DOCSLIB.ORG

History of Animation

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
History of Animation Introduction to Animation by Sagar Kanojia What is Animation? Working with the person next to you, write a definition of animation. You cannot use any resources (dictionary, Internet, etc). You must come up with the definition by yourselves. You will be sharing your definition with the rest of the class. Write your definition in your notes. What is Animation? Animation is the art of creating a series of differing images that create the appearance of movement when played in rapid succession over time. Websters: The act or process of imparting life, spirit or motion. Art in movement The art of movement Movement Movement makes static drawings come alive. It is the quality of the movement (the life) that matters, not the quality of a particular image or drawing or frame of film. Whether it is a drawing or a lump of clay, the animator places life and meaning into the material by making it move! What does it take to be an Animator? A fascination with the way things move. Sharp observational skills A willingness to be an actor! Problem solving skills Lots of patience A little bit of perseverance! How do pictures move? A trick of the human eye and the brain Obviously, the images don’t actually move! The illusion of movement is created by a physiological phenomenon called persistence of vision. Persistence of Vision Light is captured by the eye The image is focused upon the retina (at the back of the eye). • The brain reads and interprets the image. • The brain retains the image slightly longer than it is actually registered on the retina. Timeline: A History of Animation 1828 – The Thaumatrope A simple mechanical toy that created the illusion of movement was made popular by Paul Roget. 1844 - Theatre Optique, Paris Emil Reynaud opens his Theatre Optique in Paris. The Praxinoscope实 用镜contained mirrors placed on an inside column that reflected out the sequential drawings that were on the inside of the drum. He was able to project 80 frames without changing reels and could project 10 to 15 minute "films". But the advent of film drove him out of business and in 1910 he threw all his equipment into a river and died destitute in a sanatorium in 1918. 1893 - The Kinetoscope投 映机 Thomas Edison invents the Kinetisocope. Reels of celluloid were stretched over a set of wheels that passed in front of a viewing window. Only one viewer at a time could watch. 1894 – First Copyrighted Film Thomas Edison copyrights the first motion picture, The Record Of A Sneeze. Thomas Edison opens his Kinetiscope Parlor in New York. 1906 – First example of Frame-By- Frame Animation James Stuart Blackton makes Humorous Phases Of Funny Faces. This film is usually considered the first known example of animation as some of the drawn sequences are shot frame-by-frame. Blackton used a combination of blackboard and chalk drawing and cutouts to achieve animation. Play Movie 1914 – Gertie the Dinosaur Winsor McCay's Gertie The Dinosaur was the first major triumph in character animation (it is still a marvelous film). It was shown as a film in the theaters and also as a multimedia event on stage with McCay interacting with the animated Gertie. Play Movie 1920 – Felix The Cat Felix The Cat, the most popular character and series of this period, is created by Otto Messmer of Sullivan's studio. 1926 – Adventures of Prince Achmed Adventures Of Prince Achmed, a one-hour shadow puppet film was released. This film is considered to be the oldest surviving feature-length animated film. Play Movie 1928 – Mickey Mouse is born! Steamboat Willy, starring a little mouse named Mickey, opens in New York in November 1928. It is the first successful animated film with sound. It made Mickey Mouse a star and launched the Disney Studios. Play Movie 1932 – Animation Wins an Oscar Flowers And Trees, by Disney Studios, won the first Academy Award for Animation. This film was the first to use three strip Technicolor in animation. Line & Cell Animation becomes the standard animation technique for the next 60 years! Play History of Disney 1993 – Stop-Motion Animation Nightmare Before Christmas, by Tim Burton, is released. A departure from traditional cell animation. Uses stop-motion object animation. Play Movie 1994 – A Billion Dollar AnimationThe Lion King is released by Disney. This animated film made over $1 billion in theaters. It became a world-wide phenomenon! 