A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
A report prepared by the Dalton Nuclear Institute, National Nuclear Laboratory and Battelle, commissioned by the Technology Strategy Board in partnership with Materials UK and Regional Development Agencies A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
A1.0 Review Executive of the summary UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
A H Sherry1, P J A Howarth2, P Kearns3 and N Waterman4
Executive summary With a market valued at around • the UK’s R&D potential to develop What is clear, if the UK is to capture £600 billion for new nuclear build and exploit the technology a significant share of the nuclear and £250 billion for • the potential for UK business to energy market it must invest in those decommissioning, waste treatment make an impact in the appropriate areas of nuclear engineering where and disposal, the predicted timeframe there is existing capability and resurgence in the nuclear market • the national and global market experience, and it is perceived by the over the next 20 years could lead to opportunity for exploitation rest of the world to be strong. It must significant opportunities for UK • the potential role for public sector collaborate with other nations where businesses both nationally and intervention that adds value above it can provide world class globally in the area of nuclear and beyond that of private contributions to advanced reactor engineering and its associated investment systems and nuclear fusion power technologies. systems (ITER and DEMO), and also decide that it will not repeat the The study commissioned has been The UK has a strong historic track errors of the 1960s and 1970s by bounded to identify those record in nuclear engineering, researching every conceivable system opportunities associated with having been one of very few for producing power from nuclear technology development yielding a countries that has closed the fission and nuclear fusion. It should potential commercial return over the complete fuel cycle. It has developed stay with the mainstream efforts of next 5-10 years (although the report thermal and fast reactors, other countries and organisations also takes account of longer term reprocessing technology, fuel with the view of collaborating where payback opportunities, where there manufacture, and enrichment appropriate to leverage the more are clear perceived benefits to UK expertise. However, it is recognised recent experience of others. business). It has also focused on that much of this capability (with organisations beyond the main the exception of the defence sector) Even though the next generation of industry players and 1st and 2nd tier has been in decline over the past two reactors (Gen III) to be constructed suppliers to include SMEs. The decades as the UK focus has shifted will be designed by organisations intention has been to understand away from nuclear to other power from overseas (such as Westinghouse what role the sponsors could play in generation sources. With the advent and Areva) the UK’s supply chain still supporting organisations in of a global nuclear renaissance there has a strong role to play. developing and deploying technology should be significant opportunities Opportunities exist mainly in support and innovative products. Therefore, for UK organisations to take of the licensing of the new reactor by definition, the technology advantage of this new market, technology being conducted by the exploitation must be closer to market particularly if a coordinated NII/HSE, advanced modelling to than blue-sky science (such as that approach, which recognises the UK’s improve operational efficiency, funded by the Research Councils), core skills, is taken to develop the reliability and safety, Non-Destructive but not so close that any public- necessary supply chain and skill- Evaluation (NDE) of components and sector investment cannot be justified base. structures during build, operation and could be regarded as anti- and maintenance, improved competitive. This implies investment This report has been commissioned understanding of materials around Technology Readiness Levels by the Technology Strategy Board in degradation mechanisms to ensure (TRL) 3-6 in the technology association with a number of the practical lifetimes in excess of 60 innovation chain. UK’s Regional Development Agencies years, manufacture of components and Materials UK, and assesses the and sub assemblies, assessment of The review has been compiled in UK’s current R&D capacity and the alternative components in the event consultation with many of the major opportunities for UK organisations to of any supply restrictions, the organisations involved in the nuclear develop and deploy innovative development of advanced supply chain in the UK. In addition, technologies to support the civil construction techniques to improve the review has been given an nuclear industry. The review has programme delivery and cost, and international perspective to help specifically addressed; production and recycling of advanced understand the UK’s actual and fuels. The UK has long-established perceived position amongst the R&D strengths in each of these areas. countries at the forefront of nuclear engineering R&D, such as the USA, In addition to support for Gen III France, Japan and India. deployment, opportunities exist to support continued operation of
2 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
existing reactors (Gen II), advanced could be utilised in the civil nuclear Some of these areas of special thermal systems (Gen III+) and more market. For example, the Light Water expertise have already demonstrated advanced reactors scheduled for 2020 Reactor nuclear naval propulsion the potential for technology spin-out and beyond (Gen IV). capability within Rolls-Royce has and spin-in, in particular NDE for direct relevance to civil reactor build other large process plant industries There is further opportunity for R&D and operational support. The non- and advanced modelling for areas as and subsequent innovative nuclear proliferation, materials detection, diverse as coastal erosion and flow engineering associated with Gen III+ tracking and safeguarding work at modelling of pollutants in an urban and Gen IV reactors including non- AWE is also relevant to the environment. electricity generating opportunities development of advanced civil such as high temperature process nuclear fuel cycles that are Investment in advanced reactor or heat and desalination. Although proliferation resistant. BAE Systems fuel cycle technology associated with these systems are not likely to be have developed modular construction Gen III+ or Gen IV systems does not deployed commercially until after techniques and virtual reality fit the defined exploitation 2030, there are a number of on-going modelling to support construction, in requirements of this review, given the projects around the world to build addition to being actively engaged in long development timescales and the Demonstrators / Prototypes / Test reactor plant integration and fact that commercialisation is not Reactors and these will create new commissioning. likely for a couple of decades. business opportunities, e.g. the However, investment in such Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) Spent fuel handling technology has advanced systems might be justifiable in South Africa, the High been considered in this report given if it results in new products and Temperature Reactor – Prototype its relevance to advanced fuel cycles, services that could be utilised on Modular (HTR-PM) in China and Fast however assessment has not been existing reactor systems or business Breeder Reactors (FBRs) in several included of market opportunities or opportunities that are likely to exist countries. The UK currently has technology development associated within the next 5-10 years. Examples minimal involvement with these with the decommissioning, legacy that have been included here include: projects although it does have the waste management or geological skills and experience to contribute in disposal markets. These opportunities • Fuel manufacture and several areas of relevant technologies. have been excluded from the study, development – improving burn-up Greater investment in support of however technology development and performance of fuel in R&D on advanced reactor systems is within the industry that could be existing reactors necessary if the UK is to have any transferred from these markets to the • Control, detection and monitoring continuing credibility as a major civil nuclear energy market has been systems – techniques to support player. considered. lifetime assessment of existing reactor systems Construction of new reactors is only The domestic and overseas responses • Materials analysis, assessment and part of nuclear energy deployment; to the review indicate the wider characterisation techniques – supporting infrastructure is required global nuclear industry believes that understanding and predicting associated with the nuclear fuel cycle. the UK has outstanding R&D plant related issues on current This includes conversion of resources capabilities in the following areas: systems into fuel at the front-end prior to • Assessment of advanced fuel cycles loading into the reactor, followed by • Advanced modelling and analysis – support to global threat spent fuel management and handling of reactor cores of all types used reduction programmes associated once fuel is discharged. There is also commercially at present and also with safeguards and non- the potential for significant including those planned for the proliferation development of some of these fuel new build Generation III systems • Knowledge management activities recycle options in order to support and some advanced reactor that can help transfer the UK’s the more advanced Gen IV systems. systems in particular gas-cooled vast experience base to the new reactor systems. wave of engineers that will An additional aspect of the UK’s • Thermal hydraulics and major support the global nuclear nuclear industry is associated with accident modelling renaissance. security, safeguards and non- • Fuel design, manufacture and proliferation. Given the UK’s historic performance modelling. The wide consultation which has capability, it is well placed and • Fuel enrichment and re-cycling indeed already active in supporting taken place over the period March – • NDE and Structural Integrity of international initiatives such as the June 2009 with with key national materials and structures IAEA, GNEP, Global Threat and international players has been Reduction, Nuclear Safety in FSU • Advanced construction methods distilled into this report. countries etc. • Materials Degradation (metals, concrete and plastics) In summary, it is considered that the Whilst this study does not consider • Decontamination and TSB and the RDAs can assist UK defence-related nuclear development decommissioning industry, including SMEs, to access the opportunities that the nuclear there are nonetheless some • Waste treatment and management renaissance offers by: capabilities from this sector that • Fuel cycle assessment
3 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Executive summary
• Investing in appropriately scoped Specific opportunities that have been Against these technology areas there R&D programmes and identified as satisfying the above are considered to be real commercial infrastructure projects criteria for “public-sector opportunities over the next 5-10 • Leading knowledge transfer and intervention” arise within general years that have specific market sizes capture activities both within the categories of Technology, ranging from >£1M to £100M with nuclear sector and establishing Infrastructure and Knowledge, and commensurate investment links to other business areas include the engagement with the requirements ranging from <£1M to • Communicating the new business Euratom Framework programmes. >£10M. opportunities in nuclear The opportunities identified during engineering. (This is already the course of the review include the There are also UK based companies happening through a series of following: that could take these opportunities to well-attended supply chain market and spin-in and spin-out workshops.) • Non-destructive Testing and opportunities as well. Examination (NDT/NDE) • Encouraging and assisting UK The assessment conducted here has companies to become accredited • Condition monitoring and shown there are many opportunities to supply the nuclear engineering preventative maintenance for UK organisations to exploit. industry • Materials degradation, structural integrity and lifetime However, in order for the UK to • Facilitating closer contact with UK maintain its nuclear industry heritage • Digital command and control universities engaged on nuclear and status as well as benefit from the systems engineering R&D and in particular global nuclear renaissance, public encouraging two-way secondments • Advanced Manufacturing Research sector investment in R&D and and knowledge transfer Centre(s) for Nuclear components technology development will be partnerships and systems and fuels essential and can be justified. • Promoting international • Modularisation engagement and collaboration • Advanced fuel manufacturing • Fuel recycling • Fuel cycle assessment • Knowledge capture, storage and transfer • Virtual reality to assist manufacture and maintenance of new build plant • Advanced modelling of systems, structures and components
Authors
A H Sherry : Dalton Nuclear Institute, The University of Manchester P J A Howarth : National Nuclear Laboratory P Kearns : Battelle Memorial Institute N Waterman : Independent Consultant
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Summary Table of Technical Opportunities (further details provided in Section 6)
Key Likely UK Spin-out Size of market Cost to UK Company Priority Investment Technical Opportunity share opportunity Comments per new reactor market (example only) (H/M/L) Needs (probability) (H/M/L)
A NDE/NDT to reduce £10M's for High for UK, < £10M Industrial support to High - nuclear High Saving in manufacturing & construction inspection times and construction, Medium for RCNDE, TWI, 20 to 30 and non-nuclear costs, improving quality and reproducibility. accelerate new build £100M's through Global key SMEs Fingerprint welds at SOL programme life B Condition monitoring & > £10M for High for UK, < £10M SMEs (and universities Many - nuclear High Add-on to normal control & instrumentation. preventative construction, Medium for e.g. Cardiff, Manchester) and non-nuclear Need to demonstrate near-term value. maintenance to increase £100M's through Global Examples of gas turbine on-line monitoring. safe life and reduce life life extension, and Formula 1. downtime C Materials degradation, > £10M. High in UK, < £10M Tiers 1 & 2, e.g. Atkins, High e.g. creep, High Irradiation, corrosion, EAC, erosion, creep, etc. structural integrity and But note Low for Global Amec, RR, Babcock creep-fatigue, Impact of water chemistry on plant lifetime prediction consequential Marine, Serco, EDF/BE, long-term operation and reduction of degradation. including water impact. … corrosion issues. Westinghouse use EPRI standards. Including chemistry and doping to Other nuclear local and global chemistry. Consider reduce corrosion and e.g. legacy waste establishent of UK node for Materials Ageing advanced materials management Institute. Major benefit to utilities.
Technology-based D Digital command & > £10M Medium in UK, > £10M Rolls-Royce, BAE High High Each new reactor will require a new digital control systems to Medium for systems comand and control system. improve the Global performance, reliability and safety of complex systems E Advanced > £100M Medium in UK, < £1M (less Existing AMRCs - High High Higher probability for smaller components Manufacturing Research Medium for than £1M per university/industry (e.g. rather than large components. Niche areas Centre(s) for Nuclear to Global project, but Sheffield Forgemasters, for SMEs in areas including HIPing, welding address high value potentially Metal Improvement) & joining, surface technology, new materials. manufacturing and 10 or so links. technical challenges by projects) the supply chain. F Modularisation to > £100M High for UK, < £10M BAE Systems, RR, Low Medium Modularisation approaches to AP1000 using encourage local build Low for Global Doosan-Babcock flow approaches used in ships, submarines, etc. and assembly and through to SMEs Assembly on-site, building local industry. engage the UK supply Reduce construction time, costs & improve chain quality. Standardisation in design is a goal, though different requirements in UK and overseas. Ga Advanced fuel Approx. £450M High for UK, < £10M Westinghouse, NNL, High- Strong High Build up manufacturing capacity in UK. manufacturing over 60 year Medium for UK capacity Rolls-Royce, Urenco possibility of Higher predictability, better QA, but stickng processes including lifetime Global already in combining civil with existing design. Development of more efficient processes place, but and naval improvements to manufacturing processes. & improved fuel requires interests, but Including better inspection of each stage of performance capital and subject to MOD. the process. R&D investment to compete for new build business.
Infrastructure-based Gb Fuel recycling including Fuel recycling High for UK, > £1000M Sellafield Ltd, Areva, Low Low Political hurdles may limit additional MOX fuel manufacture would need to be High for Energy Solutions - SMEs, recycling in UK and participation of UK offered at a cost of Global NNL and universities as companies in overseas recycling. >£10M per reactor technology suppliers per year. H Fuel cycle assessment to Initially < £10M High for UK, < £10M NNL, Manchester Low to Medium High Includes reprocessing, aqueous product reduce proliferation over 5 years, High for University, Sellafield Ltd volume reduction, Co-extraction reducing concern and waste potentially to grow Global proliferation concern, separation of minor volumes to > £10M per year actinides, waste matrices & fuel fabrication. if assessments are converted into improvements in industrial practice I Knowledge capture, > £1M per new Medium in UK, > £10M LSC, NNL, Data Capture High High Online, interactive and flexible, drawing on storage & transfer, reactor year of Medium for Solutions, etc. the latest information & communication roadmapping, operation Global technologies, ICT, (Google, gaming knowledge transfer technologies, etc), networking people, with network online access 24/7, and real-time updates. J Virtual reality (3D > £1M. High for UK, > £10M Tier 1 interest but much High and Medium Combining software packages. Interactive visualisation & But note Medium for involvement of SMEs Spin-in high approach to design & construction of new simulation tool) to assist consequential Global including software plant. Training for operation & maintainance manufacture and benefit organisations engineers on existing and new plant leading maintenance of new to commercial advantage. build plant K Advanced modelling to > £10M per new High for UK, > £10M Manchester, Imperial, High High Full muti-dimensional model of reactor core. enable more efficient reactor year of Medium to Strathclyde Universities Coupling of physics codes, CFD & structural
Knowledge-based operation and higher operation high for Global codes. Pay-off for operating plant to predict levels of safety and plant where & when there may be a problem, e.g. availability flow distribution into reactor. "Information, Communication & Technology (ICT)"
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Contents
Acronyms 7 6.2.2 Modularisation 29 6.2.3 Advanced Fuel Manufacturing 29 1.0 Introduction 9 6.2.4 Fuel Recycling 30 1.1 Remit from Technology Strategy Board 9 6.2.5 Fuel cycle assessment 30 1.2 Description of the Process and Participants 9 6.3 Knowledge-based opportunities 30 6.3.1 Knowledge capture, storage and transfer 30 2.0 Overview of The UK Nuclear Sector 11 6.3.2 Virtual reality to assist manufacture and 2.1 Continued Operations and lifetime extension 11 maintenance of new build plant 30 2.2 Generation III near-term thermal systems 12 6.3.3 Advanced modelling and Analysis 31 2.3 Medium term thermal systems 12 6.4 Summary 31 2.4 Advanced thermal and fast reactor systems 14 2.5 Fuel Cycle technology 14 7.0 Conclusions 35 2.6 Safeguards, non-proliferation and threat reduction 14 8.0 Acknowledgements 37 3.0 Research and Development Requirements 17 3.1 Continued Operations R&D 17 Appendices 38 3.2 Gen III R&D 17 Appendix 1: Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector 38 3.3 R&D for Medium Term Thermal Systems 18 Appendix 2: Gen III+ Medium Term 3.4 R&D for Advanced Thermal and Fast Thermal Systems 43 Reactor Systems 19 Appendix 3: Current UK Nuclear R&D 44 3.5 R&D for Fuel Cycle Technologies 19 Appendix 4: R&D for Future Systems 47 3.6 R&D for Safeguards, Non-proliferation and Appendix 5: Feedback from UK Stakeholders 50 Global Threat Reduction 19 Appendix 6: Feedback from International Stakeholders 56 4.0 UK R&D Strengths and Weaknesses 21 Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, 4.1 UK stakeholder views on R&D Capabilities Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits 60 Relevant to New Nuclear Build Programme 21 1.0 Scope of Study 61 4.2 International Stakeholder Views 21 2.0 UK Materials Capacity 61 4.3 Summary of Nuclear Industry, UK and 2.1 Materials supply chain 61 international views 21 2.2 Advanced Materials Technology 62 2.3 Interim summary 64 5.0 Summary of UK R&D Opportunities 23 3.0 Impact of Advanced Materials 5.1 Opportunities associated with current Technology 64 reactor systems, fuel cycle and infrastructure 24 3.1 New build materials technology 5.2 Opportunities in the UK’s deployment of priorities 64 Gen III systems 24 3.2 Interim summary 66 5.3 Opportunities to support medium term 4.0 Opportunities of relevance to thermal reactor systems 25 TSB/Regional Development 5.3.1 Small integral light water reactors 25 Agencies (RDAs) 66 5.3.2 HTR 17 4.1 Areas for public sector intervention 66 5.4 Opportunities in demonstrators for advanced Infrastructure-based opportunities 66 thermal, fast reactor systems and associated Technology-based opportunities 68 fuel cycle technology 25 4.2 Support mechanisms 69 Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTP) 69 6.0 Summary and Assessment of Technology-, Collaborative Research and Infrastructure- and Knowledge-Based Development Programmes (CRD) 69 Opportunities 27 Stimulating increased collaboration: 6.1 Technology-based opportunities 27 Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN) 69 6.1.1 Non-destructive Testing and Examination 4.3 Interim summary 69 (NDT/NDE) 27 5.0 Spill-over Benefits 70 6.1.2 Condition monitoring & preventative 6.0 Summary and Recommendations 70 maintenance 27 6.1.3 Materials degradation, structural integrity References for Appendix 7 72 and lifetime assessment 28 6.1.4 Digital command & control systems 28 6.2 Infrastructure-based opportunities 28 6.2.1 Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre(s) for Nuclear 28
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Acronyms
AECL Atomic Energy Canada Limited MMM Materials Management Matrix AGR Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor MOD Ministry of Defence AMRCs Advanced Manufacturing Research Centres MOX Mixed Oxide AWE Atomic Weapons Establishment NDA Nuclear Decommissioning Authority BNFL British Nuclear Fuels Ltd NDE Non Destructive Evaluation NDT/NDE Non-destructive Testing and Examination C&I Control and Instrumentation NGNP Next Generation Nuclear Plant CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics NII Nuclear Installations Inspectorate CORWM Committee on Radioactive Waste NNL National Nuclear Laboratory Management CRD Collaborative Research and OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Programmes Development PBMR Pebble Bed Modular Reactor DEMO Demonstration Power Plant PWR Pressurised Water Reactor DoE Department of Energy QA Quality Assurance EAC Environmentally Assisted Cracking EDF/BE Electricité de France/ British Energy R&D Research and Development EPR European Pressurised Reactor RCNDE Research Centre in Non Destructive EPRI Electric Power Research Institute Evaluation EU European Union RDAs Regional Development Agencies EURATOM The European Atomic Energy Community RR Rolls-Royce
FBRs Fast Breeder Reactors SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises FR Fast Reactor SOL Start of Life FSU Former Soviet Union THORP The Thermal Oxide Reprocessing Plant GIF Generation IV International Forum TRISO fuel Tristructural-isotropic fuel GNEP The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership TRL Technology Readiness Level TSB Technology Strategy Board HTR High Temperature Reactor TN Technology Network HIPing Hot Isostatic Pressing TWI The Welding Institute Ltd HSE Health and Safety Executive VHTR Very High Temperature Reactor IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ICT Information Communication Technology IRIS International Reactor Innovative and Secure ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
JAEA Japan Atomic Energy Authority
KAERI Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute KTN Knowledge Transfer Network KTP Knowledge Transfer Partnership
LOCA Loss of Coolant Accident LLWR Low Level Waste Repository (UK) LWR Light Water Reactor
7 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
In May 2008, the Technology Strategy Board published its strategy to support innovation in the UK energy sector1 which acknowledged the role that nuclear power could make in contributing to the security of electricity supply and in meeting climate change targets.
8 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
1.0 Introduction
The Technology Strategy Board (TSB) 1.1 Remit from Technology A significant body of detailed analysis recognised the possibility that there Strategy Board has been assembled and this is could be significant opportunities for described in a series of appendices to UK businesses in areas of research support the main report: The TSB has set criteria for this and development (R&D) presented review in the form of 4 questions: by the global resurgence of new Appendix 1 Overview of the UK nuclear build and from spill-over nuclear sector • Is there a UK capacity to develop technologies. In the light of this, the Appendix 2 GEN III+ Medium and exploit the technology and TSB, in combination with a number Term Thermal Systems become a leading global player? of Regional Development Agencies Appendix 3 Current UK Nuclear (RDAs) and MaterialsUK, has • Does the technology have R&D requested a review of the current potential for impact in the right Appendix 4 R&D for Future status of the UK’s nuclear R&D timeframe? Systems capability and its status as a • Is there a UK and global market Appendix 5 Feedback from UK technology provider and user. This opportunity for exploitation? Stakeholders review advises the sponsors of the • Is there a clear role for public Appendix 6 Feedback from potential business opportunities and sector intervention and support International makes the case for intervention for that adds value above and beyond Stakeholders innovation in particular areas of that of private investment? Appendix 7 Materials Nuclear R&D nuclear engineering. Capacity, 1.2 Description of the Process and Opportunities and Participants Spill-over Benefits To complement the informal A consortium of the University of interviews, a stakeholder workshop Manchester’s Dalton Nuclear was held to consider the analysis and Institute, Battelle Memorial Institute views presented in a draft report. The and the UK’s National Nuclear resulting feedback has been Laboratory (NNL) has undertaken the incorporated into the final report. review through the mechanism of informal interviews with major The review has targeted reactor and players and stakeholders in the UK fuel cycle technology but has not nuclear industry and nuclear included legacy waste management industries in other countries. This and geological disposal or military was the basis for obtaining current applications of nuclear engineering. first hand information about the UK’s The aim is to identify R&D nuclear R&D capability, potential opportunities linked to technology technology impact, market deployment primarily within the opportunities and appropriate role of next 5-10 years although R&D intervention. impacting in longer timeframes has also been considered where appropriate.
1 Technology Strategy Board, “Energy Generation and Supply – Key Application Area 2008-2011”, T08/005, 2008.
9 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
The UK has had a self-sufficient programme of nuclear power since the 1950’s that included the ability to design and build reactors, to manufacture and enrich fuel and to manage the irradiated fuel after discharge from the reactor.
