“Silesia at the Crossroads”: Defining Germans and Poles in Upper Silesia During the First World War and Plebiscite Period
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
“SILESIA AT THE CROSSROADS”: DEFINING GERMANS AND POLES IN UPPER SILESIA DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND PLEBISCITE PERIOD Allison Ann Rodriguez A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2019 Approved by: Chad Bryant Karen Auerbach James Bjork Donald J. Raleigh Donald Reid ©2020 Allison Ann Rodriguez ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Allison Ann Rodriguez: “Silesia at the Crossroads”: Defining Germans and Poles in Upper Silesia During the First World War and Plebiscite Period (Under the direction of Chad Bryant) On March 20, 1921, nearly 1.2 million Upper Silesians went to the polls, participating in a plebiscite to determine if they would belong to Germany or Poland. A part of German Prussia since the mid-eighteenth century, Upper Silesia differed from other areas of Prussian Poland in that it was never a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The area was ethnically and linguistically mixed but religiously homogenous, with Catholics comprising 90 percent of the population. Many inhabitants held fast to a regional or religious identity rather than a national one. In the age of national self-determination, however, non-national identities would not do. Much of the historiography of nationalism in East Central Europe has focused on lands of the Habsburg Empire. This dissertation, set in a different national context, argues that the Upper Silesian Plebiscite and its preceding two-year propaganda campaign gave nationalists the space in which to define and refine what it meant to be German or Polish. As the German Revolution remade Germany into a Republic and Poland was reconstituted, a myriad of possibilities became available for Upper Silesians. The area was inundated with plebiscite propaganda for almost two years. I argue that the German and Polish Plebiscite Commissariats, with the backing and blessing of their respective governments, appropriated the new post-war situation to continue the work of previous national activists in the region with new tactics. Through the plebiscite propaganda, Germans and Poles redefined themselves and each other. The propaganda iii employed a variety of techniques, stressing not only the importance of one’s ethnicity but also the economic consequences of “staying in Germany” or “becoming Polish.” In addition, class and gender distinctions, the latter of which has not been explored in the historiography on the region, feature prominently and add to the conceptions of what it meant to be German or Polish. Finally, this dissertation examines the plebiscite results and the ultimate decision, made by international leaders, to divide the region. iv To Jack and Ben You are my sunshine. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS What a long, strange, and ultimately wonderful journey these past fifteen years have been. While the act of writing a dissertation can be a solitary one, no grad student finishes alone. It is my pleasure to finally be able to thank all those who supported, and sometimes pushed, me while I finished this dissertation. This project would never have been completed without Chad Bryant. When I decided I was ready and in a position to finish, Chad did not hesitate to be my advisor. His support and dedication through this has meant more than can be adequately described here, and so a very heartfelt “Thank You” will have to do. I am also indebted to my dissertation committee and others at UNC. James Bjork’s own work on Upper Silesia inspired me to explore this under-appreciated region and join the small – but growing! – ranks of Upper Silesian historians. Karen Auerbach and Don Reid provided keen insights that will make the next iteration of the project that much better. A special thanks to Don Raleigh, who agreed to be a part of the committee at literally the last minute when another member fell ill. I want to also acknowledge Karen Hagemann, without whom I never would have considered studying gender history, especially the history of masculinity. This dissertation would certainly be the poorer without this insight. Research for this project would have been impossible without a generous grant from the Fulbright Program, which funded a nine-month stay in Katowice, Poland. In addition, with the aid of three Foreign Language Area Studies grants, I was able to spend summers at the Goethe vi Institut in Dresden and the Catholic University in Lublin. The latter was my home for three summers and proved invaluable in improving my Polish. While at UNC, I was fortunate to be a part of a wonderful cohort of students who provided both emotional and academic support, among them my Doktorschwestern Jennifer Lynn, Friederike Bruehoefner, Marina Jones and Sarah Summers, as well as Waitman Beorn, Sarah Bond and Zsolt Nagy. In Lublin, I was lucky enough to meet Katharina Matro, who has become a life-long friend. Trinity College in Hartford, CT, was my teaching home for five years, made all the more welcoming by my colleagues in the history department. Jennifer Regan-Lefebvre and Karen Miller, especially, have provided an endless amount of encouragement and support. I want to also thank Dr. Janet Schrager, who helped me conquer my anxiety and self-doubt. I include her here to let other graduate students know there is no shame in asking for help when it is needed. Finally, my deepest of gratitude belongs to my family, who were steadfast in their belief in this project even when I was wracked with doubt. My cousin, Lucy McCurdy, was my book supplier, checking out numerous works on Upper Silesian history from her university library and requiring only Red Lobster biscuits in return. My mother, Connie, made two multi-week visits in the final months, taking over school pick-ups and grocery runs so I could focus on writing. Both she and my father, Armando, also provided crucial childcare so that I could travel back to UNC for the defense. James Healy, my husband, took the boys on numerous weekend trips and listened to me ramble about the 1919 municipal elections and wordplay in propaganda posters. vii But it is to my sons, Jack and Ben, whom I dedicate this work. I wrote this for myself, yes, but also for you, so that when life throws you challenges, you can look at this and see that anything is possible, that it is immensely worth it to keep trying. No, I don’t need to work now. Yes, I can come play. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xi INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................1 Historiography .................................................................................................................7 Sources and Organization .............................................................................................. 26 PART ONE: BEFORE THE CROSSROADS: UPPER SILESIA BEFORE AND DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR ...................................................................................... 34 1. Upper Silesia Before the War ..................................................................................... 35 1.1: Upper Silesia: Its Place, People and Politics ..................................................... 37 1.2: The Elections of 1903, 1907 and 1912 ............................................................. 55 2. Upper Silesia at War .................................................................................................. 71 2.1: Upper Silesia During the First World War ....................................................... 73 2.2: The First World War in the Polish and German Press ....................................... 80 PART TWO: “DOWN WHICH ROAD?”: THE MYRIAD PATHS FOR UPPER SILESIA IN THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR.................... 96 1. Revolution and Rebirth: Germany, Poland and Upper Silesia After the First World War........................................................................................................... 100 2. The Different Roads: Options for and Reactions to the Future of Upper Silesia .......................................................................................................................... 122 2.1: The Socialist Alternative(s) ............................................................................ 122 2.2: The National Choice ...................................................................................... 132 2.3: “Upper Silesia for Upper Silesians”: The Autonomist Movement................... 138 3. The Path Determined: The Allied Decision and its Impact on Upper Silesia .......................................................................................................................... 146 ix 3.1: The Peace Treaty at Versailles ....................................................................... 147 3.2: Violence and Order in Upper Silesia in Late 1919 .......................................... 154 PART THREE: “STAY IN GERMANY” OR “BECOME POLISH”?: THE UPPER SILESIAN PLEBISCITE PROPAGANDA ................................................................ 172 1. The Summer of 1920: Another Plebiscite, Another War, Another Uprising ...................................................................................................................... 176 2. The Upper Silesian Plebiscite Campaign .................................................................