1995 – Computer Animated Film Toy Story, is the first computer animated feature film released and it takes in more money at the box office than any other film in 1995. Play Movie Traditional animation(2D, Cel, Hand TraditionalDrawn) animation, sometimes referred to as cel animation, is one of the older forms of animation, in it the animator draws every frame to create the animation sequence. Just like they used to do in the old days of Disney. If you’ve ever had one of those Flip-books when you were a kid, you’ll know what I mean. Sequential drawings screened quickly one after another create the illusion of movement. There are four basic techniques used in animation. These are: Drawn animation. Model animation Stop motion animation. Computer animation or computer generated imagery (CGI) Stop motion is an animation technique that physically manipulates an object so that it appears to move on its own. The object is moved in small increments between individually photographed frames, creating the illusion of movement when the series of frames is played as a fast sequence. Dolls with movable joints or clay figures are often used in stop motion for their ease of repositioning. Stop motion animation using plasticine is called clay animation or "clay-mation". Not all stop motion requires figures or models; many stop motion films can involve using humans, household appliances and other things for comedic effect. Stop motion can also use sequential drawing in a similar manner to traditional animation, such as a flip book. Stop motion using humans is sometimes referred to as pixilation or pixilate animation. Model animation Model animation is a form of stop motion animation designed to merge with live action footage to create the illusion of a real-world fantasy sequence. Techniques Many types of models have been created and developed and are mainly depended on the budget of the film: Clay Models: Unlike most clay figures used for animation, clay models have an inner metal skeleton designed to allow them realistic movements and expressions Model animation Build-Up Models: these type of models are more expensive and detailed than clay models. they are made by building up pieces of foam on a metal skeleton it to create a body, and then either brushing on several layers of liquid latex on top, or casting soft rubbery skins and attaching then to the padded armature. Model animation "Casted" Models: this type of models are the most expensive type used in the industry and are longer-lasting than the other types. these models start as clay sculptures that on top of them a 2 (or more) part mold is made in order to reproduct all the details of it. then the mold parts are assembled with an armature inside of them, and are filled with a liquid material (foam latex, silicone rubber, urethan foam, etc.) that then forms a soft rubbery "flesh" over the skeleton. Traditional animation(2D, Cel, Hand TVPaintDrawn) A french animation software, TVPaint is the all-in-one 2D animation software you’ll ever need. It’s definitely more robust and complex than Photoshop, but it’s also much pricier. This software is for professional animators and studios. Traditional animation(2D, Cel, Hand ToonDrawn) Boom Harmony Toon Boom offers a user friendly set of animation programs that has advanced rigging systems, effects and camera tools. It is vector based, but the more advanced version also has the option for bitmap drawing. 2D Animation (Vector-Based) 2D animation is the term often used when referring to traditional hand drawn animation, but it can also refer to computer vector animations that adopts the techniques of traditional animation. Vector-based animations, meaning computer generated 2D animations,uses the exact same techniques as traditional animation, but benefits from the lack of physical objects needed to make traditional 2D animations, as well as the ability to use computer interpolation to same time. 2D Animation (Vector-Based) Animation is different from other parts. Its language is the language of caricature. Our most difficult job was to develop the cartoon’s unnatural but seemingly natural anatomy for humans and animals. Walt Disney 2D Animation (Vector-Based) There are four basic techniques used in animation. These are: Drawn animation. Model animation stop motion animation. Computer animation or computer generated imagery (CGI) 2D Animation (Vector-Based) Adobe Animate (Formerly known as Flash) Probably the most popular 2D animation software out there. Animate has a long lineage of animation making, dating back to the early days of internet video publishing. It is vector based, very intuitive to use (as are most of Adobe’s programs) and relatively inexpensive. It’s great for getting started with 2D animation, and though it’s not meant for professional animation production (unlike Toon Boom Harmony) you can still get amazing results with it. 2D Animation (Vector-Based) Adobe After Effects An interesting choice for 2D animation. After effects gives you great controlwhen creating rigs for 2D, and using the puppet tool is very convenient and intuitive and it to be a great choice if you’re already comfortable with the Adobe environment, but that’s a matter of preference. Since it’s an editing software it’s great to be able to edit and color correct in the same place you animate, and while it’s not the traditional way the pipeline works, it could save some time.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Motion Enriching Using Humanoide Captured Motions
