about student performance in math levels in mathematics than their white coun- and science, long-term NAEP results contain terparts, although the gap is narrowing. some positive news as well. The gap between Hispanic and white, non- Hispanic students narrowed for 13- and Main NAEP Proficiency Levels 17-year-olds, but not for 9-year-olds. In sci- To establish what students should know, ence, the 9- and 13-year-old black students main NAEP defined proficiency levels and narrowed the gap with their white peers, then tested to see whether they were being
Figure 1 Figure 2 Long-Term NAEP Scores for Long-Term NAEP Scores for Science, Mathematics, 1973-1999 1970-1999
● Age 17 ● Age 17
■ Age 13 ■ Age 13 ▲ Age 9 ▲ Age 9
320 320 307 308 304 ● 305 ● ● ● ● ● 295 300 ● ● ● 300 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 276 ● 280 273 ■ ■ ■ 280 266 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 255 256 260 260 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 240 230 232 240 229 ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ 225 ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ 219 ▲ ▲ ▲ 220 ▲ ▲ ▲ 220 ▲ ▲ ▲
200 ______200 ______1973 1978 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999 1970 1973 1977 1982 1986 1990 1992 1994 1996 1999
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 1999 SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 1999 Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Academic Performance, Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Academic Performance, NCES 2000-469 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of NCES 2000-469 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, August 2000), Figure 1.1. Education, August 2000), Figure 1.1.
11 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE achieved. The most recent administration of Table 1 main NAEP, in 2000, found that 74 percent of fourth graders, 72 percent of eighth graders, Achievement Level Policy Definitions and 83 percent of twelfth graders scored at Advanced: Superior performance. ‘basic’ (the minimum standard of achieve- Proficient: Solid academic performance for each ment) or ‘below basic’ in math. In science, grade assessed. Students reaching this 71 percent of fourth graders, 68 percent of level have demonstrated competency eighth graders and 81 percent of twelfth over challenging subject matter, graders scored ‘basic’ or ‘below basic.’ (See including subject-matter knowledge, Figures 3 and 4.) Such levels of understand- application of such knowledge to real- world situations, and analytical skills ing, as defined in Table 1, will certainly not appropriate to the subject matter. support success for these students in their next higher math or science course, or for Basic: Partial mastery of prerequisite knowl- edge and skills that are fundamental using math and science skills in their future for proficient work at each grade. work lives. Equally disappointing, the science assess- SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, The NAEP ment in 2000 showed that substantial gaps Mathematics Achievement Levels, (August 2002), available at
Figure 3 NAEP Mathematics Achievement Levels by Grade – 2000
Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
Grade 12 35% 48% 14% 2%
Grade 8 34% 38% 22% 5%
Grade 4 31% 43% 23% 3%
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2000, NCES 2001-517 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, August 2001), Figure 2.2. Numbers do not sum to 100 due to rounding.
12 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education
Figure 4 NAEP Science Achievement Levels by Grade – 2000
Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
Grade 12 47% 34% 16% 2%
Grade 8 39% 29% 28% 4%
Grade 4 34% 37% 26% 4%
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Science Highlights 2000, NCES 2002-452 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 2002), p. 2. Numbers do not sum to 100 due to rounding. dents demonstrated consistent progress in Since education remains the responsibility math through the decade whereas twelfth of the state, results on state-administered grade students improved between 1990 and assessments are illuminating. Indeed, in our 1996, but lost ground between 1996 and 2000 report, Measuring What Matters, CED 2000. Science results are less promising, argued for a system of assessment and although between 1996 and 2000, the per- accountability as part of a larger program for centage of eighth graders performing at the improving education in America.8 Relevant ‘basic’ level decreased with a corresponding results from California, Massachusetts, and increase in the percentage performing at Virginia are briefly described below. proficient or advanced. • The Class of 2004 must pass the California High School Exit Exam to receive K-12 STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN diplomas. After taking the test in their MATH AND SCIENCE: A STATE sophomore year, 52 percent passed the 9 PERSPECTIVE mathematics portion. (Students have six additional opportunities to pass the For states that choose to participate, repre- assessment.) Analyzing the data for sentative samples of students take the main racial/ethnic groups show that “black and NAEP test, so that an analysis is available on a Hispanic students had the highest rate of state-by-state basis. In the two tables of math failure this year [for math, reading, and results that follow, the proficiency levels of writing], with only 28 percent of black stu- students in fourth and eighth grade are pre- dents and 30 percent of Hispanic students sented in bands for each state and compared passing. On the other hand, 70 percent of to national scores. Put together in this man- Asian students and 65 percent of white ner, one can clearly see the uneven perfor- students passed the test.”10 mance across states. (See Figures 5 and 6.)
13 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
Figure 5 Mathematics Achievement Level Results by State at Grade 4 Public Schools: 2000
Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced HIGHER THAN NATION Connecticut 23 45 29 3 Connecticut Indiana† 22 48 28 3 Indiana† Massachusetts 21 45 30 3 Massachusetts Minnesota† 22 44 31 3 Minnesota†
NOT DIFFERENT FROM NATION Idaho† 29 49 20 1 Idaho† Illinois† 34 44 20 2 Illinois† Iowa† 22 50 26 2 Iowa† † † Kansas 25 46 27 3 Kansas † † Maine 26 50 22 2 Maine Maryland 39 39 20 2 Maryland Michigan† 28 43 26 3 Michigan† Missouri 28 49 22 2 Missouri Montana† 27 48 23 2 Montana† NATION 33 42 22 2 NATION Nebraska 33 43 22 2 Nebraska † † New York 33 45 20 2 New York North Carolina 24 48 25 3 North Carolina North Dakota 25 50 23 2 North Dakota † † Ohio 27 48 24 2 Ohio † † Oregon 33 44 21 3 Oregon Rhode Island 33 44 21 2 Rhode Island Texas 23 50 25 2 Texas Utah 30 46 22 2 Utah † † Ver mont 27 44 24 4 Ver mont Virginia 27 47 23 2 Virginia Wyoming 27 48 23 2 Wyoming
LOWER THAN NATION Alabama 43 43 13 1 Alabama Arizona 42 42 15 2 Arizona Arkansas 44 43 13 1 Arkansas † † California 48 38 14 1 California District of Columbia 76 19 5 1 District of Columbia Georgia 42 40 17 1 Georgia Hawaii 45 41 13 1 Hawaii Kentucky 40 43 16 1 Kentucky Louisiana 43 43 13 1 Louisiana Mississippi 55 36 9 ▲ Mississippi Nevada 39 44 15 1 Nevada New Mexico 40 39 11 1 New Mexico Oklahoma 31 53 16 1 Oklahoma South Carolina 40 42 16 2 South Carolina Tennessee 40 42 17 1 Tennessee West Virginia 32 49 17 1 West Virginia
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 Percent Basic and below Basic Percent Proficient and Advanced
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2000, NCES 2001-517 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, August 2001), Figure 2.10. † Indicates that the jurisdiction did not meet one or more of the guidelines for school participation. ▲ Percentage is between 0.0 and 0.5. NOTE: Numbers may not add to 100 due to rounding.
14 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education
Figure 6 Mathematics Achievement Level Results by State at Grade 8 Public Schools: 2000
Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
HIGHER THAN NATION Connecticut 28 38 28 6 Connecticut Indiana† 24 45 26 5 Indiana† Kansas† 23 43 30 4 Kansas† Maine† 24 44 26 6 Maine† Massachusetts 24 43 27 5 Massachusetts Minnesota† 20 40 33 7 Minnesota† Montana† 20 43 32 6 Montana† Nebraska 26 43 26 5 Nebraska North Carolina 30 40 24 6 North Carolina North Dakota 23 46 27 4 North Dakota Ohio 25 45 26 5 Ohio Oregon † 29 40 26 6 Oregon † Ver mont† 25 43 26 6 Ver mont†
NOT DIFFERENT FROM NATION Idaho† 29 44 24 3 Idaho† Illinois† 32 41 23 4 Illinois† Maryland 35 36 22 6 Maryland Michigan† 30 41 24 5 Michigan† NATION 35 38 21 5 NATION New York† 32 42 22 4 New York† Rhode Island 35 41 20 4 Rhode Island Texas 32 44 22 3 Texas Utah 32 42 23 3 Utah Virginia 33 42 21 5 Virginia Wyoming 30 45 21 4 Wyoming
LOWER THAN NATION Alabama 48 36 14 2 Alabama Arizona† 38 41 16 3 Arizona† Arkansas 48 33 13 1 Arkansas California† 48 34 15 3 California† District of Columbia 77 17 5 1 District of Columbia Georgia 45 37 16 3 Georgia Hawaii 48 36 14 2 Hawaii Kentucky 37 42 18 3 Kentucky Louisiana 52 36 11 1 Louisiana Mississippi 59 33 7 1 Mississippi Nevada 33 45 19 2 Nevada Missouri 42 39 17 2 Missouri New Mexico 50 36 12 1 New Mexico Oklahoma 36 46 17 2 Oklahoma South Carolina 45 37 15 2 South Carolina Tennessee 47 36 15 2 Tennessee West Virginia 38 44 16 2 West Virginia
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 Percent Basic and below Basic Percent Proficient and Advanced
SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2000, NCES 2001-517 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, August 2001), Figure 2.11. † Indicates that the jurisdiction did not meet one or more of the guidelines for school participation. NOTE: Numbers may not add to 100 due to rounding.
15 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
• Public school students in grades 3, 4, percent in biology, 73 percent in earth 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 took the Massachusetts science, and 74 percent in chemistry.12 Comprehensive Assessment System The data presented for California, (MCAS) in the spring of 2002. MCAS Massachusetts and Virginia demonstrate the results have risen steadily over the five success of a focused response to the problem years that the system has been in place. of poor student achievement and can provide This year, in grade 10, the percentage of a model for other states. It is critical, however, students reaching the ‘proficient’ and that state assessments are of high quality, ‘advanced’ level in mathematics (as especially with the requirements of No Child defined by the state) increased 20 points, Left Behind. In fact, Massachusetts is one of a while 25 percent ‘failed’ the test. Students handful of states to improve student perfor- in grades 4 and 6 improved slightly, but mance on their own assessments, while eighth graders worsened a bit over previ- simultaneously improving on NAEP. ous administrations of the assessment. Racial/ethnic analysis of 2002 mathemat- ics results, when compared to 2001 results, K-12 STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT yielded improved performance for IN MATH AND SCIENCE: AN “[black] students in grades 6 and 8, Asian INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE students in grades 4, 6, and 10, Hispanic students in grade 6, Native American stu- International comparisons of student dents in grade 4, and for white students in success in math and science are intended to grades 4 and 6.”11 reflect how successfully a nation educates its youth. But they also reveal the prospects for • Before graduation, Virginia requires the skilled labor force 20 or 30 years hence. students to pass a series of assessments, called the Standards of Learning (SOL). Limits of International Comparisons In the 2002 administration of end-of- Although international comparisons help course assessments: shed light on the relative strengths of educa- tion systems worldwide, their results must be – The percentage of students passing the interpreted in light of their inevitable short- Algebra I test rose to 78 percent, com- comings. These studies have made great pared with pass rates of 74 percent in strides over the years to standardize the tests 2001 and 40 percent in 1998. and procedures across all nations, but perfect – Achievement on the Algebra II test also standardization is impossible. There may be increased in 2002. Seventy-seven per- problems with the cohort selected, especially cent of the students who took the among older students. While a significant Algebra II test passed, compared with majority of U.S. students attend school 74 percent in 2001 and 31 percent in through twelfth grade, in a number of other 1998. countries, students have chosen a path to – The percentage of students passing the technical schools or apprenticeships by that geometry test rose to 76 percent in age and therefore, are not included in the 2002, compared with pass rates of 73 pool of students being assessed. percent in 2001 and 52 percent in 1998. Nonetheless, the results of these compar- – Students achieved pass rates of 83 per- isons are valuable. A better understanding of cent on the biology test, 70 percent in the characteristics of the educational systems earth science, and 78 percent in chem- in those nations that consistently score well istry in contrast to 2001 pass rates of 81 can and should inform U.S. policy.
16 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education
TIMSS depth, and continuity; they cover too many 13 The first comparative study of student topics in a superficial way.” U.S. researchers achievement in math worldwide — known as involved in the TIMSS study assessed our the First International Math Study (FIMS) — math curriculum, in comparison to other occurred in the 1960s; the second occurred countries, as “a mile wide and an inch deep.” in the 1980s (SIMS). The most comprehen- The rigor and pace of U.S. courses is similarly sive study of international student perfor- suspect. And, “topics on the general knowl- mance in math and science — the Third edge (TIMSS) twelfth grade mathematics International Mathematics and Science Study assessment were covered by the ninth grade — was administered in 1995 (TIMSS) and in the U.S., but by seventh grade in most 1999 (TIMSS-Repeat). U.S. students have con- other countries. In the general (TIMSS) sistently performed disappointingly, scoring science assessment, topics in the U.S. were only at the average level or less in these inter- covered by the eleventh grade, but by ninth 14 national comparisons. Certainly, the U.S. has grade in other countries.” led and helped usher in a global revolution in TIMSS-R scientific learning and discovery. Thus, our Thirty-eight nations participated in education system has produced sufficient TIMSS-R in 1999, which focused only on mathematical and scientific talent to fuel this eighth grade math and science.† The study revolution. But, other nations, recognizing contains a significant amount of data, only math and science education as the key to eco- some of which has been made public to date. nomic health and improvement in the way of Among its findings were: life, have been putting more emphasis on math and science education than the U.S. • U.S. eighth graders exceeded the interna- TIMSS assessed students essentially at tional average in math and science, three grade levels — fourth, eighth and echoing the earlier TIMSS results at this twelfth — and involved 41 countries. (Not all grade level. countries participated at all three levels.) U.S. •Eighth grade performance in 1995 and fourth graders scored only slightly above the 1999 showed no change. This was true in international average in math and near the nearly all of the 23 nations that participat- top in science. Eighth graders were only ed in both studies. slightly above the international average in • The performance of U.S. eighth graders in science and below the average in math. But 1999 was lower relative to other nations American twelfth graders scored at the very than the performance had been of the bottom of the international ratings. More trou- same cohort of students four years earlier bling, the twelfth grade sample did not in TIMSS. That is, students in other include the nations of southeast Asia, which nations learned more mathematics and are often pointed to as countries that have science in the intervening years between made great strides in increasing the scientific 1995 and 1999 than did U.S. students. literacy of their populations and the capabili- •U.S. students were less likely than their ties of their labor forces. international peers to be taught by a In other words, the longer American stu- teacher who had earned a bachelor’s or dents stayed in school and studied these disci- plines, the less favorably they compared with † There were important differences between the students in other countries. From TIMSS, we TIMSS and TIMSS-R participants. Several European also learned that “…mathematics and science countries did not join TIMSS-R, while many develop- curricula in U.S. high schools lack coherence, ing countries did. The highest scoring TIMSS nations did, however, participate in TIMSS-R.