10 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
2.0 Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
The UK is one of only a few Whilst reactor deployment (Gen III) The location of potential new nuclear countries that has developed a fully systems represent a major proportion plants is shown in Figure 3, which closed fuel cycle with the ability to of market opportunities there are indicates a broad geographical spread reprocess spent fuel and additional opportunities associated and thus benefits across the UK. subsequently fuel prototype fast with support to existing (Gen II) reactor systems. A more complete reactors in the form of lifetime There is also a growing market account is given in Appendix 1. The extension as well as technology associated with global threat UK’s extensive nuclear programme development associated with fuel reduction, safeguards and non- also includes naval propulsion, cycle and infrastructure support. proliferation. The UK plays a full and nuclear fusion research and active role in international activities development of deterrent For new nuclear build, there is in this area and there are numerous technologies. As noted earlier these potentially a significant number of technology development markets, as well legacy waste UK organisations and universities opportunities. Recently the Cabinet management and geological disposal, that could be involved. Whilst the Office announced the establishment are not considered here but where total list is too large to cover, an of a new national Centre of there is technology overlap this is indication is given using in Figure 1, Excellence for Nuclear3 that will taken into account. which shows the Nuclear Industry address the issues associated with Association map of the UK civil expansion of nuclear power to industry and number of employees support climate change but also by parliamentary constituency in global threat reduction through non- 2008. The diagram is illustrative and proliferation of nuclear material. there are a number of other organisations and universities that 2.1 Continued Operations and can support new nuclear build that lifetime extension may not be represented on this map. A recent review of the nuclear capability within UK universities has Ensuring the UK’s operational plants been published by Dr John Roberts (both reactors and fuel cycle and indicates that indicates over 200 facilities) can be safely and efficiently academics with nuclear research and operated through to the end of their teaching interests in over 30 life is an important goal for the UK. universities across the UK2. The UK generates 15% of its electricity from nuclear, the principal Research by the Nuclear Industries reactors being mainly Gen II AGR Association (NIA) concludes that stations and the Sizewell ‘B’ PWR. companies in the UK nuclear The older Gen I Magnox reactors, industry have the capability to except for Oldbury and Wylfa, have provide approximately 70% of the now reached end-of-life. The primary scope of new nuclear power plant aim with respect to the AGRs is to projects (see Figure 2). This could be manage the plant safely until their increased to approximately 80% with declared closure dates or, where investment in preparation as shown. possible, to obtain lifetime extensions to between 2015 and 2020. The PWR at Sizewell is currently planned to operate until 2035.
2 Available at www.nuclearliaison.com/directory 3 “The Road to 2010 – Addressing the nuclear question in the twenty first century”, Cabinet Office Report, July 2009 © Image copyright of Dounreay Site Restoration Ltd and NDA.
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2.0 Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
Figure 1. The UK civil nuclear industry including number of employees by parliamentary constituency in 20084. Picture courtesy of the Nuclear Industry Association.
4 Note, the above diagram is illustrative and there are a number of other organisations and universities that can support new nuclear build that may not be represented on this map. 12 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
2.2 Generation III near-term 2.3 Medium term Increased concern about CO2 thermal systems thermal systems emissions and the move away from dependence on fossil fuels is focusing attention upon the role that high The near term opportunity for the The UK has no plans for reactor temperature reactors can play in UK is the planned deployment of systems beyond the proposed tranche industries that use high temperature third generation systems, notably of Gen III reactors but other process heat / steam and in a Westinghouse’s AP10006 system and countries are actively pursuing hydrogen economy, because they Areva’s EPR system. Both of these are developments which may offer produce heat at around 700 to 900oC the culmination of developments opportunities to UK businesses and and are suited to thermochemical over the past two decades and offer which may provide an option for UK cycles or high temperature evolutionary improvements on earlier deployment at some future time. electrolysis that can be used to LWR systems. These include These reactor systems (commonly generate hydrogen using water only. innovative passive safety features, called Gen III+) are high-temperature molten core catcher, improved gas-cooled reactors and novel integral A separate class of Light Water performance characteristics, light-water reactors. They are under Reactors (LWRs), the integral light improved systems layout, modular development and are expected to be water reactor systems, also have construction techniques and deployed around 2030, though improved safety characteristics by enhanced safety control systems. By prototype reactors are already under incorporating the steam generators building upon previous experience construction (e.g. in China) with within the reactor pressure vessel. An the new designs will offer improved further prototypes expected over the entire class of potentially severe overall safety and performance. UK next 5 to 10 years. (Appendix 2 accidents associated with LWRs, experience in PWR deployment for provides further details.) known as the large-break loss of both civil and defence applications coolant accidents (LOCAs), can be can be used to improve component High Temperature gas-cooled reactors eliminated by adopting such a design fabrication and joining, manage such as the Pebble Bed Modular feature. IRIS (International Reactor safety case development and mitigate Reactor (PBMR) offer improved levels Innovative and Secure) is a materials degradation for new plant. of safety through inherent design conceptual integral light water Furthermore, there are opportunities features. They are smaller in size and reactor plant that is currently being for the UK in optimising the modular such that they can be developed by an international operation of the Gen III systems, deployed on less well established consortium led by Westinghouse. The without having to become a reactor grids or in geographical areas where reactor will be of small modular size vendor, and this experience will there is not the infrastructure for with an electrical output of produce capabilities that have the large plants. The world leaders in the approximately 350MWe. Likely potential to be marketed overseas. (A field of high temperature reactor markets for IRIS are mainly countries summary of the international context design are South Africa and China; with small-scale electricity grids that for new reactor build is given in both countries have plans for near perhaps do not have the Appendix 1). The timeline for the term deployment, beginning with a infrastructure to support a fleet of deployment of Generation III systems demonstration reactor before 2020. large light water reactors. Designs for is shown in Figure 4. In the USA, the Next Generation similar but smaller reactor are also Nuclear Plant project is aiming for being advanced by Areva, JAEA, commissioning of a high temperature KAERI and in the USA (for example, reactor, capable of supplying process NuScale and B&W’s m-Power heat, by 2021. Elsewhere research concept). and development on high temperature reactors is being carried out in Russia, France, and S Korea. UK participation in the R&D could take advantage of collaborative research by these and other countries through the High Temperature Reactor Technology Network (HTR- TN) – a 21 partner network of the EU and the 10 member network of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF). UK experience, particularly in relation to structural graphite and
high temperature weld performance, 5 “The UK capability to deliver a new nuclear build with respect to AGR reactors provides programme 2008 Update”, Nuclear Industry a significant opportunity for Association Report, 2008 technology transfer in the short-term 6 Note Westinghouse’s AP1000 system is often for prototype reactors, and in the categorised as a Gen III+ system due to its passive safe features. However more recently, and medium term for the commercial throughout this report, it is referred to as Gen III Figure 2. NIA analysis of UK capability to support new design, fabrication and deployment because it will built on a similar timescale to other 5 nuclear power plant build . of Gen III+ reactors. reactor systems.
13 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
2.0 Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
2.4 Advanced thermal and fast reactor systems
Typically, these advanced reactor systems (commonly called Gen IV) are aimed for deployment after 2030 and there is not yet any commitment from the UK to such systems. They comprise both evolutions of Gen III+ designs, notably the Very High Temperature Reactor, and a series of designs based on fast reactor technology.
The reactor systems are characterised by:
• Significant improvements compared with existing systems in terms of economics, safety, environmental performance, and proliferation resistance. • Offering a complete nuclear system (fuel, fuel cycle, and waste management facilities), not just a reactor. • Being capable of commercial deployment after 2030.
Fast reactors can be configured either to breed or to burn fissile material (primarily plutonium) and thus meet concerns about scarcity of uranium stocks or, in contrast, the need to destroy surplus fissile material or burn long life transuranics that contribute significantly to the heat load of high level radioactive waste products. There are various prototype units operating or planned around the world but the timing of Figure 3 Nominated sites for new nuclear build commercial deployment has not been decided.
7 Details of the concepts and technology can be found on the websites for the GEN IV International Forum and the EU’s Sustainable Nuclear Energy Technology Platform www.gen-4.org/Technology/roadmap.htm and www.snetp.eu Figure 4 Timeline for Generation III deployment.
14 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
The development of such advanced 2.6 Safeguards, non-proliferation nuclear reactor systems is extremely and threat reduction expensive and beyond the inclination of a single country to do alone There is a growing recognition of the without overseas support and need for international activity to investment. As a result many nations address safeguards, non-proliferation have recognised the benefit in and threat reduction. This presents a collaborating by pooling resources in market opportunity for UK order to gain leverage on their own organisations given that a number of investment. Some of the main the technologies deployed in this international programmes have been market are those already applied initiated by the US Department of across the UK nuclear industry. Key Energy (DoE), European Union (EU) technologies include: materials and International Atomic Energy detection, assay and analysis, nuclear Agency (IAEA). data evaluation, radiochemistry etc.
There is a close relationship with fuel Historically the UK was active in cycle technology, as reduction in development of a sodium-cooled fast proliferation of nuclear material reactor system and this has produced partly implies the development of a legacy of knowledge that could be advanced fuel cycle technology such exploited in international as co-extraction of uranium and programmes. In addition, the plutonium. technology developed for AGRs does provide a number of technical strengths that would enable the UK to contribute to programmes on gas- cooled thermal and fast reactors7.
2.5 Fuel Cycle technology
The need to recycle fissile materials within a fast reactor system necessitates the development of reprocessing technology as the first requirement is for recovery of fissile material from thermal fuels in order to be able to start up a fast reactor system. This, in turn, leads to the requirement to reprocess the fast reactor fuels and to be able to manufacture new fuel from the recovered fissile material. The current generation of technologies (such as used in THORP) are capable of providing fissile material recovery but there is growing international interest in fuel recycling that is more proliferation resistant, produces lower waste volumes and has minimal effluents. Some countries also see advantages in developing technology that separates long-lived and/or heat- generating radio-nuclides as a means of using proposed geological disposal facilities more efficiently.
15 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
The near, medium and far term nuclear technologies all require supporting R&D activities to ensure operations are carried out safely, timely and to cost.
16 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
3.0 Research & Development Requirements
In addition to science and 3.1 Continued Operations R&D 3.2 Gen III R&D engineering R&D activities, a wide range of disciplines are required such Issues relate to the support to existing The views from UK stakeholders are as social, risk perception, human (Generation I and II) reactor systems that for near-term deployment of factors, safety analysis, socio- such as the Magnox and Advanced Gen III reactors, a major technical economics etc. The consortium has Gas-Cooled Reactors and the single development programme is not held informal interviews with major Pressurised Water Reactor at Sizewell necessary as designs are already being players and stakeholders in the UK B. The licensees operating these deployed. There will, however, be a and other countries to obtain current systems have developed technology requirement to ensure licensees and understanding of all the R&D strategies that identify what is utilities fully understand the safety requirements. required to support the reactor related performance of advanced systems through to the end-of-life. reactor systems. The main focus for R&D and innovation development R&D will be improved modelling of for these systems is mainly associated reactor cores, impact of fabrication with either ensuring safe operation, and joining technologies on lifetime extension where possible or component performance, better cost reduction of operations, such as understanding and prediction of through predicting operability and materials degradation (including plant condition monitoring. metals, plastics and concrete), including environmental degradation The Nuclear Installations (all forms), fatigue, fracture Inspectorate, charged with regulating toughness and irradiation damage of UK nuclear operators, defines an fuel and reactor materials. Within the index of safety issues, based on UK, the first Gen III systems are ensuring safe operation, which is expected to be deployed around referred to as the Nuclear Research 2017. However it is possible that Index. The Research Index categories R&D conducted now could support are given below and indicate the the licensing, deployment and main R&D activities performed: construction of such systems; a programme of activity that will be • Plant Life Management - ramping up significantly from now Steel Components onwards. • Plant Life Management - Civil Engineering Additional areas of R&D to assist • Chemical Processes with licensing were considered to be: • Fuel and Core • Radio-Nuclides • Use of digital C&I systems for protection & control • Nuclear Physics • Incredibility of failure of items • Plant Modelling (e.g. pressure vessel) • External Events • Probabilistic risk assessment – • Control and Instrumentation reconciliation of approach • Human Factors • Acceptable engineering codes, • Probabilistic Safety Analysis standards and computer codes • Radiological Protection • Severe accident management • Waste and Decommissioning • Radiation and contamination • Nuclear Systems and Equipment zoning – compatibility with • Graphite overseas designs • Reactor shutdown provision In addition to reactor stations, many (control rods versus boronation of the Research Index categories are system) also applicable to infrastructure • Advanced Passive Safety features supporting the rest of the nuclear • Security fuel cycle.
17 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
3.0 Research & Development Requirements
It is noted that EPRI are developing a It will also be necessary to perform 3.3 R&D for Medium Term Materials Management Matrix research associated with societal Thermal Systems (MMM) for potential new LWR build issues. No appropriate roadmap in the USA based on experience of currently exists although the Generation III+ are anticipated to be operating LWR to date. The approach Research Councils have funded a deployed around 2030 although seeks to use expert elicitation to programme on Sustainable Nuclear prototype systems will be available in identify the risk and consequence of Power that addresses many of these the next 5 to 10 years. Thus key materials degradation societal and policy issues. Research positioning for opportunities and mechanisms for reactor components activities will need to include: demonstrating competence is based on operating experience to commencing now. date from the existing (and ageing) • Socio-economic studies LWR systems. It is recognised that • Financing The R&D requirements for Gen III+ within the UK the vast majority of • Siting information systems have been widely published LWR experience resides in the naval • Project delivery and a summary is provided in propulsion programme. This • Stakeholder perception Appendix 4. As an example, the experience could provide a valuable requirements for HTR reactors are: input to the new build agenda along • Energy security the lines of the EPRI MMM approach. • Environmental impact etc. • Fuels Technology - capability to manufacture and test coated A key aspect of technical programmes There were repeated views that particle fuel. will be to ensure that the existing management of irradiated fuel will be skill base in the industry is retained an important issue. While storage of • Materials Technology - assess and and key facilities are strengthened so irradiated fuel can be undertaken qualify graphite and high that the supply chain can be safely for many decades, it will be temperature materials re-invigorated. The view of the major necessary for the UK to have a • System Design - finalise key design players and stakeholders is that strategy for eventual disposal or parameters, such as reactor power, maintenance of critical capabilities is recycling of the fuel from the Gen III outlet temperature, plant needed in the following areas: systems. R&D is required to underpin configuration the strategy, to explore technical • Test Facilities - such as a high- • Core Design and Fuel Performance options and to maintain capability in temperature fluid flow test facility • Systems Engineering management of irradiated fuel. • Hydrogen Process Development - • Advanced component fabrication water-splitting process and joining A fleet of Gen III reactors will also development provide an opportunity to recycle • Materials Performance • some of the UK’s separated Views from the UK nuclear industry • Water Chemistry plutonium stocks as MOX fuel. This are that while there is no UK • Criticality, Shielding and Radiation will produce value from fissile programme on medium term thermal Protection material which might otherwise be systems, the UK does have relevant • Thermal Hydraulics and Transient considered as a waste. capabilities in a number of key areas Analysis that it could contribute to Interviews with nuclear industry • Safety Performance Assessment international programmes. The stakeholders in other countries principal areas were judged to be: Previously, BNFL funded R&D on indicate similar needs to support each country’s programmes on LWR advanced reactor systems as a means • Performance of materials at high and advanced LWRs, particularly to maintain skills in important areas. temperatures in AGR systems managing the reliability of the plant, There is now an argument for similar • Irradiation behaviour of graphite investment in international reactor materials behaviour throughout the • Knowledge of production and R&D to continue the maintenance of plant’s extended lifetime, improving behaviour of high temperature important skills. fuel performance and enhancing plant performance and workforce welds productivity. However, there is • Gas coolant chemistry greater emphasis placed on the need • Capability in manufacture of to develop reactor systems beyond TRISO coated particles the near term. A common view is that R&D for future reactor systems Views from international stakeholders will provide the means to maintain reinforce the UK views and cross-cutting capabilities in education emphasise the value of participation and training, knowledge in international R&D, which is a low management and safeguards/security. risk approach to gaining intelligence into future opportunities and for gauging where UK investment is best targeted.
18 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
3.4 R&D for Advanced Thermal on-going research in developments • Reduction in effluents and waste and Fast Reactor Systems associated with either open or closed volumes fuel cycle options. R&D payback on • Single cycle flow sheet The R&D requirements of advanced fuel cycle technologies is possible • Co-extraction to avoid thermal and fast reactor systems (Gen from now supporting existing proliferation concern IV) have also been widely publicised systems right through to 2040 and • Separation and treatment of minor and are also summarised in Appendix beyond for the advanced Gen IV actinides systems. 4. The systems require long term and • Waste matrices extensive R&D on both the reactors • Refabrication of fuel and the fuel cycle(s). Commercial Historically in the UK, there has been deployment is not expected before research conducted on advanced There have been some R&D activities 2030 although prototypes are aqueous reprocessing. Technology on molten salt (non-aqueous) recycle, planned to be constructed by 2020 development has been associated and in particular the engineering (particularly the sodium cooled with chemical flow sheet and process base that would be required to deploy system in France). Therefore engineering to improve separation a molten salt recycle system. This positioning and involvement in between waste species and reusable technology is regarded as a strong market development is required over species such as plutonium. Research candidate for next generation the next few years. An important has focussed on reducing waste reprocessing plants, but there are no point is that these systems will volumes and costs as well as significant plans worldwide to require demonstration reactors to be simplification of the process. develop it as such. built and operated well ahead of commercial deployment. There are Recycle technology is fundamental to The US Global Nuclear Energy indications from the EU that the deployment of fast reactor Partnership initiative includes demonstration plant may be systems and hence fundamental to significant research and development operating by 2020. the goals of Generation IV. There are also strong synergies with aimed at fuel cycle and spent fuel management technologies. Although Views from the US nuclear industry, technologies that may be of interest this programme’s future is politically where advanced reactor concepts are to the legacy waste management very uncertain underlying research in being actively explored, indicate that programme in the UK. the US which is part of the Advanced the key R&D issues are as follows: Reprocessing technology has the Fuel Cycle Initiative is likely to continue. • Develop recycling technologies potential to be enhanced from that that are economically competitive, deployed in THORP and this may increase proliferation resistance match a growing need for technology 3.6 R&D for Safeguards, Non- and minimise the impact on waste to treat irradiated fuels. Given the proliferation and Global disposal concerns over proliferation risks with Threat Reduction separating plutonium from irradiated • Develop new fuels fuels, enhancement to produce As noted above there is a close link • Understand heat transport for new inherently proliferation-resistant with fuel cycle technology given the applications reprocessing could be an emerging importance of development of • Enhance modelling and technology. To some extent this has proliferation resistant fuel cycles. In simulation capabilities been happening through NNL addition there is research on • Develop improved materials working with Energy Solutions to detection, assay and characterisation offer proliferation-resistant of nuclear material. Typical research reprocessing concepts to the US 3.5 R&D for Fuel Cycle under this area would include: Technologies DOE’s GNEP programme. It is likely that a number of countries will • Fuel cycle assessment explore options for recycling/ At present, Magnox fuel is reprocessing by means of technology • Advanced separation technologies reprocessed as a means to stabilise demonstrators before making for proliferation resistant fuel the waste form, while AGR fuel is commitments to industrial scale cycles destined for either interim storage or processing. The UK’s capability in • Radiometric instrumentation reprocessing and fuel from Sizewell B fuel recycling means it would be well development is currently in interim storage. R&D placed to exploit opportunities in • Radiochemical clean-up is required to support the continued development, design and operation operation of the infrastructure that such demonstrators might offer. Involvement in this market and the associated with spent fuel opportunities for commercial return management on the grounds of Typical research areas include: can be realised from now onwards. safety assessment, plant performance The UK Government has already predictability, operating cost • Aqueous reprocessing – strongly indicated its desire to be at reduction etc. There is also a simplifications, alternative head the forefront of this market given the continuing requirement to assess the end reprocessing recent announcement of the National overall strategy for spent fuel Centre of Excellence for Nuclear. management and this requires
19 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
1.0 Executive summary
Interviews with the major players and stakeholders in both the UK and overseas have helped develop a picture and perceptions of the strengths and weaknesses of UK R&D in the nuclear sector.
0020 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
4.0 UK R&D Strengths and Weaknesses
Opinions were sought on which R&D Capabilities • Reactor physics nuclear capabilities can be obtained • Gas-cooled reactor experience from spin in from non-nuclear R&D perceived as and which have potential to be spun strong • Computational fluid dynamics/thermal hydraulics out to non-nuclear industry. • Accident simulation, e.g. Loss of coolant accident Stakeholder views have been collated • Reactor core modelling in Appendix 5 (UK stakeholders) and • Radiation damage (physical examination & modelling) Appendix 6 (international • Graphite technology stakeholders). • Fuel design and manufacture • Fuel cycle assessment 4.1 UK stakeholder views on R&D Capabilities Relevant to New • Enrichment Nuclear Build Programme • Reprocessing • Waste treatment The UK R&D capabilities in nuclear Spin-in/Spin-out • Decontamination and Decommissioning fission power generation vary widely Technologies • Non Destructive Evaluation and while they have been much where UK • Structural Integrity Assessment decreased over the past decades, the • Materials Degradation Mechanisms including welds, and non- UK continues to have significant perceived as metallic materials including concrete. (Mechanisms include strengths in some important areas. strong corrosion, fatigue, creep, thermal cycling.) The UK stakeholders’ views are summarised in Table 1. • Digital command and control systems • Thermal Hydraulics/Computational Fluid Dynamics 4.2 International • Structural Integrity Stakeholder Views • Corrosion R&D Capabilities • Operational Experience of Gen III reactor systems Views gathered from international • Optimisation of modern Generation III reactor systems stakeholders recognised the historic perceived as strengths of UK nuclear R&D but weak • Specific aspects of advanced reactor systems including Fast perceived that there has been a Reactor (FR), High Temperature Reactor (HTR) and substantial decline over 20 years or • Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) including so. A common view is that the UK • Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR), Thorium ranks no higher than 5th or 6th in • Cycle Systems the world in terms of its nuclear R&D capabilities overall. Areas where the Table 1 UK is perceived to be strong align UK stakeholder views on UK R&D capabilities in nuclear with the current industrial focus of clean-up and decommissioning and reprocessing. Table 2 summarises the R&D Capabilities • Sodium-cooled reactor experience International stakeholder views in a • Post-irradiation examination of fuel & reactor components similar fashion to those presented for perceived as • Fuel performance modelling the UK. strong • Storage of irradiated fuel 4.3 Summary of Nuclear Industry, • Management of irradiated fuel including reprocessing UK and international views • Irradiation behaviour of graphite • Facilities for experimental work on radioactive materials The perceptions of R&D strengths • Physical protection of nuclear infra-structure and weaknesses, and a view of the Spin-in/Spin-out • Systems for remote handling potential development, are • High temperature materials summarised in the matrix in Figure 5. Technologies Various strengths and weaknesses are where UK • High temperature chemical processes positioned according to their perceived as • Digital instrumentation and control strength (high, medium, low) and strong • Probabilistic risk assessment their potential for marketability or • Human factors engineering wealth generation. The green arrows indicate those technologies where the R&D Capabilities • Limited R&D programmes in advanced reactors and fuel UK R&D capabilities are growing and perceived as • cycles the red arrows where they are weak • Limited academic base experienced in nuclear perceived to be declining. • Limited R&D infrastructure
Table 2 International stakeholder views on UK R&D capability, additional to those gathered from UK stakeholders
8 Note, the UK is perceived to have strenght in certain aspects of advanced reactor systems from its historic experience. However this capability is eroding due to lack of present activity 21 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
This review has shown that there is growing interest across the world in expanding nuclear capacity and in developing future reactor systems.