    MASTER THESIS: MOTION ENRICHING USING HUMANOIDE CAPTURED MOTIONS STUDENT: SINAN MUTLU ADVISOR : A NTONIO SUSÌN SÀNCHEZ SEPTEMBER, 8TH 2010 COURSE: MASTER IN COMPUTING LSI DEPERTMANT POLYTECNIC UNIVERSITY OF CATALUNYA 1 Abstract Animated humanoid characters are a delight to watch. Nowadays they are extensively used in simulators. In military applications animated characters are used for training soldiers, in medical they are used for studying to detect the problems in the joints of a patient, moreover they can be used for instructing people for an event(such as weather forecasts or giving a lecture in virtual environment). In addition to these environments computer games and 3D animation movies are taking the benefit of animated characters to be more realistic. For all of these mediums motion capture data has a great impact because of its speed and robustness and the ability to capture various motions. Motion capture method can be reused to blend various motion styles. Furthermore we can generate more motions from a single motion data by processing each joint data individually if a motion is cyclic. If the motion is cyclic it is highly probable that each joint is defined by combinations of different signals. On the other hand, irrespective of method selected, creating animation by hand is a time consuming and costly process for people who are working in the art side. For these reasons we can use the databases which are open to everyone such as Computer Graphics Laboratory of Carnegie Mellon University. Creating a new motion from scratch by hand by using some spatial tools (such as 3DS Max, Maya, Natural Motion Endorphin or Blender) or by reusing motion captured data has some difficulties.
    [Show full text]
  • Animation: Types
    Animation: Animation is a dynamic medium in which images or objects are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today most animations are made with computer generated (CGI). Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. Apart from short films, feature films, animated gifs and other media dedicated to the display moving images, animation is also heavily used for video games, motion graphics and special effects. The history of animation started long before the development of cinematography. Humans have probably attempted to depict motion as far back as the Paleolithic period. Shadow play and the magic lantern offered popular shows with moving images as the result of manipulation by hand and/or some minor mechanics Computer animation has become popular since toy story (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique. Types: Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by rostrum camera onto motion picture film.
    [Show full text]
  • Available Papers and Transcripts from the Society for Animation Studies (SAS) Annual Conferences
    SAS Conference papers Pagina 1 NIAf - Available papers and transcripts from the Society for Animation Studies (SAS) annual conferences 1st SAS conference 1989, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Author (Origin) Title Forum Pages Copies Summary Notes Allan, Robin (InterTheatre, European Influences on Disney: The Formative Disney 20 N.A. See: Allan, 1991. Published as part of A Reader in Animation United Kingdom) Years Before Snow White Studies (1997), edited by Jayne Pilling, titled: "European Influences on Early Disney Feature Films". Kaufman, J.B. (Wichita) Norm Ferguson and the Latin American Films of Disney 8 N.A. In the years 1941-43, Walt Disney and his animation team made three Published as part of A Reader in Animation Walt Disney trips through South America, to get inspiration for their next films. Studies (1997), edited by Jayne Pilling. Norm Ferguson, the unit producer for the films, made hundreds of photo's and several people made home video's, thanks to which Kaufman can reconstruct the journey and its complications. The feature films that were made as a result of the trip are Saludos Amigos (1942) and The Three Caballero's (1944). Moritz, William (California Walter Ruttmann, Viking Eggeling: Restoring the Aspects of 7 N.A. Hans Richter always claimed he was the first to make absolute Published as part of A Reader in Animation Institute of the Arts) Esthetics of Early Experimental Animation independent and animations, but he neglected Walther Ruttmann's Opus no. 1 (1921). Studies (1997), edited by Jayne Pilling, titled institutional filmmaking Viking Eggeling had made some attempts as well, that culminated in "Restoring the Aesthetics of Early Abstract the crude Diagonal Symphony in 1923 .