17 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
master’s degree in math. But U.S. students were as likely as their international peers WHAT MIGHT ACCOUNT FOR to be taught by a teacher with a major in UNEVEN PERFORMANCE IN K-12 biology, chemistry, or science education. MATH AND SCIENCE? • There was no gender difference in the math achievement scores of U.S. male and In a nation that produced a Barbie doll female students, whereas eighth grade who complained about the difficulty of learn- males outperformed eighth grade girls in ing mathematics and ridicules math and sci- science.15 ence in the comic pages, it is small wonder that there is a culture of acceptance and even • Preliminary analysis of videotapes of expectation about low performance in these eighth grade math classrooms in seven fields. There are many possible explanations countries, including the U.S., shows for this perspective. important differences in the way that lessons were structured and how content Disinterested Students was presented to and worked on by Students who are not interested in a topic students. The other six nations surveyed outperformed the U.S. on TIMSS.16 will not seek to excel in it. According to a student survey accompanying the main NAEP Another portion of TIMSS-R, known as the assessment, 70 percent of fourth graders benchmarking study, had 27 states, districts responded positively to the statement “I like and consortia of districts in the U.S. voluntari- math,” but only 47 percent of twelfth graders ly participate in the TIMSS-R assessment. replied in the affirmative. Students who enjoy Once again, greater detail yielded important math performed better on the assessment, at results. Some localities, such as Naperville all levels.19 School District #203 and the First in the There has also been a decrease in interest World Consortium, both in Illinois, kept pace over time among twelfth graders, or those with the top-performing nations, despite the who will most immediately choose to pursue lackluster national performance. And other science or engineering degrees in college. U.S. districts, recognizing the high probability In 1990, a majority of twelfth graders had a of poor results, still chose to participate so favorable opinion of math. This number that they would be armed with data to guide 17 declined in each of the next three assess- their improvement efforts. ments, with the fall between 1996 and 2000 PISA coming at a statistically significant level. Similarly unsettling is the trend in student Another study, the Program for Inter- attitudes with regards to the usefulness of national Student Assessment (PISA), orga- mathematics. Only 61 percent of twelfth nized by the Organization for Economic graders in 2000 agreed with the statement Cooperation and Development (OECD) and that “math is useful for solving problems,” conducted in 2000, examines the test results 20 of 15-year-olds (approximately 10th grade) in down from 73 percent in 1990. The ramifi- OECD countries. This survey found that U.S. cations of this change are not entirely clear, students perform at a level equivalent to the but greater numbers of students may be less international mean in math and science inclined to consider science or engineering literacy. The study, which included reading degrees in college as a result. proficiency, also found that more nations Media perceptions of scientists and engi- outpace U.S. students in math and science neers may be partly to blame. A report pub- proficiency than do so in reading.18 lished by the Congressional Commission on
18 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education the Advancement of Women and Minorities Low Expectations in Science, Engineering, and Technological A national sample of fourth and eighth Development argued that media images grade teachers was recently polled about of scientists, even in the context of the the mathematics and science topics their technology boom, played a significant nega- students were expected to master, among tive role in forming children’s attitudes other things.25 The results suggest that expec- towards math and science.21 tations are low. Fourth grade teachers, for The disinterest of American students con- example, expect their students to master trasts sharply with that of their peers world- basic operations with two- and three-digit wide. The Brown Center on Education Policy numbers. But a third of these teachers expect surveyed American high school students that less than half of their students would be studying abroad and their international coun- able to compare fractions with like and unlike terparts studying in America, to identify any denominators. This attitude is mirrored attitudinal differences towards math. Survey among eighth grade math teachers. High results from both groups showed students percentages of teachers expect students to abroad value math more than American master the “basics of middle school,” such as students. While 37 percent of American stu- solutions of one-step linear equations or cal- dents studying abroad responded that stu- culation of means and medians, but the per- dents in their host country valued math more centages fall significantly with more complex (against 25 percent saying that it was valued middle school content such as converting more in America), 45 percent of international from one unit of measure to another. Science students agreed with the proposition that fared no better. Among the eighth grade sci- math was valued more in their home country. ence teachers queried, for example, one in Only 14 percent of international students five thought that none of their students would studying in the U.S. felt that math was valued know the general form, function, and loca- more by American students.22 tion of the major organ systems of humans. The cultural context of this data is also a Differential expectations take many forms. consideration. In an international survey of Research has shown that teachers pose more students in 37 countries, Japanese students routine math questions to their female stu- 26 ranked 36th in regard to “students’ interest dents than their male students. Similarly, in and enjoyment of math,” a trend demon- teachers give less time for low achievers to strated by other high achieving countries as respond to questions than to high achievers. They criticize low achievers more often for well.23 But even though they do not “enjoy” failure and dole out praise for success with math, Japanese students still rank at the top less frequency. in international assessments. A possible A corollary to low expectations is the belief explanation is that Japanese students have that some classes are only for a talented few. been imbued with a sense of the importance The Council of Great City Schools,† in collab- of mathematics to their daily lives, as suggest- ed by the Brown Center study mentioned above. Current reform efforts in Japan are attempting to increase the lackluster student † The Council of Great City Schools is comprised of one hundred urban districts, of more than 16,800 districts interest in math and science by making the nationwide, serves 23 percent of the nation’s students, curriculum more interactive, in a manner including 40 percent of American minority students similar to that prescribed for American and 30 percent of those who are disadvantaged eco- nomically. schools in this report.24
19 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE oration with the Manpower Demonstration math are taught by teachers who neither Research Center, recently released case stud- majored in math in college nor are certified ies of three urban districts. Faculty in these to teach math at that level.33 About 60 percent districts acknowledged a tendency to reduce of middle school students enrolled in biology their achievement expectations of minority or life sciences find themselves taught by and low-income students in the lower grades. teachers who are similarly ‘out-of-field.’ The At the high school level, these same students same report noted that 93 percent of middle were underrepresented in college preparatory school students enrolled in physical science and/or Advanced Placement (AP) courses. are taught by ‘out-of-field’ teachers. Indeed, schools with very high minority The situation in high school is only a little enrollment offered such courses better. At least 60 percent of high school stu- infrequently.27 This lack of availability presents dents enrolled in physical science — includ- a significant obstacle for continued advance- ing chemistry, geology/earth/space science, ment in math and science courses.28 and physics — have teachers without a major or certification in the subject taught. Forty- Teaching Knowledge and Methods five percent of high school students enrolled There is a growing body of research sup- in biology or life science and about 30 per- porting the relationship between teaching cent of those enrolled in math have ‘out-of- quality and higher student achievement.29 field’ teachers.34 Not surprisingly, students of highly qualified This problem is even worse for predomi- teachers have significant learning advantages. nantly minority and poor schools: more than In this case, ‘highly qualified’ is defined as 70 percent of middle-grade math classes are teachers having an undergraduate major or taught by teachers who lack even a college minor in the field in which they are assigned minor in the field.35 In fact, a 2000 survey to teach. reported that more than 90 percent of 40 A study by the Center for the Study of large urban schools that responded to the Teaching found that two factors were most survey had an immediate need for a certified consistently and powerfully linked with stu- math or science teacher.36 dent success — teaching certification and a Elementary school teachers are drawn to college major in the field being taught.30 teaching careers for many reasons, but an Main NAEP, administered in 2000 in mathe- affinity for math and science is not often one matics, found that a teacher with an under- of them. Despite good intentions, the quality graduate degree in mathematics education of instruction in these two disciplines is often led to an increase of 6 points for both fourth lacking. Many middle school teachers have and eighth graders.31 Results for the 2000 K-8 certification; that is, they earned only main NAEP in science were similar; there is three or six undergraduate credits in math a statistically significant difference in the and/or science, which is an inadequate science achievement of eighth graders knowledge base for the content slated for between those taught by instructors with middle school math and science courses. undergraduate degrees in science and those who were not.32 Problems with the Curriculum These differences are of greater concern Three recent reports have acknowledged when considered in the light of a recent study the poor quality of curricular materials as — Qualifications of the Public School Teacher one of the problems confronting math and Workforce: Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching in science education. Project 2061, organized 1987-88 to 1999-2000 — that reports that 69 by the American Association for the percent of middle school students enrolled in Advancement of Science, reviewed middle
20 Challenges in K-12 Math and Science Education grade math and science textbooks against retirement. Recent estimates suggest that their own benchmarks for quality textbooks. two-thirds of the K-12 teaching force will The results were dismal: only a few math text- retire or otherwise leave the profession in the books scored at an acceptable level, while no next ten years.40 Yet, 53 million young people science textbooks gained Project 2061’s impri- are enrolled in elementary and secondary matur.37 schools in this country, the most ever. This The National Research Council’s report population growth trend will not abate soon. on math education, Adding It Up: Helping Experts predict that by 2020, there will be 55 Children Learn Mathematics, (a companion million young people (aged 5-17) in America, report on science is forthcoming) points with the growth rate continuing throughout to the need for an interactive curriculum, this century.41 instead of the current “shallow” curriculum Among math and science teachers, the that emphasizes “the execution of pencil- number of those nationwide over the age of and-paper skills…through demonstrations… 50 continued to rise through the 1990s. (See followed by repeated practice.” 38 Figure 7.) Connecticut had the largest per- Research conducted by William Schmidt, centage, with 44 percent of math and science the U.S. National Coordinator for TIMSS, teachers over age 50 in 2000. Only New demonstrated that the top achieving countries Jersey, among the 27 states reporting data, have coherent, focused and demanding cur- showed a decrease in this measure.42 Hence, ricula, whereas the U.S. curriculum is disorga- even as more teachers will be needed to nized and focused too long on basic skills.39 match the population growth, more teachers will be eligible for retirement. The challenge Aging of the Teaching Force has greater impact than ‘just a shortage,’ Like many sectors of the labor force, since fewer experienced teachers will be avail- significant numbers of teachers are nearing able to mentor newcomers to the profession.
Figure 7 Percentage of Math and Science Teachers over the Age of 50, 1990-2000
35% ■ Math ■ Biology ■ Chemistry ■ Physics
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0% 1990 1994 1998 2000
SOURCE: Council of Chief State School Officers, State Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education: 2001 (Washington, D.C.: Council of Chief State School Officers, 2001), p. 83.
21 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
Figure 7 Retention of Qualified Teachers Figure 8 At the same time, 18 of the 27 states Cumulative Attrition for reported an increase in the percentage of Beginning Teachers teachers under the age of 30. While young people entering the teaching profession is After heartening, other data demonstrates that 1 yr. 14% their professional tenure may be limited. By the time new math and science teach- ers have been in the profession for three 24% years, a third of them have left the field. Two years later, another 13 percent of the initial After group has left the profession.43 (See Figure 8.) 3 yrs. 33% Although this revolving door may slow some- what with the current downturn in the econo- my, there is no reason to believe that the 40% change will be permanent. Thus, the annual influx of new teachers replaces those retiring, After 46% but makes little impact on the shortage of 5 yrs. qualified teachers. Much of the teaching bur- den is then left to inexperienced teachers. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Moreover, such turnover is expensive. SOURCE: Richard M. Ingersoll, “The Teacher Shortage: A Estimates for the losses absorbed by Texas Case of Wrong Diagnosis and Wrong Prescription,” NASSP due to teacher turnover (where the 15.5 per- Bulletin, vol. 86, no. 631 (2002), pp. 16-31. cent rate of annual turnover is slightly higher than the national average) are conservatively tion; other factors included a lack of adminis- estimated at $329 million annually for teach- trative support, student discipline problems ers in all fields. More complex models that and a lack of student motivation. For math include factors such as the additional training and science teachers, salary and student and learning curve setback yield losses as high motivation are the key factors in dissatisfac- as $2.1 billion a year.44 tion, with twice as many citing student motiva- The challenge of retention is not limited tion as a problem, as compared to the general to new and nearly retired teachers, however. population of teachers.45 Research suggests that the turnover rate New levels of student interest cannot be among teachers is higher than among many mandated, nor an end to the flow of teachers other professions. Teachers cite “job dissatis- from the classroom decreed. We believe, how- faction” in significant numbers as a main rea- ever, that a well-conceived and implemented son for leaving the field. Two-thirds identify plan of action, taking into account these data, low salaries as the source of the dissatisfac- has great potential for positive impact.
