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The Biodiversity of Epiphytic Lichens in Pretoria (South Africa) and Its Value for Ecological Indication

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The Biodiversity of Epiphytic Lichens in Pretoria (South Africa) and Its Value for Ecological Indication THE BIODIVERSITY OF EPIPHYTIC LICHENS IN PRETORIA (SOUTH AFRICA) AND ITS VALUE FOR ECOLOGICAL INDICATION by KHUMBUDZO WALTER MAPHANGWA submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE in the subject COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR. L. ZEDDA CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF. M. TEKERE November 2019 DEDICATION To my mother (Selinah Maphangwa), Azwifaneli, Mpho and Mashudu who always believed in me. i DECLARATION Name: Khumbudzo Walter Maphangwa Student number: 55774830 Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Science The biodiversity of epiphytic lichens in Pretoria (South Africa) and its value for ecological indication I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that I submitted the thesis to originality checking software and that it falls within the accepted requirements for originality. I further declare that I have not previously submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at Unisa for another qualification or at any other higher education institution. Signature: Date: 4 November 2019 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following individuals and organisations for their assistance and support: • I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Luciana Zedda for guiding me throughout this study and for reviewing my chapters. Her encouragement, guidance during fieldwork, lichen identification and support enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject and to conduct this research. • My co-supervisor, Prof Memory Tekere for her encouragement, support and reviewing my chapters. • The City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, Groenkloof Nature Reserve, Pionier Museum, Rietvlei Nature Reserve, South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and Voortrekker Monument Nature Reserve are thanked for allowing research to be carried out in their reverses and around the city. • Dr André Aptroot and Dr Harrie J.M. Sipman are thanked for helping with lichen identification. • Dr Robert Lücking is thanked for providing lichen identification facilities and chemicals at the Botanical Garden and Botanical Museum in Berlin (Germany). • Dr Pablo Alvarado for helping with the sequencing of Culbersonia nubila. • TerraData environmetrics is thanked for helping with the lichen monitoring analyses. • Ms Kim Ward is thanked for editing and proofreading the thesis. • The following people are thanked for helping with fieldwork: Ulrich Sukopp, Lufuno Makwarela, Thambulo Nonyana, Litshani Nemakhavhani and Phumzile Mbonani. • Dr Allan Barrett and Ms Selina Nkosi helped with the map of the study area. • All colleagues in the Department of Environmental Sciences at UNISA are thanked for their support and encouragement. In particular, I would like to thank Ntsako Baloyi, Mogashoa Matlhalefi, Billy Malatji, Maarten Jordaan, Tsakani Tshimbana, Unine Van den Berg, Boitumelo Mongale, Khomotso Semenya, Malebo Matlala, Estherlene Hart and Prof. Kevin Mearns. • Dr Ntakadzeni Madala and Lufuno Nemadodzi are thanked for their encouragement. • Azwifaneli Makungo, Mpho and Mashudu Maphangwa are thanked for their love, encouragement and support. • I would also like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to the UNISA for funding this study, providing vehicles and internet facilities. • Last but not least, I would like to thank my mother, Mrs Selinah Maphangwa, and my brothers and sisters for their love and care. iii ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to assess the diversity of epiphytic lichens growing on Acacia karroo, A. caffra and Jacaranda mimosifolia trees in Pretoria, and to investigate the influence of air pollution, land use, altitude and climate on lichen diversity. Lichen diversity was first studied at 12 sampling sites under different land use types (high traffic areas, residential areas and industrial areas) and in protected areas (open-air museums and nature reserves). The “European guidelines for monitoring lichen diversity as an indicator of environmental stress” were then tested in 29 sites using the same tree species and under two main land use types (“Industrial areas and busy roads” and “Parks and nature reserves”). Lichen Diversity Values (LDVs) were calculated for 164 trees. Correlations of LDVs and single lichen species with environmental parameters were studied by descriptive statistics, univariate analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Generalized Linear Models (GLM). A naturality/alteration interpretative scale based on the percentile deviation of LDVs from natural conditions was developed for the first time in South Africa. Altogether 25 taxa, predominantly foliose and subtropical to tropical species, were recorded and are reported with their ecology and distribution. An identification key was developed for easy identification of species in the field. The highest lichen diversity was found in protected areas. The LDVs of Jacaranda are lower than values for both Acacia species. “Parks and nature reserves” have significantly higher LDVs than “industrial areas and busy roads”, as demonstrated by the PCA. The GLM models were significant for LDV and some lichen species. Sampling sites in industrial areas and the proximity of busy roads are negatively related to LDV and with the frequency of many lichen species. Higher atmospheric concentrations of NOx were negatively related to LDV and to the frequency of the species Candelaria concolor, Lepraria spp. and Pyxine cocoes. Culbersonia nubila and Lepraria spp. were respectively positively and negatively correlated with atmospheric SO2. The intensity of land use appears to have a negative impact on lichen diversity. In conclusion, lichens respond well to human disturbances in Pretoria and can be used as bioindicators of naturality/alteration. The European standardised monitoring method can be applied to estimate the degree of environmental alteration in South Africa, by adopting a stratified random sampling and a more flexible strategy for tree selection. Keywords: lichen, biodiversity, distribution, monitoring, disturbance, Pretoria, South Africa iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION......................................................................................................................... i DECLARATION .....................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction and background ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem statement ........................................................................................................ 3 1.3 The need for this research ........................................................................................... 5 1.4 Research questions ...................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Research objectives ..................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................. 7 1.7 Study limitations ........................................................................................................... 7 1.8 Chapter breakdown ....................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 10 2.1 Lichen morphology ..................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Lichen diversity and ecology in South Africa ........................................................... 12 2.3 Ecological roles of lichens ......................................................................................... 15 2.4 Lichen as a bioindicator of human disturbances ..................................................... 17 2.4.1 Air pollution ..................................................................................................................... 17 2.4.1.1 Pollution by sulphur dioxide (SO2) and lichen diversity .............................. 18 2.4.1.2 Pollution by nitrogen compounds and lichen diversity ............................... 19 2.4.1.3 Pollution by particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5) and lichen diversity ............... 20 2.4.1.4 Pollution by heavy metals and lichens as biomonitors ............................... 21 2.4.1.5 Methods used to detect and monitor air pollution ......................................
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