    [Show full text]
  • CINERAMA: the First Really Big Show
    CCINEN RRAMAM : The First Really Big Show DIVING HEAD FIRST INTO THE 1950s:: AN OVERVIEW by Nick Zegarac Above left: eager audience line ups like this one for the “Seven Wonders of the World” debut at the Cinerama Theater in New York were short lived by the end of the 1950s. All in all, only seven feature films were actually produced in 3-strip Cinerama, though scores more were advertised as being shot in the process. Above right: corrected three frame reproduction of the Cypress Water Skiers in ‘This is Cinerama’. Left: Fred Waller, Cinerama’s chief architect. Below: Lowell Thomas; “ladies and gentlemen, this is Cinerama!” Arguably, Cinerama was the most engaging widescreen presentation format put forth during the 1950s. From a visual standpoint it was the most enveloping. The cumbersome three camera set up and three projector system had been conceptualized, designed and patented by Fred Waller and his associates at Paramount as early as the 1930s. However, Hollywood was not quite ready, and certainly not eager, to “revolutionize” motion picture projection during the financially strapped depression and war years…and who could blame them? The standardized 1:33:1(almost square) aspect ratio had sufficed since the invention of 35mm celluloid film stock. Even more to the point, the studios saw little reason to invest heavily in yet another technology. The induction of sound recording in 1929 and mounting costs for producing films in the newly patented 3-strip Technicolor process had both proved expensive and crippling adjuncts to the fluidity that silent B&W nitrate filming had perfected.
    [Show full text]
  • The Search for Spectators: Vistavision and Technicolor in the Searchers Ruurd Dykstra the University of Western Ontario, [email protected]
    Kino: The Western Undergraduate Journal of Film Studies Volume 1 | Issue 1 Article 1 2010 The Search for Spectators: VistaVision and Technicolor in The Searchers Ruurd Dykstra The University of Western Ontario, [email protected] Abstract With the growing popularity of television in the 1950s, theaters experienced a significant drop in audience attendance. Film studios explored new ways to attract audiences back to the theater by making film a more totalizing experience through new technologies such as wide screen and Technicolor. My paper gives a brief analysis of how these new technologies were received by film critics for the theatrical release of The Searchers ( John Ford, 1956) and how Warner Brothers incorporated these new technologies into promotional material of the film. Keywords Technicolor, The Searchers Recommended Citation Dykstra, Ruurd (2010) "The Search for Spectators: VistaVision and Technicolor in The Searchers," Kino: The Western Undergraduate Journal of Film Studies: Vol. 1 : Iss. 1 , Article 1. Dykstra: The Search for Spectators The Search for Spectators: VistaVision and Technicolor in The Searchers by Ruurd Dykstra In order to compete with the rising popularity of television, major Hollywood studios lured spectators into the theatres with technical innovations that television did not have - wider screens and brighter colors. Studios spent a small fortune developing new photographic techniques in order to compete with one another; this boom in photographic research resulted in a variety of different film formats being marketed by each studio, each claiming to be superior to the other. Filmmakers and critics alike valued these new formats because they allowed for a bright, clean, crisp image to be projected on a much larger screen - it enhanced the theatre going experience and brought about a re- appreciation for film’s visual aesthetics.