22 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
5.0 Summary of UK R&D Opportunities
The world market for nuclear lead to the UK having a world- engineering over the next 20 years is leading position in commercial huge – around 300 new reactors to be exploitable technology. The spin-in built at a cost of £2billion each and and spin-out technology between the 250 to be decommissioned at around nuclear and other industries has £1billion each, i.e. £850 billion9. The potential in a number of key areas. UK has maintained a number of key The case study in the side box technical capabilities that now have illustrates benefits that might result the potential to be exploited from appropriate stimulation of R&D domestically and in overseas markets. to encourage spin-in and spin-out of At this time, public sector investment technology. has a role to play because some of the technology development is In the following section, a short immature and is beyond the time summary of the different market horizon for commercial investment aspects is given, and Table 3 (page from industry. Appropriately targeted, 26) summarises a number of specific the investment can enable market opportunities in a technology development that will quantitative manner.
Case Study: Innovative NDE Technique Offers Spin-In Opportunity for the Nuclear Industry.
The nuclear industry’s need for rapid inspection of large structures can be met by a significant advance which has resulted from research into long wavelength ultrasonic technology at Imperial College. As part of the UK Research Centre in Non-Destructive Evaluation (RCNDE), they have used the properties of guided waves to propagate through a structure to provide a means to detect faults over distances much greater than conventional techniques from a single transducer position in one test, resulting in large savings of inspection time.
A system, originally developed for the detection of corrosion under insulation in chemical plant pipework is now being marketed by Guided Ultrasonics Ltd, a spin out company set up by members of the original research group.
Other new techniques and instruments which have progressed to TRL 4-5 with RCNDE funding , but would be greatly helped by TSB funding to TRL 7.
For more details see: www.rcnde.ac.uk www.guided-ultrasonics.com
9 M. Saunders, (AMEC President of Power and Process Nuclear), "AMEC Power and Process: Nuclear", Presentation at Market Seminar 11 December 2008, page 5. D. Kennedy, "New nuclear power generation in the UK: Cost benefit analysis" Energy Policy, Vol 35, pp. 3701-3716, 2007
23 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
5.0 Summary of UK R&D Opportunities
Figure 5 Potential R&D programmes, such as fuel of UK R&D manufacture, component fabrication Capabilities for Commercial and joining (including weld Exploitation simulation), modular construction, waste and effluent treatment, inspection and monitoring, prediction and assessment of materials degradation and safety case development.
The fuel supply for the new build system(s) need not be tied to the reactor vendor after the initial core and first few fuel loads, and consequently R&D into improving fuel manufacture and fuel performance is a more open field and one in which existing UK capabilities can be deployed. This also leads to an opportunity for R&D into recycle of Pu as MOX fuel and there is an opportunity to convert theoretical 5.1 Opportunities associated with Table 3 provides examples of studies on Pu disposition via MOX current reactor systems, fuel potential opportunities, including the fuel into a proven, under-pinned cycle and infrastructure use of NDE, condition monitoring option. A necessary component and preventative maintenance. would be to develop a full The majority of the current Materials degradation research is also understanding of MOX fuel programme focuses on materials significant given the ability to performance in the reactors. performance issues such as structural develop new methodologies for integrity of graphite, steels and civil reducing primary circuit corrosion or A new build programme of Gen III components under conditions of high giving assurance over structural reactors in the UK is likely to require temperature and irradiation and also integrity. firmer plans for the management of understanding materials phenomenon irradiated fuel, since prolonged such stress corrosion cracking, creep, Knowledge capture is clearly a key storage of the irradiated fuel at embrittlement, void swelling and aspect for lifetime extension and reactor ponds is only an interim other irradiation-assisted processes. assessment of the current operational solution. The eventual treatment Work on probabilistic risk assessment, performance of existing plant. options, whether disposal or severe accident analysis, release Similarly virtual reality tools will help recycling, will need further detailed mechanisms and non-destructive with plant maintenance. study. testing also form major parts of the research programme. 5.2 Opportunities in the UK’s Overall, a re-energised R&D deployment of Gen III systems programme that successfully supports The research challenges for existing the domestic deployment of Gen III generation include: It is recognised that the UK nuclear technology should provide a base industry will not become a vendor of from which the UK R&D supply • Degradation of specific materials Gen III systems but there are chain can offer a greater range of and components, such as the opportunities to exploit R&D services to countries that are either graphite core and AGR boiler capabilities by supporting and renewing their nuclear programme or components. improving operational performance. launching one from scratch. • Obsolescence of plant/equipment There will continue to be a need to Successful participation in licensing, making like-for-like replacement underpin the safety case, particularly build and operation of the Gen III difficult. to ensure the operating lives of 60 reactors should position UK years are achieved, and R&D into companies to exploit their learning in other countries which are Management of irradiated fuel optimisation of operations to reduce contemplating new build, e.g. presents significant challenges in outage times and to reduce waste and Sweden, Belgium, and the terms of ensuring longevity from the effluent will be important. The Netherlands. The UK’s current current facilities and optimising the reactor vendors are likely to have strengths in fuel cycle analysis and system wherever possible. There is R&D programmes to address some or management of irradiated fuel are also a continuing requirement to all of these issues but it need not be a potentially exploitable with countries assess the overall strategy for spent fore-gone conclusion that they will that are launching Gen III systems fuel management and this requires carryout the R&D entirely in-house. and have a need to develop a strategy on-going research in developments With a strengthened R&D capability to manage the irradiated fuel in the associated with either open or closed the UK supply chain will have the near and medium term. fuel cycle options. opportunity to undertake some of the
24 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
It can be seen from Table 3 that With appropriate investment to demonstration systems indicate a examples of market opportunities strengthen the R&D base, the UK timescale that needs action sooner relate to ongoing work associated would be well placed to exploit its rather than later and well ahead of with materials degradation. Even R&D capability in: any proposed commercial though these will be new plants, deployment. operational conditions will vary and • Fuel Performance and Fuel Cycle continual assessment of materials Assessment Stakeholders clearly see the benefits performance, corrosion, cracking etc. • Materials and Corrosion in terms of: will be essential to reduce Performance • Being in a position to capture maintenance and maximise plant • Thermal Hydraulics / Transient contract opportunities to design lifetime. Improvement throughout Analysis and build the demonstrators/ the plant life of digital command and • Safety Performance Assessment prototypes control systems will also provide an • Skills upgrading for their nuclear opportunity for UK organisations. 5.3.2 HTR engineers From reactor vendor and component • Long term positioning to be South Africa and China are making suppliers there is also interest in involved with commercial fast significant progress with the HTR and manufacturing techniques. It is very reactor systems likely that the UK supply chain will deployment of full scale be involved in new build and the demonstrators is expected by 2020. The best opportunities, based on UK supply of components. Here R&D on Opportunities are expected to arise in R&D nuclear engineering strengths welding, joining, surface finishing the fields of materials and fuel are: etc. could give some UK organisations manufacture, such as ensuring the Gas Cooled Fast Reactors a niche market opportunity, thus satisfactory performance of the • Sodium Cooled Fast Reactors allowing them to win business to coated particle fuel, amongst others. • High Temperature/Very High support new build projects overseas. The UK’s long experience and Temperature Reactors capability in the technology and • Industrialisation of technology for 5.3 Opportunities to support licensing of gas-cooled graphite processing and recycle of medium term thermal reactor moderated reactor systems and its irradiated fuel systems ability to contribute to the • Evolution of industrially-proven experimental programmes on fuels reprocessing technology and materials provide a platform There are opportunities worth from which to address those R&D opportunities include: pursuing in the medium term opportunities. Support in HTR • Advanced aqueous and non thermal reactor systems, such as IRIS technology can cover the following aqueous reprocessing, e.g. and PBMR, because of their earlier areas: separation technologies timeframe for deployment compared • Recycle of irradiated fuel that is to the fast reactor systems. There is • Materials performance: structural more proliferation resistant and also more scope for R&D than with steel and welds, fuel and graphite more economical the Gen III systems and these include • HTR fuel development and niche areas that play well into the • Research into Pu management via coatings fast reactors including UK’s strengths, e.g. fuel strategy, • Reactor physics analysis graphite behaviour with irradiation experimental tests • Fuel cycle studies and subsequent waste management • Waste management research and materials support. • Waste management activities • Fuel Cycle studies and assessment • Thermal hydraulics and CFD Increasing the breadth of the UK’s • Hydrogen economy links and As noted in previous sections much R&D capability in key areas such as thermochemical cycles of the technology developed here can these will enable industry to exploit • Socio-economic studies of nuclear also be applied to the safeguards, commercial opportunities outside of energy non-proliferation and global threat the UK for medium term reactor reduction work. Here opportunities systems. 5.4 Opportunities in exist for organisations that have demonstrators for advanced capabilities in modelling and assessment of fuel cycle technologies 5.3.1 Small integral light water thermal, fast reactor systems reactors (production of model packages), and and associated fuel cycle the development of novel The timescale for deployment of a technology first of a kind system is around 2015 instrumentation and detection and a proven system will require techniques, which is an active field The opportunities with these systems development work relevant to the within the SME supply chain. lie with the need to build and deploy UK’s capability. This includes demonstration systems, which is development of a range of fuel expected to be around 2020, much management schemes, assessment of sooner than the post-2030 date for fuel performance conditions, crud full commercial deployment. The transport and integrity and European Union’s plans for qualification of the reactor pressure vessel.
25 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Specific opportunities that have been identified as satisfying the criteria for “public-sector intervention” arise within general categories of Technology, Infrastructure and Knowledge, and include the engagement with the Euratom Framework programmes.
26 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
6.0 Summary and Assessment of Technology, Infrastructure, and Knowledge-based Opportunities
The opportunities identified during • Much work has been done on this 6.1.2 Condition monitoring and the course of the review include the and there are several examples of preventative maintenance following (see Table 3 for further successful applications. The detail). technique would benefit from Condition Monitoring is a further development to reach is preventative maintenance procedure 6.1 Technology-based full capability. involving the sensing and analysis, opportunities over time, of certain parameters that • High Temperature Ultrasonic indicate the condition of critical Inspections: elements of plant and machinery in 6.1.1 Non-destructive Testing and During power station outages, order to give warning of incipient Examination (NDT/NDE) much time is required to allow failure. components to cool down to Advanced NDE technologies could enable inspection. Much of this Parameters that are monitored significantly improve the quality and could be avoided if ultrasonic include vibration, temperature, wear reliability of inspection of safety inspections could be carried out at debris, corrosion and the growth of critical items in nuclear power plants higher temperatures. defects. Hence condition monitoring during both construction and is closely allied to NDE/NDT and operation. Some techniques offer • Development work to date enables Materials Ageing. Condition very attractive time savings in the inspections at around 100°C to be monitoring is widely employed in inspection/analysis processes which undertaken fairly routinely and, the petrochemical, power engineering in turn lead to time savings in with special equipment, short and aerospace industries where construction and during plant periods at 220°C can be achieved, alternative maintenance strategies of outages. Other techniques offer but major benefits could be breakdown or routine maintenance possibilities for on-line monitoring of realised if 500°C or greater could are unacceptable on safety and cost critical areas that can assist operators be achieved. Indications are that grounds. The sensors to detect the to avoid operation in damaging this is possible, but more required information may be built regimes and to determine when development is necessary. into the item being monitored or maintenance operations should be incorporated into portable diagnostic carried out. The savings in time for • Long Range Ultrasonics: equipment. inspection and reduction in plant The ability to remotely monitor down time would be very substantial. critical components and welds ultrasonically offers great benefits Technologies that are currently being in plant operation and predictive developed and applied in a maintenance. In this technology, preliminary manner are briefly special probes using different types described below. It is proposed that of ultrasonic waves are attached to development programmes are particular areas of pipework, for initiated under the TSB initiative to example, which enables welds improve and validate these some distance away to be scanned techniques, leading to Regulator ultrasonically. Preliminary work approval and acceptance by plant appears promising, but much owners and operators. more needs to be done to demonstrate the reliability and • Ultrasonic Phased Arrays: practicality of the techniques. The this technique is similar to the advantages are obviously avoiding advanced ultrasonic methods used the need to get to welds/ in medical diagnostics. By components that are otherwise electronically controlling difficult to access. ultrasonic beam frequencies, angles and focus, many inspections can be carried out in a single scan of a phased array probe. This saves time and gives a much more searching examination.
27 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
6.0 Summary and Assessment of Technology, Infrastructure, and Knowledge-based Opportunities
6.1.3 Materials degradation, consequence for component at the time of design. There will have structural integrity and integrity. The results from such been some updating during the lifetime assessment assessments provide the plant process but there will always be a lag operator with valuable information compared with the most modern that may be used to inform decisions systems. Whilst materials for nuclear regarding component operation, components are carefully selected for repair, and (or) replacement. The This presents an opportunity to their properties and to minimise results also form part of the ensure modern command and in-service degradation, the operating development of Safety Cases to control systems are included where conditions present in a nuclear power support the continued operation of possible. Improvements in plant are such that degradation will nuclear plant components. technologies such as inevitably occur over time. Typically, instrumentation, detection systems, degradation can be categorised into Within the UK nuclear industry, electronics, signal processing, data three broad types, all of which may defect assessments are carried out acquisition, software and human be present to a greater or lesser extent according to the Failure Assessment interface technologies will all prove in an operating plant: Diagram (FAD) approach described in beneficial for improving and building the British Energy methodology R610 upon the standard design. Such • Materials degradation includes . technology development will not the changes that occur at a The method is based on the have necessarily come from the microstructural level in assessment of the component nuclear industry but could have been components during service. containing the defect with respect to developed in industries such as oil, Examples in nuclear power plant failure and plastic collapse. By chemical, gas, aerospace, space, include the thermal ageing of understanding the development of defence etc. In addition, while the austenitic components that materials properties throughout a systems developed for the nuclear operate in the high temperature component’s lifetime as well as the industry might not as a whole be boilers of AGRs and the crack growth rate (e.g. by fatigue) the applicable to other industries, specific irradiation-induced changes that R6 approach can be used as a components could be (such as the occur in ferritic pressure steels and framework for providing a lifetime human interface display systems). welds located close to the reactor assessment for engineering Potentially, this area could prove core. components in nuclear plant. highly beneficial with spin-in and spin-out opportunities as well as the • Mechanical degradation includes 6.1.4 Digital command and control systems means for smaller companies that the initiation and growth of cracks have developed novel components to that occur in components under The new generation of advanced gain an entry into the nuclear the action of an externally applied market. or internal residual stress, such as reactor systems will utilise digital is present in non stress-relieved command and control systems. These welds. Examples include fatigue systems are an integral and essential 6.2 Infrastructure-based cracks under cyclic loading or part of the reactor and used for plant opportunities reheat cracks that occur in the control for normal operation as well vicinity of non stress-relieved as safety monitoring, protection and 6.2.1 Advanced Manufacturing welds operating in the temperature control during any possible transient Research Centre(s) for Nuclear range 500 to 550°C. event or off-normal condition. Compared to the previous generation of reactors, much of the control and The Advanced Materials Research • Electrochemical degradation Centre at Sheffield has proved highly includes the development of monitoring is now done through software based systems rather than successful in supporting the environmentally assisted cracking aerospace industry as a public/private in components under the actual readings from instrumentation appearing in the control room. The partnership aimed at innovative combined action of the local approaches to manufacturing environment and a static or cyclic change is similar to that in aircraft where “fly-by-wire” systems mean components. The Centre brings stress. Examples include primary together a number of industrial water stress corrosion cracking and the controls in the cockpit no longer physically move the rudder, ailerons, partners interested in collaborative corrosion-fatigue, both of which generic research. Techniques may occur in austenitic flaps but instead do so through electronic control. researched include alternatives to the components within the primary current expensive and wasteful circuit. Due to the rapid changes that are milling of components such as rapid taking place in digital computer and prototyping from metallic powder, Whilst NDE methods provide graphic display technologies wire wrapping and welding, reverse information regarding the presence employed in modern human systems engineering of components etc. In and development of crack-like flaws, interfaces, design certification of addition to the Sheffield Centre, structural integrity methodologies advanced reactors such as AP1000 or other centres which organisations provide a means for judging the EPR has focused on systems available such as Rolls Royce are heavily severity of such flaws and the involved with include the Advanced
10 R6 Revision 4, “Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects”, British Energy Generation Ltd, 2006
28 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Forming Research Centre at Glasgow 6.2.2 Modularisation virtual reality etc. Exploring the which researches forming and development of such innovative forging, the Manufacturing techniques and the link with the Construction of reactor systems has Technology Centre at Ansty which nuclear industry could prove very changed significantly over the years researches automation, fixing, joining fruitful as far as new commercial through learning from previous and operational performance and the opportunities are concerned. projects. Rather than stick-building Commonwealth Centre for Advanced plants with all components Manufacturing in Virginia, US which assembled on site during the 6.2.3 Advanced Fuel specialises in surface engineering and construction phase, the reactor Manufacturing manufacturing systems. system is broken down into major components such as the pressure There is likely to be an opportunity None of these centres currently vessel, steam generator, containment to exploit the UK’s capability in fuel specialises in nuclear systems and vessel etc. These are assembled off- manufacturing to provide fuel for the therefore the proposal for an site at a dedicated facility and then UK’s tranche of Gen III reactors. Advanced Manufacturing Research shipped to site when required during Success in the UK market could be a Centre for Nuclear as made by the the construction phase. This precursor to overseas sales. The Secretary of State for Business, approach is not new and was used on prospects to capture sales in either Innovation and Skills on 15th July many of the Generation 1 systems market will be improved through 2009 is a welcome step forward. Rolls such as Magnox, however modern technology developments that reduce –Royce is the lead Industrial partner reactors have an even greater number the costs of fuel manufacturing and involved in the formation of this of modules – thousands of modules also offer higher performance fuels centre and this will provide now make up designs such as the (e.g. reduced frequency of failures or underpinning technology to the new AP1000 and ACR-Candu design. greater power production from UK based Nuclear factory announced Many of these modules are pre- increased irradiation). by Rolls-Royce on 28th July 2009. assembled off-site in portable sized This factory will be designed to packages. The use of CAD design has Improved fuel manufacturing manufacture, assemble and test proved to be an essential tool here to processes will require a multi- components for new civil nuclear enable many components to be disciplinary approach to optimise a power stations. These include broken down into modules. BAE complex sequence of processes. There pressure vessels, heat exchangers and Systems have extensively used a will be opportunities to apply other large and complex reactor modular approach for construction of learning from elsewhere in the parts, manufactured to exacting the nuclear naval submarines at nuclear industry in terms of nuclear standards. Barrow and the construction time has minimisation of wastes and effluents, been significantly reduced through improvements in process monitoring This centre will be able to specialise assembly of modules in workshops and improved test procedures. There in component manufacture, rather than attempting to work are also opportunities to bring operational performance, systems within the confined space of the boat learning from other industries to integration etc. associated with the itself. Modularisation has also been optimise the whole system, construction of nuclear power plants. used in this instance for small particularly the precise mechanical There are significant links, benefits modules such as sections of piping handing operations. and opportunities associated with where a “slice” is taken through a such a centre in terms of spin-in and system that may contain pipework The development of improved fuels is spin-out with respect to similar for many different uses, thus forming an area where UK R&D has been industries such as aerospace. The a module that can be inserted during latent but existing capabilities in centres are also established with a construction. materials and chemistry provide a business model that ensures supply substantial knowledge base to launch chain organisations and small to The links between original design, fresh R&D. Analysis of fuel medium enterprises are actively CAD manipulation, component performance to enable higher involved and can benefit from the manufacture (CNC milling for irradiations to be obtained is an research, ultimately resulting in them example), modular construction and important capability that the UK can being able to supply the industry in system assembly are complex but also deploy in this area. In addition, the the future. present significant opportunity for UK has well-developed facilities, learning and improvement. There are particularly for examination of There is also a case for an Advanced also spin-in and spin-out irradiated test fuels, which can be a Manufacturing Research Centre for opportunities from other industries cornerstone in a fuel’s development nuclear fuels. This AMRC would such as oil, chemical, gas, programme. combine the expertise of UK based automotive, aerospace, defence etc. industry and academic excellence For example the Advanced There is a parallel opportunity in the and undertake research on Manufacturing Research Centre manufacture of MOX fuel, which performance enhancement of nuclear (AMRC) at Sheffield University that could be a route to recycle some of fuel assemblies, advanced works closely with the aerospace the UK’s separated plutonium. The manufacturing techniques, and novel industry has developed some novel current Sellafield MOX plant has yet fuel concepts. techniques associated with CAD, to prove capable of yielding sufficient CNC milling, rapid prototyping, throughput, but the UK has the
29 AMaterials' Review ofSupply the UK's Chains Nuclear in the R&D UK's Capability Oil and Gas Market
6.0 Summary and Assessment of Technology, Infrastructure, and Knowledge-based Opportunities technical capability to design and 6.2.5 Fuel cycle assessment knowledge by the new generation of install an alternative plant and thus engineers, modern information exploit this opportunity. There is also There are also opportunities in the technology techniques that are an opportunity for technical field of fuel cycle assessment, which available today must be harnessed. solutions to address proliferation are strongly linked to strategic The techniques being explored concerns with MOX fabrication and approaches for fuel recycling. include interactive discussions with these, once addressed, should provide Governments, utilities and regulators ‘Avatars’ of knowledge experts; access to a wider market in MOX are expected to seek increased embedded video, presentations, and fuels across the world. understanding of broader fuel cycle graphics; knowledge trees that show issues and challenges such as the relationships to other related 6.2.4 Fuel Recycling sustainability and comparison of fuel experts on a given subject or cycle options. Opportunities exist for associated subjects; and embedded A global renaissance in nuclear power organisations to offer modelling and links to reference material that are brings to the fore the issue of assessment of fuel cycles to essential to perform tasks, e.g., ASME optimising the use of uranium determine mass flows, radiotoxicities, Code, regulatory requirements, resources and management of heat loads, throughputs, economics sample calculations, etc. irradiated fuel. Increasingly, national etc. of complex, dynamic fuel cycle governments will be seeking to options. Options will include offering By using techniques like these, new develop long term strategies that assessment tools (i.e. models) and engineers will be working in an minimise their reliance on the finite providing reference sources of data to environment similar to that in which resource of uranium and the enable assessments to be made on a they conduct their daily lives. They environmental challenge of disposal consistent and accurate basis. will have easy access to information of irradiated fuel. The strategies will as and when they need it. They can involve long timescales and 6.3 Knowledge-based casually explore a subject or delve significant financial investments, so opportunities more deeply into it. The opportunity there will be a recognition that it is will still exist for face-to-face contact better to explore the technical with company experts, but this can options sooner rather than later. 6.3.1 Knowledge capture, storage be for clarification or problem & transfer solving rather than for basic Development of strategic plans knowledge transfer. provides an opportunity for the UK’s In most OECD countries, nuclear R&D capability in fuel cycle technology has been at a standstill or 6.3.2 Virtual reality to assist technology, including reprocessing, declining for several decades. This manufacture and to enable governments and utilities has resulted in a stable workforce maintenance of new build to explore options that will be supporting the existing nuclear plant capable of industrial implementation. industry, e.g. commercial operating reactors, national laboratories, reactor There will be a need to develop Powerful software exists for project vendors, etc. This workforce is now strategies that address issues planning, scheduling of resources, reaching or approaching retirement concerning waste and effluents from time and cost forecasting. In with the potential that the nuclear reprocessing and also to develop addition, powerful 3-D visualisation industry will lose a great wealth of technically robust answers to techniques exist using 360° laser experience and detailed knowledge concerns about proliferation. There scanning that can then be digitised that was acquired over these decades. will be options that involve the to create computer simulations of At the same time, information development of cost-competitive, actual installed plants. proliferation-resistant fuel cycles. The technology has changed dramatically since the early days of nuclear power; UK will be well placed to exploit Techniques are emerging for personal computers, internet access, knowledge it has gained from its combining these types of simulations three-dimensional modelling, industrial reprocessing activities and to produce virtual reality models of interactive graphics, search engines, its R&D capability to examine new plants, equipment, maintenance etc., have altered the way modern approaches. records, construction and/or engineers relate with their work and maintenance processes. These can be with their colleagues. In particular, There will be opportunities to bench- used to optimise scheduling and new graduates/new employees are mark international standards in non- manning of construction or comfortable and accustomed to proliferation and the UK would be maintenance operations. For interacting 24/7 via the internet to well placed to advise emerging example, it will be possible to gain the knowledge they need rather nations on compliance with establish clashes on accessibility of than reading manuals and talking international expectations in non- numbers of personnel to confined one-on-one with the knowledge proliferation. areas or evaluate the usability of a experts of their company. proposed design, without having to manufacture mock-ups. So as to not lose the knowledge of those retiring and to facilitate the efficient acquisition of this
30 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
The techniques have obvious • Direct calculation of 3-D core 6.4 Summary applications to training personnel for inventories. operations in confined or radioactive • Direct calculation of multiple Within these technology areas there areas where safety and speed of transient scenarios in place of are considered to be real commercial implementation are paramount. bounding calculations. opportunities over the next 5 years • Elimination of core neutronics that have market sizes ranging from Software techniques as used in approximations such as the use of >£1M to £100M with commensurate computer games and visualisations neutron transport theory investment requirements ranging could offer great advantages in the (deterministic or Monte Carlo) in from <£1M to >£10M. development this technique. place of diffusion theory; use of multi-group or continuous energy There are also UK based companies Some work has already been models in place of few-group that could take these opportunities to performed on combining these models; replacement of single- market, together with spin-in and different types of simulations, but assembly spectral models with spin-out opportunities. However the more work could bring about major multiple-assembly models and nuclear engineering capabilities are advances that would be used in the direct calculation of microscopic not widely known in overseas forthcoming nuclear new build cross-sections in three-dimensions. markets and there is a need for a programme, the current clean up promotional campaign to present programmes and in training for One opportunity is to provide direct effectively the UK’s strengths. maintenance of existing generating models to supply reference solutions, stations. which align with the needs of It is noted that opportunities exist for numerous customers – utilities, international participation (e.g. The R&D project would be to assess vendors, regulators and research through Euratom) to address the the capability of existing simulations organisations. Comparison of the issues and challenges associated with and to work with specialised software results of the approximate models nuclear R&D and to contribute to houses to integrate appropriate and the direct models can be used to consolidation of the European packages, thus producing the quantify the errors introduced by the Research Area in nuclear power. required overall plant construction approximate models and thereby Euratom Nuclear Energy research and maintenance simulations. provide a sound basis for the addresses the continued safe uncertainty allowances that need to operation of reactor systems taking 6.3.3 Advanced modelling and be applied. The inability to perform into account new challenges such as Analysis direct calculations in the past may life-time extension, and the have predicated larger uncertainty assessment of potential safety and Many of the analyses associated with margins than was necessary. waste-management aspects for future fuel or reactors revolve around a Reducing uncertainty margins is reactor systems. There is Tier 1 detailed and comprehensive beneficial to the utility through company interest in Euratom understanding of how the fuel is increased operational flexibility and programmes, however involvement loaded into the core, how to possibly increased generating output. of SMEs is only possible with support. maximise energy output from that Alternatively, the direct models may fuel, how many tonnes of fuel are be used to completely replace the The assessment conducted here has loaded per year, how the fuel and approximate models, in which case shown there are many opportunities core will perform (in energy output the modelling uncertainty allowance for UK organisations to exploit. and safety response). With the can be eliminated completely. However, in order for the UK to continuing advances in computing maintain its nuclear industry heritage power there is a world-wide trend A second opportunity lies in work to and status as well as benefit from the towards the development of new reduce uncertainty margins by means global nuclear renaissance, public methods in reactor modelling that of improved modelling. This sector investment in R&D and dispense with the approximations approach can benefit from much technology development will be that have until now been needed. world-wide R&D on advanced reactor essential and can be justified. Examples include: modelling methods and it will offer utilities the possibility of restoring • Development of coupled core the operating margins when seeking neutronics/thermal-hydraulic to target higher burn-ups. codes. • Coupling of neutronics and fuel performance codes. • Direct modelling of plant transients, with 3-D core neutronics models coupled to detailed plant component models, with feedback from control and protection systems.