22 Chapter 3
UNDERGRADUATE AND LABOR MARKET ISSUES
The important role of K-12 education in here together to demonstrate our belief creating a scientifically literate society cannot these areas are interrelated and that signals be overstated. Equally important in maintain- in one market can have an important impact ing the pipeline for scientists and engineers on the other. is education at the undergraduate level. The economy’s continued expansion requires an infusion of science and engineering talent, REDUCTIONS IN THE NUMBER including that of trained scientists and engi- OF UNDERGRADUATES IN neers as well as the improvement of technical SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING skills throughout the workforce, and that After the launch of Sputnik and within the infusion will have to come from America’s context of the Cold War, the federal govern- colleges and universities. ment instituted an array of programs to While the total number of bachelor’s increase the number of graduates with degrees conferred in the United States degrees in science and engineering fields. increased over the past 20 years, most areas This influx of talent helped fuel the econom- of science and engineering saw a decline. ic growth that the United States experienced The proportional decline in the United during the latter half of the 20th century. States far outpaced that of our international However, that cohort of scientists and engi- competitors, who continue to emphasize neers will be retiring soon. Our colleges and math and science skills as an integral part of universities are not producing enough scien- education. tists and engineers to meet the additional Currently, American firms are scrambling labor needs of an increasingly technological abroad to find talent, and will soon be faced society. with a new wave of retirements as the baby During the period 1985-2000, the number boomers, educated during the post-Sputnik of bachelor’s degrees conferred in most sci- rise in interest in science and engineering, ence and engineering fields stagnated or fell, exit the labor force. The most desirable tech- despite the general growth in the number of nical jobs that are being created are good bachelor’s degrees awarded annually. The jobs, with relatively high salaries. Without the lone exception has been strong increases in proper science and engineering training, a the biological sciences, particularly in bio- large percentage of young people, especially medical fields. Yet despite the dramatic women and underrepresented minorities, growth in biology degrees over the past fif- will miss out on a major component of the teen years, it still comprises a smaller share of opportunity America offers. Though under- all degrees granted than it did in 1975 (7.1 graduate and labor market issues could easily percent).46 Otherwise, all other fields of sci- fill chapters of their own, we address them ence and engineering have failed to keep up
23 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
Table 2 Earned Bachelor’s Degrees by Field, 1985-2000 % of all Degrees 1985 2000 % Change 1985 2000 All Bachelor’s Degrees, All Fields 990,877 1,253,121 26% 100% 100% Total Science & Engineering* 207,240 210,434 2% 20.9% 16.8% Natural Sciences 75,158 101,775 35% 7.6% 8.1% Biological and Agricultural 51,312 83,148 62% 5.2% 6.6% Earth/atmospheric/ocean Sciences 7,576 4,047 -47% 0.8% 0.3% Physical Sciences 16,270 14,580 -10% 1.6% 1.2% Chemistry 10,701 10,390 -3% 1.1% 0.8% Physics 4,111 3,362 -18% 0.4% 0.3% Mathematics and Computer Sciences 54,510 49,123 -10% 5.5% 3.9% Mathematics 15,389 11,735 -24% 1.6% 0.9% Computer Science 39,121 37,388 -4% 3.9% 3.0% Engineering, All 77,572 59,536 -23% 7.8% 4.8% Chemical 8,941 6,219 -30% 0.9% 0.5% Civil 9,730 9,596 -1% 1.0% 0.8% Electrical 23,668 17,672 -25% 2.4% 1.4% Industrial 4,009 3,937 -2% 0.4% 0.3% Mechanical 17,200 13,109 -24% 1.7% 1.0% Engineering Technologies 20,476 14,825** -28% 2.1% 1.2%
* = Does not include social and behavioral sciences. **=1998 SOURCE: National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Degrees: 1966-2000 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2002); data for “Engineering technologies” from National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators: 2002, NSB 02-01 (Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation, 2002), Appendix Table 2-16. with the general growth in the number of ing between the labor market and undergrad- bachelor’s degrees awarded each year. For the uate students who are choosing a field of fields of engineering and mathematics, these study, as well as the costly lag that accompa- losses are significant. (See Table 2.) nies such a reaction to employment trends. Newly released data show that the field of Providing students with a better sense of computer science, however, may be making a future trends, such as those discussed below, comeback. After peaking with over 42,000 would allow for improved synchronization bachelor’s degrees conferred in 1986, com- between the two markets. It should also be puter science suffered a steady decline. By noted that men outnumbered women in the 1992, that number fell to 24,958, a range it 2000 undergraduate cohort by more than maintained until the late 1990s; then, after two-to-one, a ratio that has increased since smaller increases in 1997 and 1998, the num- 1986. ber of bachelor’s degrees conferred in com- puter science increased almost 35 percent Minorities and Women in Science between 1998 and 2000. It is too early to call and Engineering this increase a “trend,” nor is similar growth The total number of bachelor’s degrees reflected in any of the other sciences. granted to minority students has been However, this could be an example of signal- increasing throughout the past 25 years.47
24 Undergraduate and Labor Market Issues
Many of these students are the first in their three decades, the proportion of incoming family to attend college. This matriculation is first year Hispanic students intending to a success that should be built upon with major in science and engineering fields encouragement to pursue careers in science increased fourteen-fold. Yet, Hispanic stu- and engineering. dents represent only 7.1 percent of the Currently, high achieving minority and incoming class in 2000, compared to the female students tend to move away from 17.4 percent of the total population of 18- to opportunities in science and engineering. 24-year-olds that is of Hispanic origin.52 Citing poor teaching in previous math and The number of women selecting majors science courses, a lack of support and a lack in science and engineering (including behav- of confidence in their ability to succeed in sci- ioral sciences) has increased over time, ence and engineering, black and Hispanic although the rate of growth also slowed in students with high grade point averages and the 1990s.53 SAT scores typically do not pursue degrees in While improving enrollment data is a science and engineering.48 Women, while necessary first step, success depends on an reaching similar levels of achievement in increase in the number of degrees actually secondary school as men, also shy away from conferred. Overall, less than 40 percent of science and engineering fields in their under- students who enter college planning to major graduate work. in science or engineering graduates with a Some progress, albeit uneven, is being degree in that field within six years. For made. According to the National Action underrepresented minorities, less than one- Council for Minorities in Engineering quarter of entering science and engineering (NACME), the enrollment of minorities into students do so.54 Women also move out of engineering was at its highest level ever in science and engineering fields at an above 2001; more than 15,000 minority first-year stu- average level. dents enrolled as engineering majors, eclips- ing the previous standard set in 1992.49 Possible Explanations for the Decline in However, the NACME report also noted that, Total Science and Engineering Degrees as a portion of the total freshman class Many of the reasons for this decline were enrolling in engineering majors, the explored in Chapter 2. It is no surprise that proportion of minorities fell from its 2000 students, with only a mediocre mastery of levels.50 math and science in middle and high school, The long-term trend (starting from 1971) shy away from math- and science-dependent shows an increased participation of blacks in majors in college. They are not drawn to science and engineering, though it has slowed these majors and do not think of themselves over the past decade. The percentage of first- as adept in the necessary knowledge and year black students intending to major in sci- skills to succeed. Among those who do go ence and engineering fields, as a proportion forward, there is a new set of obstacles. The of all first year students intending to major in obstacles can be formidable since, by their science and engineering, increased from sophomore year, a third of students intent on roughly 6 percent in 1971 to 11.7 percent in majoring in science and engineering have 1988.51 The proportion has remained slightly dropped out of those fields.55 below that figure since then, coming in at One problem may arise from the grading 11.5 percent in 2000. policies of science and engineering depart- Hispanic students, meanwhile, have made ments. It is well documented that science and significant gains in this area. During the last engineering faculty members grade their
25 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE students more critically than their colleagues first classes as reasons for leaving.59 A recent in the humanities. In part this reflects poor study by the National Research Council preparation: students receive low scores in found that most faculty members who teach college because they do not have the tools undergraduate courses have received little and knowledge to succeed in undergraduate training in classroom instruction or grad- courses. Faculty should not inflate grades to ing.60 make students feel better; they do have an The vertical structure of the science and obligation, however, to encourage and help engineering curriculum also creates draw- students seek remediation. Large numbers of backs for those who are undecided as to a failing students should not be viewed as an major. Since many departments view these acceptable outcome. courses simply as content-heavy prerequisites Comparing grades in different depart- for advanced classes, they often turn into “lita- ments at seven colleges, researchers Richard nies of facts,” with little connection to the Sabot and John Wakemann-Linn found “low broader scientific context or other fields of scoring” departments award a third fewer “A”s study.61 Instead of acting as a “pull” into sci- than “high scoring” departments, and “low ence and engineering departments, these scoring” departments are twice as likely to classes then become a filter, with faculty focus- give grades below a “B-,” with some 40 per- ing on those who show obvious potential and cent of grades falling in that second catego- interest in science and engineering, instead ry.56 Chemistry and math are among the “low of attempting to increase student interest scoring” departments, while no science or across the board. engineering departments appear on the “high scoring” list. International Comparisons Researchers at Duke University performed Many nations currently produce a higher a similar study during the 1998-1999 school proportion of science and engineering year. This study found that the difference in undergraduates than the United States. And the mean grade given by Duke faculty was while these nations increase the number of almost a half a letter grade, from an average their scientists and engineers, the number in of 3.54 in humanities to 3.05 in the natural the United States continues to decline. (See sciences and math.57 Figures 9 and 10.) Students’ low grades in science and engi- Putting the data presented in these two neering courses can have an impact on their figures in context demonstrates the dramatic future course choice. The Duke University decline the United States has seen in its cre- study found that these grade differentials ation of science and engineering majors. could lead to as much as a 50 percent reduc- While the United States still has one of the tion in the number of elective courses stu- highest rates of total first university degrees dents take in the natural sciences or math.58 among its 24-year-old population (currently Thus, students who may have the potential to over 35 percent), that is no longer a unique become successful scientists and engineers advantage, in which increased numbers of are being driven away prematurely. students pursuing degrees would allow Equally problematic is the quality of the spillover into science and engineering. In instruction and nature of the curriculum in Figure 9, the U.S. is fourteenth in the share introductory courses. Students who intended of the population receiving science and engi- to major in science and engineering often neering degrees; in 1975, it was third. Figure point to the quality of instruction in their 10 illustrates the rapidity of this decline.
26 Undergraduate and Labor Market Issues
Figure 9 Figure 10 First University Degrees in Natural Percentage Change in First University Sciences and Engineering as Percentage Degrees in Science and Engineering of 24-year-old Population, 1999* Degrees Awarded in Selected Countries, 1985-1995 United Kingdom ■ Science Degrees ■ Engineering Degrees Finland South Korea 12 France 10 Taiwan 8 Japan Norway 6
Sweden 4 Canada Netherlands 2 Germany 0 Ireland Spain -2 United States -4 Switzerland -6 Italy Belgium -8 Sweden Germany Italy Australia* Japan Canada United Mexico States
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, International Education Indicators: A Time Series Perspective, 1985- *In some cases, 1998 1995, NCES 2000-021 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of SOURCE: National Science Board, Science and Engineering Education, 2000), Tables 15.1 and 15.4. Indicators: 2002, NSB 02-01 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. *Australia, science-change from 1993 to 1995; Australia, Government Printing Office, 2002), Appendix Table 2-18. engineering-change from 1987-1995.
As a strong U.S. economy reemerges, IMPLICATIONS FOR THE strong job growth in science and engineering PROFESSIONAL TECHNICAL fields is expected to occur. In general, job LABOR MARKET growth is expected to be around 15 percent, whereas the expected growth for scientists Currently, our colleges and universities are and engineers is about 47 percent, or the struggling to meet the needs of the domestic 63 economy for technically skilled workers. creation of 2.1 million new jobs. By way of comparison, in 1999 the private sector Expanding the Labor Force to Meet the employed over 1.5 million scientists and engi- Needs of a Dynamic Economy neers who held bachelor’s degrees.64 Thus, During the expansions of the 1980s and the need for an additional 2 million scientists 1990s, the number of science and engineer- and engineers is significant. Although a large ing jobs increased 159 percent.62 That growth percentage of these new jobs will be in the led employers to scramble to hire science and computer sciences, other sectors will experi- engineering talent. ence job growth, as well as confronting the
27 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
Table 3 Total Science and Engineering Jobs, 2000 and 2010 (projected) Total 2000 2010 New Openings All Science and Engineering 4,296 6,412 2,116 2,717 Scientists 2,831 4,809 1,978 2,285 Life Scientists 184 218 34 93 Computer and Mathemetics 2,408 4,308 1,900 2,068 Computer Science 2,318 4,213 1,895 2,032 Mathematics 89 95 5 26 Physical Scientists 239 283 44 124 Engineers 1,465 1,603 138 432
NOTE: Totals do not include Social Sciences. In Thousands of Jobs. Numbers do not sum due to rounding. SOURCE: Daniel E. Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to 2010,” Monthly Labor Review, vol. 124, no.11, November 2001, pp. 57-84. retirements of those who went into science The so-called PhD “glut” might lead some and engineering in the Sputnik era. Over the to question these projections. Indeed, the next 10 years, the percentage of scientists number of PhDs in some fields seeking and engineers that have reached retirement academic positions now outnumbers the avail- age will triple.65 The pressing need to able tenure-track positions, forcing individu- increase the pipeline of scientists and engi- als to spend years in post-doctorate positions neers is clear. (See Table 3.) that do little to further their career.67 One A sizable number of jobs for scientists and contributing factor could be a lack of infor- engineers are in the public sector. It is mation about the technical labor market. A increasingly difficult, however, for the public survey of PhD candidates found that “univer- sector to compete with the private section in sity faculty do not promote non-academic 68 attracting the best talent. A further complica- careers for PhDs.” If provided better infor- tion is that a significant portion of these posi- mation regarding the career possibilities in tions must be filled by native-born employ- science and engineering fields in the public ees, for reasons of security. or private sectors, many of these PhD candi- Finally, the shortage of qualified elemen- dates could explore careers outside of acade- mia. In fact, better information about the tary and secondary math and science teachers technical labor market should be available to is already in a crisis stage. Over the next bachelor’s and master’s candidates as well. decade, though, there will be some 200,000 Aside from the jobs specifically meant for job openings for secondary science and math- science and engineering majors, “knowledge ematics teachers. (This includes both retire- jobs” that require some math and science ments and new positions.)66 skills will also increase faster than the average. The importance of trained scientists and According to recent estimates from the engineers across these varied sectors shows Bureau of Labor Statistics, all seven categories the reliance that our economy has on these of jobs that require a postsecondary degree fields for growth, and the necessity of ensur- will expand at above-average rates over the ing an adequate supply of them. next 10 years.69
28 Undergraduate and Labor Market Issues
Technical Jobs as a Source of Economic Statement, these trends deserve mention. and Social Mobility Almost 50 percent of engineering doctorate degrees conferred by American universities in Growing economies almost always create engineering in 1998-9 went to foreign-born new jobs, but a significant portion of the job students. For mathematics/computer science growth often occurs in low-wage industries. and the natural sciences, the rate of foreign This is not true in the expansion of the tech- enrollment is more than one-third.71 Similar nical labor force. Most of the new positions trends exist at the master’s levels. created for scientists and engineers will be in 70 the highest quartile of annual earnings. The Foreign Workers in the Technical current scarcity has helped keep wages high Labor Market for those with professional technical skills. As the market begins to tighten again, these During the labor shortage of the late wages will likely see a further spike. 1990s, high-tech firms lobbied Congress to The availability of a good job is a powerful expand the number of H1-B visas approved incentive for students to seek degrees in each year, citing a lack of qualified domestic science and engineering. For underprivileged candidates for the open positions. In students, this opportunity is a way to escape response, Congress expanded the limits on poverty or otherwise improve their socioeco- several occasions. The expanded limits are nomic status. due to expire soon and are unlikely to be renewed in the current economic and politi- cal climate, despite a warning from the scien- THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN-BORN tific community of the necessity of maintain- STUDENTS AND WORKERS ing a flow of foreign scientists and engineers 72 Immigration and foreign workers have into the country. Unless steps are taken now allowed the United States to avoid con- to increase the number of native-born scien- fronting its problems in the professional tech- tists and engineers, American companies will nical labor market. The influx of students be unable to sustain innovation-led growth in into our colleges and universities has kept the near future. Some fear that firms will enrollment strong, while the use of special inevitably take their research efforts abroad, immigrant visas has helped plug holes in the where the talent is plentiful. labor market that have resulted from the lack Even those foreigners who were educated of qualified domestic workers in these areas. in the U.S. and qualify for extended visas are showing a lower propensity to stay in this Foreign Students in Science country. The new global economy is making and Engineering it possible for people to return to their coun- The last half of the 20th century witnessed try of origin for employment. Instead of a a dramatic increase in the number of foreign “brain drain” overseas, there is a system of students studying at American universities. “brain circulation” as workers leverage their Though the percentage of foreign science skills and contacts worldwide.73 This arrange- and engineering students at the undergradu- ment increases the instability in the domestic ate level has remained relatively low, foreign labor market and increases the quality of our students have begun to dominate graduate foreign competition. And as their home coun- enrollment. Although graduate education at tries continue to improve their own technical large lies outside the realm of this Policy standing, this trend will persist.