    [Show full text]
  • Overview of History of Irish Animation
    Overview of History of Irish Animation i) The history of animation here and the pattern of its development, ii) ii) The contemporary scene, iii) iii) Funding and support, iv) iv) The technological advancement, which can allow filmmakers do more and do it more excitingly, v) v) The educational background. i) History and Development. The history of animation in Ireland is comparable to the history of live action film in Ireland in that in the early years it offered the promise of much to come and stopped really before it got started; indeed in the final analysis animation has even far less to show for itself than its early live action cousin. One outstanding exception is the pioneering work of James Horgan. Horgan became involved in cinema at the end of the 19th century when he acquired a Lumiere camera and established his own moving picture exhibition company for the south show to his audiences - mostly religious events. However soon his eager mind began to turn to the Munster region. As well as projecting regular international shows, Horgan shot local footage to look into cinematography in a scientific way and in fact he made some money by patenting a cog for film traction in the camera, which was widely used. He also experimented with Polaroid film. He then began to dabble in stop frame work - animation - around the year 1909 and considering that the first animation was made in 1906, this is quite significant. His most famous and most popular piece was his dancing Youghal Clock Tower - where the town's best known landmark has to hop into the frame and "manipulate" itself frame by frame into its rightful place in the main street in Youghal.
    [Show full text]
  • Computerising 2D Animation and the Cleanup Power of Snakes
    Computerising 2D Animation and the Cleanup Power of Snakes. Fionnuala Johnson Submitted for the degree of Master of Science University of Glasgow, The Department of Computing Science. January 1998 ProQuest Number: 13818622 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 13818622 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 GLASGOW UNIVERSITY LIBRARY U3 ^coji^ \ Abstract Traditional 2D animation remains largely a hand drawn process. Computer-assisted animation systems do exists. Unfortunately the overheads these systems incur have prevented them from being introduced into the traditional studio. One such prob­ lem area involves the transferral of the animator’s line drawings into the computer system. The systems, which are presently available, require the images to be over- cleaned prior to scanning. The resulting raster images are of unacceptable quality. Therefore the question this thesis examines is; given a sketchy raster image is it possible to extract a cleaned-up vector image? Current solutions fail to extract the true line from the sketch because they possess no knowledge of the problem area.
    [Show full text]
  • Photo Journalism, Film and Animation
    Syllabus – Photo Journalism, Films and Animation Photo Journalism: Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.g., documentary photography, social documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work be both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not only informative, but also entertaining. Need and importance, Timeliness The images have meaning in the context of a recently published record of events. Objectivity The situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone. Narrative The images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to audiences. Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but he or she must often make decisions instantly and carry photographic equipment, often while exposed to significant obstacles (e.g., physical danger, weather, crowds, physical access). subject of photo picture sources, Photojournalists are able to enjoy a working environment that gets them out from behind a desk and into the world.
    [Show full text]
  • 10. the Extraordinarily Stable Technicolor Dye-Imbibition Motion
    345 The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs Chapter 10 10. The Extraordinarily Stable Technicolor Dye-Imbibition Motion Picture Color Print Process (1932–1978) Except for archival showings, Gone With the He notes that the negative used to make Wind hasn’t looked good theatrically since the existing prints in circulation had worn out [faded]. last Technicolor prints were struck in 1954; the “That negative dates back to the early ’50s 1961 reissue was in crummy Eastman Color when United Artists acquired the film’s distri- (the prints faded), and 1967’s washed-out bution rights from Warner Bros. in the pur- “widescreen” version was an abomination.1 chase of the old WB library. Four years ago we at MGM/UA went back to the three-strip Tech- Mike Clark nicolor materials to make a new internegative “Movies Pretty as a Picture” and now have excellent printing materials. All USA Today – October 15, 1987 it takes is a phone call to our lab to make new prints,” he says.3 In 1939, it was the most technically sophisti- cated color film ever made, but by 1987 Gone Lawrence Cohn With the Wind looked more like Confederates “Turner Eyes ’38 Robin Hood Redux” from Mars. Scarlett and Rhett had grown green Variety – July 25, 1990 and blue, a result of unstable film stocks and generations of badly duplicated prints. Hair The 45-Year Era of “Permanent” styles and costumes, once marvels of spectral Technicolor Motion Pictures subtlety, looked as though captured in Crayola, not Technicolor. With the introduction in 1932 of the Technicolor Motion Not anymore.