31 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Table 3 Summary Table of Technical Opportunities
Key Likely UK Spin-out Size of market Cost to UK Company Priority Investment Technical Opportunity share opportunity Comments per new reactor market (example only) (H/M/L) Needs (probability) (H/M/L)
A NDE/NDT to reduce £10M's for High for UK, < £10M Industrial support to High - nuclear High Saving in manufacturing & construction inspection times and construction, Medium for RCNDE, TWI, 20 to 30 and non-nuclear costs, improving quality and reproducibility. accelerate new build £100M's through Global key SMEs Fingerprint welds at SOL programme life B Condition monitoring & > £10M for High for UK, < £10M SMEs (and universities Many - nuclear High Add-on to normal control & instrumentation. preventative construction, Medium for e.g. Cardiff, Manchester) and non-nuclear Need to demonstrate near-term value. maintenance to increase £100M's through Global Examples of gas turbine on-line monitoring. safe life and reduce life life extension, and Formula 1. downtime C Materials degradation, > £10M. High in UK, < £10M Tiers 1 & 2, e.g. Atkins, High e.g. creep, High Irradiation, corrosion, EAC, erosion, creep, etc. structural integrity and But note Low for Global Amec, RR, Babcock creep-fatigue, Impact of water chemistry on plant lifetime prediction consequential Marine, Serco, EDF/BE, long-term operation and reduction of degradation. including water impact. … corrosion issues. Westinghouse use EPRI standards. Including chemistry and doping to Other nuclear local and global chemistry. Consider reduce corrosion and e.g. legacy waste establishent of UK node for Materials Ageing advanced materials management Institute. Major benefit to utilities.
Technology-based D Digital command & > £10M Medium in UK, > £10M Rolls-Royce, BAE High High Each new reactor will require a new digital control systems to Medium for systems comand and control system. improve the Global performance, reliability and safety of complex systems E Advanced > £100M Medium in UK, < £1M (less Existing AMRCs - High High Higher probability for smaller components Manufacturing Research Medium for than £1M per university/industry (e.g. rather than large components. Niche areas Centre(s) for Nuclear to Global project, but Sheffield Forgemasters, for SMEs in areas including HIPing, welding address high value potentially Metal Improvement) & joining, surface technology, new materials. manufacturing and 10 or so links. technical challenges by projects) the supply chain. F Modularisation to > £100M High for UK, < £10M BAE Systems, RR, Low Medium Modularisation approaches to AP1000 using encourage local build Low for Global Doosan-Babcock flow approaches used in ships, submarines, etc. and assembly and through to SMEs Assembly on-site, building local industry. engage the UK supply Reduce construction time, costs & improve chain quality. Standardisation in design is a goal, though different requirements in UK and overseas. Ga Advanced fuel Approx. £450M High for UK, < £10M Westinghouse, NNL, High- Strong High Build up manufacturing capacity in UK. manufacturing over 60 year Medium for UK capacity Rolls-Royce, Urenco possibility of Higher predictability, better QA, but stickng processes including lifetime Global already in combining civil with existing design. Development of more efficient processes place, but and naval improvements to manufacturing processes. & improved fuel requires interests, but Including better inspection of each stage of performance capital and subject to MOD. the process. R&D investment to compete for new build business.
Infrastructure-based Gb Fuel recycling including Fuel recycling High for UK, > £1000M Sellafield Ltd, Areva, Low Low Political hurdles may limit additional MOX fuel manufacture would need to be High for Energy Solutions - SMEs, recycling in UK and participation of UK offered at a cost of Global NNL and universities as companies in overseas recycling. >£10M per reactor technology suppliers per year. H Fuel cycle assessment to Initially < £10M High for UK, < £10M NNL, Manchester Low to Medium High Includes reprocessing, aqueous product reduce proliferation over 5 years, High for University, Sellafield Ltd volume reduction, Co-extraction reducing concern and waste potentially to grow Global proliferation concern, separation of minor volumes to > £10M per year actinides, waste matrices & fuel fabrication. if assessments are converted into improvements in industrial practice I Knowledge capture, > £1M per new Medium in UK, > £10M LSC, NNL, Data Capture High High Online, interactive and flexible, drawing on storage & transfer, reactor year of Medium for Solutions, etc. the latest information & communication roadmapping, operation Global technologies, ICT, (Google, gaming knowledge transfer technologies, etc), networking people, with network online access 24/7, and real-time updates. J Virtual reality (3D > £1M. High for UK, > £10M Tier 1 interest but much High and Medium Combining software packages. Interactive visualisation & But note Medium for involvement of SMEs Spin-in high approach to design & construction of new simulation tool) to assist consequential Global including software plant. Training for operation & maintainance manufacture and benefit organisations engineers on existing and new plant leading maintenance of new to commercial advantage. build plant K Advanced modelling to > £10M per new High for UK, > £10M Manchester, Imperial, High High Full muti-dimensional model of reactor core. enable more efficient reactor year of Medium to Strathclyde Universities Coupling of physics codes, CFD & structural
Knowledge-based operation and higher operation high for Global codes. Pay-off for operating plant to predict levels of safety and plant where & when there may be a problem, e.g. availability flow distribution into reactor. "Information, Communication & Technology (ICT)"
32 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
33 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
It is considered that the Technology Strategy Board and the RDAs can assist UK industry, including SMEs, to access the opportunities that the nuclear renaissance offers.
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7.0 Conclusions
• Investing in appropriately scoped Specific opportunities that have been Against these technology areas there R&D programmes and identified as satisfying the above are considered to be real commercial infrastructure projects criteria for “public-sector opportunities over the next 5-10 • Leading knowledge transfer and intervention” arise within general years that have specific market sizes capture activities both within the categories of Technology, ranging from >£1M to £100M with nuclear sector and establishing Infrastructure and Knowledge, and commensurate investment links to other business areas include the engagement with the requirements ranging from <£1M to • Communicating the new business Euratom Framework programmes. >£10M. opportunities in nuclear The opportunities identified during engineering. (This is already the course of the review include the There are also UK based companies happening through a series of following: that could take these opportunities to well-attended supply chain market and spin-in and spin-out workshops.) • Non-destructive Testing and opportunities as well. Examination (NDT/NDE) • Encouraging and assisting UK The assessment conducted here has companies to become accredited • Condition monitoring and shown there are many opportunities to supply the nuclear engineering preventative maintenance for UK organisations to exploit. industry • Materials degradation, structural integrity and lifetime However, in order for the UK to • Facilitating closer contact with UK maintain its nuclear industry heritage • Digital command and control universities engaged on nuclear and status as well as benefit from the systems engineering R&D and in particular global nuclear renaissance, public encouraging two-way secondments • Advanced Manufacturing Research sector investment in R&D and and knowledge transfer Centre(s) for Nuclear components technology development will be partnerships and systems and fuels essential and can be justified. • Promoting international • Modularisation engagement and collaboration • Advanced fuel manufacturing • Fuel recycling • Fuel cycle assessment • Knowledge capture, storage and transfer • Virtual reality to assist manufacture and maintenance of new build plant • Advanced modelling of systems, structures and components
35 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
1.0 Executive summary
0036 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
8.0 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to give special thanks to the following for their significant contributions to the review:
Andrew Jeapes, Graham Fairhall and Advantage West Midlands Matt Clough (NNL) AMEC Kate Barker and John Rigby AREVA (Manchester Business School) AREVA NP Tim Abram (Dalton Nuclear Institute, Argonne National Laboratory The University of Manchester) BAE Systems BARC (India) The valuable insights provided by the Battelle Memorial Institute following Steering Committee Bristol University regarding the assessment of specific Cambridge University opportunities for intervention is Dalton Nuclear Institute gratefully acknowledged: DECC Doosan Babcock Bill Bryce (Doosan Babcock) Ecole Centrale (Paris) Steve Garwood (Rolls-Royce) Ecole Polytechnique (Paris) Joe Flanagan (NWDA) EDF Kevin Warren (NWDA) Electric Power Research Institute Regis Matzie (Westinghouse) Entergy Peter Storey (HSE) EPSRC Steve Walsgrove (DECC) GSE Systems Guided Ultasonics The authors would also like to thank Imperial College Centre for Nuclear all those who attended the Workshop Engineering to Review UK R&D Capabilities in Idaho National Laboratory Nuclear Engineering on 18 June 2009 Leeds University at The University of Manchester and Los Alamos National Laboratory provided useful input to this review. Marston Consulting Materials Ageing Institute (France) Information and insight on the MatUK nuclear engineering R&D capabilities Namtec of the UK was obtained from the NIA following organisations, whose NII/HSE contribution is also gratefully NNI acknowledged. North West Development Agency One North East Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oxford University Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Pebble Bed Modular Reactor Pty (South Africa) RCNDE Rolls Royce SERCO Sheffield University Technology Strategy Board Tokyo University UKAEA University of California – Berkeley University of Florida University of Wisconsin Westinghouse Electric Company World Nuclear University Yorkshire Forward
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Appendices
Appendix 1 Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
Appendix 2 Gen III+: Medium Term Thermal Systems
Appendix 3 Current UK Nuclear R&D
Appendix 4 R&D for Future Systems
Appendix 5 Feedback from UK Stakeholders
Appendix 6 Feedback from International Stakeholders
Appendix 7 Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
Appendix 1: Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
Historical perspective and Reactors (AGRs). These included the during the 1980s was Generation II international context use of enriched, stainless steel clad light water reactor systems, either fuel pins enabling higher fuel burn- pressurised water (PWR) or boiling The UK has had a self-sufficient up, higher reactor operating water (BWR) systems. A decision was programme of nuclear power since temperatures and thus improved made in the UK to “switch horses” the 1950s which included the ability efficiencies. and the country’s sole PWR, Sizewell to design and build reactors, to B (a Westinghouse-licensed design) manufacture and enrich fuel and to The AGR stations, operated by British was constructed and started manage the irradiated fuel after Energy (now part of EDF) are operation in 1995. Whilst this was a discharge from the reactor. It is one currently scheduled to operate for the Westinghouse design, there were of only a few countries that has next 5 to 14 years, with the final substantial design changes as a result developed a fully closed fuel cycle station, Torness, closing in 2023. of the approvals process in the UK. with the ability to reprocess spent There is an expectation that life The reactor was manufactured by UK fuel and subsequently fuel prototype extension programmes will permit industry (including technical work fast reactor systems. The UK’s extended operation of some of the on mechanical design, fuel extensive nuclear programme has stations, but there is no certainty of performance, reactor physics and also included naval propulsion, any AGR operating beyond 2030. thermal-hydraulics), as was the fuel nuclear fusion research and While they provide a substantial for the first four reloads of operation. development of deterrent contribution to UK non-fossil fuel technologies. This overview focuses electricity generation, there are no Current Situation predominately on civil nuclear plans for further build of AGRs. The system is unique to the UK and energy generation although relevant The current situation in the UK is a requires maintenance of all aspects of technology developments from other combination of deriving maximum the capability to support the AGR aspects of the UK’s nuclear value from the existing reactor system – maintenance of safety cases, programme will be considered. systems (Magnox, AGR and PWR), manufacture of fuel, reprocessing of preparing for a tranche of new build fuel, storage and eventual disposal of The original civil power generation of advanced light water reactors (Gen fuel. programme ,consisting of Magnox III) and clean-up and reactors, is drawing to a close with decommissioning of the legacy of The unique nature of the Magnox the remaining two stations, Oldbury wastes and facilities. Each aspect is and AGRs reactors and fuel designs and Wylfa, due to shutdown by 2014; described briefly below:- these are regarded as Generation I has not provided many opportunities for expansion into overseas markets technology systems. There is a Support to existing operations substantial programme of and has limited the scope to utilise reprocessing to manage the irradiated the international supply chain. There was early export success with two The UK generates 15% of its Magnox fuel which is planned to be electricity from nuclear fission and completed by 2016. Magnox stations built in Italy and Japan but no overseas sales of the there is a primary aim to manage the AGR system. AGRs and remaining Magnox stations During the 1960s and 1970s the UK to the end of their lives or where continued to develop gas-cooled Whilst the UK has pursued gas-cooled possible obtain lifetime extension. systems with the successor to the Figure A1-1 shows the predicted Magnox reactors being the reactor technology, the dominant technology deployed worldwide decline in generation from existing Generation II Advanced Gas-cooled reactors.
38 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
products for water reactor fuels (powder, granules and pellets) to be sold to overseas utilities. There is no current LWR fuel manufacture but this remains an option if market prospects improve.
The enrichment of uranium for oxide fuels is undertaken by Urenco Ltd. at its Capenhurst facility, near Chester. The capability was part of BNFL and, with European partners, successfully developed gas centrifuge technology for enrichment. However, in the 1980s the decision was made to form a single company from the three European partners in order to enable Figure A1-1 Expected decline in nuclear generating capacity in the UK - (from ‘The Role of Nuclear Power in a it to compete successfully in the Low Carbon UK Economy: Consultation Document’, Dept of Trade & Industry (DTI) May 2007) world enrichment market, which it continues to do. Ensuring continued and safe from life extension work on water electricity generation from the reactors around the world and this Management of the irradiated fuel installed systems has provided a knowledge will have little value initially comprises storage in water- valuable UK capability across a range outside the UK. filled ponds, or a dry store at Wylfa. of activities, including the capability In the case of a significant proportion to monitor and assess all safety The extensive world-wide experience of the AGR fuel and all of the aspects of the reactor system. on life extension for water reactors Sizewell fuel the current strategy is to Examples include monitoring of yields the prospect to extend Sizewell continue the storage for many corrosion within the reactor and B operation out to 2045 or even decades in water under carefully satisfactory performance of the 2055. controlled conditions. graphite cores, both of which are essential to safe operation. Some A necessary requirement of the The remainder of the AGR fuel and aspects of reactor support need to be Magnox and AGR systems is the all of the Magnox fuel is scheduled to undertaken at the station, whilst means to produce fuel and to manage be processed to recover uranium and other aspects, such as post-irradiation it after irradiation. The UK has a plutonium as material for examination of fuel and graphite, complete capability to produce manufacture of fresh fuel. need specialist facilities. reactor fuel: namely to process Reprocessing of irradiated fuel is uranium ore, produce uranium undertaken at NDA’s Sellafield site The published dates for hexafluoride, uranium metal, oxide where separate plants treat the metal decommissioning of the AGR reactors powders and pellets. There is a Magnox fuel and thermal oxide AGR are as shown in Table A1-1, below. It capability to design and produce fuel fuels. Reprocessing of Magnox fuel is is expected that technical studies will pins and assemblies for AGRs and an essential part of management of permit extension of some station LWRs. The heart of these operations Magnox fuel and is scheduled to be lives, as is already the case for for the UK is at NDA’s Springfields’ completed by 2016. Oxide fuel Hinkley, Hunterston and Dungeness, site, now operated by Westinghouse, reprocessing (in THORP) is and that this is likely to sought in where the primary focus is the undertaken as a commercial blocks of 5 years. The unique design manufacture of AGR fuel but also operation to treat both AGR fuel and of the AGRs will mean that the production of uranium hexafluoride LWR fuel for Japanese and European technical studies will not benefit for enrichment and intermediate utilities. Contractual arrangements exist for the return of the separated U Generation and Pu and the fission product waste Station Decommissioning After life extension? to the customer. A necessary part of Started reprocessing is the ability to Hinckley Pt B 1976 2016 Yes immobilise radioactive wastes in Hunterston B 1976 2016 Yes cement or glass matrices, depending upon the radioactive content. Dungeness B 1983 2018 Yes Hartlepool 1983 2014 Heysham 1 1983 2014 Heysham 2 1988 2023 Torness 1988 2023 Table A1-1 Sizewell B 1995 2035 Decommissioning Dates for AGR Reactors
39 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 1: Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
The use of reprocessing to separate convection. Likewise the EPR reactor Deployment of next generation plutonium from irradiated fuel offers evolutionary features such as reactor systems (Generation III) may provides the UK with the opportunity molten core catcher and improved occur over the next decade and in to manufacture mixed oxide fuel performance characteristics, systems which case the following issues will (MOX), suitable for water reactors. layout and safety control systems. need to be addressed: This capability is currently carried Both designs draw on experience out in NDA’s Sellafield MOX Plant gained to date to improve the overall • Assessment of safety of advanced (SMP). This is aimed solely at safety and economics of the system. reactor systems from the international business, since no UK Other advanced water reactor designs perspective of licensability and reactors are currently licensed for are in the process of certification in operability MOX fuel. various countries or under • Guaranteeing operational construction or in operation, as performance based on vendors New Nuclear Build summarised in Table A1-2. specification • Fuel cycle assessment in terms of With the UK government’s decision The UK has now nominated 11 sites core loading and spent fuel to seek additional nuclear generating and 3 consortia have announced management. capacity, third generation systems are plans to bid to build new reactors:- • Energy policy assessment such as now being proposed for deployment, financing new nuclear build, notably Westinghouse’s AP1000 • GDF Suez/ Iberdrola/Scottish and planning and licensing Southern Energy system and Areva’s EPR system. Both • Social and Societal issues such as of these are the culmination of • E.ON UK/RWE npower risk perception, consultation, developments over the past decade or • EDF security so and offer evolutionary improvements on Generation II The timeline for the deployment of systems. For example a key part of Generation III systems is shown in the AP1000 system is its innovative Figure A1-2 passive safety features that rely on natural processes such as gravity and
Table A1-2 Advanced Thermal Reactors being marketed (from www.nuclear-world.org/info/inf08.html)
Reactor Country and developer Size MWe Status Advanced Boiling Water Reactor US-Japan (GE-Hitachi, Toshiba) 1300 Commercial operation (ABWR) AP-600 AP-600: NRC certified 1999, 600 AP-1000 USA (Westinghouse) AP-1000 NRC certification 2005, 1100 (PWR) many units planned in China. EPR French design approval. France-Germany US-EPR 1600 Being built in Finland and France, planned for China. (Areva NP) (PWR) US version developed. USA ESBWR 1550 Advanced state of certification. (GE- Hitachi) APWR 1530 Basic design in progress, planned for Tsuruga Japan US-APWR 1700 US design certification application 2008. (utilities, Mitsubishi) EU-APWR 1700 Submitted for certification in 2008 APR-1400 South Korea 1450 First units expected to be operating c 2013. (PWR) (KHNP, derived from Westinghouse) SWR-1000 Germany 1200 Under development, pre-certification in USA (BWR) (Areva NP) VVER-1200 Russia Replacement under construction for Leningrad and 1200 (PWR) (Gidropress) Novovoronezh plants CANDU-6 750 Potential new build in Ontario Canada (AECL) CANDU-9 925+ Licensing approval 1997 700 ACR Canada (AECL) Undergoing certification in Canada 1080
40 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Designs of Gen III systems from Westinghouse Electric Company and AREVA NP are currently being reviewed by the HSE as part of Generic Design Assessment (GDA, or prelicensing). These systems can be expected to have operating lives of 60 years and so there will be an ongoing need for reactor support activities, similar to those deployed for the AGRs and Sizewell B. Fuel supply will probably be sourced from the international market if it is U-235 enriched fuel.