29 Chapter 4
CHANGING THE CULTURE OF K-16 MATH AND SCIENCE EDUCATION AND INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
Improving the math and science perfor- Math/Science Partnership Program, which mance of America’s students and drawing is considered in more detail later in this them into careers in science and engineering chapter. requires a culture change. This change in The movement to define high standards, math and science education will involve all of to make schools accountable for low scores, the stakeholders in education — from states and to improve data collection on individual and local school districts, to higher educa- student performance is not new. National tion, to business. standards in mathematics and science have Although the need to improve student been available since 1989 and 1995, respec- achievement in math and science is not new, tively. Most states have also developed their the nature of the debate has changed. The own standards in math and science. An No Child Left Behind Act, passed in early increasing number of states are using these 2002, requires states to implement a system of standards to establish exit exams for high standards-based assessments in reading and school graduates, as seen in the examples of mathematics, with assessments at selected California, Massachusetts, and Virginia in grade levels beginning in the 2002-2003 Chapter 2. Some states are also administering school year, and in all grades 3-8 by 2005- assessments at select grade levels along the 2006.† These assessments must be aligned to K-12 continuum to identify and remediate state standards; hence the standards must be weaknesses. States that have adopted such sufficiently rigorous to guide real progress. programs have shown a measure of success After two years, all schools and school districts and should be considered models for other will be held accountable for all major student states and programs. groups making “adequate yearly progress” Although changes made at the federal toward being “proficient” against the state and state levels are encouraging, continued academic standards. The analogous effort in vigilance by all stakeholders is required. science comes later: states are not required to Education policy is largely a state responsi- have high quality science standards in place bility, performed by local school districts. until 2005-2006, with tests beginning in 2007- Colleges and universities often develop 2008 at selected grade levels. curricular materials and prepare the next As part of the effort to improve student generation of teachers and scientists, mathe- scores, the No Child Left Behind Act also maticians, and engineers. In the end, business authorized programs to improve professional is the ultimate consumer of the labor force development. One such program is the prepared by the education system. Thus, each group must play a role in reform.
† Before the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act, federal This chapter presents recommendations mandates required systems of assessment only for schools for all stakeholders to improve math and that accepted federal Title I funds.
30 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers science education and increase the supply of presence of knowledgeable and enthusiastic scientists and engineers. To reflect the inter- adults, and a wide array of opportunities that related roles of the different stakeholders, we reward a mastery of math and science. This describe three Challenges that must be Challenge addresses those goals. addressed to change the culture of math and science education: Ensuring Widespread Scientific and • Increasing student interest in math and Quantitative Literacy science to maintain the pipeline Efforts to actively engage students in • Demonstrating the wonder of discovery while learning math and science will likely be most helping students to master rigorous content successful in promoting and sustaining their • Acknowledging the professionalism of teachers interest and ensuring that each child attains scientific and quantitative literacy. The first two Challenges focus on the “demand” side of math and science educa- Reconsidering the K-12 Curricula tion, which CED believes will ultimately be Local school districts should review their the most important lever to encourage more adopted curricula to ensure that they students to succeed in math and science at adequately engage students, promote active the elementary and secondary level, and to learning, and align to state and local pursue a career in science and engineering standards of student performance and after they have entered college. knowledge. The third Challenge addresses the Math and science hold limitless potential “supply” side of math and science education. for a fertile imagination. Science program- Stoking a child’s interest in math and science ming has been a staple of children’s enter- requires excellent teaching, yet many school tainment for generations, from “Mr. Wizard” districts lack enough qualified math and to “Bill Nye, the Science Guy.” Field trips to science teachers. the local science museum or zoo are often Action on all of these fronts is critical to the most anticipated of the year. the success of a reform program, although Unfortunately, textbooks and curriculum change in any one area would be a positive plans often fail to capture the student’s imagi- step. The active participation of business in nation in a similar manner. Curricula based partnership with local schools will greatly aid upon the memorization and recitation of progress in these areas. facts will not stimulate an active mind. Given a basic understanding of a topic area and the watchful, guiding eye of a knowledgeable CHALLENGE ONE: teacher, students have the ability to make INCREASING STUDENT INTEREST discoveries; this path to learning should be IN MATH AND SCIENCE TO encouraged. MAINTAIN THE PIPELINE Assisting School Districts with One of the important goals of math and Curriculum Enhancement science education reform is to increase Businesses should collaborate with school students’ excitement for math and science, districts to develop enhancements to the thus increasing the likelihood of a related district-adopted math and science curricula career choice. that integrate state-of-the-art applications of Excitement for math and science will be mathematical and scientific principles into the fueled by intriguing subject matter, the classroom setting and provide an insight into
31 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE the work scientists and engineers perform science activities, as well as the time and tal- every day. ents of their employees, to enrich the learn- Among the most important assets that ing experiences of students. Educators should industry brings to its partnership with schools organize student groups to participate in such is its content knowledge. Scientists and engi- activities, if they do not already exist, and neers who work in state-of-the-art environ- work to integrate business support into these ments possess skills and knowledge not always programs. captured in the curriculum. The classroom alone is not always suffi- The import of knowledge from local firms cient to meet the needs of inquisitive stu- could have an impact on learning in a num- dents. Extracurricular math- and science- ber of areas. Certainly, there is a need for a based activities can provide an outlet for a standard curricula that ensures coverage of child’s imagination and desire to learn more all the basic skills and ideas needed to under- about the scientific world. Potential programs stand math and science. This information, range from local science fairs to national though, often lacks a practical context. competitions, such as For Inspiration and Business has the ability to add to the curricu- Recognition of Science and Technology, or lum in a way that supplements the informa- FIRST (see accompanying text box). tion and makes the models more concrete by Programs like these can be good for students using true-life examples that children can and business alike. understand. (See text box, “ExxonMobil’s The students who participate in these pro- Science Ambassadors Program.”) grams often come away with a variety of posi- tive experiences. A fulfilling extracurricular Promoting Extracurricular Math activity can spark a long-term interest in sci- and Science Activities ence and engineering. An important addition- Business should provide financial and al effect of these programs is learning prob- logistical support to extracurricular math and lem-solving skills, especially in a team environ-
EXXONMOBIL’S SCIENCE AMBASSADORS PROGRAM ExxonMobil sponsors a range of programs aimed at improving math and science educa- tion throughout the country, spending more than $13 million annually. One such program is the Science Ambassadors Program, created in conjunction with schools around Houston, Texas. This program encourages employees to participate as Science Ambassadors in activities that promote math and science education, such as judging science fairs or participating in career day events. The larger effort helps concentrate corporate outreach efforts where they are most need- ed by the partner districts. Specific programs under this umbrella include providing class- room materials, providing teacher training based on school district needs, and opportunities for field trips to ExxonMobil facilities and on-the-job shadowing. Grants are also made avail- able to participating schools. A corporate Education Advisory Board administers the programs, with representatives called District Ambassadors selected to work with each school district individually. The desig- nation of specific contacts for a district helps to maintain a dialogue as to the specific goals of the program and the effectiveness of previous efforts.
SOURCE: The Council for Corporate and School Partnerships, Guiding Principles for Business and School Partnerships, (September 2002), available at
32 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers
FIRST: FOR INSPIRATION AND RECOGNITION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Inventor Dean Kamen founded the FIRST program almost 15 years ago. His goal was to inspire children to become more involved in math and science by providing them with an interactive and challenging opportunity to explore the world of math and science. The FIRST program is based around an annual robotics competition. Teams are given six weeks to work with a standardized set of materials to build a robot that can accomplish a specified set of tasks. Teams then participate in a series of competitions, cumulating in a championship event, held at the EPCOT Center at Walt Disney World, attracting more than 20,000 participants. Every FIRST team is based upon the tripartite relationship between the participating schools, mentors, and sponsors. Working with practicing engineers, scientists, and technol- ogists provides a unique opportunity for students and raises the bar for their performance. It also provides businesses with an opportunity for community outreach and provides a tal- ent base for recruitment into internship and other programs. The goals of FIRST go beyond simply teaching the students to build a robot. The struc- ture of the program also encourages teamwork and developing strategies for problem solv- ing. These skills will be more valuable to students in their future studies than the simple lessons of technology. The success of FIRST has also led to a spin-off competition for children aged 9 to 14. The FIRST LEGO League was created in coalition with the LEGO Company and provides younger children similar opportunities to work with simpler robots. Often members of a FIRST team will assist in mentoring their younger cohorts at a school in their district.
SOURCE: www.usfirst.org
ment, a skill that is increasingly valuable in the MI demonstrates these principles well. marketplace. Finally, there is the benefit of Employees who worked with FIRST teams felt increased self-esteem for the students. they could work better in a team environment Students that have successfully completed after the experience, and found that it these programs gain the confidence that stretched their own skills as well. Manage- comes with building a robot or successfully ment reported that “walls” between depart- explaining a science fair project to a judge. ments also fell as employees learned to com- Employers and employee volunteers also municate better.74 gain from the experience of participating in these programs. Volunteers cite the excite- Increasing the Number of Students ment of working with the young children as a Completing Degrees in Mathematics, means of reenergizing themselves and their Science and Engineering Fields work. The creative thinking employed by the students can help spur the mentors’ own cre- Over the next 10 years, job growth in sci- ativity. And frequently, by “managing” teams ence and engineering fields will outpace that in development, mentors gain real-life man- of most other sectors. But unlike some other agement training that is not often available to sectors, in which labor can move in or out junior staff members at a firm. The experi- with ease, entry into the professional techni- ence at X-Rite, a high tech firm in Grandville, cal labor market is the culmination of a
33 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE process that takes many years, beginning to highlight the professional opportunities when students receive their very first lessons that are available to those with a background in math and science. Currently, many of these in STEM fields. Businesses should also offer students are being lost at the undergraduate internships to undergraduate STEM majors. level, a problem that must be addressed. Internship opportunities can provide a unique application of classroom lessons not Reforming Undergraduate Curriculum foreseen by the student. By working in such to Improve the Perception of Science and an environment, students can also gain a bet- Engineering Fields ter appreciation of the lessons they have learned in the classroom. Colleges and universities should pay close Often times, students who work with a attention to the number of graduates they mentor will seek later employment at the yield each year when evaluating the effective- firm. And firms that make these efforts an ness of their science and engineering pro- important part of their community outreach grams. program will have an advantage in later Experienced professors should be assigned recruitment. to introductory classes, among their teaching responsibilities. Classes taught by inexperi- enced teaching assistants or novice faculty, Increasing the Interest and Success while more cost effective, can work against of Women and Minorities in Math efforts to increase the number of majors in and Science the department. Grading policies should be monitored in Widespread implementation of the follow- STEM (science, technology, engineering, and ing recommendations must take into account mathematics) classes for accuracy and fair- the emerging demographics of this country. ness, to ensure alignment with other depart- Around three-fifths of the professional techni- ments in the institution. cal workforce is comprised of white males, yet Additionally, articulation between higher they comprise only 40 percent of the labor education and K-12 should be increased to market at large. To meet future employment better prepare students for the rigors of high- needs, greater efforts must be made to ensure er education. Addressing this gap will help that female and minority students have the ensure that students enter college prepared opportunity and enter science and engineer- to face the rigor of university-level science ing fields. and engineering courses. Improving Minority Performance in Finally, meaningful laboratory exploration should be an integral part of science K-12 Math and Science coursework. These lab experiences are Programs with proven effectiveness to engaging and challenge students to think support high achievement among traditionally independently. underrepresented groups of students in K-12 STEM courses should be replicated. Making Professional Technical Careers Disaggregated assessment data for all groups Visible to Students of students must be used to identify areas of Scientifically-based businesses should col- content deficiency and immediate remedia- laborate with institutions of higher education tion must be undertaken. Business leaders
34 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers should partner with educators to ensure that Reaching minority students who have an the collection of such data and remediation is affinity for math and science must become a ongoing and timely. The business community priority of both institutes of higher learning should call on state and federal governments and employers in science and engineering to provide the necessary support for this fields. (See text box, “Berkeley Foundation process of assessment, accountability, and for Opportunities in Information action. Technology.”) Before more minority students enter the Minority students who do persist in science fields of science and engineering, their per- and engineering fields cite their relationship formance in the classroom must be improved. with a mentor in their field as having more This will require breaking them out of a cul- influence on their decision to enter science ture that often expects little from them acade- and engineering than their parents, friends, mically and discourages their pursuits in math or teachers.75 and science. Federal Title I programs, part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act CHALLENGE TWO: (the predecessor to the No Child Left Behind Act, which continued Title I), target DEMONSTRATING THE WONDER children living in poverty, of which a dispro- OF DISCOVERY WHILE HELPING portionate number are minority. Title I pro- STUDENTS TO MASTER vides funds for schools to assist them in RIGOROUS CONTENT improving student performance. Programs CED strongly supports the nationwide undertaken using Title I funds should be movement towards standards and account- reviewed, so that the lessons learned from ability. To make these reforms successful, them can be applied to new, as well as on- teachers must have the knowledge and skills going, efforts in this field. they need. Teacher preparation and ongoing Increasing the Number of professional development opportunities, Underrepresented Undergraduates therefore, must be revitalized so that every classroom is graced with a caring, highly in Science and Engineering Fields competent teacher. Businesses must redouble their efforts to This Challenge focuses on the knowledge provide support to traditionally underrepre- and skills that teachers can bring to the sented groups of undergraduate and graduate classroom to make math and science subjects students in STEM fields. They should encour- more engaging to their students, without age higher education institutions to actively compromising the level of rigor. recruit STEM majors among minority and Recommendations to address this issue female students, with practices such are schol- include reforming teacher education, provid- arships, mentoring programs and faculty out- ing more opportunities for teachers to work reach. Business must also provide a significant with those in the technical labor force, number of internships for minority and increasing the effectiveness of professional female students and encourage their minority development, and encouraging local experi- employees to mentor students. mentation in math and science education.
35 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
BERKELEY FOUNDATION FOR OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
The Berkeley Foundation for Opportunities in Information Technology (BFOIT) was created to address the problem of minority underrepresentation in science and engineer- ing. The program is open only to minorities, and in the past year worked with students who are black, Asian, Hispanic, and American Indian. Females outnumbered males in the program by a margin of almost two-to-one. Organized by the Industrial Advisory Board of the electrical engineering and computer science department at the University of California at Berkeley, BFOIT operates with the philosophy that students have a number of options available to them, and their choices are often affected by specific events at key points in their academic life. BFOIT runs the IT Leadership Program (ITLP), which consists of a summer institute in connection with year-long outreach efforts. The summer institute is an intensive two- week program that provides the participants the opportunity to work with some basic com- puter programming and web page design. While the time constraints of the program limit what can be taught, it does provide students with a taste of computer science that they can- not find at their local schools. During the rest of the year, the participants in the ITLP meet for presentations and discussions led by technology experts, academics, and civic leaders that address relevant global and local issues involving technology. Additional events include museum visits, conferences, and other activities. BFOIT and ITLP are sponsored by a number of high-tech firms that provide both financial and logistical support. These firms also provide employees to present the events described above and work with the program facilitators.
SOURCE: Susan McLester, “Working Toward Diversity,” Technology & Learning, vol. 22, no. 3 (2001); www.bfoit.org.
Improving Math and Science actively seek their enrollment and successful Teacher Education completion. The undergraduate education a teacher Colleges and universities that educate receives is important. It provides prospective future and current teachers must ensure that teachers with the pedagogical and psychologi- their courses of study emphasize acquisition cal tools to teach and nurture young students of content knowledge, an understanding of on their path to knowledge. However, content the place of that knowledge in society, as well knowledge is also important for a teacher at as the pedagogical training to deliver that all levels, although the problem is exacerbat- knowledge to students of all backgrounds and ed for prospective elementary teachers who abilities. Higher education must track the suc- are called upon to teach an array of subjects. cess of their graduates in teaching careers (as This is especially true in math and science. measured by student performance and Effective teacher training should also be teacher retention), so that their own course supplemented by building feedback into the offerings can be continually improved as program. Tracking the performance of gradu- needed. Colleges and universities should ates can help determine the success of indi- tailor summer courses in mathematics, sci- vidual teachers in the field, as well as inform- ence and engineering to the content needs of ing the program regarding areas for improve- current teachers, and, with school districts, ment.