    [Show full text]
  • The University of Chicago Looking at Cartoons
    THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LOOKING AT CARTOONS: THE ART, LABOR, AND TECHNOLOGY OF AMERICAN CEL ANIMATION A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVISION OF THE HUMANITIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF CINEMA AND MEDIA STUDIES BY HANNAH MAITLAND FRANK CHICAGO, ILLINOIS AUGUST 2016 FOR MY FAMILY IN MEMORY OF MY FATHER Apparently he had examined them patiently picture by picture and imagined that they would be screened in the same way, failing at that time to grasp the principle of the cinematograph. —Flann O’Brien CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................v ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................................viii INTRODUCTION LOOKING AT LABOR......................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1 ANIMATION AND MONTAGE; or, Photographic Records of Documents...................................................22 CHAPTER 2 A VIEW OF THE WORLD Toward a Photographic Theory of Cel Animation ...................................72 CHAPTER 3 PARS PRO TOTO Character Animation and the Work of the Anonymous Artist................121 CHAPTER 4 THE MULTIPLICATION OF TRACES Xerographic Reproduction and One Hundred and One Dalmatians.......174
    [Show full text]
  • Toy Story: How Pixar Reinvented the Animated Feature
    Brown, Noel. " An Interview with Steve Segal." Toy Story: How Pixar Reinvented the Animated Feature. By Susan Smith, Noel Brown and Sam Summers. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2017. 197–214. Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 2 Oct. 2021. <http:// dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781501324949.ch-013>. Downloaded from Bloomsbury Collections, www.bloomsburycollections.com, 2 October 2021, 03:24 UTC. Copyright © Susan Smith, Sam Summers and Noel Brown 2018. You may share this work for non-commercial purposes only, provided you give attribution to the copyright holder and the publisher, and provide a link to the Creative Commons licence. 1 97 Chapter 13 A N INTERVIEW WITH STEVE SEGAL N o e l B r o w n Production histories of Toy Story tend to focus on ‘big names’ such as John Lasseter and Pete Docter. In this book, we also want to convey a sense of the animator’s place in the making of the fi lm and their perspective on what hap- pened, along with their professional journey leading up to that point. Steve Segal was born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1949. He made his fi rst animated fi lms as a high school student before studying Art at Virginia Commonwealth University, where he continued to produce award- winning, independent ani- mated shorts. Aft er graduating, Segal opened a traditional animation studio in Richmond, making commercials and educational fi lms for ten years. Aft er completing the cult animated fi lm Futuropolis (1984), which he co- directed with Phil Trumbo, Segal moved to Hollywood and became interested in com- puter animation.
    [Show full text]
  • Stop Motion: Craft Skills for Model Animation Susannah Shaw
    Stop Motion Focal Press Visual Effects and Animation Debra Kaufman, Series Editor A Guide to Computer Animation: for tv, games, multimedia and web Marcia Kuperberg Animation in the Home Digital Studio Steven Subotnick Digital Compositing for Film and Video Steve Wright Essential CG Lighting Techniques Darren Brooker Producing Animation Catherine Winder and Zahra Dowlatabadi Producing Independent 2D Character Animation: Making & Selling a Short Film Mark Simon Stop Motion: Craft skills for model animation Susannah Shaw The Animator’s Guide to 2D Computer Animation Hedley Griffin Stop Motion Craft skills for model animation Susannah Shaw Modelmaking and animation sequences created and photographed by Cat Russ and Gary Jackson, ScaryCat Studio Illustrations Tony Guy and Susannah Shaw Focal Press An imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington MA 01803 First published 2004 Copyright # 2004, Susannah Shaw. All rights reserved The right of Susannah Shaw to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science and Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (þ44) (0) 1865 843830; fax: (þ44) (0) 1865 853333; e-mail: [email protected].
    [Show full text]