Figure A1-2 Timeline for Generation III deployment. This intended new nuclear build in the UK needs to be set in an overall resurgence of interest in nuclear power around the world where over 40 power reactors are currently being constructed in 11 countries notably Magnox reactors and subsequently irradiated fuel and vitrified high level China, South Korea, Japan and AGRs will occupy much of the waste. In 2006 the Committee on Russia. There are a numbered of current century and be accompanied Radioactive Waste Management licensed advanced water reactor in due course by decommissioning of (CORWM) concluded that deep designs, see Table A1-3, and new chemical plant associated with fuel geological disposal is the most construction programmes likely to manufacture and reprocessing. The appropriate way forward for commence in USA, China, Russia, estimated cost of this programme is managing the UK’s inventory of India as well as the UK. The recent at least £70bn and is scheduled to 11 intermediate and high level waste report on the UK supply chain last for over 100 years. The Nuclear and spent nuclear fuel. Previously indicates that “of the estimated Decommissioning Authority has the NIREX had been the body responsible US$11.6 trillion investment in responsibility to drive forward this for implementation of geological electricity generation to 2030, programme with private sector disposal in the UK, however NIREX approximately US$200 billion will be organisations competing to run site has since become part of the Nuclear invested in new (and replacement) management contracts. There is a Decommissioning Authority. global nuclear capacity. However, a significant R&D programme more optimistic estimate of the associated with this activity as the Nuclear Propulsion global, civil nuclear market has NDA is keen to encourage innovation recently been made by Rolls-Royce, to reduce costs timescales and which estimates that by 2023 the improve safety. The NDA’s R&D The UK’s submarine-based nuclear global civil nuclear market, currently programmes will provide one means deterrent has required the worth around £30 billion a year, will to support the skills base, as well as development of a self-contained be worth approximately £50 billion a developing innovative solutions to capability in the design and build of year, with £20 billion in new build, enable the clean-up programme to be submarine reactors and the £13 billion in support to existing delivered more quickly, safely and manufacture of the associated fuel. nuclear plant, and £17 billion in cheaply. While the reactor system is based support for new reactors” upon PWR technology it is Waste Disposal sufficiently different not to be Legacy waste clean-up and interchangeable with civil power decommissioning generation. However, there are An essential part of any nuclear common technology areas and programme is the means to dispose significant overlap in technical skills. This is one of the major aspects of of low and high activity radioactive Strong synergies exist for example in the UK’s nuclear programme with a waste and this is the responsibility of materials research, structural significant challenge in cleaning up the NDA. Provision to dispose of low integrity, reactor physics etc. historic facilities, packaging wastes activity waste already exists at the and remediating sites. NDA’s LLWR site in Cumbria, while NDA’s Radioactive Waste Most of the legacy material originates Management Directorate is charged from the initial nuclear activities, with the design, siting and research and prototype reactors and implementation of a geological the early years of Magnox repository for wastes with higher reprocessing. Decommissioning of radioactive inventories, including
11 ”The Supply Chain for a UK Nuclear New Build” by namtec, September 2008
41 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 1: Overview of the UK Nuclear Sector
2010 Korea, KHNP Shin Kori 1 PWR 1000 Future Options 2010 China, CGNPC Lingao 3 PWR 1080 2010 Argentina, CNEA Atucha 2 PHWR 692 Once building of the Gen III fleet is 2010 Russia, Energoatom Severodvinsk PWR x 2 70 established there will also be an opportunity for fuelling with MOX 2011 India, NPCIL Kalpakkam FBR 470 fuel, however this will require a 2011 China, Taipower Lungmen 2 ABWR 1300 Government decision to use UK Pu 2011 Russia, Energoatom Kalinin 4 PWR 950 stocks and accept the additional 2011 Korea, KHNP Shin Kori 2 PWR 1000 liability of the irradiated MOX fuel. 2011 China, CNNC Qinshan 6 PWR 650 2011 China, CGNPC Lingao 4 PWR 1080 There will be an opportunity to 2011 Pakistan, PAEC Chashma 2 PWR 300 manufacture MOX fuel for the domestic Gen III system using 2012 Finland, TVO Olkiluoto 3 PWR 1600 plutonium from the UK’s stockpile 2012 China, CNNC Qinshan 7 PWR 650 and to produce MOX fuel for 2012 Korea, KHNP Shin Wolsong 1 PWR 1000 customers who have had fuel 2012 France, EdF Flamanville 3 PWR 1630 reprocessed in THORP. Production of 2012 Russia, Energoatom Beloyarsk 4 FBR 750 MOX fuel for other utilities using Pu 2012 Japan, Chugoku Shimane 3 PWR 1375 not currently stored at Sellafield 2012 Russia, Energoatom Novovoronezh 6 PWR 1070 would raise a major political issue 2012 Slovakia, SE Mochovce 3 PWR 440 and is a less likely scenario. Current 2012 China, CGNPC Hongyanhe 1 PWR 1080 difficulties with the Sellafield MOX 2012 China, CGNPC Ningde 1 PWR 1080 Plant either need to be overcome or a new MOX manufacturing plant 2013 China, CNNC Sanmen 1 PWR 1100 would need to be built. Deciding 2013 China, CGNPC Ningde 2 PWR 1080 upon the future of SMP is one of 2013 Krea, KHNP Shin Wolsong 2 PWR 1000 NDA’s strategic goals for 2009. 2013 Russia, Energoatom Leningrad 5 PWR 1070 2013 Russia, Energoatom Novovoronezh 7 PWR 1070 Regardless of MOX fuel, the current 2013 Russia, Energoatom Rostov/ Volgodonsk 3 PWR 1070 position is that all irradiated fuel will 2013 Korea, KHNP Shin Kori 3 PWR 1350 be stored at the reactor until a 2013 China, CGNPC Yangjiang 1 PWR 1080 Government decision on its fate is 2013 China, CGNPC Taishan 1 PWR 1700 taken. 2013 China, CNNC Fangjiashan 1 PWR 1000 2013 China, CNNC Fuqing 1 PWR 1000 There could be an option for renewed 2013 Slovakia, SE Mochovce 4 PWR 440 reprocessing of oxide fuels during the following decade, once the major 2014 China, CGNPC Hongyanhe 2 PWR 1080 legacies at Sellafield have been 2014 China , CNNC Sanmen 2 PWR 1100 reduced. Reprocessing could be 2014 China , CPI Haiyang 1 PWR 1100 focused on a combination of 2014 China , CGNPC Ningde 3 PWR 1080 domestic fuels – AGR and PWR and 2014 China , CGNPC Hongyanhe 3 PWR 1080 overseas LWR. Concerns about 2014 China, CNNC Fangjiashan 2 PWR 1000 nuclear proliferation resulting from 2014 China, CNNC Fuqing 2 PWR 1000 separation of Pu might be allayed by 2014 China, China Huaneng Shidaowan HTR 200 returning Pu in the form of MOX 2014 Korea, KHNP Shin-Kori 4 PWR 1350 fuel. 2014 Japan, Tepco Fukishima I-7 ABWR 1350 2014 Japan, EPDC/J Power Ohma ABWR 1350 2014 Bulgaria, NEK Belene 1 PWR 1000 2014 Russia , Energoatom Leningrad 6 PWR 1200 2014 Russia , Energoatom Rostov/ Volgodonsk 4 PWR 1200
2015 Japan , Tepco Fukishima I-8 ABWR 1080 2015 China , CGNPC Yangjiang 2 PWR 1080 2015 China , CGNPC Taishan 2 PWR 1700 2015 China , CPI Haiyang 2 PWR 1100 2015 Romania, SNN Cernavoda 3 PHWR 655 2015 Korea, KHNP Shin-Ulchin 1 PWR 1350 2015 Russia, Energoatom Seversk 1 PWR 1200 2015 Russia, Energoatom Baltic 1 PWR 1200 2015 Russia, Energoatom Tver 1 PWR 1200 2015 Russia, Energoatom Leningrad 7 PWR 1200 2015 Japan, Chugoku Kaminoseki 1 ABWR 1373 Table A1-3 2015 Japan , Tepco Higashidori 1 ABWR 1080 Power reactors under construction, or almost so
42 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 2: Gen III+ Medium Term Thermal Systems
High Temperature Reactors licensing basis reactor accident feature. There are a range of designs temperatures. It is virtually being developed, many of which impossible for a core melt accident. have evolved from nuclear High Temperature reactors (HTR) use The robust coatings on each fuel propulsion systems. Designs vary in nuclear fission to produce heat, kernel provide containment for the the size of unit proposed but the similar to the over 440 nuclear radioactive materials. The distributed technical benefits are largely those reactors in operation globally, but containment structures incorporated quoted for Westinghouse’s IRIS with several important differences. in the HTR fuel replace the central, system. Unlike the bulk of the world’s massive reinforced concrete structure operating light water reactors (LWRs), on nuclear plants currently in service. IRIS (International Reactor Innovative the HTR uses helium instead of water and Secure) is a conceptual integral to cool the nuclear core and transfer In the USA, the Next Generation light water reactor plant that is heat for the energy conversion Nuclear Plant (NGNP) Demonstration currently being developed by an function of the reactor system. This concept is emphasising the non- international consortium led by helium “coolant” and the use of electricity generation applications of Westinghouse. IRIS is a modular 335 graphite as the neutron “moderator” the HTR. In a typical configuration, MWe pressurised water reactor with and as part of a very resilient fuel, electricity is generated by taking the integral steam generators and give the HTR its unique capability to process heat from the reactor through primary coolant system all within the operate at very high temperatures – a secondary heat exchanger and pressure vessel. It is nominally 335 much higher than all other reactor transport system to drive a power MWe but can be less, e.g. 100 MWe. designs. HTRs operate at conversion system while a hydrogen Fuel is initially similar to present approximately 800º C, with even production facility also receives heat LWRs with 5% enrichment and burn- higher temperatures possible. This is from the reactor through a secondary up of 60,000 MWd/t with a fuelling in contrast to 300º C for existing heat exchanger and transport system interval of 3 to 3.5 years, but is LWRs. At these higher temperatures, to produce hydrogen using either a designed ultimately for 10% HTRs can achieve higher efficiency thermo-chemical or a high enrichment and 80 GWd/t burn-up and also perform “process heat” temperature electrolysis process. The with an 8 year cycle, or equivalent missions beyond the capabilities of higher temperatures of the HTR open MOX core. The core has low power existing reactor types. HTR plants are the door for industrial processing density. IRIS could be deployed in the also smaller in capacity than opportunities currently unattainable next decade, and US design conventional LWRs, which provides using the lower temperature of light certification is at the pre-application advantages for some electricity water technology. HTR technology stage. Estonia has expressed interest generation applications. Plant size can meet the challenges of rising in building a pair of them. Multiple has been a factor in the appeal of energy costs and CO emissions from modules are expected to cost US$ LWRs for baseload electricity 2 fossil fuels by providing process heat 1000-1200 per kW for power generation, because of their for industrial manufacturing. generation, though some consortium “economy-of-scale” advantage in this partners are interested instead in marketplace. Newer HTR designs are Demonstration reactors plants are desalination or district heating. nonetheless capable of supporting already being constructed or planned, certain electricity generation needs. such as HTTR in Japan, HTR-10 in A similar unit is the NuScale multi- These smaller plants provide modular China and the proposed Pebble Bed application small PWR which is capacity additions with lower overall Modular Reactor (PBMR) in South apparently similar to IRIS but with financial risk for smaller US utilities Africa. The Next Generation Nuclear natural circulation. It is about 150 and they may be deployable in Plant in the USA is also based on MW thermal or 45 MWe, factory- remote locations without established, HTR technology and will seek to built and with 3 metre diameter robust high voltage transmission demonstrate the application to pressure vessel and convection systems to support large central hydrogen generation and process cooling. The whole unit is installed generating stations. heat production as well as electricity below ground, and eight modules generation. together might form a 360 MWe As eluded to above, one of the power station. An application for US unique features of the HTR is its fuel. design certification is expected in All HTRs use a small (~1mm Integral reactors 2010, with pre-application meetings diameter) fuel particle as its basis. from mid 2008. The first unit is These small fuel particles have a Among a range of designs for small planned to be operating from 2015. kernel of enriched uranium in the reactors (see Table A2-1) integral light form of an oxide (or carbide), coated water reactor systems also have Babcock & Wilcox’s mPower™ is also with a porous carbon layer to absorb improved safety characteristics by a modular, passively safe light water fission gases, which is surrounded by incorporating the steam generators reactor. It is planned to generate a hard pyrolytic carbon layer, covered within the reactor pressure vessel. An between 125 & 750 MWe, with a five by a silicon carbide layer and finally entire class of potentially severe year refuelling cycle. covered by another pyrolytic carbon accidents associated with LWRs, layer. These “TRISO” particles are known as the large-break loss of extremely robust and can withstand coolant accidents (LOCAs) can be temperatures well in excess of eliminated by adopting such a design
43 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 2: Gen III+ Medium Term Thermal Systems
VK-300 300 MWe BWR Atomenergoproekt, Russia CAREM 27 MWe PWR CNEA & INVAP, Argentina KLT-40 35 MWe PWR OKBM, Russia MRX 30-100 MWe PWR JAERI, Japan IRIS-100 100 MWe PWR Westinghouse-led, international SMART 100 MWe PWR KAERI, S. Korea NP-300 100-300 MWe PWR Technicatome (Areva), France NuScale 40 MWe PWR NuScale, USA mPower™ 125-750 MWe PWR Babcock & Wilcox, USA
Figure A2-1 Small-medium light water reactors with development well advanced (from www.nuclear-world.org/info/inf33.html)
Appendix 3: Current UK Nuclear R&D R&D Perspective per annum was invested. By 2000, enrichment was discontinued once The current situation and the future direct publicly funded R&D was the potential returns were seen to be options for nuclear power in the UK virtually zero. This came about partly insufficient to justify the high both require supporting R&D due to the change in UK energy development costs. activities to ensure operations are policy as a result of the discovery of carried out safely, timely and to cost. North Sea gas, prompting a move A large programme of R&D into In addition to science and away from nuclear energy, and partly reprocessing of thermal oxide fuels engineering R&D activities, a wide as a result of the divestment of the was undertaken in the 1970s and 80s range of disciplines are required such Atomic Energy Authority with no to enable the design and build of as social, risk perception, human national entity taking forward THORP and this was funded by factors, safety analysis, socio- fundamental R&D. Back in the advanced payments from THORP’s economics etc. 1970/80s the UK saw nuclear as a customers. The THORP R&D was means of providing energy security of accompanied by programmes to supply and the country was History develop waste and effluent treatment developing the AGR reactors, technologies, partly to improve the The UK has an impressive track supporting deployment of PWRs, Magnox reprocessing systems and record in nuclear R&D since the developing the fast reactor and also to ensure that wastes and 1950s. Over the period 1954 – 1994, deeply involved in fuel processing effluents from THORP could be four reactor systems were developed, operations (hence the historic levels treated. This R&D enabled the UK to including building and operating of investment). With the discovery of industrialise technology for prototype reactors (AGR, SGHWR, North Sea Gas, loss of the AEA and vitrification of high level waste and Dragon and sodium cooled fast move away from nuclear energy, by for cement encapsulation of various reactor). The reactor systems were the 1990s, British Nuclear Fuels intermediate level radioactive wastes. accompanied by R&D into fuel assumed the de facto role as national design and fuel treatment which led, champion for backstopping The reactor operators (CEGB, Magnox in the case of the fast reactor, to fundamental R&D and maintained a Electric, British Energy) undertook demonstration of the complete fuel corporate investment programme, smaller programmes to develop waste cycle. Specialised facilities were built roughly £10m per annum, directed at treatment and encapsulation and operated for handling and longer-term R&D and capability technologies initially to treat wastes examination of irradiated fuel. R&D management. arising from operations and into reprocessing of thermal and fast subsequently to treat stored wastes reactor fuels utilised a range of glove Alongside reactor R&D, significant and wastes from decommissioning. box and shielded highly active studies were conducted into the facilities. thermal fuel cycle, principally into From the 1980s until 2005 BNFL improved enrichment technology played a role on behalf of the UK to With successful industrialisation of and thermal oxide reprocessing. Both maintain expertise and influence in the Magnox and AGR systems and programmes were undertaken by the development of nuclear without a pressing need for further BNFL and were aimed at technology, including advanced nuclear stations the volume of international as well as domestic reactor systems. The company used nuclear R&D carried out in the UK needs. Work on gas centrifuge its corporate R&D fund to support has declined substantially since the technology has been successfully development work in the UK and 1970s when approximately £500m industrialised while R&D into laser collaborative programmes overseas. It
44 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 2: Gen III+ Medium Term Thermal Systems
ensured that experienced with either ensuring safe operation, separation between waste species and technologists participated in lifetime extension where possible or reuseable species such as plutonium. international forums on advanced cost reduction of operations such as Research has focussed on reducing reactor systems and were able to through predicting operability and costs, waste volumes and improving influence programmes to the UK’s plant condition monitoring. environmental performance. benefit. From 2005, with the formation of NDA BNFL no longer The majority of the current One of the additional aspects of the took this role of acting in the programmes focus on materials UK’s nuclear programme that does national interest. NDA now has the performance issues such as the receive significant attention is the remit to ensure that R&D in legacy structural integrity of graphite, steels work on contributing to international clean-up and decommissioning takes and other components under safeguards and non-proliferation. advantage of international conditions of high temperature and Whilst R&D activities specifically collaboration but no organisation has irradiation and also understanding related to this field may be limited it a parallel role in reactor technology. materials phenomena such as stress is still necessary to have expertise corrosion cracking, creep, and knowledge which often is During the early years of this century embrittlement, void swelling and generated through R&D. In addition the UK government via DTI & DBERR other irradiation assisted processes. this area does drive future R&D in funded R&D to enable participation Work on probabilistic risk assessment, terms of development of new in the Gen IV forum. In 2006, the severe accident analysis, release detection techniques and government decided to withdraw mechanisms and non-destructive proliferation resistant fuel cycles and from active participation, on the testing also form major parts of the reactors. basis of short-term funding research programme. constraints. Some R&D in Gen IV has A related area of R&D is that on continued as part of the EPSRC’s The research challenges for existing emergency preparation to KNOO programme (Keep the Nuclear generation include: understand, in the event of a release Option Open), but has not formed of radionuclides, the impact on flora, part of the UK’s contribution to the • Ageing and degradation of specific fauna and uptake into the food international Gen IV programme; materials and components, such as chain. Research also involves there are some limited activities, the graphite core and AGR boiler communication systems, mainly in universities as part of the components. infrastructure requirements and KNOO programme even though the • Obsolescence of plant/equipment social aspects in terms of how UK has essentially ceased making like-for-like replacement individuals respond and decisions are participation in Gen IV. The short- difficult. made in the event of a nuclear term nature of decisions about KNOO emergency. and Gen IV underline the need for a On fuel cycle technology, currently national strategy on the longer term Magnox fuel is reprocessed as a R&D for Legacy Waste nuclear needs. means to stabilise the waste form. management AGR fuel is destined for either R&D for the UK’s current reactor interim storage or reprocessing and The major issue for the legacy waste systems (Gen I & II) fuel from Sizewell B is destined solely management and clean-up for interim storage. R&D is required programme is to ensure safe, timely to support the continued operation and cost-effective delivery of the Whilst R&D originally helped to of the infrastructure associated with work. Science, Technology and develop new systems, plant designs spent fuel management on the Innovation play a key role in helping and supporting technologies, much grounds of safety assessment, plant to expedite the programme as of today’s R&D helps to underpin the performance predictability, operating quickly, safely and cost-effectively as industry’s safe and effective cost reduction etc. There is also a possible. Research and Development operation. There is an ongoing need continuing requirement to assess the will play a key role in topics such as: for R&D to maintain the safety cases overall strategy for spent fuel • Waste characterisation, separation, for the reactors, to underpin management and this requires encapsulation and packaging management of the irradiated fuel on-going research in developments • Assessment and remediation of and to manage the wastes and associated with either open or closed contaminated land effluent. fuel cycle options. • Determining the end state for The licensees operating the existing Historically in the UK, there has been sites, operations and plants (Generation I and II) reactor systems, research conducted on aqueous • Future use of plutonium and i.e. the Magnox and Advanced Gas- reprocessing in order to support the treatment of uranium stockpiles Cooled Reactors and the single fuel current fuel cycle activities, ie • Radiation epidemiological studies Pressurised Water reactor at Sizewell Magnox reprocessing and also • Decommissioning and dismantling B, have developed technology employed in the THORP reprocessing of plant strategies that identify what is plant. Technology development has • Integrity of waste for interim required to support the reactor been associated with chemical storage systems through the end-of-life. R&D flowsheet engineering improving • Management of low-level waste and innovation development for disposal sites these systems is mainly associated
45 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 3: Current UK Nuclear R&D
Gen III R&D While R&D to support new nuclear It will also be necessary to perform For near-term deployment of Gen III build will be limited it is likely there research associated with societal reactors, a major technical will be a small but finite requirement issues and, while no roadmap development programme is not to ensure licensees and utilities fully currently exists, the Research necessary as designs are ready for understand safety related Councils have funded a programme deployment. However, a key aspect is performance of the reactor systems. on Sustainable Nuclear Power which ensuring the existing skill base in the This is currently under consideration addresses many of these societal and industry is retained and the supply by the Nuclear Installations policy issues. Research activities chain can be re-invigorated. Research Inspectorate. Possible areas of interest include: can play a key role in helping to for licensing a new system in the UK maintain critical capabilities such as might include: • Socio-economic studies the following: • Financing • Use of digital C&I systems for • Siting information • Core Design and Fuel Performance protection & control • Project delivery • Systems Engineering • Incredibility of failure of items • Stakeholder perception (e.g. pressure vessel) • Materials Performance • Environmental impact etc. • Water Chemistry • Probabilistic risk assessment – reconciliation of approach • Criticality, Shielding and Radiation Protection • Acceptable engineering codes and standards • Thermal Hydraulics and Transient Analysis • Acceptable computer codes • Safety Performance Assessment • Severe accident management • Radiation and contamination zoning – compatibility with overseas designs • Reactor shutdown provision (control rods vs boronation system) • Advanced Passive Safety features • Security
46 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 4: R&D for Future Systems
The R&D requirements for advanced Capability to manufacture and test coated particle fuel. Work reactor systems are well publicised, so must continue to demonstrate repeatable fabrication of for the purposes of this report a Fuels Technology highly reliable coatings and kernels on a commercial scale summary only is provided. and to prepare for qualification testing in accordance with nuclear standards High temperature reactors Preliminary work on preliminary creep, creep-fatigue, and (Gen III+ systems) environmental effects. Testing of high-temperature The world leaders in the field of high materials for intermediate heat exchanger applications. Much work remains to assess and qualify materials options temperature reactor design are South Materials Technology Africa and China; both countries for the reactor pressure vessel, hot ducting, hydrogen have plans for near term deployment, process heat exchangers and control rod guide tubes, and beginning with a demonstration to qualify ceramic and metallic components. Licensing reactor before 2020. Elsewhere guidance is required for all these materials issues research and development on high Designing the integrated nuclear heat supply system, power temperature reactors is being carried conversion system, and hydrogen production facility out in USA, Russia, France, and S requires finalising key design parameters, such as reactor Korea. There are mechanisms for power, outlet temperature, plant configuration, etc. collaborative research by these and System Design Improved computer methods are required to supplement other countries through the High existing neutronic, thermal hydraulic, and safety codes Temperature Reactor Technology applicable to HTR technology. Improved methods and Network (HTR-TN) – a 21 partner associated experiments are needed to validate the network of the EU, and the 10 computational tools member network of the Generation Designing, constructing and operating the necessary test IV International Forum (GIF). facilities (or modifying existing facilities) such as a high- Test Facilities temperature fluid flow test facility will advance the Key R&D areas for development of development and demonstration of HTR systems, key HTR reactors which will be needed by process equipment, and hydrogen production concepts other countries include those shown Water-splitting process development must be advanced in the Table A4-1. Hydrogen Process through demonstration of the integrated nuclear heat Development supply system, power conversion, and hydrogen production An illustrative technology facility development roadmap for High Temperature Reactors is shown in Table A4-1 Figure A4-1. Key R&D areas for development of HTR reactors