36 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers
Tailoring summer class offerings to cur- math and science education. Scientists and rent teachers can allow graduates to extend engineers will provide teachers ready access their professional training and ensure that to cutting edge information about their their knowledge of content and pedagogy fields. The key concept is partnership; neither stays up-to-date. business groups, nor educators, have all of Focusing these classes towards current the answers, but they share responsibility for teachers can also be a way by which to address implementing the solution. the dilemma of out-of-field teachers who have The example of ChevronTexaco is instruc- been assigned to teach math and science tive. Through the East Bay (San Francisco) classes without the necessary knowledge base. Partnership Program, ChevonTexaco provides employees as resources to schools, to assist Providing Opportunities for with filling gaps in need areas such as math, Teachers to Work With Those in science, and literacy. ChevronTexaco encour- ages its employees to participate in the pro- the Technical Labor Force gram by making available up to four paid Math and science teachers and practicing hours a month to spend working on the scientists and engineers both have important program.76 knowledge and experiences that can be gain- fully shared. This connection is rarely made Providing Summer Experiences for as professional and logistical barriers separate Math and Science Teachers them. Improving the opportunities for com- Businesses, colleges and universities, and munication between these individuals is an school districts should jointly develop effec- important step for improving math and sci- tive programs to provide summer experiences ence instruction. for teachers. Businesses should create mecha- Providing a Forum for Teachers nisms within their firms that allow the fruitful participation of teacher/interns in their work. to Work With Other Scientists and These efforts can include hosting program Engineers meetings, offering technical and financial Businesses should partner with local assistance, supporting employee efforts to par- school districts to establish programs that ticipate in these programs, or any other provide scientists and engineers as resources needs, as determined in consultation with for schools. These forums should facilitate partner organizations. direct contact between teachers and scientists Programs that provide pre- and in-service and engineers, and as appropriate, direct teachers the opportunity to work in research contact between scientists and students. settings could allow teachers to stay in front Employers should actively encourage their of changes in their field that might affect employees’ participation, making clear that it their students and deepen their own under- is a highly valued professional responsibility. standing of the topic. The ability to continue Businesses should also practice greater or assist with research can also deepen a stewardship over local areas that lack an teacher’s own interest in the subject area. abundance of scientifically-based firms by A good example of such a program is the providing web portals or other manners Maryland Educators’ Summer Research of assistance. Program (MESRP, profiled in more detail in Creating relationships between math and the accompanying text box). MESRP places science teachers and scientists and engineers educators in positions at academic, govern- will be an important step towards improving ment, and industrial labs. Participants are
37 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE expected to complete original research and Expanding Effective Professional work in teams to develop curriculum modules Development Programs based upon their experiences. The experi- ence promotes a better understanding of the Business, higher education, and K-12 teacher’s role in inquiry-based exploration school districts should collaborate to provide and “hands on” science, as well as providing staff development to enrich and expand teachers with the “credibility and experience teacher knowledge and talent. Teachers’ needed to incorporate current content and meaningful participation in these programs authentic data into science and mathematics should be expected as part of their career curriculum.”77 The success of that program, path and should be valued. and ones like it, depends on the successful Research has shown that few professional partnership between business, higher educa- development programs are of high quality. tion, schools, and teachers. One-day ‘wonder’ workshops proliferate, tak-
THE MARYLAND EDUCATORS’ SUMMER RESEARCH PROGRAM
The Maryland Educators’ Summer Research Program (MESRP) was formed in 1999 to expand upon the efforts of two previous programs. MESRP offers summer research oppor- tunities for both pre-service and in-service teachers to work in academic, government, and industrial lab environments. The goal of the internship is to provide teachers with authentic research experiences. The “hands-on” nature of the program is designed to help teachers appreciate the value of interactive experiences in learning science. Each intern is provided with a mentor at the work site that directs his or her research during the six- to twelve-week program. Mentors are expected to design projects that can be completed in that time, while also providing value to the host firm. If possible, pre-service and in-service teachers are paired together at a site, so that the in-service teacher can serve as an additional mentor. In order to promote the research experience as part of a continuing development process, participants in the MESRP are expected to continue in year-round outreach expe- riences. The most prominent of those is the Classroom Implementation Project (CIP). The development of CIP modules is an attempt to bring the unique experience a teacher had during their time in the field back into the classroom. The modules are designed so that they can be distributed to other educators in Maryland for their own use. MESRP also includes assessment as a goal of the program. Candidates are surveyed before and after their participation in the program to evaluate its impact. Areas of focus include classroom practice, teaching strategy, and changes in attitudes and perceptions of math and science. These surveys will be ongoing in a participant’s career, in an attempt to measure the lasting impact of the experience. So far, the program has met with great success and it has been sought as a model for expansion on a larger scale. Organizers hope that the positive responses seen in the initial evaluations mean that the program can have a significant and lasting impact on math and science education policies.
SOURCE: Sherry McCall Ross and Katherine Denniston, The Maryland Educators’ Summer Research Program, (April 2002), available at
38 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers ing teachers out of the classroom for some- opment program that includes “study groups, thing of little value. Making the time avail- online training, partnerships with local uni- able is not enough; effective professional versities, summer workshops, and training development requires a comprehensive though lead teachers.”78 approach that includes follow-up and Since it is locally-managed, the Houston accountability. program can be adapted as needed, enabling Over the past few years, the Houston targeted follow up learning opportunities Independent School District (HISD) has and discussion keyed to individual district or reviewed and reformed its professional devel- school concerns. opment system. The burden of planning pro- Scientifically-based businesses can play a fessional development activities has shifted to role as partners in effective teacher develop- individual schools, allowing the programs to ment, such as the Merck Institute for Science be more focused on areas of need. The new Education, as seen in the accompanying text approach also involved a move away from box. one-day sessions to a more continuous devel-
MISE: THE MERCK INSTITUTE FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION The Merck Institute for Science Education (MISE) was created in 1993 by Merck & Co., Inc. to direct the company’s efforts in K-12 math and science education reform. Based in Rahway, New Jersey, MISE has established a long-term education partnership with several school districts in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This partnership focuses on the professional development of teachers, helping them improve their science knowledge and strengthen their teaching skills. In addition, MISE supports organizations and science centers whose mission is to stimulate students’ interest in the study of math and science. To accomplish its goals, the Institute works with • teachers, to align curriculum and teaching strategies with state and national standards; • parents, to engage families in science and math activities at school and further investigation at home; • business leaders, to provide a model of a business/education partnership for other corporations to emulate; and • employees and community members, to support volunteer activity in the schools. MISE also provides and maintains two science Resource Centers—one in Rahway and the other in West Point, Pennsylvania. These Centers house curriculum modules, books, and periodicals that focus on mathematics and science teaching. Teachers use the Centers to expand their “teaching repertoire,” while districts use the materials to inform their cur- riculum choices. To evaluate the impact of its partnership with the school districts, MISE has contracted with the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) at the University of Pennsylvania to conduct annual assessments of its work. Factors considered in the evalua- tion include “student performance and course selection; the quality of professional development; and changes in classroom teaching, school culture and district policy.” MISE then uses the CPRE findings to adjust its own work.
SOURCE: www.mise.org; MISE, personal correspondence.
39 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
As part of the No Child Left Behind Act, science the opportunity to focus their acade- the Department of Education and the mic energies in that area. Magnet schools National Science Foundation have estab- teach all of the other core subjects, teach all lished the Math/Science Partnership pro- core subjects, but have special expertise, facil- gram. The former provides funds that will be ities and depth of course offerings in specific available through state departments of educa- disciplines. In this manner, magnet schools tion, whereas the latter is available through a develop scientific thinking skills in students national competition. A key feature of both that will give them an advantage at the under- programs is the need for partnerships — as graduate level. (The formation of charter described throughout this report — among schools can have a similar impact. For an the various education stakeholders. For the example, see the text box, “High Tech first time, this federal legislation requires High.”) For elementary schools, dedicated higher education institutions to partner with practitioners — expert teachers who move school districts. Other partners, such as busi- between classes to teach only the math or ness and nonprofit organizations, are encour- science lesson — could ease the burden on aged to participate as well. All of the afore- teachers by providing an expert source of mentioned groups must take full advantage knowledge. The use of an expert teacher in of this opportunity. this manner allows all teachers to teach to their strengths and improves the quality of Promoting Local Experimentation the content presented to students. in Math and Science Education Local school districts should be encour- Promoting Science Education in the aged to seek innovative and promising Era of No Child Left Behind approaches to improve math and science As mentioned in the introduction to this teaching and learning. Local businesses and chapter, federally mandated assessments for state governments and departments of educa- math are scheduled to begin during the 2002- tion should encourage and contribute to the 2003 school year, with assessments for science development and execution of these plans. beginning in 2007-2008. The five-year lag may State governments should also provide funds have an unintended negative consequence: to schools to scale up programs that have increased attention and resources focused on demonstrated success. A fear of change or math and reading could come at the expense failure should not impede new programs of science teaching and learning. This could that have potential for success, just as many seriously compromise the knowledge base of businesses have transformed themselves a significant number of American youngsters through process-oriented “continuous at a critical point in their scientific education. improvement.” Like businesses, however, all In order to prevent this outcome, states educational innovations should be regularly should work proactively to ensure that science evaluated for effectiveness and modified as education is not neglected in the quest to indicated by the results of the evaluation. achieve high marks in reading and math. Possibilities abound for forward thinking The scientifically-based business communi- educators and administrators to implement ty should expand efforts to work with state innovative plans to improve math and science governments and boards of education in the education. “Magnet” schools, or schools that ongoing process of reviewing and revising focus on specific subject areas, provide stu- state standards for science education. The dents with a dedicated interest in math and business community should advocate that
40 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers
HIGH TECH HIGH Located on a decommissioned Navy base in San Diego, the Gary and Jerri-Ann Jacobs High Tech High Charter School provides a unique opportunity for students to learn math and science. The philosophy is based on three principles: personalization, adult-world con- nection, and a common intellectual mission. High Tech High offers students a more interactive, project-based curriculum. Students work independently or on teams on approved projects that help them apply the concepts learned in class and expand their understanding. Teachers guide students through their projects, though the responsibility for learning is mostly on the student. That is a rein- forcement of the “adult world” emphasis of the school, which includes a business casual dress code and working environment that has the appearance similar to that of an office of a high-tech firm. Additionally, industry experts are brought in for “power lunches” with the students, while older students also have the opportunity to intern at local companies for part of the school day. Professional development is also an important part of the day at High Tech High. Each morning starts off with a staff meeting that allows a discussion of pertinent issues, such as methods of assessing the success of project-based learning and finding overlaps in the cur- riculum. High Tech High owes part of its existence to the work of local high-tech companies. Representatives of 40 local companies came up with the idea of a technology-based high school as a strategy to address their own labor needs. Many of the firms continue to con- tribute to the school through grants, employee volunteers, and by participating on the school’s board of directors. Their continued support will be crucial as High Tech High expands, adding facilities for sixth through eight graders.
SOURCE: Lawrence Hardy, “High Tech High” American School Board Journal, vol. 188, no. 7 (2001); Amy Poftak, “High Tech High: An Education Startup,” Technology & Learning, vol. 22, no. 3 (2001); www.hightechhigh.org.
science teaching and learning occupy a and assessments that are emerging by federal prominent place in education. We urge the requirement. federal government to provide grants to states Prior to the passage of No Child Left that seek to develop and/or revise science Behind, 46 states had a set of science stan- standards and assessments that reflect ambi- dards in place, and 33 provided some kind of tious learning goals for students. States and science assessment.79 In some cases, these local school districts should monitor the standards and assessments will need to be amount of classroom time dedicated to sci- revised to meet the demands of the new poli- ence instruction. States that currently conduct cy, as well as other educational and workplace science assessments should publicize the needs. The business community can assist in results in a manner similar to that required revising the science standards. As the ultimate for reading and math under the No Child consumers of the students that schools pro- Left Behind Act. Moreover, business can duce, business can help link standards with an describe the STEM knowledge and skills that understanding of the skill sets necessary for new entrants to the workforce must possess, success in the labor market. When Delaware with an eye towards influencing the standards undertook a reform of their educational
41 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE system under the “New Directions” program, their efforts and present some of their recom- the business community played a key role in mendations here again for the purpose of standards reform by identifying the skills stu- restating the case for these important dents would need in the workplace and help- reforms. ing translate that information into academic Compensating Teachers to Promote standards.80 Florida exemplifies a state that has Quality in the Math and Science improved its science standards, even before Teaching Force the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act. State governments should work with local In March 2003, fifth-, eight-, and tenth- school districts to increase starting teacher graders were tested on their science knowl- salaries to better reflect local labor market edge, as part of the Florida Comprehensive conditions. The salary structure should take Assessment Test (FCAT), for the first time. note of the many highly remunerative oppor- The exam is formatted to demonstrate how tunities open to skilled math and science well a student understands science by requir- graduates apart from teaching. New salary ing eight- and tenth-graders to provide writ- scales should be viewed as an investment in ten explanations of their responses, alongside the schools, similar to other capital improve- multiple-choice questions. The new FCAT for- ments. Accordingly, state governments should mat has forced schools to reevaluate how they ensure that there is adequate funding for teach science, and many schools have these increases. responded by increasing the quantity and The recent actions by the schools in New quality of the laboratory experiences for York City are a good example. In the summer students.81 of 2002, facing a severe shortage of qualified teachers similar to that seen in many urban districts, New York City increased the starting salary for teachers from $31,910 to $39,000. CHALLENGE THREE: This increase appeared to help offset the ACKNOWLEDGING THE shortage that the school district expected, PROFESSIONALISM OF TEACHERS while also improving the quality of the teach- ers the program recruited. Certified teachers Teachers prepare the workforce of tomor- filled more than 90 percent of the 8000-plus row in an economy that increasingly favors openings the district faced for the 2002-2003 high levels of skill. Making math and science school year, compared to a rate of about half education effective requires developing the of the teachers hired the previous year. (The highest quality teaching force possible. number for 2002 includes those trained This Challenge promotes the view of under an alternative certification program ini- teaching as a valued profession by looking at tiated along with the pay increases, though issues of compensation and certification. The participants are expected to receive their mas- recommendations call for competitive teacher ter’s degrees within five years to become fully salaries, the establishment of alternative paths certified.)82 The experience in New York to certification, and the development of demonstrates that qualified candidates are systems of license and pension reciprocity willing to teach, if it is made economically fea- for teachers. sible for them. It will be instructive to follow Many of these reforms have been pro- this cohort of teachers to see if they remain in posed before and many people are working to the field, as recruitment without retention is promote reform in these areas. We encourage of little help.
42 Changing the Culture of K-16 Math and Science Education and Increasing the Supply of Scientists and Engineers
Establishing Alternative Paths knowledge. Finally, the retention rates for to Certification these programs is similar to that of tradition- ally-prepared teachers, and the alternatively State governments and boards of educa- certified teachers plan to stay in the field just tion should implement high quality programs as long as the average teacher.83 for teacher certification of professional scien- School districts in Houston, Chicago, and tists, mathematicians, or engineers who seek New York have developed alternative certifica- to enter teaching. Business can inform the tion programs over the past few years to development of these programs by providing address their respective teacher shortages. technical assistance and helping to ensure Additionally, the federal government sponsors that the programs meet the needs of mid- or Troops-to-Teachers, a program for retired mil- post-career workers. Firms can also promote itary personnel, as well as the Teach for teaching as an option for post-employment America program. These programs have seen workers who still desire to be active. Federal, some success and bode well for states that state, and local funds should be used to pro- seek to develop similar programs. Reports vide stipends for participants in these pro- commissioned by the National Commission grams, thus offsetting income forfeited dur- on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the ing the period of training. Schools that hire 21st Century and the National Research teachers from these programs should provide Council provide outlines of what effective support and mentoring to assist the newly cer- alternative certification programs could look tified teachers in their transition to the class- like.84 room. Experienced teachers should be recruited to serve as mentors to new faculty Allowing for License and and mentoring should be recognized by the Pension Reciprocity school administrations. State governments should partner together Alternative certification programs can help to develop systems of license reciprocity. But to broaden the pipeline of entrants into the we warn that the integrity of the licenses teaching labor market. They also recognize should not be compromised; partner states the fact that most modern workers pursue should review their standards, so that all states multiple careers during their time in the meet similar standards of licensure. labor force. Yet quality and rigor cannot be State pension programs should create poli- compromised in such programs. They should cies that provide additional incentives for include the necessary pedagogical and experienced teachers to continue working in psychological information to help practicing new locales. To compensate for the potential scientists transmit their content knowledge to pension costs to new districts, assets equal to young minds. the previous school system’s benefit obliga- Programs that offer alternative certifica- tion to the teacher should be transferred tion also have the advantage of drawing a when teachers move between states. more diverse group of candidates than tradi- Business can help implement license and tional education programs. A review of alter- pension reciprocity for teachers by sharing native certification programs demonstrates relevant experiences. Ongoing technical assis- that the graduates of these programs are tance from business partners would be highly more likely to be minority, female, and older valued. than those who emerge from the traditional The geographic movement of teachers system. They also bring practical and work- exacerbates the problems of turnover in the place experience to supplement their content teaching force. Quite often, teachers are
43 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE forced to move due to family obligations or Educators have been voicing these con- changing personal circumstances. While these cerns for a number of years and some qualified, previously licensed teachers would progress is being made. The Mid-Atlantic be interested in positions in their new loca- Regional Teachers Project, a consortium of tion, the burden of recertification can serve states that includes Virginia, Maryland, as a deterrent, especially if other opportuni- Delaware, and Pennsylvania, as well as the ties exist in the area. District of Columbia, have developed a pro- The portability of pensions is also a con- posal to extend license reciprocity for begin- cern for teachers moving between states. ning educators. The similarity in licensure Some states or localities require experienced requirements between the states and the teachers to start over in the new system, or District makes the adoption of this policy pos- face benefit penalties that endanger previous- sible. Programs for license reciprocity for ly accumulated pension rights.85 This problem more experienced teachers and plans for strikes hardest at the most experienced teach- pension reciprocity within the consortium are ers, meaning that a valuable cache of knowl- also under development.86 edge and experience goes unused in the new state.
44 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
The challenges confronting math and sci- demonstrate the recommendations and ence education in the United States and the attitudes embodied in this report. Many of resulting implications for the labor force are these programs involve a partnership between critical. Numerous groups have addressed this business and education providers. We problem in a series of valuable reports. In this applaud the efforts of businesses that have Policy Statement, CED has reframed the issue involved themselves with these programs and by looking at the culture that affects math encourage others to join them. and science education, and, in particular, the This report has articulated a vision for the “demand” side of education — increasing role of business in math and science educa- student interest in math and science. tion, as an advocate, advisor and partner. The We have outlined three areas for action, all involvement of business partners is the first interdependent, yet each important on its step in a larger strategy to improve math and own. Increasing student interest in math and science education and maintain the pipeline science to maintain the pipeline focuses on ways into science and engineering fields. This is a to improve the way students view math and commitment that all business people, both science disciplines. Demonstrating the wonder of inside and out of the scientific establishment, discovery while helping students to master rigorous should consider. content offers programs to help teachers rein- The perils facing math and science educa- force student interest and success in math tion in America have been foretold for and science. Acknowledging the professionalism decades. It is now time to act, as businesspeo- of teachers considers problems facing the ple and academics, leaders and citizens to teacher labor market. In all of these areas, we solve these problems. have provided examples of programs that
45 ENDNOTES
1. Committee for Economic Development, America’s 14. National Science Board, Preparing Our Children, p. 15. Basic Research: Prosperity Through Discovery (New York, NY: Committee for Economic Development, 1998). 15. Gary W. Phillips, “Pursuing Excellence: Comparisons of International Eighth-Grade Mathematics and 2. Committee for Economic Development, America’s Science Achievement from a U.S. Perspective, 1995 Basic Research, p. 41. and 1999” (briefing prepared for the release of Pursuing Excellence: Comparisons of International Eighth- 3. Committee for Economic Development, America’s Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement from a U.S. Basic Research, p. 42. Perspective, 1995 and 1999, Washington, D.C., 4. Committee for Economic Development, Reforming December 5, 2000). Immigration: Helping Meet America’s Need for a Skilled 16. National Center for Education Statistics. Teaching Workforce (New York, NY: Committee for Economic Mathematics in Seven Countries, NCES 2003-013 Development, 2001), p. ix. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 5. National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 1999 March 2003). Trends in Academic Progress: Three Decades of Academic 17. National Center for Education Statistics, Pursuing Performance, NCES 2000-469 (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Excellence: Comparisons of International Eighth-Grade Department of Education, August 2000), Figure 1.1. Mathematics and Science Achievement from a U.S. 6. National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 1999 Perspective, 1995 and 1999, NCES 2001-028 Trends in Academic Progress, Figure 1.1. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, December 2000). 7. National Center for Education Statistics, “National Assessment Shows Encouraging Trends in 18. National Center for Education Statistics, Outcomes of Mathematics Performance” (press release, Learning: Results from the 2000 Program for International Washington, D.C., August 24, 2000). Student Assessment of 15-Year-Olds in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy, NCES 2002-115 8. Committee for Economic Development, Measuring (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, What Matters: Using Assessment and Accountability to December 2001), pp. 25-26. Improve Student Learning (Washington, D.C.: Committee for Economic Development, 2001). 19. National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2000, NCES 2001-517 9. California Department of Education, “California (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Department of Education Corrects Statewide Pass August 2001), Table B.87. Rates for High School Exit Exam” (press release, Sacramento, CA, October 9, 2002). 20. National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Mathematics 2000, Table B.87 10. Associated Press, “More than 50 percent of students fail high-stakes graduation test,” San Jose Mercury 21. Congressional Commission on the Advancement of News, October 1, 2002. Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology Development, Land of Plenty: Diversity as 11. Massachusetts Department of Education, Spring 2002 America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering and MCAS Tests: Summary of State Results (Malden, MA: Technology (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Massachusetts Department of Education, 2002). Printing Office, September 2000), pp. 59-65. 12. Virginia Department of Education, “2002 22. Tom Loveless, How Well Are American Students Achievement Strong on Graduation-Linked SOL Learning? (Washington, D.C.: Brown Center Report Tests” (press release, Richmond, VA, October 8, on American Education, September 2002), pp. 19- 2002). 20. 13. National Science Board, Preparing Our Children: Math 23. Kathleen Kennedy Manzo, “North Wind Bows to and Science Education in the National Interest, NSB 99- Rising Sun” Education Week, vol. 22, no. 4 (2002), 31 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing p. 31; Ina V.S. Mills, Michael O. Martin, Albert E. Office, March 1999), p. 15. Beaton, and others, Mathematics and Science
46 Endnotes
Achievement in the Final Year of Secondary School: IEA’s 35. Craig D. Jerald, All Talk, No Action: Putting an End Third International Mathematics and Science Study to Out-of-field Teaching (Washington, D.C.: The (TIMSS) ( Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for the Study of Education Trust, August 2002), p. 7. Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy, 1998), Table 4.8. 36. Urban Teacher Collaborative, The Urban Teacher Challenge: Teacher Demand and Supply in the Great City 24. Manzo, “North Wind Bows to Rising Sun.” Schools (Washington, D.C.: Council of Great City Schools, 2000). 25. Christopher Barnes, What Do Teachers Teach? A Survey of America’s Fourth and Eighth Grade Teachers, Research 37. American Association for the Advancement of Paper No. 28 (New York, NY: Center for Civic Science, Project 2061, “Few Middle School Math Innovation at the Manhattan Institute, September Textbooks Will Help Students Learn, Says AAAS’ 2002). Project 2061 Evaluation” (press release, Washington, D.C., January 22, 1999); American Association for 26. J. Becker, “Differential treatment of females and the Advancement of Science, Project 2061, “Heavy males in mathematics class,” Journal for Research in Textbooks Light on Learning: Not One Middle Mathematics Education, vol. 12, no. 1 (1981), Grades Science Text Rated Satisfactory by AAAS’s pp. 40-53. Project 2061” (press release, Washington, D.C., 27. Council of Great City Schools with Manpower September 28, 1999). Demonstration Research Center, Foundations For 38. National Research Council, Adding It Up: Helping Success: Case Studies of How Urban School Systems Children Learn Mathematics (Washington, D.C.: Improve Student Achievement (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001), p. 4. Council of Great City Schools, 2002). 39. William H. Schmidt, Curtis C. McKnight, Richard T. 28. National Research Council, Learning and Houang, and others, Why Schools Matter: A Cross- Understanding: Improving Advanced Study of National Comparison of Curriculum and Learning (San Mathematics and Science in U.S. High Schools Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2001). (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2002), p. 48. 40. National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century, Before It’s Too Late 29. Studies that focus on math and science, include, but (September 2000), p. 16. are not limited to, Dan D.Goldhaber, and Dominic J. Brewer, “Why Don’t Schools and Teachers Seem to 41. National Center for Education Statistics, Projections of Matter? Assessing the Impact of Unobservables on Education Statistics to 2012, NCES 2002-030 Education,” Journal of Human Resources, vol. 32, no. 3 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, (1997), pp. 505-523; Dan D. Goldhaber and Dominic October, 2002), Table l; U.S. Census Bureau, J. Brewer, “Does Teacher Certification Matter? High Projections of the Total Resident Population by 5-Year Age School Certification State and Student Groups, Race, and Hispanic Origin with Special Age Achievement,” Educational Evaluation and Policy Categories: Middle Series, 2016 to 2020, (January 13, Analysis, vol. 22 no. 2 (2000), pp. 129-145; and D. H. 2000), available at
47 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
46. National Science Board, Science and Engineering 64. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators: 2002, NSB 02-01 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Indicators: 2002, Table A3-12. Government Printing Office, 2002), Table A2-16. 65. National Science Board, Science and Engineering 47. National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Indicators: 2002, p. 3-31. Educational Statistics: 2001, NCES 2002-130 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 66. National Research Council, Attracting PhDs to K-12 April 2002), Table 268. Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2002), p. 11. 48. American Association for the Advancement of Science, In Pursuit of A Diverse Science, Technology, 67. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Mathematics Workforce (Washington, Engineering, and Institute of Medicine, Enhancing D.C.: American Association for the Advancement the Postdoctoral Experience for Scientists and Engineers of Science, 2001). (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2000), p. 14. 49. National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering, “NACME Reports Record Minority 68. National Research Council, Attracting Science and Engineering Enrollments and New Challenges” Mathematics PhDs to Secondary School Teaching (press release, New York, NY, September 17, 2002). (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2000), p. 4. 50. National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering, “NACME Reports Record Minority 69. Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to Engineering Enrollments and New Challenges.” 2010.” 51. National Science Board, Science and Engineering 70. Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to Indicators: 2002, Table A2-12. 2010.” 52. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the 71. National Science Board, Science and Engineering United States: 2002 (Washington, D.C.: Department Indicators: 2002, Figure 2-20. of Commerce, 2002), Table 15. 72. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy 53. National Science Board, Science and Engineering of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine, Indicators: 2002, Table A2-12. “Current Visa Restrictions Interfere with U.S. Science and Engineering Contributions to 54. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Important National Needs” (press release, Indicators: 2002, Figure 2-9. Washington, D.C., December 13, 2002). 55. National Science Board, Science and Engineering 73. National Science Foundation, International Mobility Indicators: 2002, Figure 2-9 and p. 2-19. of Scientists and Engineers to the United States, NSF 98-316 (Arlington, VA: National Science 56. Richard Sabot and John Wakemann-Linn, “Grade Foundation, 1998). Inflation and Course Choice,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 5, no. 1 (1991), Table 2. 74. Emily M. Smith, “teamwork with the next genera- tion,” Mechanical Engineering, June 2002 (online), 57. Valen E. Johnson, “An A Is an A Is an A…And available at
48 Endnotes
79. Council of Chief State School Officers, Key State Science Teachers: A Review of Teacher Recruitment Education Policies on K-12 Education: 2000 Programs” (background paper prepared for the (Washington, D.C.: Council of Chief State School National Commission on Mathematics and Science Officers, 2000), Tables 13 and 27. Teaching for the 21st Century, Washington, D.C., March 2000), p. 18, available at
49 LEARNING FOR THE FUTURE
MEMORANDUM OF COMMENT, RESERVATION, OR DISSENT
Page 3, PETER A. BENOLIEL While I agree that grading policies should be in “alignment with other departments in the institution,” I suspect that STEM policies more accurately reflect needed outcomes than those in other departments, which tend to be more lax and permissive.
50 OBJECTIVES OF THE COMMITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
For 60 years, the Committee for Economic foundations, and individuals. It is independent, Development has been a respected influence nonprofit, nonpartisan, and nonpolitical. on the formation of business and public Through this business-academic partner- policy. CED is devoted to these two objectives: ship, CED endeavors to develop policy state- To develop, through objective research and ments and other research materials that informed discussion, findings and recommenda- commend themselves as guides to public and tions for private and public policy that will contrib- business policy; that can be used as texts in ute to preserving and strengthening our free society, college economics and political science courses achieving steady economic growth at high employ- and in management training courses; that ment and reasonably stable prices, increasing pro- will be considered and discussed by newspaper ductivity and living standards, providing greater and magazine editors, columnists, and com- and more equal opportunity for every citizen, and mentators; and that are distributed abroad to improving the quality of life for all. promote better understanding of the Ameri- To bring about increasing understanding by can economic system. present and future leaders in business, government, CED believes that by enabling business and education, and among concerned citizens, of the leaders to demonstrate constructively their con- importance of these objectives and the ways in which cern for the general welfare, it is helping busi- they can be achieved. ness to earn and maintain the national and community respect essential to the successful CED’s work is supported by private volun- functioning of the free enterprise capitalist tary contributions from business and industry, system.