Figure A4-1 Roadmap for High Temperature Reactor Development
47 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 4: R&D for Future Systems
Hydrogen and process heat R&D for Advanced Thermal and Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor applications Fast Reactor Systems (Gen IV) Technology gaps include novel fuels and materials: Hydrogen is expected to play a key The VHTR • Fuel form and material role in the commitment by many (Very High Temperature Reactor) nations to reduce CO emissions and • Decay heat removal 2 While this is an evolution of the move away from dependence on • Fuel cycle technology fossil fuels. High Temperature Gas HTR, the drive to higher temperatures and larger cores requires • Structural materials for high Cooled reactors (HTR) which produce temperatures and fast neutrons heat at around 700 to 900C are further R&D. Technology gaps • Fuels Research particularly suited to the hydrogen include novel fuels and materials economy. This is because that: - Matrix type thermochemical cycles can be used to - Cladding generate hydrogen using only water • Support increased core-outlet - Burn-up as the feed but still require temperatures (850-1000 C) - In core performance temperatures of the order of 900C. • Permit the maximum fuel temperature following accidents to - Remote manufacture Technology issues that need to be reach 1800C without damage • Materials addressed specifically on the nuclear • Permit maximum fuel burnup of - Structural components related aspects are as follows: 150-200 GWd/tHM - Irradiation testing and • Avoid excessive core power examination • Integration with nuclear heat peaking and temperature gradients source • Fuel R&D • Fuel Cycle - Thermal coupling method, - Qualification of TRISO fuel - Processing options associated technologies (e.g. Heat - ZrC coatings for T>1000C exchanger materials) Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor - Burnable Absorbers, sic-sic and - Operational considerations (e.g. Technology gaps are present in the C-C composites pressure balancing requirements) following areas: • Materials • Integrated Process Demonstration - Reactor Pressure Vessel materials • Fuels Research - Pilot loop applying prototype studies materials at proposed operating - Matrix type conditions • Balance of plant R&D - Cladding • Regulatory Considerations • Safety R&D - Burn-up • Fuel Cycle R&D • Economics - In core performance - HTR Graphite Minwaste - Remote manufacture - Fuel Recycle • Materials - Structural components Fast reactors Fast reactor designs must address - Irradiation testing and issues related to economics, safety, examination system performance and reliability, • Fuel Cycle and safeguards and security. - Processing options • Fuels Technology development is needed - Manufacture in: - In-core performance • Coolant control (chemical, • Materials thermal and hydraulic) • Fuel Recycle options • Core structural materials • Safety Assessment • Instrumentation and control • Decommissioning / design • Seismic isolation experience • Fuel handling • Reactor vessel and structures • Maintenance and inspection technology • Balance of plant
For the two systems of greatest relevance to the UK, the R&D requirements can be summarised as follows:
48 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Fuel Cycle Technology to support fast reactor deployment
Recycle technology is fundamental to A second focus of R&D will be on the deployment of fast reactor pyrochemical (molten salt) systems, and hence fundamental to technologies, which have the the goals of Generation IV. There are potential for more compact plant, also strong synergies with fewer unit operations and greater technologies which may be of proliferation resistance: interest to the legacy waste management programme in the UK. • Minimising fissile material losses • Improved cleaning of the molten R&D is needed in two broad areas: salt • Increased efficiency of a) LWR spent fuel separation and electrochemical deposition. refabrication into fast reactor fuel • Materials with increased corrosion b) Fast reactor spent fuel separation resistance and refabrication into fast reactor fuel. A third focus of R&D will be on technologies to refabricate the fuel The overall aim is to develop for re-irradiation in the fast reactor reprocessing and fuel treatment system. Fuels containing the entire technologies that are cleaner, more mix of transuranics must be efficient, less waste-intensive and qualified. Fuel testing and more proliferation resistant. qualification will require the use of a fast test reactor. One focus of R&D needs to be on the development of aqueous technologies:
• Simplifying the flowsheet with fewer unit operations • Alternative reagents and separation processes to reduce wastes and effluent • Increasing proliferation-resistance by avoiding separation of pure fissile material • Separation of heat-generating or long-lived radionuclides • Recycle of minor actinides • High integrity waste matrices
49 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 5: Feedback from UK Stakeholders
Questionnaire relating to New Build: Technical Challenges
1 What do you see as the key technical challenges with the new nuclear build programme? Discuss Gen III and Gen IV+? • There is a little or no call for R&D in support of the new nuclear build programme. The PWRs will be built to a well proven design with minor, evolutionary changes. • Main challenge is to extend lifetime to 60 years and maintain efficiency and safety • Main focus for Gen III R&D is improved modelling of reactor core, better understanding and prediction of materials (including metals, plastics and concrete) ageing , i.e. corrosion (all forms), fatigue, fracture toughness, irradiation damage of fuel and reactor materials. Improvements here will bring further improvements in reactor safety and reliability.
Gen III+ and Gen IV are perceived to be very long time scale R&D (commercial deployment unlikely before 2040). The main opportunities for R&D are in Gen III+ and Gen IV systems, as follows:
• Numerous issues specific to graphite including stress ratios for combined states, ageing, non destructive investigation, irradiation testing, inspection techniques and creep modelling. • Identification of long term environmental conditions and material properties of concrete components, particularly at high temperatures. • Numerous issues relating to welding and joining technologies. • These include: - constitutive models for high temperature operation under creep and creep/fatigue - methods to predict weld degradation - re-heat cracking aspects - quantification of crack driving forces and fracture toughness - environmentally assisted corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking - qualified methods and inspections of heavy section welding required for new large containment vessels - long term ageing effects - evaluation of residual stresses - treatment of dissimilar metal welds particularly in fracture mechanics evaluations
• Materials information needs to be generated so as to be able to address: - long term ageing data for new reactor pressure vessel materials - strategies for mitigation of ageing effects - strength and ductility data at high temperature (maybe up to 900oC) - quantification of the effects of supercritical water systems on stress corrosion cracking - material selection for better high temperature performance - alloy selection for heat exchangers
• Other structural integrity/materials issues include: - User variability for application of structural simulation software to highly nonlinear events - coupled analyses rather than sequential for in-service transients, earthquake, air and ground shock and impact - micro-scale modelling methods describing microstructure in FeCr alloys under thermal ageing and irradiation, to correlate micro structural changes to changes in mechanical properties - strain based acceptance criteria for energy limited accident events
50 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Questionnaire relating to New Build: Technical Challenges
2 Is the UK R&D base capable of responding to these challenges? Discuss strengths and weaknesses of UK Universities, UK supply chain and their own R&D activity. • Strong UK R&D base in the area of structural integrity and materials, consisting of industrial companies, R&D supply chain organisations and the universities. In addition, there is participation in relevant European programmes and links to programmes world-wide. • Strong UK R&D base in fire testing and fire modelling. • Concern about lack of level of UK qualified and experienced resource in the reactor chemistry and civil engineering areas. • Potential lack of funding and uncertainty about whether UK academic expertise can adequately be focused on real issues. • In the area of fuel modelling, there is a view that practical experience in other countries (e.g. France, Sweden and Finland) is more helpful than university R&D in addressing any economic, technological or sociological issues. • In the area of control and instrumentation, there is a view that the supply chain organisations are aware of NII concerns and focus their research on addressing them. However, overseas suppliers are potentially more focused on their home country regulators and may be less prepared to meet NII requirements. • In the field of non destructive examination (NDE), there is a view that the UK R&D base is only partly capable of responding to the challenges. This is because it is considered that universities are not geared to deliver industrial solutions and that the supply chain is getting depleted due to loss of funding and retirement of key staff. • UK has strengths in R&D on Future Reactor Systems: This has little or no relevance to PWRs. The experience would be relevant to some Gas Cooled Fast Reactors, Sodium Cooled Fast reactors, High Temperature / Very High temperature reactors but experience needs to be captured or utilised now on Government funded international programmes. • UK universities need to re-establish their strengths in depth in high temperature metallurgy and ceramics. • UK R&D base has been run down from the high point when CEGB and Harwell Labs were world leading. Some UK Universities still have world class skills (see Item 6 below). UK expertise in operation of PWRs is limited. • Ability to close the fuel cycle is a strength not found in many other countries but facilities perceived to be unreliable and operating well below full capacity. • Based on the current performance in reprocessing, manufacture of MOX fuel and decommissioning redundant facilities, there is an alternative view though that the UK R&D base may not be capable of responding to the challenges. • This also applies to Fast Breeder Reactor technology where UK was perceived to be very strong but again the experience is likely to be lost unless deployed on demonstrators or test reactor programmes. • UK nuclear supply chain not well known apart from the major industrial players. Special expertise believed to exist in digital command and control systems.
51 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 5: Feedback from UK Stakeholders
Questionnaire relating to New Build: Technical Challenges
3 What is your current level of investment in nuclear energy R&D? What proportion of that is with UK universities, your supply chain, overseas universities and suppliers? How is this likely to change over the coming years? • Consultancy work attracts about £1m/year in R&D contracts. About 20% of this is sub-contracted to universities. Most of the work is in the fields of structural integrity, materials and NDE. • Some companies maintain a commitment to participation in international projects to develop Gen IV reactor projects which will result in demonstrator/ prototype reactors before 2020 and possible commercial deployment between 2030 & 2040. The commitment is mainly the time of senior personnel participating in meeting and discussions with partners in the consortia which will be developing these systems. Other involvement is in the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) in South Africa, the European Fast reactor (EFR), and the NGMP, and developments in Russia. There is little involvement in similar activities in China, Japan or Korea. Some companies are also are heavily involved with fusion research, both at Culham and Caderache / ITER, and hope to be involved in building the first wall structure for ITER.
The rationale for involvement in international R&D on future reactors is a combination of: - (i) Being in a position to capture contract opportunities to design and build the demonstrators / prototypes - (ii) Skills upgrading for their nuclear engineers
Exciting employment opportunities for very bright new graduates (more attractive that decommissioning work) - (iii) Long term positioning to be involved with commercial Gen IV systems.
Nuclear utilties invest typically several hundred million Euros per year on R&D. A minor proportion of this investment is made to supports R&D in UK universities.
Investment in R&D in the UK supply chain is not easy to estimate following the take over of British Energy.
4 What are the main barriers to implementing an R&D portfolio on nuclear energy? • Government commitment • Public acceptance • Commercial viability (over full lifecycle) - likelihood of sufficiently large incremental income from making the R&D investment - some aspects (e.g. NDE and Inspection Qualification may be regarded as an extra cost rather than a reliable means of ensuring structural integrity and safety • There are only a limited number of courses in nuclear engineering • There is widespread disappointment with the current lack of commitment / investment by the UK Government in Gen IV research. It is hoped that recent positive comments in the DIUS Report on UK Nuclear Engineering Capabilities may reflect a change in stance. • Since the break up of BNFL there is no effective focal point for the UK’s nuclear engineering activities. There was uncertainty among stakeholders as to whether the National Nuclear Laboratory will (be funded to) provide this focus?
5 In which technologies is public sector intervention necessary to allow UK capacity to grow and become a leading global player?
• One view is to question the practicality of the UK to become a leading global player, or indeed if it is necessary given we are importing much of the technology. • In the fuel modelling sector, it is considered that experience needs to be gained with codes for PWR fuel, possibly constructing and validating our own codes and building on the codes that we have for other reactor systems. • In the control and instrumentation area, it is considered that safety critical software is required. • In the NDE area, it is considered that the development of new, and resurrection of previously developed, advanced NDE capabilities are needed. • The Government is not providing a strategy, coordination, leadership or fighting our corner for research funding from Europe in the way which CEA does for France • UK Nuclear Profile –The UK needs to project a more clear and positive profile of what it can do to promote the nuclear renaissance and publicise special areas of expertise which can create wealth from the new nuclear build in the UK and overseas. This point was made by Lord Mandelson in discussions with the UK Industry delegation which visited India to discuss nuclear engineering. ‘What can the UK offer’. Mandelson is seen as a powerful supporter of nuclear power. Stakeholders expect more activity from BERR to define what the UK can offer to support the new nuclear build programme. Past surveys, even relatively recent ones, need to be updated.
52 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Questionnaire relating to New Build: Technical Challenges
6 In which of the relevant technologies is the UK leading? e.g. modelling, NDE, remote handling systems?
• The UK may be considered to be leaders in many aspects of structural integrity. For example, the British Energy development led R6 procedures, for assessing the significance of crack like defects in structures and the R5 procedures, for assessing the structural integrity of high temperature components, are applied in many countries on nuclear components. Much of the UK structural integrity related R&D programmes are aimed at further developing these procedures. • The UK has a strong capability in modelling AGR and fast reactor fuel (of various types). This has only borderline relevance to PWR New Build however. • The UK has strong leadership in Cost effective Inspection Qualification. • UK Universities still produce the best metallurgists and solid state physicists. Advanced Computer modelling of reactor cores leading to new and improved codes of operation is seen as a particular strength of UK universities (Imperial & Manchester) and also Simulation of Irradiation Damage & Derivational of Inter-Atomic Potentials (Imperial). • Other relevant strengths include Computational Fluid Dynamics, Thermal Hydraulics, NDE, Structural Integrity, Corrosion, Waste management, Decommissioning and Decontamination. • The UK is seen to have unique facilities, eg X-Ray Tomography for Materials Science at Oxford University, Titan at Imperial, The Diamond facility at the Rutherford Appleton lab. • Lancaster is rated world class for neutron detectors and Liverpool for gamma detectors. Liverpool is highly regarded for work on pressure vessel steels. • Some stakeholders perceive opportunities for the UK to increase activity on nuclear fuel reprocessing and in particular MOX fuel production but this is not within the UK Government Focus (DECC and BERR) on new nuclear build. It was recognised that further commercial activity on spent fuel recycling would be politically difficult and may impair the current mood of support for the nuclear revival. There does not appear to be a strategy for dealing with the accumulated store of plutonium.
7 Where are the main gaps in the UK’s technological capabilities? Discuss R&D, practical experience, manufacturing gaps and weaknesses.
• The UK has probably failed to have retained the culture or experience necessary to manufacture heavy pressure vessels to nuclear standards without significant assistance from overseas. • It is thought that the R&D base will need to grow significantly in most areas to support a major expansion of the nuclear industry. • There is a lack of practical experience in running a fleet of PWRs, and modelling PWR fuel. There are quality problems in the manufacture of MOX fuel, and apparent paucity of long-term contracts to supply fuel. • Day to day operational experience of modern PWRs is seen as a most obvious gap. • The supply chain must be weak in view of the long gap since the building of Sizewell B and the limited success of UK companies in securing overseas nuclear work. (Exceptions quoted are Amec – formerly NNC, and Rolls-Royce for turbines and pumps for ‘non-nuclear’ equipment for PWRs.) • Some stakeholders were not aware of any hot cell facilities for details examination of irradiated materials.
8 In which technologies should the UK not attempt to lead? Should it attempt to collaborate with overseas partners in these areas and if so how and with whom?
• It is considered that the UK may only need to take the lead on those technologies needed to support the approaches to licensing plants under the UK regulatory framework. In other areas, partnerships with vendors probably constitute the most practicable way forward. • UK cannot lead in the new build of PWRs. Collaboration is essential. • In waste management, although the UK has good experience there would still be benefits from collaboration with French and Belgian experts
53 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 5: Feedback from UK Stakeholders
Questionnaire relating to New Build: Marketing Opportunitites
1 Can you quantify the size of the market for nuclear engineering over the next 20 years and what share of this do you hope to capture?
• This is very difficult to ascertain without a detailed study being carried out. • The world market for nuclear engineering is huge – around 300 new reactors to be built at a cost £2 billion each and 250 to be decommissioned at around £1billion each, i.e. £855 billion • It is huge. Probably 1,000 billion euros.
2 Are these opportunities in new nuclear build in the UK and other countries sufficient to justify an increase in your R&D expenditure?
• The R&D supply change has yet to see a significant increase in nuclear R&D spending. • At least one potential operator of new nuclear stations is increasing its nuclear R&D spending
3 What public sector interventions do you expect to assist you to capture the opportunities?
• Continued funding of strategic R&D. • Possible financial and organisational assistance in further developing and exploiting major overseas nuclear market in India/ China. • Helping in the setting up of industrial/academic partnerships. • Increased support for international exchange schemes for academic researchers • Training for experienced engineers in the oil and chemical process engineers to be able to be able to work in the nuclear industry
4 What spill over benefits can you envisage from R&D in the nuclear fields into other industrial sectors? How big is the market and are you able to access it?
• Nuclear structural integrity and NDE tends to lead the field but eventually the same approaches become adopted elsewhere. • In some areas (e.g. reactor chemistry), it would be expected that spill over to other industrial sectors would be limited because of the differences in culture between the nuclear sector and others that also involve capital intensive plant. • Many techniques employed in the nuclear industry, e.g. NDE, Structural Integrity Monitoring, Modelling, Digital Control Systems, are directly applicable in other industries.
54 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Feedback from Workshop to review UK R&D Capabilities in Nuclear Engineering on 18th June 2009 at University of Manchester. An important part of the workshop was to gather participants’ views on the need for and benefits of public sector investment in nuclear R&D. Three questions were posed to each of 3 discussion groups and the amalgamated responses are summarised here.
Where & how can public sector investment Where would investments lead to in nuclear R&D make a difference? opportunities beyond nuclear?
Materials: Technology topics: • Archive material testing from decommissioned systems • Underpinning technology – NDE, condition monitoring, • Underpinning materials research to benefit across entire instrumentation, etc. nuclear sector • Underpinning materials research • R&D for life extension of existing reactor systems • Nuclear hydrogen & fossil fuel synthesis • NDE, condition monitoring • Application of nuclear-generated heat • Technology demonstrators Underpinning technology: • Safety case development & licensing Mechanisms to assist spin-in/spin-out: • Promote safety expertise/R&D/training • Form a nuclear technology transfer agency • Support for projects with long term payback – e.g. • Support for shared facilities - Space for SMEs to do prototype & demonstration reactors research projects • Encourage industry to invest in R&D beyond the short- • Support knowledge infrastructure – e.g. IT & databases; term data harvesting • Fuel manufacturing • Management of historic knowledge and archives • Manufacture of nuclear components (pumps, valves, • SMEs need help with accreditation & contracts; Example instruments etc.) of Sellafield’s market days • Instrumentation • Spin-offs & cross-fertilisation can arise from personnel • Common design codes brought back into the nuclear sector • Need to link to other sectors & promote transfer of Knowledge management: knowledge (energy, high technology, highly regulated) • Support knowledge infrastructure – e.g. IT & databases; data harvesting • Management of historic knowledge and archives What are your top priorities for investment • Participate in international forums & R&D initiatives in nuclear technology?
Skills development: • Fuel manufacturing • Promote communication & networking – KTN model • Safety case development (sensors already & energy soon to happen) • Manufacture of nuclear components • Stimulate academia • Support knowledge infrastructure – e.g. IT & databases; • Fill skill gaps – use R&D programmes to develop & retain data harvesting people • R&D for life extension of existing reactor systems • Support to mobilise skills from elsewhere • Archive material testing from decommissioned systems • Maintain skills that meet long term needs (but have no • Underpinning technology – NDE, condition monitoring, short-term support from industry) instrumentation, etc. • Should we have an ETI for nuclear or put nuclear into ETI? • Underpinning materials research to benefit across entire • Align various capability reviews nuclear sector • Encouragement for women to develop careers in the nuclear field
Social and economic aspects: • Support for shared facilities It was recognised that to justify public • Increase public understanding - Invest in social science R&D sector funding linkage needs to be made • Public/private co-funding to strategic drivers, energy security and • Co-ordinate investment from different public sources skills development. • Support for technology transfer (spin-in/spin-out)
55 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 6: Feedback from International Stakeholders
Technical Challenges
1 What do you see as the key technical challenges with the new nuclear build programme? Discuss Gen III and Gen IV+?
• There are limited technical challenges since the designs are licensed overseas • It is expected that the UK regulators will need an R&D capability independent of the vendors • Improvements in performance through development of fuels - Fuels could be modified to ensure higher / more efficient burn up but if the fuel enrichment goes much above 5% then much more expensive production facilities will be needed. This is related to fuel criticality and the amount of U235 which can be released into the production environment. • Gen IV systems, Fast reactors, Fast breeders, VHTRs, etc. will not be commercially significant before 2040 and are therefore unlikely to attract any support from industry unless there is public funding for demonstrator plants. • Thorium cycle technology is inherently more expensive due to the need to shield high energy gammas.
2 Is the UK R&D base capable of responding to these challenges? Discuss strengths and weaknesses of UK Universities, UK supply chain and their own R&D activity.
International perceptions of the UK’s technical strengths are:
- 1. Fuel cycle technology. - 2. Decommissioning and Decontamination. - 3. Waste Processing.