51 CED BOARD OF TRUSTEES
Chairman ROY J. BOSTOCK, Chairman Emeritus, JOHN BRADEMAS, President Emeritus Executive Committee New York University 3 Bcom Group, Inc. JOSEPH BRANDON, Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer General RE Corporation Vice Chairmen WILLIAM E. BROCK, Chairman GEORGE H. CONRADES, Chairman and Chief Bridges LearningSystems, Inc. Executive Officer THOMAS J. BUCKHOLTZ, Executive Vice President Akamai Technologies, Inc. Beyond Insight Corporation JAMES A. JOHNSON, Chairman and Chief MICHAEL BUNGEY, Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer Cordiant Communications Group Johnson Capital Partners TONY BUZZELLI, Deputy Managing Partner ARTHUR F. RYAN, Chairman and Chief Deloitte & Touche LLP Executive Officer The Prudential Insurance Company of America * FLETCHER L. BYROM, President and Chief Executive Officer FREDERICK W. TELLING, Vice President Corporate MICASU Corporation Strategic Planning and Policy Division Pfizer Inc. DONALD R. CALDWELL, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Cross Atlantic Capital Partners DARALD W. CALLAHAN, Executive Vice President ChevronTexaco Corporation DAVID A. CAPUTO, President Pace University REX D. ADAMS, Professor of Business Administration FRANK C. CARLUCCI, Chairman Emeritus The Fuqua School of Business The Carlyle Group Duke University JOHN B. CAVE, Principal PAUL A. ALLAIRE, Retired Chairman Avenir Group, Inc. Xerox Corporation RAYMOND G. CHAMBERS, Chairman of the Board COUNTESS MARIA BEATRICE ARCO Amelior Foundation AAC American Asset Corporation ROBERT CHESS, Chairman IAN ARNOF, Retired Chairman Inhale Therapeutic Systems, Inc. Bank One, Louisiana, N.A. MICHAEL CHESSER, Chairman and Chief MERRILL J. BATEMAN, President Executive Officer Bringham Young University United Water JAMES S. BEARD, President CAROLYN CHIN, Chairman Caterpillar Financial Services Corp. Commtouch/C3 Partners HENRY P. BECTON, JR., President and * JOHN L. CLENDENIN, Retired Chairman General Manager BellSouth Corporation WGBH Educational Foundation FERDINAND COLLOREDO-MANSFELD, Chairman THOMAS D. BELL, JR., President and Chief and Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer Cabot Properties, Inc. Cousins Properties GEORGE H. CONRADES, Chairman and Chief ALAN BELZER, Retired President and Chief Executive Officer Operating Officer Akamai Technologies, Inc. AlliedSignal Inc. JAMES P. CORCORAN, Consultant PETER A. BENOLIEL, Chairman, Executive DAVID M. COTE, President and Chief Executive Officer Committee Honeywell International Inc. Quaker Chemical Corporation STEPHEN A. CRANE, Chairman, President and MELVYN E. BERGSTEIN, Chairman and Chief Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer Stirling Cooke Brown Holdings Limited Diamond Cluster International, Inc. W. BOWMAN CUTTER, Managing Director DEREK BOK, President Emeritus Warburg Pincus Harvard University National Chair, Common Cause PAUL DANOS, Dean The Amos Tuck School of Business LEE C. BOLINGER, President Dartmouth College Columbia University RONALD R. DAVENPORT, Chairman of the Board ROY J. BOSTOCK, Chairman Emeritus, Sheridan Broadcasting Corporation Executive Committee Bcom3 Group, Inc. JOHN T. DEE, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Volume Services America JACK O. BOVENDER, JR., Chairman and Chief Executive Officer JOHN J. DEGIOIA, President Health Care of America Georgetown University
*Life Trustee ROBERT M. DEVLIN, Former Chairman and Chief EARL G. GRAVES, SR., Publisher and Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer American General Corporation Black Enterprise Magazine JOHN DIEBOLD, Chairman WILLIAM H. GRAY, III, President and Chief John Diebold Incorporated Executive Officer SAM DIPIAZZA, Global Chief Executive The College Fund PricewaterhouseCoopers GERALD GREENWALD, Chairman LINDA M. DISTLERATH, Vice President, Greenbriar Equity Global Health Policy BARBARA B. GROGAN, President Merck & Co., Inc. Western Industrial Contractors IRWIN DORROS, President PATRICK W. GROSS, Founder and Senior Advisor Dorros Associates American Management Systems, Inc. *FRANK P. DOYLE, Retired Executive Vice President JEROME H. GROSSMAN, Senior Fellow General Electric Company John F. Kennedy School of Government PHILIP DUKE, Executive Vice President, Retired Harvard University Lockheed Martin Corporation RONALD GRZYWINSKI, Chairman FRANK DUNN, President and Chief Executive Officer Shorebank Corporation Nortel Networks JUDITH H. HAMILTON, Former President and Chief T. J. DERMOT DUNPHY, Chairman Executive Officer Kildare Enterprises, LLC Classroom Connect CHRISTOPHER D. EARL, Managing Director WILLIAM A. HASELTINE, Chairman and Chief Perseus Capital, LLC Executive Officer Human Genome Sciences, Inc. W. D. EBERLE, Chairman Manchester Associates, Ltd. WILLIAM F. HECHT, Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer ROBERT A. ESSNER, President and PPL Corporation Chief Executive Officer Wyeth WILLIAM HENDERSON Former Postmaster General DIANA FARRELL, Director McKinsey Global Institute RICHARD H. HERSH, President Trinity College G. STEVEN FARRIS, President, Chief Executive Officer and Chief Operating Officer JOSEPH D. HICKS, Retired President and Chief Apache Corporation Executive Officer Siecor Corporation KATHLEEN FELDSTEIN, President Economics Studies, Inc. HEATHER HIGGINS, President Randolph Foundation E. JAMES FERLAND, Chairman, President and Chief Executive Officer RODERICK M. HILLS, Chairman Public Service Enterprise Group Inc. Hills Enterprises, Ltd. * EDMUND B. FITZGERALD, Managing Director HAYNE HIPP, President and Chief Executive Officer Woodmont Associates The Liberty Corporation HARRY L. FREEMAN, Chair DEBORAH C. HOPKINS, Chief Corporate Strategy The Mark Twain Institute Officer Citigroup, Inc. MITCHELL S. FROMSTEIN, Chairman Emeritus Manpower Inc. PAUL M. HORN, Senior Vice President, Research IBM Corporation PAMELA B. GANN, President Claremont McKenna College MATINA S. HORNER, Executive Vice President TIAA-CREF JOSEPH GANTZ, Partner GG Capital, LLC PHILIP K. HOWARD, Vice Chairman Covington & Burling E. GORDON GEE, Chancellor Vanderbilt University ROBERT J. HURST, Vice Chairman The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. THOMAS P. GERRITY, Dean Emeritus The Wharton School SHIRLEY ANN JACKSON, President University of Pennsylvania Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute FREDERICK W. GLUCK, Of Counsel WILLIAM C. JENNINGS, Chairman McKinsey & Company, Inc. US Interactive, Inc. CAROL R. GOLDBERG, President JEFFREY A. JOERRES, President and Chief The AvCar Group, Ltd. Executive Officer Manpower Inc. ALFRED G. GOLDSTEIN, President and Chief Executive Officer JAMES A. JOHNSON, Chairman and Chief AG Associates Executive Officer Perseus LLC JOSEPH T. GORMAN, Retired Chairman TRW Inc. L. OAKLEY JOHNSON, Senior Vice President, Corporate Affairs RICHARD A. GRASSO, Chairman and Chief American International Group Executive Officer New York Stock Exchange, Inc. ROBERT M. JOHNSON, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Bowne & Co., Inc.
*Life Trustee VAN E. JOLISSAINT, Corporate Economist, Retired NICHOLAS G. MOORE, Senior Advisor DaimlerChrysler Corporation Bechtel Corporation H.V. JONES, Managing Director DIANA S. NATALICIO, President Korn/Ferry International The University of Texas at El Paso PRES KABACOFF, President and Co-Chairman MARILYN CARLSON NELSON, Chairman, President Historic Restoration, Inc. and Chief Executive Officer EDWARD A. KANGAS, Chairman and Carlson Companies, Inc. Chief Executive Officer, Retired MATTHEW NIMETZ, Partner Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu General Atlantic Partners JOSEPH E. KASPUTYS, Chairman, President THOMAS H. O’BRIEN, Chairman of the Executive and Chief Executive Officer Committee Global Insight, Inc. PNC Financial Services Group, Inc. WILLIAM E. KIRWAN, Chancellor DEAN R. O’HARE, Chairman and Chief University System of Maryland Executive Officer, Retired THOMAS J. KLUTZNICK, President Chubb Corporation Thomas J. Klutznick Company RONALD L. OLSON, Partner CHARLES F. KNIGHT, Chairman Munger, Tolles & Olson Emerson Electric Co. ROBERT J. O'TOOLE, Chairman and Chief CHARLES E.M. KOLB, President Executive Officer Committee for Economic Development A.O. Smith Corporation C. JOSEPH LABONTE, Chairman STEFFEN E. PALKO, Vice Chairman and President The Vantage Group XTO Energy Inc. BENJAMIN LADNER, President SANDRA PANEM, Partner American University Cross Atlantic Partners, Inc. KURT M. LANDGRAF, President and Chief JERRY PARROTT, Vice President, Corporate Executive Officer Communications Educational Testing Service Human Genome Sciences, Inc. ROBERT W. LANE, Chairman and Chief Executive CAROL J. PARRY, President Officer Corporate Social Responsibility Associates Deere & Company VICTOR A. PELSON, Senior Advisor W. MARK LANIER, Partner UBS Warburg LLC The Lanier Law Firm, P.C. DONALD K. PETERSON, President and Chief CHARLES R. LEE, Chairman Executive Officer Verizon Communications Avaya Inc. WILLIAM W. LEWIS, Director Emeritus PETER G. PETERSON, Chairman McKinsey Global Institute The Blackstone Group McKinsey & Company, Inc. TODD E. PETZEL, President IRA A. LIPMAN, Chairman of the Board and President Azimuth Alternative Asset Management LLP Guardsmark, Inc. RAYMOND PLANK, Chairman BRUCE K. MACLAURY, President Emeritus Apache Corporation The Brookings Institution ARNOLD B. POLLARD, President and Chief COLETTE MAHONEY, President Emeritus Executive Officer Marymount Manhattan College The Chief Executive Group EDWARD A. MALLOY, President HUGH B. PRICE, President University of Notre Dame National Urban League ELLEN R. MARRAM, Partner GEORGE A. RANNEY, JR., President and Chief North Castle Partners Executive Officer Chicago Metropolis 2020 T. ALLAN MCARTOR, Chairman Airbus Industrie of North America, Inc. NED REGAN, President Baruch College ALONZO L. MCDONALD, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer JAMES Q. RIORDAN, Chairman Avenir Group, Inc. Quentin Partners Co. EUGENE R. MCGRATH, Chairman, President and E. B. ROBINSON, JR., Chairman Emeritus Chief Executive Officer Deposit Guaranty Corporation Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. JAMES D. ROBINSON, III, General Partner and Founder DAVID E. MCKINNEY, President RRE Ventures The Metropolitan Museum of Art ROY ROMER DEBORAH HICKS MIDANEK, Principal Former Governor of Colorado Glass & Associates, Inc. Superintendent, Los Angeles Unified School District HARVEY R. MILLER, Managing Director DANIEL ROSE, Chairman Greenhill & Co., LLC Rose Associates, Inc. ALFRED T. MOCKETT, Chairman and Chief HOWARD M. ROSENKRANTZ, Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer Grey Flannel Auctions American Management Systems, Inc. LANDON H. ROWLAND, Chairman Janus Capital Group Inc.