• Gas Reactor Experience • LMFR Experience • Fuel Manufacture • Fuel Modelling • PIE • SNF & Pu storage • Separations • Reprocessing • Waste Management • D&D • Thermal hydraulics • Graphite • Working at scale • NNL Central Laboratory • Physical protection of nuclear infrastructure
Perceptions of the UK’s Weaknesses:
• The skill base is ageing & research capability has been lost • There are only limited R&D programs in the areas of - Advanced Fuel Cycle - Advanced Reactors • There is a need for technical understanding of ALWR Designs, development of Technical Infrastructure for Regulatory Reviews, Development of a trained workforce, increase in qualified sub-suppliers
Suggestions:
• Become an active participation in international collaborations
56 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 6: Feedback from International Stakeholders
Technical Challenges
3 What is your current level of investment in nuclear energy R&D? What proportion of that is with UK universities, your supply chain, overseas universities and suppliers? How is this likely to change over the coming years? • Major companies, e.g. utilities & vendors generally invest significant sums in R&D within their own organisations, in research collaborations such as EPRI and universities. • It is perceived that the academic base in nuclear is weak - relatively few professors, researchers and students • Recent organisational changes, break-up as well as consolidations in UK Industry have reduced capabilities
4 What are the main barriers to implementing an R&D portfolio on nuclear energy?
• Inconsistent Government Policy regarding nuclear energy • Limited Funds • Limited R&D Infrastructure • Cost of R&D • Failure to commission glovebox and HA cell facilities in the NNL • Limited experience in open competition for R&D funding
Need consistent Energy Policy supportive of nuclear energy
• Establish a Robust Competitive R&D Program with Stable Funding • University • National Laboratory • Industry • Overcome impression that nuclear engineering is a dying profession in the UK
5 In which technologies is public sector intervention necessary to allow UK capacity to grow and become a leading global player?
• A Government Funded Kick-Start is needed to increase domestic R&D capability & re-establish the UK as a major player in nuclear. • There is a consistent impression of a need for the UK to re-engage with international collaborations. • This would provide mentorship of UK researchers’ incentives to students for majoring in nuclear engineering. Other capability building would be regulatory capabilities & development of the UK workforce
• Reactor Life Extensions
• Invest in selected Gen IV Technologies • Fuel • T/H Analysis • Materials • Design Evaluations • Monitoring & Diagnostics • Safety Analysis • Closing the Fuel Cycle
• Seed funding needed to generate and test early stage ideas
57 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 6: Feedback from International Stakeholders
Technical Challenges
6 In which of the relevant technologies is the UK leading? e.g. modelling, NDE, remote handling systems?
• In terms of supporting the new nuclear build programme, building new manufacturing facilities for nuclear fuel production is one of the lowest cost options in terms of capital investment and could solve a perceived “pinch point” in the supply chain. • UK strengths in gas reactor technology & graphite are relevant to high temperature reactors but not new build of advanced light water reactors. • One view was that the new build programme needs an efficient reliable reprocessing facility at Sellafield and investment to solve current production problems is recommended and could yield a high return.
7 Where are the main gaps in the UK’s technological capabilities? Discuss R&D, practical experience, manufacturing gaps and weaknesses.
• The UK’s greatest weakness is its paucity of operating experience with LWRs, hence the infrastructure and skill-base is weak accordingly. - Limited LWR experience - Limited Regulatory Capability
• Perceptions of potential remedies included – increasing the market focus of the R&D community, reinvigorating university R&D and adopting a new innovation model
8 In which technologies should the UK not attempt to lead? Should it attempt to collaborate with overseas partners in these areas and if so how and with whom?
• The international perception of the overall ranking of the UK R&D Capabilities was unflattering - Generally last among France, Japan, Korea, India, China, U.S., and Canada. Sometimes below Germany • Collaboration and partnering is a necessity • Limited international participation during the last 10 years has limited outside knowledge of UK capabilities. • It is not necessary to lead, more important to play a significant role in collaborative R&D • The constructors of new nuclear build capacity would be prepared to consider joint ventures to ensure that the necessary investment is available for new production facilities for fuel and improved re-processing facilities.
58 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 6: Feedback from International Stakeholders
Marketing opportunities
1 Can you quantify the size of the market for nuclear engineering over the next 20 years and what share of this do you hope to capture?
• Many countries are planning to expand their nuclear programmes. • There is an expectation of 200-300 new reactors, worldwde • Plans for new nuclear power plants in India and China dwarf other countries’ plans
2 Are these opportunities in new nuclear build in the UK and other countries sufficient to justify an increase in your R&D expenditure?
Not relevant to the international organisations consulted
3 What public sector interventions do you expect to assist you to capture the opportunities?
• Remote systems • Nuclear Materials • Advanced Simulation & Modelling • Gas cooled reactors in collaboration with reactor vendors • Strengthen International Collaboration • Programmes to assist in gaining know-how in water reactor technology • Strengthen the regulatory framework • Gas cooled reactor opportunity in high temperature reactors- somewhat limited due to lack of UK based reactor vendor
4 What spill over benefits can you envisage from R&D in the nuclear fields into other industrial sectors? How big is the market and are you able to access it?
• Remote systems • High-temperature materials • High-temperature chemical process technology • Digital Instrument & Controls • Diagnostic techniques (NDE/testing) • Prognostics • Quantitative Risk Assessment • Human factors engineering • Thermal/hydraulic analysis
59 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
A H Sherry, Dalton Nuclear Institute, The University of Manchester
C A English, National Nuclear Laboratory/The University of Manchester
P E J Flewitt, Magnox North/Bristol University
1.0 Scope of Study • Plant-life extension of existing These are the AP1000 PWR Magnox, AGR and PWR power (Westinghouse) and the European The sponsors have set four stations pressurised water reactor (EPR) (EDF/ questions12 as a basis to review the • New nuclear build of PWR power Areva). Whilst opportunities exist, opportunities for UK organisations to stations e.g. in the development of life- develop and deploy innovative • Safe and reliable operation of new prediction approaches based on technologies to support the civil Gen III PWR power stations materials degradation processes, the appendix does not focus on plant life nuclear industry: • Development of Gen IV and extension of AGR reactors or the fusion reactor systems 1 Is there a UK and global market continued operation of the Sizewell • Decommissioning, management, opportunity for exploitation? ‘B’ PWR; neither does it address interim storage and geological opportunities associated with 2 Is there a UK capacity to develop disposal of nuclear waste and exploit the technology and decommissioning, waste become a leading global player? management and geological disposal, Experience has been obtained over 3 Does the technology have or fusion technology. potential for impact in the right the last 60 years in the UK in timeframe? managing the complete life cycle of The appendix is structured as follows. civil nuclear reactors. This has 4 Is there a clear role for public Section 2 summarises the UK sector intervention and support demonstrated that an essential Materials Capacity and provides an that adds value above and beyond requirement for maintaining a fleet answer to Question 2, Section 3 that of private investment? of operating reactors, for assessing provides a UK Materials Roadmap and commissioning new plant and within this responds to Question designs, and for developing The information presented in the 3. Section 4 summarises the appropriate waste management main report has addressed Question 1 opportunities for public sector strategies, is that in-depth knowledge, and Table 3 of the main report intervention, while Section 5 understanding and supporting provides a summary that supports highlights briefly spill-over benefits materials data are used effectively to the view that there is a UK (and by of the high priority opportunities. predict the evolution of materials implication a global) market Finally, a summary and properties throughout and beyond opportunity with respect to both recommendations is provided in plant life. The UK materials materials R&D and also the material Section 6. It is to be noted that the community – including the skills, aspects of component supply. This main recommendations from this technology and infrastructure – Appendix provides information that Appendix are carried forward into the should support this essential supports this view, and specifically main report. requirement. considers the remaining three questions in more detail with respect In the context of the sponsors’ remit, to the UK materials capacity to this appendix focuses primarily on develop and exploit the technology, opportunities afforded by the new the opportunities for short -term UK nuclear build agenda in respect of impact (i.e. within 5 years) including the ‘nuclear island’. In particular, in spill-over benefits and role for public supporting operation of new build sector investment. plant through life; i.e. the focus is therefore on the design, fabrication, The UK materials capability is critical commissioning, and operation of for underpinning the following five new nuclear plant. Indeed, the UK’s strategic national nuclear goals over Nuclear Installations Inspectorate the short- (within 5 years), medium- (NII) is currently assessing the safety (5 to 20 years) and long-term and acceptability of two new nuclear (beyond 20 years): reactor designs under their Generic Design Assessment (GDA) process.
12 These have been re-ordered (compared to the proposal) to fit the logic of this section
60 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
2.0 UK Materials Capacity The NIA study did not focus on Reference [3] notes that when the This section provides a response to materials specifically but did consider Sizewell B PWR power station was Question 2; namely “Is there a UK the area of ‘Plant and Equipment’ built in the early 1990s most (materials) capacity to develop and which is of most relevance to the components, apart from the heavy exploit the technology and become a materials supply chain (other areas section forging, could be fabricated leading global player?” This section being ‘civil engineering & in the UK. Since that time, whilst aims to capture specific elements of construction’, and ‘programme there has been no further civil the UK materials capacity that could management & technical’). The nuclear build in the UK, ongoing be exploited for public sector report indicates that ‘Plant and support for the nuclear fleet, plant intervention with respect to the new Equipment’ typically comprise modifications to support life nuclear build agenda. approximately 55% of a nuclear extensions, new plant build at power plant build. The NIA reports Sellafield, alongside decommissioning Two aspects of the capacity are indicate that current UK industry work has enabled the UK fabrication discussed: firstly, the materials supply capability to support approximately and manufacturing sector to chain for manufacturing and half of the ‘Plant & Equipment’ maintain a significant capability. fabricating key structural components necessary for new nuclear power However, a detailed analysis of the for the next generation of nuclear plant build. With investment, they capability to supply the key power stations, and secondly the considered that this might be engineering components (see Table capability for exploiting advanced expanded to approximately 70% of A7-1) for new nuclear power plant in materials technology. This discussion the required capability, Figure A7-1. the UK was included in the Materials makes use of core competencies This points to the potentially UK study. The analysis demonstrated required to address the technological important role investment in the that aside from the large pressure materials challenges inherent in new materials supply chain could play in vessel forgings, the UK has capability build. These core competencies were exploiting the opportunities that are to provide most other key [17] identified in Section 5 of the arising from new build. engineering components . It is to Materials UK assessment of the be noted that there are supporting priority research needs in nuclear organisations in the UK such as energy materials [13], and include the specialist steel makers, e.g. CORUS, or capacity to determine in-service R&D organisations focusing on changes in material microstructure specific aspects of fabrication and and properties, the ability to predict Figure A7-1 joining, e.g. TWI, who enhance the the behaviour of materials over a NIA analysis of UK capability to support new nuclear ability of the UK supply chain to range of scale lengths using power plant build supply advanced material solutions. theoretical modelling, and access to both proxy and neutron irradiation facilities to develop underpinning materials data for model validation and safety case development.
2.1 Materials supply chain
Materials UK have undertaken a mapping of the materials supply chain in relation to the UK’s power generation sector [14]. Chapter 3 of this reference provides a focus on nuclear energy. In addition there has been a Nuclear Industry Association (NIA) study on the UK capability to deliver a new nuclear build programme [15, 16]. This section highlights the major points from these reviews on the importance of the materials supply chain to new build and highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the UK materials capability for the manufacture and fabrication of components.
13. I Cook, C English, P E J Flewitt and G Smith, “Nuclear energy materials research”, Materials UK Energy Review, 2007. 14. S A Court, “The mapping of materials supply chains in the UK's power generation sector”, Materials UK Energy Review, 2008. 15. Nuclear Industry Association, “The capability to deliver a new nuclear build programme”, NIA Report, 2006. 16. Nuclear Industry Association, “The UK capability to deliver a new nuclear build programme 2008 Update”, NIA Report, 2008. 17. Recently Sheffield Forgemasters have announced that they are considering installing a £140m 15,000-tonne steel press that can manufacture such large forgings 61 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits Capacity relates to both the expertise Key engineering components required to support the advanced Containment Building materials technology and the infrastructure necessary to develop it. Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) Reactor Pressure Vessel Head Firstly, with respect to infrastructure; Reactor Pressure Vessel Internals since the review was published in 2008, a number of new nuclear Steam Generators research academic initiatives have Pressuriser been established that have significantly strengthened the UK Pumps and Valves infrastructure for advanced research Generic Fabricated Metal Components (inc. forgings, pipework) into high temperature materials, modelling of materials performance, Other Components fuels technology, radiation damage, Fuel and graphite technology19.
Table A7-1 Key engineering components [1] Further it should be stressed that there are UK strengths in a number of the core competencies and Reference 2 also included a SWOT18 2.2 Advanced Materials facilities that were identified in [1] as analysis of the UK materials and Technology key to meeting the challenges manufacturing input to the civil inherent in new build. These nuclear industry. This analysis In 2008, the nuclear materials R&D strengths include: (i) experimental emphasises that opportunities for UK capacity was reviewed in the UK [2] techniques for characterising business lie in the ability to respond by Materials UK. The major microstructural changes and their to the new nuclear build agenda by conclusions were that: influence on bulk physical, investing to: (a) reinstate facilities mechanical, and corrosion properties and skills and (b) increase the scope • Nuclear fission related R&D in the during service, (ii) modelling and capacity of existing UK has declined steadily over the techniques that enable simulation of manufacturing plant to support the past 20 years or so and, since the materials behaviour across a range of UK and worldwide renaissance in 1980s, public investment in scale lengths, and (iii) facilities that new nuclear build, including, for nuclear fission R&D has dropped allow the examination of activated or example, large-scale forgings and by more than 95% and the contaminated materials. nuclear fuel. industrial R&D skill base has decreased by more than 90%. However, as pointed out in [1] there In summary, UK companies are • The UK maintains leading is the increasing need for proxy (potentially) able to supply a large materials expertise across both the irradiation facilities, including ion proportion of the key components academic and industrial sectors, beams, to provide model validation for new nuclear build. This is with key initiatives such as The data, and assured access to irradiation important from a sponsor’s Dalton Nuclear Institute (The facilities in materials test reactors perspective as it demonstrates that University of Manchester) the where there are limitations in UK there may be clear benefits from EPSRC’s “Keeping the Nuclear capability. This need is being public intervention. For example, an Option Open” (KNOO), The addressed, in part, within the important focus might be from National Nuclear Laboratory Government’s Energy Coast stimulating the use of improved 20 (NNL), the Northwest Nuclear Masterplan including the manufacturing techniques for nuclear Research Centre and Nuclear establishment of the UK National plant, including welding and joining, Fusion activities associated with Nuclear Laboratory with state-of-the- surface technology and the International Thermonuclear art ‘hot cells’ for the testing and modularisation. This is particularly Experimental Reactor (ITER) examination of irradiated materials important for the Reactor Pressure concentrating UK efforts. and through a partnership between Vessel (RPV), reactor integrated head the Nuclear Decommissioning • It will take significant effort to package, RPV internals, steam Authority and The University of build up the required resources generators, pressuriser and primary Manchester in the development of (skills) within the timescale for circuit pipework. the Dalton Cumbrian Facility which licensing and contract awards; will house new research facilities for within a period which is likely to radiation science research. be no longer than 5 years.
18 SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats 19 Nuclear Engineering Doctorate Centre: supported by the EPSRC and led by The University of Manchester in partnership with Imperial College London and supported by the universities of Bristol, Leeds, Sheffield and Strathclyde. Systems Performance Centre: at the University of Bristol supported through links with British Energy, Serco and Imperial College London to undertake research into the mechanical performance of high temperature materials, and systems reliability (Control and Instrumentation Nuclear Industry Forum). Atomic scale modelling research group at Imperial College London. The Centre for Nuclear Energy Technology (CNET): supported through a £4.2M grant from the NWDA and based at The University of Manchester, CNET will include research into fuels technology, radiation damage, high temperature materials and graphite technology. Modelling and Simulation Centre: supported by EDF at The University of Manchester aimed at strengthening research and skills development in materials and structures modelling alongside computational fluid dynamics modelling. 62 RC-NDE. An EPSRC-sponsored collaboration between industry and academia to coordinate research into NDE technologies. A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Secondly, with respect to expertise, There is a research income of £6-7M the level of expertise in all elements the UK has significant skills in per annum associated with the latter. of the supply chain [22]. various elements of advanced We also note that four or five years In particular, there needs to be materials production, near service ago these numbers would have been suitably knowledgeable and condition testing, materials dramatically smaller, however, the experienced people available. In characterisation (both at the start of, level of activity still remains low with reference [23] it was noted that many through life, and end of life) and respect to the declared and perceived of the current experts are predictive modelling and assessment. requirements across utilities, approaching retirement age. This manufacturers and the supply chain. emphasises the need for not only Since the Materials UK review [2] training a new generation of experts there have been a number of We have emphasised above the but taking steps to ensure the initiatives, particularly within the growing skill base in the UK for expertise of current experts is academic sector, aimed at developing nuclear materials arising from the captured for subsequent generations. higher level skills in the nuclear increased training opportunities. materials area via: However, the non-prescriptive regulatory regime in the UK, where • Existing materials courses being the plant operator has to broadened to implicitly include a demonstrate the safety of the plant nuclear component, and rather than comply with externally • New “with nuclear” degrees being imposed design/operating codes, introduced at undergraduate level, imposes significant requirements on • Masters level training in nuclear subjects21
Further, higher level skills in nuclear materials are being developed through post graduate research programmes including the materials work package in the EPSRC Keeping the Nuclear Option Open programme, materials research within the EPSRC Nuclear Engineering Doctorate programme, EPSRC Doctoral Training Colleges in Fission (Manchester and Sheffield), Advanced Metallic Materials (Sheffield and Manchester) and Materials modelling (Imperial College London).
In addition the National Skills Academy for Nuclear (NSAN) aims to supply many nuclear training products and services, including for example programmes for secondary schools, accreditations for industry and particularly nuclear top up modules for trade apprenticeships.
Figure A7-2 Nuclear skills pyramid [3] These initiatives may be viewed within the context of a ‘skills pyramid’ as shown in Figure A7-2.
Overall in the UK we estimate that there are currently ~ 40 20. “Britain’s energy coast / a Masterplan for West Cumbria – executive summary” undergraduates specialising in courses 21 For example, Imperial College London is offering three new MEng Nuclear Energy Engineering degrees in Chemical with directly related to nuclear materials, Nuclear Engineering, Materials with Nuclear Engineering and Mechanical with Nuclear Engineering from 2010. Lancaster 175-200 people involved in M.Sc or University has introduced a Nuclear Engineering degree that includes courses on ‘Strength and Materials’. The University of Manchester is also introducing a new Engineering (Nuclear) and Engineering with Nuclear degrees that include a course Ph.D courses/projects or acting as on nuclear materials, as well as a new “with Nuclear” integrated Masters degree offered to all students within the Faculty of post-doctoral research assistants. Engineering and Physical Sciences. At Masters level, the MSc in Physics and Technology of Nuclear Reactors at Birmingham University has continued, and the new NTEC MSc in Nuclear Science and Technology includes a specific model on, “Reactor Materials & Lifetime Behaviour”. 22 HSE Safety Principles for Nuclear Facilities 2006 Edition Redgrave Court Bootle Merseyside L20 7HS 23 P Howarth, BNFL Energy Unit Skills Report 19, 2006
63 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
It is noted that contractors and Small 3.0 Impact of Advanced Materials • Developments of new and and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are Technology improved methods for non- reacting positively to new nuclear destructive monitoring and renaissance in UK24 and worldwide. evaluation of materials in service. This section provides a response to Some larger organisations have Question 3; namely “Does the already increased recruitment in the (materials) technology have potential Specific research opportunities and materials area, e.g. Serco Technical for impact in the right timeframe?” challenges associated with the full and Assurance Services, whilst others This section aims to identify nuclear lifecycle were identified. have set clear business objectives to priorities for new build materials in Those associated with the new increase expertise in nuclear field light of UK and International nuclear build technology are (including materials), e.g. Rolls- experience. It should be noted that summarised in Table A7-2. It is also Royce25, NNL, and there is evidence there are strong synergies between considered important that research that companies are considering the research needs in developing associated with improved recruitment and retention strategies materials for application in fission manufacturing technology should carefully, e.g. BAE Systems [26]. reactors and for application in fusion emerge as a new research priority in reactors. Although the reactor the light of the new build agenda. In summary there is an increasing UK concepts are different, there is a wide capacity for advanced materials range of commonalities in the Materials technology is being technology with specific areas of real materials issues. For example, there is developed worldwide to support the materials expertise that can be strong overlap in the classes of management of ageing Light Water exploited. However, this increasing material employed and in the effects Reactor (LWR) plant and the build of capacity follows a period of decline. responsible for the material and a new generation of nuclear plant. Thus, in terms of capability for component in-service performance. Many of these national LWR advanced materials technology, TSB Further, the research methods (both programmes have also highlighted funding may be used to stimulate experimental and theoretical) are the importance of the research needs new industrial organisations entering similar for a broad range of issues. In identified in [1] and given above. Of the supply chain through fusion technology specific additional particular note are the following appropriately directed Knowledge problems arise in the case of plasma programmes: Transfer Partnerships. facing components, due to the [27, 28, 29, 30] damage caused by the impacts of In the USA , there is a 2.3 Interim summary high-energy ions [1]. focus on the development of a scientific basis for understanding In response to Question 2 the 3.1 New build materials materials degradation processes, providing the materials data and the position reviewed in this section has technology priorities demonstrated that there is a UK assessment methods to enable long- materials capacity to develop and term performance of materials to be exploit the technology and become a There is no UK analysis that focussed predicted. Specific degradation leading global player. Specific areas on specifically developing a roadmap mechanisms being addressed include which are suitable for public for materials technology irradiation effects on microstructure intervention include: development associated with new (late blooming phases), properties build. The overall materials research including environmentally-assisted • Stimulating the use of improved priorities identified in the Materials cracking, fatigue and fracture. manufacturing techniques for UK assessment of the priority research needs in nuclear energy Materials technology development in nuclear plant, including welding [31, 32] and joining, surface technology materials [1] addressed the full Japan address six degradation and modularisation. nuclear fuel cycle, and were mechanisms in relation to LWR summarised as follows: materials degradation: (i) neutron • Stimulate new industrial irradiation embrittlement of the RPV, organisations entering the supply • Mechanisms of in-service and (ii) stress corrosion cracking chain through appropriately in-repository corrosion and including IGSCC, PWSCC and directed Knowledge Transfer degradation of materials, IASCC33, (iii) fatigue, (iv) thinning Partnerships. • Predicting the behaviour of welded of piping by flow-accelerated • Stimulating technologies/ structures subjected to high corrosion and erosion, (v) insulation methodologies for capturing expert temperatures and complex degradation of electrical cables, knowledge loadings, (vi) degradation of concrete These areas are further developed in • Predicting irradiation damage properties for strength and shielding. Section 4. effects in fission and fusion materials, and
24 There are currently almost 100 UK-based nuclear-related jobs being advertised by Nuclear Energy Recruitment Solutions in areas including project and mechanical engineering, human factors and business analysis. 25 For example, Rolls-Royce have established a new civil nuclear business and are aiming to recruit a broad range of nuclear skills including: Electrical Controls & Instrumentation Engineers, Fluid Systems Design Engineers, Nuclear Environmental Engineers, Nuclear Safety Case Engineers, Mechanical Design Engineers, Reactor Physicist Engineers, and Thermo-Fluid Engineers. 26 “Engineering: turning ideas into reality - Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills Committee”, Memorandum 105, Submission from BAE Systems, March 2008. 27. Idaho National Laboratory, “Strategic Plan – leading the renaissance in nuclear energy: 2007-2016”, 2007. 28. Idaho National Laboratory, “Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program Plan: Fiscal Year 2009”, September 2008. 64 29. EPRI, “2009 Research Portfolio: Research Offerings to Shape the Future of Electricity”, 2008. A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Within Europe, the joint EDF-EPRI- Behaviour at high Irradiation damage TEPCO Materials Ageing Institute was temperature recently launched to develop materials technology in relation to • Austenitic andferritic steels. • Austenitic and ferritic steels. 34 Main materials nuclear plant . Areas of current • High nickel alloys. • Zirconium alloys of interest focus include: (i) Understanding and • Zirconium alloys modelling of physical phenomena, including thermal ageing, irradiation, • Thermal cycling. • Irradiation creep. physical modelling of corrosion, • Joining and interface • Swelling. Irradiation enhanced prediction of chemical and technology. segregation. radiochemical behaviour, • Crack propagation and (ii) Research related to specific • embrittlement. materials, including concrete, Main problems polymers and new materials. • Irradiation assisted corrosion and environmental It is clear that there is an degradation. international consensus of the • Joining and interface degradation mechanisms that require technology. investigation. Further, it is apparent • Modelling and its validation. • Modelling and its validation. that, internationally, it is recognised • Advanced materials • Advanced materials that it is necessary to undertake characterisation. characterisation. collaborative industrial and research programmes to support the licensing Key methods • Advanced measurement and • Proxy irradiation (e.g. ion and managing of the long-term, safe for solution of testing techniques. beams). and economical operation of current problems • Advanced plant monitoring • Advanced measurement and and future nuclear power (LWR) techniques. testing techniques. plants. However, such programmes • Advanced plant monitoring should also include condition and techniques. surveillance monitoring of key • Modelling validated by • Modelling validated by components. Within this there is also microscopic characterisation, microscopic characterisation, the need for advanced NDE plant service data and long- proxy irradiations, plant techniques and the development of Most promising term experiments. service data and long-term advanced tools for the assessment of immediate • Exploit research synergies for experiments. realistic defects in aging components opportunities fission, fusion and fossil-fuel • Exploit research synergies for under plant loading conditions. plant materials. fission, fusion and fossil-fuel plant materials. Thus to address the advanced Key gaps in materials technology requirements • Lack of irradiation facilities. • Lack of irradiation facilities. for new build we need to consider: capabilities
1 Materials degradation, structural Components • Primary and secondary circuit in PWRs. integrity and life prediction including: Table A7-2 Research opportunities and challenges for new nuclear build [1] a. Understanding mechanisms of material corrosion in-service, including behaviour within 2 Condition monitoring and 3 Developing new component and nuclear power reactors. preventative maintenance to fuel manufacturing capability enhance safe life and reduce including materials, processing b. Understanding and predicting downtime alongside establishing and joining technologies. radiation effects on materials, new and improved techniques for including microstructural, the applied metrology of material microchemical, and state and non-destructive environmental aspects that monitoring of nuclear plant, influence dimensional stability, systems, and components. Such mechanical performance, condition monitoring includes fracture properties and improved surveillance schemes to electrochemical behaviour. monitor the in-service properties of specific components such as the reactor pressure vessel.
30. “Life beyond 60 Workshop Summary Report”, NRC/DOE Workshop on Nuclear Plant Life Extension R&D, Bethesda, Maryland, USA, February 19-21, 2008. 31. N Sekimura, “Future Direction of Ageing Management Future Direction of Ageing Management and Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants in Japan”, presentation to ISaG-2008, The University of Tokyo, Japan, July 2008. 32. Y Tsuchihashi, “Safety Research Activities of INSS on Ageing Problem of Nuclear power Plants”, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Research for Ageing Management of Light Water Reactors, Fukui City, Japan, pp. 123-129, Oct 22-23, 2007. 33. IGSCC = intergranular stress corrosion cracking, PWSCC = primary water stress corrosion cracking and IASCC = irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking. 34. “International Energy developments around the globe”, EPRI Journal, Spring 2008. 65 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
3.2 Interim summary 4.0 Opportunities of relevance to 4.1 Areas for public sector TSB/Regional Development intervention In response to Question 3, there is Agencies (RDAs) strong evidence that materials Infrastructure-based opportunities technology development has the This section explores specific potential for impact in the right opportunities for public sector timeframe, including supporting the intervention in relation to materials Section 1 of this appendix identified licensing and managing the long- technology in support of the new the opportunity to stimulate the use term, safe and economical operation nuclear build agenda in the UK. of improved manufacturing of current and future nuclear power Firstly, particular areas for public techniques for nuclear plant, plants. sector intervention are summarised including welding and joining, in relation to infrastructure-based surface technology and Further, there is a clear consensus and technology-based opportunities. modularisation. Given the new amongst the international Secondly, potential mechanisms for nuclear build agenda, it is recognised community regarding the key intervention are explored. that the UK manufacturing capability materials technology challenges will be strengthened through the associated with new nuclear build. formation of a UK Advanced More specifically, there are Manufacturing Research Centre for opportunities to maximise the impact Nuclear to address high value of materials technology through a manufacturing by the supply chain structured and proactive approach to (see 6.2.1 of the main report). The international collaboration. Nuclear Industry Association (NIA) map of indicates the distribution of the UK capacity to engage in such an initiative, Figure A7-3. In addition, a recent review of the nuclear capability within UK universities has been published by Dr John Roberts and indicates that indicates over 200 academics with nuclear research interests in over 30 universities across the UK35. A number of the academic institutions listed could contribute significantly to such an initiative.
Key aspects to be addressed by an initiative like this would include:
• Production Readiness: proving of current methods • Process Improvement: cost reduction through cell demonstration • Process Qualification: proving of current methods • Non-destructive testing: demonstration, Development, & Qualification
Unique aspects of a centre to support new nuclear build in the UK include the ability to handle large structural components, thick welds and associated inspection, cladding and nuclear-specific materials.
35. Available at www.nuclearliaison.com/directory.
66 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Figure A7-3 The UK civil nuclear industry including number of employees by parliamentary constituency34. Picture courtesy of the Nuclear Industry Association.
Note, the above diagram is illustrative and there are a significant number of other organisations and universities that can support new nuclear build that may not be represented on the NIA map.
67 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
Technology-based opportunities
Section 2 of this appendix identified the increasing UK capacity for advanced materials technology with specific areas of real materials expertise that can be exploited. Areas of specific opportunity were summarised in Section 3 as relating to: (i) materials degradation, structural integrity and life prediction, and (ii) condition monitoring of nuclear plant.
Within these two areas specific opportunities exist for public sector intervention that builds on current materials research and development programmes in the UK including:
• Improved understanding and prediction of materials degradation - The development of new surface Within these areas it is recognised - Build on research undertaken technology for nuclear that there is strong international within the EPSRC Keeping the components including laser and consensus regarding the priority Nuclear option Open programme water-jet peening, themes for materials technology to use proxy irradiation electropolishing, and development and as a consequence a techniques as a means to develop combinations thereof. structured and proactive approach to corrosion sensors for irradiated international collaboration would material. • Improved structural integrity approaches maximise the impact of materials - Establish use of new corrosion- technology. In particular, - Build on research and resistant materials through minor collaboration with the joint EDF- development within the R6 alloying additions such as EPRI-TEPCO Materials Ageing development programme37 to platinum group metals. Institute38 would strengthen the strengthen the assessment of impact of investment relating to the - Build tools for the application of subcritical crack growth (see understanding and prediction of advanced assessment methods to above), the influence of residual material degradation. extend linear elastic fracture stress effects on fracture and load mechanics-based approaches to history effects. predictive models based on • Improved non-destructive materials degradation methods, examination e.g. automated approaches for creating finite element models of - Build on research undertaken three-dimensional crack tips, within the EPSRC Keeping the post-processors to derive model Nuclear option Open which aims parameters and predictive to physically connect ultrasonic capabilities. generators and receivers to the component via a solid, but • Improved fabrication techniques flexible, ‘waveguide’, thus - The development of improved removing sensitive equipment modelling and measurement away from ‘hot’ areas of interest, approaches for residual stress where the high temperatures and characterisation and weld radiation field are detrimental to improvement, including the equipment. improved constitutive models and supporting data for weld 37. R6 Revision 4, “Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects”, British Energy Generation Ltd, 2006. simulation using advanced three- 38 The EDF-EPRI-TEPCO Materials Ageing Institute at Les Renardières (France), is a collaborative research facility that will dimensional finite element examine the critical link between materials science and power plant component performance and degradation. As stated analysis and measuring in the associated press release, “The Materials Ageing Institute’s mission is to explain and anticipate the ageing of materials approaches such as the contour in existing power production facilities, to improve knowledge of high-temperature materials behaviour in future power method and deep hole drilling. plants, and to maintain expertise and skills on materials science. Among the areas that will be analyzed are equipment corrosion, component and material degradation due to irradiation, non-metallic material performance (e.g., polymers), and concrete ageing.”
68 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
4.2 Support mechanisms Collaborative Research and As part of our recommendation in Development Programmes (CRD) the main report relating to the establishment of a Nuclear Special Knowledge Transfer Partnerships Interest Group within the Energy (KTP) The TSB’s collaborative research and Generation & Supply KTN, it would development programmes are designed be beneficial for the TSB to consider “to assist the industrial and research supporting the international The TSB considers that KTPs “are a communities to work together on collaboration in the field of advanced tried and tested method of enabling R&D projects in strategically materials technology in relation to companies to obtain knowledge, important areas of science, new nuclear build. As noted in technology or skills which they engineering and technology - from Section 3.1 of this appendix, there is consider to be of strategic which successful new products, a clear consensus amongst the competitive importance, from the processes and services can emerge.” international community regarding further/higher education sector or the key materials technology from a research and technology It would be beneficial for the TSB to challenges associated with new organisation”. The knowledge sought stimulate CRDs in the one or more of nuclear build. There are clear is embedded into the company the following advanced materials opportunities to maximise the impact through a project or projects technology areas: of materials technology through a undertaken by a good quality structured and proactive approach to individual recruited for the purpose 1 Neutron irradiation effects on international collaboration. In to work in the company. microstructure and properties, particular, it is recommended that a proactive approach be taken to It is recognised that KTPs are a 2 Environmentally-assisted degradation in nuclear plant international collaboration including particularly useful vehicle to enable the Euratom Framework programmes, SMEs with a relevant skills base components including corrosion- fatigue, PWSCC and IASCC37, links with the EDF-EPRI-TEPCO (possibly derived from involvement Materials Ageing Institute, and other 3 Non-destructive examination of in non-nuclear industries) to enter international players including INL, nuclear plant components the nuclear supply chain. This EPRI and JAEA. In such a network appendix has highlighted the there are also clear benefits from potential for advanced fabrication In addition, it is recognised that the stimulating technologies/ techniques to make an impact within UK Research Centre in Non- methodologies for capturing expert the timescales relevant to TSB/RDA Destructive Evaluation (RC-NDE) leads knowledge intervention. In particular KTPs the research and development in the should be established in areas such as area identified under number 3 in the 4.3 Interim summary the following: list above, and can provide a significant contribution in this area. • Develop and apply best practice This section has provided further for welding plant components and Stimulating increased collaboration: detail regarding the opportunities for for fabricating new plants. This public sector intervention in the includes applying robust computer Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN) materials field including simulation tools for weld infrastructure- and technology-based modelling including supporting A Knowledge Transfer Network is a opportunities, and has summarised material property data and “single over-arching national network the mechanisms that could be validation. in a specific field of technology or exploited for intervention. It is • Apply surface technology, business application which brings recognised that there are specific including peening (glass bead, together people from businesses, opportunities relating to advanced laser, and water jet), universities, research, finance and manufacturing research to support electropolishing, etc., to develop technology organisations to stimulate the new nuclear build agenda, and in corrosion and wear resistant innovation through knowledge the understanding and predicting of components. transfer”. materials degradation, fabrication • Development of new approaches and joining, structural integrity and for large component fabrication The objective of a Knowledge Transfer condition monitoring areas that including hot hydrostatic pressing. Network is to improve the UK's build on recent research supported by the EPSRC and other funding bodies. • Apply advanced non-destructive innovation performance by increasing Specific mechanisms for support have testing include ultrasonic the breadth and depth or the been identified including KTPs, CRDs waveguides and phased arrays, knowledge transfer of technology into and KTNs which would enable eddy current methods for pipe UK-based businesses and by considerable benefit to be taken from wastage, and development of accelerating the rate at which this international developments in this methods for the measurement of process occurs. The Network must, area. residual stress and fatigue damage. throughout its lifetime, actively contribute and remain aligned to the goals of the Technology Strategy Board.
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Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
5.0 Spill-over Benefits 6.0 Summary and Recommendations It is recognised that there are of their relevance to the three significant ‘spin-in’ and ‘spin-out’ priority areas. It can be seen that This section provides a summary of benefits from TSB/RDA investment in several of the thrust areas have been the findings of this appendix in the materials technology- and identified in this Appendix as being relation to three key questions infrastructure-based opportunities key to materials for new nuclear identified by the sponsors; namely: highlighted in the previous section. build; for example, materials to withstand more aggressive 1 Is there a UK capacity to develop Within the nuclear industry this environments, surface engineering and exploit the technology and includes the strong synergies that and coating technologies, joining become a leading global player? exist between the civil PWR technologies, and predictive 2 Does the technology have programme and the UK Naval modelling through the full life cycle, potential for impact in the right Propulsion Programme in areas including lifetime prediction. Given timeframe? including materials and chemistry as this synergy it appears that 3 Is there a clear role for public well as structural integrity of current developing advanced materials and sector intervention and support and future propulsion plant. components for application in new that adds value above and build plant should have benefits to beyond that of private Within the power industry this other sectors that require high investment? includes particular benefits associated performance materials that operate in with component fabrication and harsh environments. Further, we provide recommendations materials degradation related to the for consideration by the TSB and the secondary steam-raising plant and RDAs in relation to priority areas and the electricity-generating mechanisms for intervention. components, including steam turbines. For example Report 2 on Table A7-4 Materials UK assessment of the Technology thrusts in each of the key challenge areas [19]. priority research needs for materials used in fossil fuelled plant40 High Value emphasised the need for research in Energy Sustainability Markets many of the themes identified above, e.g. surface protection coatings, and Lightweight materials and structures, z S including composites and hybrids X advanced NDE techniques. Similarly, Materials to withstand more aggressive environments z S the report on materials for (eg high temperature, corrosive, erosive) X Alternative Energy Technologies identified as a priority developing Electronic and optical functional materials z X high strength, corrosion resistant Smart and multifunctional materials, devices and structures z S X heat exchanger alloys and coatings Surface engineering and coating technologies z S X 41 for biomass and waste systems . Particulate engineering: near net-shape manufacturing z S To judge the benefits to other Fibre and textile-based technologies z X industrial sectors we refer to the TSB Bioresorbable, bioactive and biocompatible materials X materials strategy. More specifically, Natural and bio-based materials S X the TSB has developed a strategy Joining technologies z S X which outlines ways in which the materials sector can continue to Materials for portable power sources (batteries/fuel cells) z X innovate and grow40. Three priority Nanomaterials z S X areas, based on an analysis of Materials with reduced environmental impact through life S common market sector drivers, have Materials designed for reuse/recycle/remanufacture S been identified as channels for NDE/SHM/condition monitoring z S X technology inspired activities; these are described as Energy, Sustainability Predictive modelling through the full life cycle, including z S X and High value Markets43. Further, in lifetime prediction this strategy the need is recognised “for continued investment in underpinning and emerging generic 37 PWSCC = primary water stress corrosion cracking and IASCC = irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking. materials technology development, 40 D.J.Allen et al, “Fossil Fuel materials research”, Report 2 Materials UK Energy Review, 2007. and exciting thrust areas have been 41 Materials UK Energy Review 2007, Report 4 Alternative Energy Technologies Edited J. Oakley, and C Bagley. identified which are anticipated to 42 Technology Strategy Board: Advanced Materials, Key Technology Area 2008-2011. Executive Summary, 2008. have a major impact in the key 41 Energy: secure, clean and affordable energy supply, distribution and usage; Sustainability: focused on transport, challenge areas” [19]. These thrust construction and the 'reduce, reuse and recycle' agenda, including packaging and High value markets: including areas are listed in Table A7-4 in terms technologies for Healthcare, the Creative Industries, and Defence and Security.
70 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
1. 2. 3. Is there a UK capacity to develop Does the technology have Is there a clear role for public and exploit the technology and potential for impact in the right sector intervention and support become a leading global player? timeframe? that adds value above and beyond that of private In summary there is an increasing UK There is strong evidence that investment? capacity for advanced materials materials technology development technology with specific areas of real has the potential for impact in the It is recognised that there are specific materials expertise that can be right timeframe, including opportunities relating to advanced exploited. However, this increasing supporting the licensing and manufacturing research to support capacity follows a period of decline. managing of the long-term, safe and the new nuclear build agenda, and in Thus, in terms of capability for economical operation of current and the understanding and predicting advanced materials technology, TSB future nuclear power plants. materials degradation, fabrication funding may be used to stimulate and joining, structural integrity and new industrial organisations entering Further, there is a clear consensus condition monitoring areas that the supply chain through amongst the international build on recent research supported by appropriately directed Knowledge community regarding the key the EPSRC and other funding bodies. Transfer Partnerships. Out of the materials technology challenges Specific mechanisms for support have analysis undertaken there are specific associated with new nuclear build. been identified including KTPs, CRDs areas which are suitable for public More specifically, there are and KTNs. intervention. These include: opportunities to maximise the impact Stimulating the use of improved of materials technology through a There are opportunities to maximise manufacturing techniques for nuclear structured and proactive approach to the impact of materials technology plant, including welding and joining, international collaboration (see 3.2 through a structured and proactive surface technology and below). approach to international modularisation through the collaboration, including links to the formation of an Advanced Analysing these materials challenges EDF-EPRI-TEPCO Materials Ageing Manufacturing Research Centre for has indicated the following priority Institute, and other international Nuclear. opportunities in relation to new players including INL, EPRI and nuclear build on a 5-year timescale: JAEA. • Stimulate new industrial organisations entering the supply • Technology-based opportunities There are significant spill-over chain through appropriately - Materials degradation, structural benefits from investment in these directed Knowledge Transfer integrity and lifetime prediction opportunities to both Naval Partnerships. including water chemistry and Propulsion Programmes and to other • Stimulating technologies/ doping to reduce corrosion and Power Generation industries. methodologies for capturing advanced materials expert knowledge - Condition monitoring and preventative maintenance to underwrite safe life and reduce downtime - NDE/NDT to accelerate new build programme reduce in-service inspection times. • Infrastructure-based opportunities: - Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre(s) for Nuclear to address high value manufacturing by the supply chain. - Advanced fuel manufacturing processes including more efficient fuel and fuel recycling.
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Appendix 7: Materials Nuclear R&D Capacity, Opportunities and Spill-over Benefits
Recommendations
Based on this review of nuclear materials R&D and fabrication opportunities associated with the new nuclear build programme, alongside a study of the UK materials capacity, the following recommendations are made: 1 Co-invest with industry in advanced materials technology for the new nuclear build programme and, in particular, create a centre of excellence which brings together the expertise of the UK in industry and the universities in the minimisation, detection and prediction of materials degradation to be deployed in the new nuclear reactors and thereby increase the lifetime, efficiency and safety of nuclear power.
2 Co-invest with industry in the UK R&D base to take novel NDE/ NDT and Condition Monitoring techniques and instruments (including residual stress measurements) from Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) 4/5 to TRL 7.
3 Co-invest in an Advanced Manufacturing Centre for the components and systems needed for the new nuclear build programme. The Centre should focus on novel manufacturing techniques for SMEs in niche areas such as hot isostatic pressing, welding and joining, and surface technologies including the application of nanotechnology to nuclear engineering.
4 Examine ways of building up the manufacturing capabilities of the UK for advanced fuel production with higher burn up capability and lower waste generation.
72 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability
References for Appendix 7
1. I Cook, C English, P E J Flewitt and G Smith, “Nuclear energy materials research”, Materials UK Energy Review, 2007. 2. S A Court, “The mapping of materials supply chains in the UK's power generation sector”, Materials UK Energy Review, 2008. 3. Nuclear Industry Association, “The capability to deliver a new nuclear build programme”, NIA Report, 2006. 4. Nuclear Industry Association, “The UK capability to deliver a new nuclear build programme 2008 Update”, NIA Report, 2008. 5. “Britain’s energy coast / a Masterplan for West Cumbria – executive summary” 6. HSE Safety Principles for Nuclear Facilities 2006 Edition Redgrave Court Bootle Merseyside L20 7HS 7. P Howarth, BNFL Energy Unit Skills Report 19, 2006 8. “Engineering: turning ideas into reality - Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills Committee”, Memorandum 105, Submission from BAE Systems, March 2008. 9. Idaho National Laboratory, “Strategic Plan – leading the renaissance in nuclear energy: 2007-2016”, 2007. 10. Idaho National Laboratory, “Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program Plan: Fiscal Year 2009”, September 2008. 11. EPRI, “2009 Research Portfolio: Research Offerings to Shape the Future of Electricity”, 2008. 12. “Life beyond 60 Workshop Summary Report”, NRC/DOE Workshop on Nuclear Plant Life Extension R&D, Bethesda, Maryland, USA, February 19-21, 2008. 13. N Sekimura, “Future Direction of Ageing Management Future Direction of Ageing Management and Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants in Japan”, presentation to ISaG-2008, The University of Tokyo, Japan, July 2008. 14. Y Tsuchihashi, “Safety Research Activities of INSS on Ageing Problem of Nuclear power Plants”, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Research for Ageing Management of Light Water Reactors, Fukui City, Japan, pp. 123-129, Oct 22-23, 2007. 15. “International Energy developments around the globe”, EPRI Journal, Spring 2008. 16. R6 Revision 4, “Assessment of the integrity of structures containing defects”, British Energy Generation Ltd, 2006. 17. D J Allen et al, “Fossil Fuel materials research”, Report 2 Materials UK Energy Review, 2007. 18. Materials UK Energy Review 2007, Report 4 Alternative Energy Technologies Edited J. Oakley, and C Bagley. 19. Technology Strategy Board: Advanced Materials, Key Technology Area 2008-2011. Executive Summary, 2008.
73 A Review of the UK's Nuclear R&D Capability The views and judgements expressed in this report reflect the consensus reached by the authors and contributors and do not necessarily reflect those of the organisations to which they are affiliated. Whilst every care has been taken in compiling the information in this report, neither the authors or contributors can be held responsible for any errors, omissions, or subsequent use of this information. If there is an image we have not directly credited we apologise. If you contact us we will see that it is corrected in the next reprint.
Cover picture shows Sizewell B Power Station, courtesy of British Energy and Monty Rakusen Photographer.
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