*Life Trustee NEIL L. RUDENSTINE, Chair, ArtStor Advisory Board HENRY TANG, Chairman The Andrew Mellon Foundation Committee of 100 GEORGE RUPP, President FREDERICK W. TELLING, Vice President Corporate International Rescue Committee Strategic Planning and Policy Division Pfizer Inc. EDWARD B. RUST, JR., Chairman and Chief Executive Officer JAMES A. THOMSON, President and Chief State Farm Insurance Companies Executive Officer RAND ARTHUR F. RYAN, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer CHANG-LIN TIEN, NEC Distinguished Professor of The Prudential Insurance Company of America Engineering Emeritus University of California, Berkeley MARGUERITE W. SALLEE, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer THOMAS J. TIERNEY, Founder Brown Schools The Bridgespan Group STEPHEN W. SANGER, Chairman and Chief STOKLEY P. TOWLES, Partner Executive Officer Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. General Mills, Inc. STEPHEN JOEL TRACHTENBERG, President BERTRAM L. SCOTT, President The George Washington University TIAA-CREF Life Insurance Company TALLMAN TRASK, III, Executive Vice President MICHAEL M. SEARS, Senior Vice President and Duke University Chief Financial Officer JAMES L. VINCENT, Chairman, Retired The Boeing Company Biogen, Inc. JOHN E. SEXTON, President FRANK VOGL, President New York University Vogl Communications DONNA SHALALA, President DONALD C. WAITE, III, Director University of Miami McKinsey & Company, Inc. JUDITH SHAPIRO, President HERMINE WARREN, President Barnard College Hermine Warren Associates, Inc. WALTER H. SHORENSTEIN, Chairman of the Board ARNOLD R. WEBER, President Emeritus The Shorenstein Company Northwestern University * GEORGE P. SHULTZ, Distinguished Fellow JOSH S. WESTON, Honorary Chairman The Hoover Institution Automatic Data Processing, Inc. Stanford University CLIFTON R. WHARTON, JR., Former Chairman JOHN C. SICILIANO, Director, Global Institutional and Chief Executive Officer Services TIAA-CREF Dimensional Fund Advisors DOLORES D. WHARTON, Former Chairman and RUTH J. SIMMONS, President Chief Executive Officer Brown University The Fund for Corporate Initiatives, Inc. FREDERICK W. SMITH, Chairman, President and RICHARD WHEELER, Chief Executive Officer Chief Executive Officer InContext Data Systems, Inc. Federal Express Corporation MICHAEL W. WICKHAM, Chairman and Chief JOHN F. SMITH, JR., Chairman Executive Officer General Motors Corporation Roadway Express, Inc. DAVID A. SPINA, Chairman and Chief HAROLD M. WILLIAMS, President Emeritus Executive Officer The J. Paul Getty Trust State Street Corporation L. R. WILSON, Chairman ALAN G. SPOON, Managing General Partner Nortel Networks Corporation Polaris Ventures LINDA SMITH WILSON, President Emerita STEPHEN STAMAS, Chairman Radcliffe College The American Assembly MARGARET S. WILSON, Chairman and Chief PAULA STERN, President Executive Officer The Stern Group, Inc. Scarbroughs DONALD M. STEWART, President and Chief JACOB J. WORENKLEIN, Global Head of Project Executive Officer & Sectorial Finance The Chicago Community Trust Societe Generale ROGER W. STONE, Chairman and Chief KURT E. YEAGER, President and Chief Executive Executive Officer Officer Box USA Group, Inc. Electric Power Research Institute MATTHEW J. STOVER, President RONALD L. ZARELLA, Chairman and Chief LKM Ventures Executive Officer LAWRENCE SUMMERS, President Bausch & Lomb, Inc. Harvard University MARTIN B. ZIMMERMAN, Vice President, RICHARD J. SWIFT, Chairman, President and Chief Corporate Affairs Executive Officer Ford Motor Company Foster Wheeler Corporation EDWARD ZORE, President and Chief Executive RICHARD F. SYRON, President and Chief Officer Executive Officer The Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co. Thermo Electron Corporation
*Life Trustee CED HONORARY TRUSTEES
RAY C. ADAM, Retired Chairman LINCOLN GORDON, Guest Scholar NL Industries The Brookings Institution ROBERT O. ANDERSON, Retired Chairman JOHN D. GRAY, Chairman Emeritus Hondo Oil & Gas Company Hartmarx Corporation ROY L. ASH RICHARD W. HANSELMAN, Chairman Los Angeles, California Health Net Inc. SANFORD S. ATWOOD, President Emeritus ROBERT S. HATFIELD, Retired Chairman Emory University The Continental Group, Inc. ROBERT H. B. BALDWIN, Retired Chairman ARTHUR HAUSPURG, Member, Board of Trustees Morgan Stanley Group Inc. Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. GEORGE F. BENNETT, Chairman Emeritus PHILIP M. HAWLEY, Retired Chairman of the Board State Street Investment Trust Carter Hawley Hale Stores, Inc. HAROLD H. BENNETT ROBERT C. HOLLAND, Senior Fellow Salt Lake City, Utah The Wharton School JACK F. BENNETT, Retired Senior Vice President University of Pennsylvania Exxon Corporation LEON C. HOLT, JR., Retired Vice Chairman HOWARD W. BLAUVELT Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. Keswick, Virginia SOL HURWITZ, Retired President MARVIN BOWER Committee for Economic Development Delray Beach, Florida GEORGE F. JAMES ALAN S. BOYD Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida Lady Lake, Florida DAVID KEARNS, Chairman Emeritus ANDREW F. BRIMMER, President New American Schools Brimmer & Company, Inc. GEORGE M. KELLER, Retired Chairman of the Board PHILIP CALDWELL, Retired Chairman Chevron Corporation Ford Motor Company FRANKLIN A. LINDSAY, Retired Chairman HUGH M. CHAPMAN, Retired Chairman Itek Corporation NationsBank South ROBERT W. LUNDEEN, Retired Chairman E. H. CLARK, JR., Chairman and Chief Executive Officer The Dow Chemical Company The Friendship Group RICHARD B. MADDEN, Retired Chairman and A.W. CLAUSEN, Retired Chairman and Chief Chief Executive Officer Executive Officer Potlatch Corporation BankAmerica Corporation AUGUSTINE R. MARUSI DOUGLAS D. DANFORTH Lake Wales, Florida Executive Associates WILLIAM F. MAY, Chairman and Chief JOHN H. DANIELS, Retired Chairman and Executive Officer Chief Executive Officer Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. Archer-Daniels Midland Co. OSCAR G. MAYER, Retired Chairman RALPH P. DAVIDSON Oscar Mayer & Co. Washington, D.C. GEORGE C. MCGHEE, Former U.S. Ambassador ALFRED C. DECRANE, JR., Retired Chairman and and Under Secretary of State Chief Executive Officer JOHN F. MCGILLICUDDY, Retired Chairman Texaco, Inc. and Chief Executive Officer ROBERT R. DOCKSON, Chairman Emeritus Chemical Banking Corporation CalFed, Inc. JAMES W. MCKEE, JR., Retired Chairman LYLE EVERINGHAM, Retired Chairman CPC International, Inc. The Kroger Co. CHAMPNEY A. MCNAIR, Retired Vice Chairman THOMAS J. EYERMAN, Retired Partner Trust Company of Georgia Skidmore, Owings & Merrill J. W. MCSWINEY, Retired Chairman of the Board DON C. FRISBEE, Chairman Emeritus The Mead Corporation PacifiCorp ROBERT E. MERCER, Retired Chairman RICHARD L. GELB, Chairman Emeritus The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. Bristol-Myers Squibb Company RUBEN F. METTLER, Retired Chairman and W. H. KROME GEORGE, Retired Chairman Chief Executive Officer ALCOA TRW Inc. WALTER B. GERKEN, Retired Chairman and Chief LEE L. MORGAN, Former Chairman of the Board Executive Officer Caterpillar, Inc. Pacific Life Insurance Company ROBERT R. NATHAN, Chairman Nathan Associates, Inc. J. WILSON NEWMAN, Retired Chairman WILLIAM RUDER Dun & Bradstreet Corporation William Ruder Incorporated JAMES J. O’CONNOR, Former Chairman and RALPH S. SAUL, Former Chairman of the Board Chief Executive Officer CIGNA Companies Unicom Corporation GEORGE A. SCHAEFER, Retired Chairman of the Board LEIF H. OLSEN, President Caterpillar, Inc. LHO GROUP ROBERT G. SCHWARTZ NORMA PACE, President New York, New York Paper Analytics Associates MARK SHEPHERD, JR., Retired Chairman CHARLES W. PARRY, Retired Chairman Texas Instruments, Inc. ALCOA ROCCO C. SICILIANO WILLIAM R. PEARCE, Director Beverly Hills, California American Express Mutual Funds ELMER B. STAATS, Former Controller JOHN H. PERKINS, Former President General of the United States Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company FRANK STANTON, Former President RUDOLPH A. PETERSON, President and Chief CBS, Inc. Executive Officer Emeritus EDGAR B. STERN, JR., Chairman of the Board BankAmerica Corporation Royal Street Corporation DEAN P. PHYPERS ALEXANDER L. STOTT New Canaan, Connecticut Fairfield, Connecticut EDMUND T. PRATT, JR., Retired Chairman and WAYNE E. THOMPSON, Past Chairman Chief Executive Officer Merritt Peralta Medical Center Pfizer Inc. THOMAS A. VANDERSLICE ROBERT M. PRICE, Former Chairman and TAV Associates Chief Executive Officer Control Data Corporation SIDNEY J. WEINBERG, JR., Senior Director The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. JAMES J. RENIER Renier & Associates ROBERT C. WINTERS, Chairman Emeritus Prudential Insurance Company of America IAN M. ROLLAND, Former Chairman and Chief Executive Officer RICHARD D. WOOD, Director Lincoln National Corporation Eli Lilly and Company AXEL G. ROSIN, Retired Chairman CHARLES J. ZWICK Book-of-the-Month Club, Inc. Coral Gables, Florida WILLIAM M. ROTH Princeton, New Jersey CED RESEARCH ADVISORY BOARD
RALPH D. CHRISTY ROBERT W. HAHN RUDOLPH G. PENNER J. Thomas Clark Professor Resident Scholar Senior Fellow Department of Agricultural, Resource, American Enterprise Institute The Urban Institute and Managerial Economics Cornell University HELEN F. LADD CECILIA E. ROUSE Professor of Public Policy Studies Professor of Economics and ALAIN C. ENTHOVEN and Economics Public Affairs Marriner S. Eccles Professor of Public Sanford Institute of Public Policy Woodrow Wilson School and Private Management Duke University Princeton University Stanford University Graduate School of Business ROBERT LITAN JOHN P. WHITE Vice President, Director of Economic Lecturer in Public Policy BENJAMIN M. FRIEDMAN Studies John F. Kennedy School of Government William Joseph Maier Professor of The Brookings Institution Harvard University Political Economy Harvard University WILLIAM D. NORDHAUS Sterling Professor of Economics Cowles Foundation Yale University CED PROFESSIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
CHARLES E.M. KOLB President
Research Advisor on International Development EVERETT M. EHRLICH Economic Policy MARTHA E. HOULE Senior Vice President and ISAIAH FRANK Vice President for Development and Director of Research William L. Clayton Professor Secretary of the Board of Trustees of International Economics The Johns Hopkins University CAROLINA LOPEZ Manager, Development VAN DOORN OOMS Communications/Government Relations Senior Fellow NICHOLE REMMERT MICHAEL J. PETRO Development Associate JANET HANSEN Vice President and Director of Vice President and Director Business and Government Policy RICHARD M. RODERO of Education Studies and Chief of Staff Director of Development
ELLIOT SCHWARTZ MORGAN BROMAN Finance and Administration Vice President and Director Director of Communications of Economic Studies LAURIE LEE CHRIS DREIBELBIS Chief Financial Officer and Vice President MELISSA GESELL Business and Government Policy of Finance and Administration Research Associate Associate GLORIA Y. CALHOUN DAVID KAMIN CHRISTINE RYAN Office Manager Research Associate Program Director HOOJU CHOI JEFF LOESEL ROBIN SAMERS Database Administrator Research Associate Assistant Director of Communications SHARON A. FOWKES NORA LOVRIEN Executive Assistant to the President Research Associate JEFFREY SKINNER Senior Accountant/Grants Administrator RACQUEL TUPAZ Senior Accountant/Financial Reporting AMANDA TURNER Office Manager PATRICE WILLIAMS Receptionist STATEMENTS ON NATIONAL POLICY ISSUED BY THE COMMITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS:
Exploding Deficits, Declining Growth: The Federal Budget and the Aging of America (2003) Justice for Hire: Improving Judicial Selection (2002) A Shared Future: Reducing Global Poverty (2002) A New Vision for Health Care: A Leadership Role for Business (2002) Preschool For All: Investing In a Productive and Just Society (2002) From Protest to Progress: Addressing Labor and Environmental Conditions Through Freer Trade (2001) The Digital Economy: Promoting Competition, Innovation, and Opportunity (2001) Reforming Immigration: Helping Meet America's Need for a Skilled Workforce (2001) Measuring What Matters: Using Assessment and Accountability to Improve Student Learning (2001) Improving Global Financial Stability (2000) The Case for Permanent Normal Trade Relations with China (2000) Welfare Reform and Beyond: Making Work Work (2000) Breaking the Litigation Habit: Economic Incentives for Legal Reform (2000) New Opportunities for Older Workers (1999) Investing in the People's Business: A Business Proposal for Campaign Finance Reform (1999) The Employer’s Role in Linking School and Work (1998) Employer Roles in Linking School and Work: Lessons from Four Urban Communities (1998) America’s Basic Research: Prosperity Through Discovery (1998) Modernizing Government Regulation: The Need For Action (1998) U.S. Economic Policy Toward The Asia-Pacific Region (1997) Connecting Inner-City Youth To The World of Work (1997) Fixing Social Security (1997) Growth With Opportunity (1997) American Workers and Economic Change (1996) Connecting Students to a Changing World: A Technology Strategy for Improving Mathematics and Science Education (1995) Cut Spending First: Tax Cuts Should Be Deferred to Ensure a Balanced Budget (1995) Rebuilding Inner-City Communities: A New Approach to the Nation’s Urban Crisis (1995) Who Will Pay For Your Retirement? The Looming Crisis (1995) Putting Learning First: Governing and Managing the Schools for High Achievement (1994) Prescription for Progress: The Uruguay Round in the New Global Economy (1994) *From Promise to Progress: Towards a New Stage in U.S.-Japan Economic Relations (1994) U.S. Trade Policy Beyond The Uruguay Round (1994) In Our Best Interest: NAFTA and the New American Economy (1993) What Price Clean Air? A Market Approach to Energy and Environmental Policy (1993) Why Child Care Matters: Preparing Young Children For A More Productive America (1993)
*Statements issued in association with CED counterpart organizations in foreign countries. Restoring Prosperity: Budget Choices for Economic Growth (1992) The United States in the New Global Economy: A Rallier of Nations (1992) The Economy and National Defense: Adjusting to Cutbacks in the Post-Cold War Era (1991) Politics, Tax Cuts and the Peace Dividend (1991) The Unfinished Agenda: A New Vision for Child Development and Education (1991) Foreign Investment in the United States: What Does It Signal? (1990) An America That Works: The Life-Cycle Approach to a Competitive Work Force (1990) Breaking New Ground in U.S. Trade Policy (1990) Battling America’s Budget Deficits (1989) *Strengthening U.S.-Japan Economic Relations (1989) Who Should Be Liable? A Guide to Policy for Dealing with Risk (1989) Investing in America’s Future: Challenges and Opportunities for Public Sector Economic Policies (1988) Children in Need: Investment Strategies for the Educationally Disadvantaged (1987) Finance and Third World Economic Growth (1987) Reforming Health Care: A Market Prescription (1987) Work and Change: Labor Market Adjustment Policies in a Competitive World (1987) Leadership for Dynamic State Economies (1986) Investing in Our Children: Business and the Public Schools (1985) Fighting Federal Deficits: The Time for Hard Choices (1985) Strategy for U.S. Industrial Competitiveness (1984) Productivity Policy: Key to the Nation’s Economic Future (1983) Energy Prices and Public Policy (1982) Public Private Partnership: An Opportunity for Urban Communities (1982) Reforming Retirement Policies (1981) Transnational Corporations and Developing Countries: New Policies for a Changing World Economy (1981) Stimulating Technological Progress (1980) Redefining Government’s Role in the Market System (1979) Jobs for the Hard to Employ: New Directions for a Public-Private Partnership (1978) CED COUNTERPART ORGANIZATIONS
Close relations exist between the Committee for Economic Development and inde- pendent, nonpolitical research organizations in other countries. Such counterpart groups are composed of business executives and scholars and have objectives similar to those of CED, which they pursue by similarly objective methods. CED cooperates with these organizations on research and study projects of common interest to the various countries concerned. This program has resulted in a number of joint policy statements involving such international matters as energy, assistance to developing countries, and the reduction of nontariff barriers to trade.
CE Circulo de Empresarios Madrid, Spain
CEAL Consejo Empresario de America Latina Buenos Aires, Argentina
CEDA Committee for Economic Development of Australia Sydney, Australia
CIRD China Institute for Reform and Development Hainan, People’s Republic of China
EVA Centre for Finnish Business and Policy Studies Helsinki, Finland
FAE Forum de Administradores de Empresas Lisbon, Portugal
IDEP Institut de l’Entreprise Paris, France
IW Institut der deutschen Wirtschaft Koeln Cologne, Germany
Keizai Doyukai Tokyo, Japan
SMO Stichting Maatschappij en Onderneming The Netherlands
SNS Studieförbundet Naringsliv och Samhälle Stockholm, Sweden Committee for Economic Development
2000 L Street, N.W., Suite 700 Washington, D.C. 20036 Telephone: (202) 296-5860 Fax: (202) 223-0776
261 Madison Avenue New York, New York 10016 Telephone: (212) 688-2063 Fax: (212) 758-9068
www.ced.org